GUITAR MUSIC BY JAPANESE

BY DANIEL QUINN

Submitted to the faculty of the School of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of Music Indiana University May 2003 ii Preface

The classical is rarely thought of as a Japanese instrument. Yet, the instrument has had an active life in since Emperor Meiji opened his country to the West over a hundred years ago. The guitar and Western music in

Japan had a slow start thwarted by the exclusion from the academic environment of universities. Since World War II, however, there has been an enormous growth in the number of guitar performers, societies and clubs, teachers, competitions, makers, and music publishers.

Until I made my first trip to Japan in 1997 I was only aware of the guitar works by Takemitsu and the famous Sakura variations. During this trip I became aware of the enormous amount of guitar music by many excellent composers in

Japan. In the fall of 1998 I returned to Japan for three months to do a more thorough research and uncover as many guitar works as I could find. I returned with several hundred works that I had never heard of and a new interest in bringing these works to light in the U.S.

This document will discuss the introduction and reintroduction of the guitar into Japan. It will include a discussion of the development of music composed for the guitar from the Meiji restoration through the pre-war era, then from the post-war period up to the present day. I will discuss the music in a general way with a focus on key works that define the period and the most salient features of these works.

The Appendix at the end of this document lists over seven hundred works by Japanese composers that use guitar. While collecting these works I realized that there was a need to organize all of them into a historical account of the publishers and composers that were responsible for this music. This list focuses

iii on works written for the nylon string acoustic instrument in staff notation, although several works for are also listed in the appendix. Song arrangements are not included nor are transcriptions or arrangements from other instruments since I want to focus on works written specifically for the guitar.

iv Acknowledgements

There are so many people to thank for their help with my research. Most important are my wife Kei, and daughters Rita and Sara who put up with all the time it took for me to write this. My mother –in-law Hiroko Matsui, who housed us and made sure I could travel around Japan to find music. In Japan I have to thank Keigo Fujii who told us about the Nakano collection in Kyoto and introduced me to Jun Sugawara at Gendai Guitar, without these connections this research would have never happened. Sugawara donated many scores and has shown me their entire collection of old Gendai Magazines. Robert Coldwell whose research on the guitar in Japan gave me a background to make my research possible. Thanks to Kimiko Shimbo at the Japan Federation of

Composers for putting me in contact with many of the composers in my research. The president of Casa de la Guitarra Takehiko Aoyagui, donated all of that company’s publications of Japanese works to the Indiana University music library at my request. Norio Sato who was tremendously kind and invited me to look at many of his own scores at his home.

At Indiana I want to thank my committee Susan McDonald, Carmen

Tellez, and Ernesto Bitetti, and especially Jeff Magee, who had to read the really bad rough drafts of this. Thanks to Tsuyoshi and Harue Tsutsumi for finding some of the catalogues that I could not. The two people who kept me in odd jobs while I worked my way through college Larry Stoute, and Steve Rolfe. Special thanks to my brothers, sisters, and parents, who remained at my side through all the challenges of college life.

v Table of Contents Preface …………………………………………………………………………………...ii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………....iv Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………...vi Examples and Figures………………………………………………………………...vii

1. The Early Period of the Guitar in Japan (1543-1640): Evidence of the and ………………………………………………...1 Nanban Art…………………………………………………………………………..5 Printed music in Japan……………………………………………………………...8 Musical differences……………………………………………………………….…9 Embassy to Rome…………………………………………………………………..10 End of the Early Christian Period………………………………………………...12

2. The Return of the guitar in Meiji Japan (1868-1912)………………………….15 Western Music Education and Early Compositional Styles…………………...19 The Return of the ………………………………………………..26 Morishige Takei (1890-1949)………………………………………………………29 Yoshie Okawara (1903 -1935)……………………………………………………..35 Takayuki Oguri (1909-1944) ……………………………………………………...38 3. Post war Music 1945 through the 1950’s ……………………………………….45 4. 1960 through 1980 ………………………………………………………………….55 Casa de la Guitarra Publications …………………………………………….…...55 Zen-on……………………………………………………………………………….79 Toru Takemitsu (1930-1996) ……………………………………………………...91 5. 1980’s to 2000 - the Present State of Guitar Music in Japan………………...104 The Japan Federation of Composers……………………………………………104 Gendai Guitar……………………………………………………………………..115 Summary………………………………………………………………………………121 Appendix: Guitar Works by Japanese Composers………………………………124 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….157

vi Musical Examples 2.1 Morishige Takei, The Floating Cloud, mm 1-4……………………………………32 2.2 Morishige Takei, Le Crab Ermite, mm 1-12……………………………………….32 2.3 Yoshie Okawara, Matsumushi-Flower, mm 1-5...………………………………...36 2.4 Yoshie Okawara, Matsumushi-Flower, mm 19-31………………………………..36 2.5 Yoshie Okawara, Dance of Oriental Popy, mm 24-29…………………………….37 2.6 Yoshie Okawara, Amaryllis, mm 1-8……………………………………...37 2.7 Takayuki Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, mm 1-16………………………………………39 2.8 Takayuki Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, mm 21-29……………………………………..40 2.9 Takayuki Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, mm 56-57……………………………………..40 2.10 Takayuki Oguri, Spinning Song, mm 10-13……………………………………..41 2.11 Takayuki Oguri, Preludio para Guitarra sobre una Japanese Anticuada, mm 1-6…………………………………………………………………………………..42 2.12 Seiichi Suzuki, Sakura Variations, mm 11-18…..……………………………….43 3.1 Kojiro Kobune, Essey, mm 1-12 …………………………………………………..47 3.2 Takeo Saito, Poème, mm 1-8……………………………………………………….47 3.3 Yoritsune Matsudaira, Katsura, VII, Ama no hashidate, 1-6……………………..50 3.4 , Microcosmos, I, mm 1-13…………………………………...52 3.5 Toshiro Mayuzumi, Microcosmos, V, mm………………………………………..53 4.1 , Etude for Two , mm 1-15……………………………….57 4.2 Tsuyoshi Otai, Sho, mm 1-6……………………………………………………….59 4.3 Takeo Noro, Composition II, lines 1-3……………………………………………..61 4.4 Takeo Noro, Impromptu pour 2 Violins et Guitare, lines 1-2……………………..63 4.5 Kenjiro Ezaki, Music for Guitar and Electronic Sound, mm 1-5 ...……………….66 4.6 Kenjiro Ezaki, Contension for Female Voice and Guitar, page 5 ...……………….68 4.7 Kenjiro Ezaki, Nodule, mm 1-4 ...…………………………………………………69 4.8 Maki Ishii, Fünf Elemente für gitarre und sechs spieler, page 3-4 …………….70-71 4.9 Mao Yamagishi, Ki and Two Ritsu, page 3 lines 3-5……………………………..72 4.10 Ryo Noda, Nagare, page 1 lines 1-3, page 3……………………………………73 4.11 Kazuko Hara, Preludio, Aria et Toccata, Preludio mm 1-15…………………….75 4.12 Kazuko Hara, Preludio, Aria et Toccata, Aria, mm 1-9………………………….76 4.13 Teruyuki Noda, , mm 1-7, and mm 99-106…………………………77 4.14 Teiho Matsumoto, Nocturn, mm 1-4…………………………………………….78

vii 4.15 Akira Ifukube, Kugoka, Aria concertata di Kugo-Arpa, mm 1-5………………...82 4.16 Akira Ifukube, Kugoka, Aria concertata di Kugo-Arpa, mm 15-22……………...83 4.17 Yasuhiko Tsukamoto, Epithalamium, mm 1-8, mm 39-48, and mm 78-90 ………………………………………………………………………………………..85-86 4.18 Akira Miyoshi, Epitase, page 1 lines 1-3, and page 3 line……………………..88 4.19 Akira Miyoshi, Epitase, page 3 line 7……………………………………………89 4.20 Yuji Takahashi, Metatheses 2, mm 1-4, and mm 68-70…………………………91 4.21 Toru Takemitsu, Ring, section O, t-guitar circle ………………………………93 4.22 Toru Takemitsu, Ring, section G, mm 12-17 ……………………………….….94 4.23 Toru Takemitsu, Valeria, page 4 first system…………………………………..95 4.24 Toru Takemitsu, Valeria, page 1 first system…………………………………..96 4.25 J.S. Bach, St. Matthew Passion, O haupt voll blut und Wunden, page 214 mm 1-4 ………………………………………………………………………………….97 4.26 Toru Takemitsu, Folios, third movement, mm 25-28………………………….97 4.27 Toru Takemitsu, Folios, first movement, lines 1-2……………………………..98 4.28 Toru Takemitsu, Toward the Sea, third movement, page 14, line 4…………..99 4.29 Toru Takemitsu, Toward the Sea, second movement, page 7, lines 1-2……..100 4.30 Toru Takemitsu, All in Twilight, first movement, mm 1-12………………...101 4.31 Toru Takemitsu, All in Twilight, second movement, mm 1-13…………….102 5.1 Mieko Shiomi, As it were Floating Granuels, no. 6 c-group, measures 1-5…...105 5.2 Yoko Kurimoto, June end Songs, michiyuki measures 30 –39……………….…107 5.3 Masao Homma, For Guitar, page 1 lines 1-3, page 4 lines 3 –4, and page 8 lines 3 –5………………………………………………………………………………...109-110 5.4 Tohru Aki, Noon City Suite, first movement mm 1-10………………………...113 5.5 Tohru Aki, Noon City Suite, second movement mm 1-3……………………....114 5.6 Tohru Aki, Noon City Suite, third movement mm 1-7………………………...114 5.7 Takashi Yoshimatus, Wind Color Vector, mm 1-6 ……………………………..117 5.8 , Water Color Scalor, mm 1-6 ………………………….….118 5.9 Hirokazu Sato, Sonatine no. 2, first movement mm 1- 7………………………119 5.10 Hirokazu Sato, Sonatine no. 2, second movement mm 9-20…………………120

viii Figures 1 Nobukata, Woman Playing Guitar, painting, c1590…………………………………7 2 Woman playing Vihuela painting from sixteenth century…………………………..8 3 Printed music from sixteenth century Japan………………………………………..9 4 Ethiopian Minstrels on board Perry’s ships at Nagasaki 1856…………………..17 5 Fourth-frame chords devised by Koizumi Fumio………………………………...21 6 Malms four basic scale types………………………………………………………..23 7 Ryo and Ritsu Scales…………………………………………………………………49 8 Sho player……………………………………………………………………………..58 9 Sho harmonies ……………………………………………………………………….58 10 Ezaki; stage set up for Music for Guitar and Electronic Sound …….………….…65 11 Kugo ………………………………………………………………………….81 12 Tunning for Metatheses2 …………………………………………………….……..90 13 Harmonic unit that Valeria is based on …………………………………………..95 14 SEA motive………………………………………………………………………….99 15 Vocalists positions for round conference……………………………………….105 16 Gendai Guitar magazine cover, and event and concert guide December 2001…………………………………………………………………………………….116

ix Chapter One

The Early Period of the Guitar in Japan (1543-1640): Evidence of the Lute and Vihuela

The guitar was brought to Japan through its early contacts with

Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries. However, it took several wars and expansions of trade before this Western instrument became a permanent means of music making for this mysterious island nation.

During the Islamic rule had controlled much of Southern

Europe and Northern Africa. It was during this period that the guitarra latine began to take the form that we recognize today as the guitar. The guitarra latine was a four-course instrument that was used primarily for strumming chords. Its name distinguished this instrument from the , or Moorish guitar.1

The Moorish guitar was brought from Africa with the Islamic invasion. This instrument was used primarily as a melodic instrument plucked note by note.2

The guitarra morisca, also known as the ud or lute, was the instrument that became extremely popular in Northern Europe until around 1800 when it was overshadowed by the nineteenth century guitar and fell out of fashion.3

In 1249 the Portuguese finally managed to expel the Moorish leaders and over the next century eventually gained independence from Spain. Spain also gained its independence from the Moors in 1492. By 1500 the Spanish rebelled

1 Harvey Turnbull, “Guitar,” in , ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980). 2 Frederic V. Grunfeld, The Art and Times of The Guitar: An Illustrated History of Guitars and (London: Macmillian Company, 1977), 11. 3 Diana Poulton, “Lute,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980).

1 against Islamic culture and created a new plucked instrument, the vihuela.4 This new instrument was used to play the same music as lute, with punteado technique. However, the vihuela now used a body with incurved sides that was more common with the guitarra latine. The vihuela is thought of as the earliest instrument that today we call the classical guitar.

By 1415 the Portuguese had decided to take the war against the Moors to their doors and invaded Ceuta on the Northern coast of Africa. Then the

Portuguese began an expansionist policy into South Africa in search of gold.

Later in the fifteenth century they decided to sail to India in an attempt to take over the spice trade that had been monopolized by Islamic traders. The

Portuguese also helped to spread Christianity to all of the non-Christian lands to which they traveled. By 1498 the Portuguese had established spice trade on the west coast of India. In 1510 Goa had been captured and a commercial and military base had been established. This port would remain the center of

Portuguese trade in Asia for the next four hundred years. The Portuguese next built an embassy in Malacca to establish trade with . In 1543 the first ships, since Marco , reached Japan when they were blown off course while traveling up the coast of China. When the ship returned to China the news of the discovery of a new land created excitement and soon after that several other ships made the trip to Japan. In 1549 Saint Francis Xavier traveled to Japan to bring Christianity to the Japanese. This was the beginning of the first century of

4 Diana Poulton and Antonio Corona Alcalde, “Vihuela,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 1980).

2 contacts with the Western world and marks the first wave of Western cultural influence.5

The Jesuits and Portuguese came to Japan at the end of a long and devastating war that destroyed Kyoto, which was the capital of Japan. The

Imperial family essentially had lost all power over Japan and was living in exile.

Powerful clans had taken control and were the acting rulers. The three successive rulers during the early Christian period in Japan were Oda Nobunaga (1534-82),

Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98), and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616). Decisions to open ports for trade with the Portuguese lay in the hands of these three men. The

Jesuits and later Dominican friars were tolerated mostly as a means of keeping the trade with China and the West. When the Portuguese first arrived in Japan there had been a ban on trade with China due to the Japanese pirates that had wrecked trade between the two countries. The Portuguese, with their enormous ships, were able to open trade between the two countries. Japan imported silk and gold in exchange for silver.6 The port of Nagasaki gradually was adopted as the official site of trade with Macao and also became a settlement for foreigners.

By 1579 there were an estimated four hundred houses built in the Nagasaki settlement.7

The Jesuits were a Roman Catholic religious order of priests and brothers that formed around Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). Ritualized chanting or recitation of liturgy was not required so that the members could go out and minister to the people. In 1548 a new direction came about with the formation of the first Jesuit

5 Michael S.J. Cooper, The Southern Barbarians: the first Europeans in Japan (, Japan: Kodansha International Ltd., 1971), 20 -24. 6 Ibid., 49. 7 Ibid., 51.

3 college in Sicily. By 1560 education became the primary goal of the Jesuits.

Because of this change, the teaching of musical instruments, which had been banned, was now accepted as a means of reaching more students. In 1566 Jerome

Nadal, the principal assistant to the Jesuit general in Rome, set out instructions for the use of polyphony in the ordinary of the mass. By the late sixteenth century Nadal’s instructions became the rule.8

Saint Francis Xavier wrote about his first arrival in Japan. According to

Xavier, the Japanese were very curious about the strangers. The Japanese were also fascinated by the beauty and dignity of the Christian liturgy and the music and that came along with it. Christian music seems to have reached many people and was some of the first music that was available to the general public.

The first complete translation of the Roman mass into Japanese was in 1553.

Before this period of Christian invasion there were several different types of music in Japan. , the music of the imperial court, came to Japan with sailors from Korea. However gagaku was never heard by or performed for the general public. Music in Japan was restricted to persons who were highly trained and specialized in one type of music. Gagaku was strictly for the aristocracy and performed by court musicians, Buddhist music was sung only by the clergy, and mosobiwa, a solo singing style with accompaniment, was the property of state protected guilds of blind musicians. Several of these forms were passed on in secrecy within families of musicians. Western music was not prohibited by any of the social structures, as were these other musical forms. Eta Harich-

Schneider said, “By 1580 the basic elements of Western music were familiar to

8 T. Frank Kennedy,“Jesuits,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillian, 2001)

4 one-fifth of the entire population of Japan.”9 Christian music was the first formal music that was heard and performed by the masses, which may be why the

Christians had so much success with their music.10 In 1551 Xavier gave several rare gifts to Ouchi no Yoshitaka, the resident daimyo (feudal lord) in Yamaguchi, including the first keyboard instrument, possibly a harpsichord or clavichord.11

During this second visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier baptized a young half-blind itinerant musician who played heike-biwa. The twenty-five year old minstrel was given the name Lourenço, and later accepted as a lay minister. Irmão

Lourenço (or brother Lourenço) used both the biwa and the vihuela to spread the gospel until his death in 1592. He was a master of traditional Japanese music but seems to have favored Western music.12 Lourenço was an important figure in the propagation of Christianity. He had a very persuasive personality that led to the conversion of many Japanese. In the case of Irmão Lourenço, who was a member of the guild of blind biwa performers, performance on vihuela may have freed him from the expectations of biwa performance practice.

By 1582 there were about one hundred and fifty thousand converts in

Japan. The two hundred Christian churches in Japan were all combined with elementary schools where music was a compulsory subject.13 The teaching of

European neumes is believed to have started at this time. Before this music was taught only by rote.14 Two seminaries were also constructed in Arima and

9 Ibid. 10 Eta Harich-Schneider, A History of Japanese Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 446-447. 11 Ibid., 448. 12 Ibid., 458. 13 Ibid., 461. 14 Ibid., 462.

5 Nagasaki, where, after the completion of elementary courses, students received studies in Latin, Japanese calligraphy and literature, and Western music.

Nanban Art

Musical instruments that were brought from Europe included the lute and vihuela. In 1580 father Organtino requested that makers of musical instruments be sent to Japan. Possibly the lute and vihuela were constructed in Japan, but it is not known. The name “viola” was used to describe the vihuela and was clearly different from the viola de arco and viola da braccio. Evidence of the lute and vihuela appear in several paintings by Japanese artists. Figure 1 is an example of nanban art, produced by Japanese artists in Western style, often using Western paintings for examples to copy.

Figure 1 shows a woman playing a vihuela type of instrument. The instrument in this figure is waisted in the upper and lower mid-section of the body. Its shape reveals its links to the guitar family as opposed to the lute with its oval-shaped body. The incurved sides appear to be separate constructs from the longer curved piece of wood around the bottom of the instrument. This is different from the rounded Spanish vihuela we come to see at this time. This instrument shares the same highly ornamented rose that fills the sound hole as would be found in the lute. The number of strings is not clear from this picture.

While the number of tuning pegs appears to be seven, the number of strings at the bridge clearly shows four double courses. Four double courses may reveal an instrument that is also closer to the four-course guitar that was at its height of popularity in Europe at this time. The woman playing the instrument however,

6 is plucking the strings with her fingers and not with a device. Hence she can be presumed to be playing melodic textures rather than strummed chordal accompaniments as would have been expected from the four-course instrument.

Figure 1. Woman Playing the Guitar. By the artist Nobukata c1590. Europeans playing musical instruments were a popular subject of Japanese artists painting in Western style.

7 Figure 2. Woman playing guitar, figure in Western costumes.

Figure 2 is another example of the same instrument played by a woman.

This time the Western costumes show the Portuguese visitors’ influence in Japan.

The instrument appears to be slightly smaller than the one in Figure 1 and has an even more defined construction for the incurved sides. The woman in figure two also appears to be plucking the strings with her fingers. In this second example the number of strings or tuning pegs is not clear from the photo reproduction.

From both of these images the right hand does not seem to use the little finger to balance the right hand by placing it on the face of the instrument. This technique was common practice for the lute and vihuela.

Printed music in Japan

Printing presses with moveable type were brought to Japan in 1590 with

Valignano on his return with the Japanese embassy from Rome. Several

European books of notation were printed at Amakusa and Nagasaki, including

8 one printed in 1605 using two colored neumes (see figure 3).15 No music remains for lute or vihuela. We can assume that they probably played intabulations of vocal music, as would have been the performance practice in Europe.

Figure 3. Pages from Luis de Cerqueira, S.J., Manuel ad Sacramenta Ecclesiae Ministranda. This was a manual of liturgical services used by the missionaries. This book was printed at Nagasaki in 1605. This is the only known book printed in two colors from this press.

Musical differences

The missionary Luis Frois wrote about the differences between European and Japanese music in 1585. This description is particularly enlightening about attitudes towards polyphonic music and singing style, and may shed some light on what music may have been played on the vihuela and in Japan.

15 Ibid., 473.

9 We sing in polyphony; the Japanese sing all one and the same melody in an unnaturally pressed high voice: this is the most horrible music imaginable. Most pleasant is to us the melody of keyboard, , , organs, dulcimer, etc.; to the Japanese all our instruments sound harsh and disgusting. We appreciate deeply the consonance and proportion of our vocal polyphony; the Japanese consider it caximaxi [kashimashi; a confused scattering] and do not like it at all. On our we have six strings and the doublings and we pluck them with hands; on the Japanese biwa they have four strings and they strike them with a kind of comb. In our countries even the highest noblemen gladly indulge in playing the vihuela; in Japan this is the business of blind men comparable to our street musicians.16

The Jesuits were trained in the church and were highly attuned to the sounds of polyphonic music. They also were trained in punteado technique on the vihuela as was established by the mention of “we pluck them with hands” as a clear distinction to the plectrum used on the biwa. Plucking the strings with the fingers rather than a plectrum device is usually thought of as the main difference between the instruments used in popular music and the one used to play polyphonic textures. In sixteenth century Spain, court musicians were usually

Flemish and plucked with their fingers. Of the extant music written for the vihuela, most of it shows that the vihuela would have played similar textures to the lute. Many of the pieces written for lute were intabulations of vocal polyphony, or one of the other imitative forms, such as ricecare or fantasia. Luis

Frois also mentions that there were doublings of the strings on the vihuela which could indicate several things; the strings were tuning in octaves or that they were tuned in unison.

16 Ibid., 478.

10 Embassy to Rome

In 1579 Alessandro Valignano from the Jesuit mission in India came to

Japan. Valignano planned to take four Japanese students to Madrid and Rome in an attempt to gain favor for the mission in Japan, and to show the splendors of

Europe and powers of the Pope to the young boys in hopes to impress them. In

1582 the mission sailed from Nagasaki and arrived in Portugal in 1584 and then

Italy in 1585. In March of 1585 three of the delegates met Pope Gregory XIII. Pope

Gregory died during their stay in Rome. The Japanese delegates were there for the coronation of Pope Sixtus V.17 The Japanese delegates were also in Rome during the controversy over the Palestrina compositional style being carried out by the Roman clergy and may have heard his music performed there. 18

Reports by European writers tell of many concerts, ballets, and that the young delegates attended. The delegates heard the best musicians of the day and were most impressed with the technical skill of the performers. They also seemed to show very little interest in the musical structure and expression of the music. The delegates tried to understand the value of individual creativity that was so highly appreciated by Europeans.19 Harich-Schneider suggests that in

Spain, they probably heard music by Alonso Mudarra (c1510-1580),20 who was known for the music he wrote for the four-course guitar and vihuela. 21 In

17 J.S. Michael Cooper, Rodrigues The Interpreter; An Early Jesuit in Japan and China (New York: Weaterhill, 1974), 70-71. 18 Harich-Schneider, 465. 19 Ibid., 463. 20 Ibid., 464. 21 Robert Stevenson, “Alonso Mudarra,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (London: Macmillian, 1980).

11 Florence they probably met Vincenzo Galilei who was a lutenist as well as an important theorist. The delegates also must have heard Antonio and Vittoria

Archilei, a husband and wife team of lutenists. Vittoria was also an important singer at the Medici court.22 The Court of Ferrara was visited on the return trip from Rome where they surely heard the daily chamber-music concerts. There was a concert held in honor of the visiting Japanese delegates on this trip, although no program remains of the music played for this concert.23

The Japanese delegates set sail from Lisbon on April 18, 1586, on their return trip to Japan. Before leaving Spain they were presented with an expensive clavicembalo that was heavily decorated with mother of pearl inlays, a gift from

Ascanio Colonna. They presented this instrument to the new ruler, Toyotomi

Hideyoshi, when they returned to Japan. Harich-Schneider refers to Guido

Gualtieri’ s comments about how the Japanese had been able to learn to play several musical instruments well while they were in Europe. 24 Gaultieri suggests that they practiced a great deal on the trip home and were then able to perform a public concert in Macao. The four Japanese delegates returned with Valignano to

Nagasaki in 1590 and proceeded to Kyoto where they arrived in the spring of

1591. Here they met Hideyoshi and presented many gifts to the ruler. Following the presentation of gifts, the four delegates brought out European instruments including lute, harp, clavichord, and violin. Then they proceeded to perform a recital of Western music for Hideyoshi. The concert was a success and Hideyoshi

22 Wiley H. Hitchcock, s.v. “Archilei, Vittoria,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillian, 1980). 23 Harich-Scheinder, 465. 24 Guido Gaultieri, Relationi dell Ventura de gli Ambasciatori Giapponesi a Roma, fino alla Partita di Lisbona (Milan, 1587).

12 requested three encores and then asked many questions about the instruments.25

Harich-Schneider says that each instrument was played separately for

Hideyoshi, at his request, and then he held each instrument while asking questions about them.26

The four delegates returned to the Arima seminary where they were appointed music professors. Harich-Schneider suggests that the European training the delegates received on their travels must have helped raise the level of music studies in Japan.27 By 1594 Father Pedro Gomez mentions the use of lute, along with many other instruments, almost every Sunday during Holy

Week, and at most feasts.28

End of the Early Christian Period

Christianity in Japan slowly came to a halt in the late 1580’s when

Hideyoshi became suspicious of the Christians and the Portuguese traders.

Several incidents occurred where Hideyoshi found reasons to distrust the missionaries, and in July of 1587 he ordered the missionaries to leave Japan.

These orders were not enforced, possibly in fear of losing the Portuguese trade that came with the missions. In 1593 a Dominican embassy from the Philippines came to Japan and was allowed to set up a church and monastery in Kyoto.

However, by 1596 Hideyoshi began rounding up the Franciscans and subsequently forced them to Nagasaki where they were executed. Hideyoshi

25 Cooper, 80. 26 Harcih-Schneider, 471. 27 Ibid., 472. 28 Ibid.

13 died two years later and Ieyasu Tokugawa came to power in 1600. From 1609 to

1614 many missionaries were martyred and Tokugawa banned Christianity in the capital city. In 1614 all missionaries were expelled from Nagasaki, and by

1619 they were being hunted.29

In 1616, after the death of Tokugawa, the new ruler Hidetada limited foreign trade. The Portuguese traders were eventually expelled for supporting the Jesuits. By 1640 Japan had closed its ports to foreign ships. Japanese who left

Japan were not allowed to return, and all Western influence was destroyed. If there were vihuelas and lutes constructed, or music written by Japanese for these instruments, they were destroyed during this period.

Clearly, around 1600 the lute and vihuela were in use in Japan and played by several people. However, the popularity of the vihuela can only be estimated.

There is no evidence that any music or vihuela performance practice was carried on through the Tokugawa period which influenced the guitar in the late nineteenth century Japan.

During this long period of isolation, commonly referred to as the , there was only minimal contact with outsiders. The only group of foreigners allowed to stay in Japan was Dutch, and they were forced to stay on a tiny man-made island in Nagasaki harbor. Christianity was not completely wiped out in Japan during this period. When the first ships from the United

States arrived in 1865 they found as many as 20,000 Christians hiding in

Nagasaki, to the surprise of the Westerners and the Japanese authorities.30

29 Ibid., 89-90. 30 Ibid., 96.

14 Chapter Two

The Return of the guitar in Meiji Japan (1868-1912)

In 1846 when the USS Columbus, commanded by James Biddle, attempted to gain access to trade with Japan, he was shoved off a Japanese junk with the reply of “depart as quick as possible, and not come any more in Japan.”1 Since the late 1780’s the United States had increased trade with China and India and wanted very much to expand to the mysterious island nation of Japan. The new steam ships from Oregon could reach China in two or three weeks. Japan was thought to have the coal needed to make these journeys possible. In 1851 the first recommendations to open Japan by force were proposed by several ship captains who had dealt with the Japanese and understood how weak the country was militarily. In 1852 Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry received orders (that he probably wrote himself) from the state department to be firm but peaceful with the Japanese and request a trade agreement. In a show of military power he sailed into Edo bay with eight heavily armed ships carrying over 900 men. Perry even used two steam ships to help awe the Japanese. These ships are often referred to as the black ships from the thick black smoke they created.

Perry made the request for trade with Japan peacefully then returned to

China for a year to wait for an answer. The return trip was made early in

February to seek an answer. In 1854 an agreement was reached and the United

States was allowed to make port in Japan for provisions, hospitality for

Americans in need of shelter and the creation of a consulate at Shimoda. The

1 Frederic Trautmann, With Perry to Japan: a Memoir by William Heine translated, with an introduction and annotations by Frederic Trautmann (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990), 1.

15 Japanese knew that they had to allow for this treaty with the United States since they could not fight such a powerful military. The Japanese also knew that they could learn from these foreign invaders and then when the time was right declare war.2

Music was present at most of the functions between the Japanese and

Perry’s group. Perry had a military band present at many of the meetings with

Japanese officials. When the agreement was signed on the USS Powatan, Perry invited the Japanese officials on board for dinner and entertainment by Ethiopian minstrels alternating with a choir. A printed program announced the minstrels would perform first as “Gemmen of the North” and then as “Niggas of the

South.”3 The performance of ‘I’ve been to California’ and other tunes4 was a huge success that seems to have inspired many members of the crew to get up and dance.5 The entertainment was a success and can be thought of as the beginning of the reintroduction of the guitar in Japan.6 Figure 4 is a sketch made of the

Ethiopian minstrels. This figure clearly shows two guitars, a banjo, two violins, a , bones, and a triangle. From the wild clothing and dance depicted in the picture, and the performers being referred to as pseudo darkies, it can be assumed that the performers were actually white sailors with blackened faces. In the 1820’s America, performers would dress up in what was thought to be the

2 Ibid., 15. 3 Arthur Walworth, Black Ships off Japan: the Story of Commodore Perry’s Expedition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), 203. 4 Peter Booth Wiley, Yankees in the Land of the Gods (New York: Viking Penguin, 1990). 5 Walworth, 204. 6 Francis L. Hawks, D.D.L.L.D., Narrative of The Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan performed in the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy, by Order of the Government of the United States (Washington: Beverly Tucker, Senate Printer, 1865) 470.

16 tattered clothes that African-Americans would have worn, and adopt the dialect of uneducated, naïve, southern plantation slaves.7 In the 1840’s the group of minstrel performers would have arranged themselves in a semicircle with a tambourine and bones at either end,8 as can clearly be seen in this picture. The guitar in this picture is marked with a waisted body shape to indicate the difference from the banjo. Robert Coldwell suggests that the strange number of strings and unusual tuning pegs were probably a creation by Bunsen Takagawa, the artist who made the sketch. Takagawa probably took liberties with the shape and drew one he was more familiar with from the , which is a three stringed traditional instrument played with a plectrum.9

Figure 4. Ethiopian minstrels at Nagasaki, 1854.

7 Ibid., 203. 8 Clayton W. Henderson, “American Minstrelsy,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillian, 2001). 9 Robert Coldwell, “The Early Guitar and Biographies of Important Guitarists in Japan,” http://home.earthlink.net/~coldwell/japan/j-intro.html; Internet; accessed 1 March 2002.

17 The guitar had undergone major changes in its construction during the nineenth century as well as basking in one of its most important periods of popularity in Europe. This new instrument lost the rounded back made from ribbed construction in favor of a flat solid back. A bridge was added in front of the saddle to send the vibrations directly into the soundboard. Around 1800 Jose

Benedid created a new system of internal bracing known as “fan bracing.” This new development created a much louder sound because the braces were placed only where needed and did not dampen the soundboard. The fret board was also raised up above the soundboard and tuning pegs were replaced with machine heads. Georg Staufer used metal from buttons to create the first metal frets and

Antonio de Torres Juardo established the larger size of the guitar that is commonly used today.10 From this picture of Ethiopian minstrels it is difficult to see any of these changes. This instrument appears to be from the period before the Torres innovations.

Perry’s trip to Japan had several major repercussions including the fall of the Tokugawa bakufu that had been in power since the 1600’s. The inability of the ruling clan to stand up to Western powers helped reinforce the country’s criticism of their leaders and sped up the attacks against it. Shortly after the treaty was made with the United States, Japan made similar treaties with

England, Russia, France and the Netherlands.11 These treaties had been made without the imperial approval. Emperor Komei (1831-1866) still viewed isolationism as the best solution. By 1866 the country had shifted in favor of

10 Harvey Turnbull, The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day (Westport, Connecticut: The Bold Strummer, 1991), 77. 11 Mikiso Hane, Modern Japan: a historical Survey, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Westview Press 1992), 68.

18 returning the imperial family to power, and in 1868 Emperor Meiji took the throne and the seat of leadership for Japan.

Meiji immediately renamed Edo as Tokyo and made the capital there.

Most importantly Meiji set out to develop Japan’s military and economic powers to ensure that they would not become victims to any external menace.12 In 1871

Meiji established the three houses of government to run the country. Many departments were created at this time including the department of education.

The Meiji leaders set out to eliminate illiteracy completely and every child was required to attend school for eight years. Arts were seen as important to the cultivation of the spirit and moral good of people.13 Social changes ended state protection for blind musicians of musical guilds. These guilds had been one of the few groups allowed to practice music in Japan for centuries.

Western Music Education and Early Compositional styles

To understand the development of Western music in Japan and how the earliest composers were trained we first have to look at the beginnings of music education. The earliest guitar works reflect the contemporary compositional style of composers brought up in this new system, and eventually their reaction to

Western influences.

Western music in Japan got a major boost in 1869 when John William

Fenton from England began teaching in Yokohama. He helped train the first band of thirty men from Satsuma. Before this Western military music had been

12 Ibid., 85. 13 Ibid., 102.

19 taught at the Dutch school at Nagasaki as early as 1839.14 Fenton’s teaching was followed by that of the German teacher Franz Eckert (1852-1916), who taught music to the Japanese navy, and then the Frenchman Charles Leroux, who taught it to the Japanese army. One youth who led a drum and fife band in 1866 was

Isawa Shuji (1851-1917). In 1875 the Japanese Ministry of Education sent sixteen youths, including Isawa, to the United States to study teacher training at the

State Normal School in Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Here Isawa met Luther

Whiting Mason (1828-1896). Mason was a very important music educator in the

United States.15 On returning to Japan in 1878, Isawa created the Music

Investigation Committee (Ongaku Torishirabe-Gakari), which was the first official school of Western music. The main activity of this school was to train

Japanese to be music teachers. In 1877 Isawa wrote a letter to his overseas advisor, Megata Tanetaro, revealing that Isawa was interested in improving

Japanese music by assimilating it with Western music.16

In 1880, Isawa invited his former teacher, Luther Mason, to come to Japan to be the director of the new music school. Isawa’s plan was to teach Western ; however, the nationalistic attitude that was beginning to surface in Meiji Era Japan would not tolerate only foreign music being taught. Isawa had to come up with a way to teach the best from both Japan and the West. With this idea in mind, Isawa and Mason set out to put Japanese texts to Western melodies. Most of these songs were written, arranged, or taken from the best

14 Ury Eppstein, The Beginnings of Western Music In Meiji Era Japan (United Kingdom: Edwin Mellen Press, 1994), 10. 15 Ibid., 27. 16 Ibid., 29.

20 they could find from traditional Japanese songs, and compiled into books for children.

Eppstein gives numerous sources for the songs in this first book. The first songbook published for school contained thirty-three songs. Thirty of the songs were from Western sources, three from Japanese sources.17 What is most interesting about these settings are where the Western tunes are arranged with pentatonic scales, with the half steps between the 4th and 7th degrees taken out.18

Eppstein further shows how some of these melodies came from gagaku.19 Later revisions and editions of this songbook included a greater number of traditional

Japanese melodies. These were important books for the first propagation of

Western forms, melody, and harmony and would leave a lasting impression on music in Japan.20

Later songbooks by Tamura Torazo in 1900-1902 show an increased use of tetrachordal harmonies. Koizumi Fumio (1927-1983), in his discussion of

Japanese music, says that the tetrachord is the basic unit of traditional music.

Koizumi has given us four basic types of tetrachords to represent different types of Japanese music. Each tetrachord contains an outer frame of a perfect fourth with an inner tone (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Koizumi Fumio four basic tetrachords

17 Ibid., 93. 18 Ibid, see pages 93 – 122 “the songs.” 19 Ibid., 104 –107. 20 Ibid., 108.

21 The first of these four basic types of tetrachord represents min’yo or folk songs or childrens game songs. Tetrachord II is called miyakobushi or urban melodies, these would be heard in urban art music of the koto, shamisen, shakuhatchi and biwa. Tetrachord III comes from ritsu that is most common in gagaku or imperial court music. Tetrachord IV, Ryukyu, comes from the music of

Ryukyu Island between Kyushu and Taiwan.21 The songs of Tamura Torazo are the first attempts to fully combine elements of both Japanese and Western harmony, much more than the music Isawa chose for his songbooks.

William Malm suggests that the music used in these new songbooks focused on three types carried over from traditional music in the

Edo period. Specifically, the ryo and ritsu scales that were common in gagaku music were used. These scales types were preferred by the music investigation committee, of which many of the members were gagaku musicians. A fourth scale type, in, was not used because it came from urban music with which the investigation committee would not have had much contact. The used a flat second scale degree that made it unreconcilable with major/minor Western harmonies.22 Examples in figure 6 show Malm’s four basic scale types. Malm also suggests that using the in scale might have had unacceptable connotations similar to using blues scales in American kindergarten music.23

21 Ibid., 123-124. 22 William Malm, “The Modern Music of Meiji Japan,”in Tradition and Modernization in Japanese Culture, ed. Donald H. Shively (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1971), 274. 23 Ibid.

22 Figure 6. William Malms four scale types.

Malm’s scale types are quite similar to Koizumi’s tetrachords; Koizumi’s tetrachords summarize the characteristic sounds from Malm’s scales.

The Western method of using notation to teach music was a big change in

Japan. Before this change, music was learned almost entirely through rote systems. Students who learned music from notation were trained to accept and expect a melody line to be accompanied. This was a major change from the usual single-line melody found in most traditional Japanese music.24

Mason stayed in Japan for three years and then went back to America. He was the first of many teachers who came to Japan in these early years of reform.

The Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan lists several of the important teachers who came at this time as well as many of the Japanese who went to Europe to study.25

Isawa’s initial plan was just to train students to teach music. The idea of teaching musicians to write new music had not been included as part of his educational design. The first degree in composition was offered in 1932. The

24 Ibid., 276. 25 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, s.v. “Western Music,” 286.

23 compositional style of many of the early composers in Meiji Japan used Western art music as models. Cultural adaptation of Western models was widely accepted in the early Meiji period. By 1880, however, the Japanese were developing a discriminating taste for Western culture and many of the ideas that previously were freely accepted now came under close scrutiny. Many of these new “cultural nationalists” wanted to adopt the best from the West without having to lose either their sense of cultural or national identity.26

An American, Ernest F. Fenollosa, came to Japan in 1878 to teach philosophy at the Imperial University in Tokyo. While in Japan he became interested in Japanese paintings and woodblock print. Soon after this he started advocating the continued tradition of Japanese arts, and then he presented many works to the government to be preserved as national treasures. Fenollosa was a key figure in the campaign to revive Japanese art.27 Several of Fenollosa’s students were important for promoting the idea that Japanese should learn

Japanese arts before adopting Western forms.

By 1900 several organizations appeared that promoted Western music, including the Meiji Ongaku Kai (Meiji Music Society) founded in 1898. This group performed Western music along with traditional Japanese music. Other groups that performed almost entirely music by Western composers included

Teikoku Ongaku Kai (Imperial Music Society) founded in 1907 by the

Komatsu Kosuke who had studied music in Paris. The Tokyo Philharmonic

26 Hane, Mikiso, 132. 27 Ibid., 135.

24 Society was organized and several new schools of Western music were founded in Tokyo at this time as well.28

In 1911 Emperor Meiji passed away and was succeeded by the Emperor

Taisho (1879-1926) in 1912. Culture in Japan during the Taisho period was different than that of the Meiji period. Intellectuals had a new freedom. They were free from the tasks of enriching and strengthening the nation as would have been expected of their predecessors. This was a period when many enjoyed cultural refinement, and the arts were a big part of this new culture. Everyone had access to the new popular cultures being disseminated through newspapers, magazines, motion pictures, phonograph and radio.29

The years 1900-1926 were a period of development in which traditional

Japanese music and European music were beginning to be combined to create the first important compositions by Japanese composers. Composers such as

Kosaku Yamada and Kiyomi Fujii explored the possibilities of materials they could adapt from traditional music. Yamada was trained in Germany and Fujii learned by studying in Japan. Yamada believed in the supremacy of

Western music and pursued German in his early compositions.

Later, after a short visit to Russia, he turned more to the exotic flavor he could create using hexachordal harmonies. By the 1930’s more than half of Yamada’s compositions used pentatonic scales without the 4th and 7th scale degrees.

From the mid 1930’s to the 1950’s almost all of Yamada’s works use open 4ths and 5ths as harmonies. This was a device used by Western composers to suggest exoticism, which, however, does not actually exist in traditional Japanese

28 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, s.v. “Western Music,” 286. 29 Ibid., 220.

25 music.30 Fujii on the other hand never left Japan. After attending the Tokyo

University for the Arts he remained in Tokyo where he taught himself composition and composed many songs in minyo style (folk song style). Fujii always used Western instruments to accompany these songs. Often these instruments were used in imitation of traditional instruments such as the shamisen.31 These new compositional styles were important developments for music in Japan. The next generation of composers looked to these ideas as sources for nationalism in Showa Japan.

The Return of the Classical Guitar

Several Japanese went overseas in this early period to work in foreign countries, including Hiroshi Hiraoka (1856-1934) who worked on the railroad in

New Hampshire in 1871. Hiraoka is primarily remembered for bringing baseball to Japan; he also is credited with bringing the first guitar to Japan to accompany himself for minstrel songs. A later interview with Hiraoka’s son revealed that he was not very advanced on the guitar.32 Until the post-war era there are many stories of untalented guitarists.

The first guitar teacher in Japan was Kenpachi Hiruma (1867-1936).

Hiruma traveled to America, Germany, and Switzerland between 1887 and 1901 to study cello and . In 1899 he went to Germany and Italy to study guitar

30 Judith Ann Herd, “Change and Continuity in Contemporary Japanese Music: A search for a National Identity” (Ph. D. diss., Brown University, 1987), 19. 31 Ibid., 27. 32 Coldwell, Robert, “Hiroshi Hiraoka” from “The Early Guitar and Biographies of Important Guitarists in Japan,” http://home.earthlink.net/~coldwell/japan/j- intro.html; Internet; accessed 1 March 2002.

26 and . In 1905 he began teaching at the Tokyo Music School (which later became the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music) and became the conductor of the first mandolin in Japan. Hiruma never taught guitar at the University, as guitar had never been accepted as an instrument of serious study in Japan. Several of Hiruma’s students worth noting included Morishige

Takei and Hideo Saito (who was the instructor of the famous conductor Seiji

Ozawa). 33

The first known foreigner to teach guitar and mandolin in Japan was

Adolfo Sarcoli (1872-1936) from Siena. Sarcoli was an tenor and performer of guitar and mandolin. Sarcoli came in 1911 to teach. He performed with the

Keio mandolin orchestra and was an active and rather successful vocal teacher.

He wrote several works for the guitar that he and his students played. At this time there were no active guitar soloists in Japan. One of Sacoli’s students, Bunzo

Sekine, performed three works, including one by Sarcoli, many times in recitals with other performers and then apparently quit playing after that.34

Fuku-ichiro Ikegami gave the first known solo guitar recitals in Yokohama in 1926. Nothing is known about the life of Ikegami except his recitals and a few unpublished manuscripts he wrote for guitar. A 1999 recording by Kazuhito

Yamashita is the first recording of Ikegami’s music. There is important information we can gather from Ikegami’s recital about the musical repertoire that was performed by Japanese guitarists at this time. Ikegami’s second recital, given in 1926, contained duos by Carulli and Giuliani, as well as solo works by

33 Ibid., Coldwell“Kenpachi Hiruma.” 34 Ibid., Coldwell “Adolfo Sarcoli.”

27 Mertz, Giuliani, Sor, and Regondi. In 1927 Ikegami’s recital contained the following works:

Abendlied (Mertz) Notturno, Op.3 No.1 [or No.3?] (Zani de Ferranti) Russian Theme and Variations, Op.10 No.12 (Carcassi) Sonata, Op.15 (Giuliani) Grand Ouverture, Op.6 (Carulli) ohne Worte/ , Op.13 No.11 (Mertz) Ronde de Fées, Op.2 (Zani de Ferranti) The Shore at Night (Ikegami)

Ikegami’s last known recital was in 1928 in which he played a duo by Sor, and works by Tárrega, de Falla, Torroba, and Pujol.35 Ikegami was quite aware of

European musical taste in the classical guitar repertoire. Composers such as Sor,

Giuliani, Caruli, Tarrega, and Mertz are still staples of classical guitar repertoire of many guitarists today. Most of these composers, except Tárrega, lived in the early part of the nineteenth century. The style of these early composers is clearly rooted in the style of the day with Alberti bass patterns, architechtonic phrase shapes, clear and simple harmonic progressions moving slowly through standard sonata forms, and brilliant virtuoso passages to show off the performer.

The fact that Ikegami was performing Tárrega and Zani de Ferranti shows that already guitarists in Japan were quite aware of current trends in guitar music. More importantly they were aware of the new techniques developed by

Francisco Tárrega (1852-1909) that work well on the new modern sized guitar.

35 Ibid., Coldwell “Fuku Ichiro Ikegami.”

28 Morishige Takei (1890-1949)

The earliest known scores written for guitar in Japan are by Morishige

Takei. Takei was very important in establishing the classical guitar in Japan.

Takei came from a wealthy family and later in life became the baron over the family estate and companies. Takei heard the guitar for the first time in 1911 when he was in Italy. In 1913 he began to study guitar and formed the first mandolin orchestra in Japan. Next to his home he built a small recital hall where he held the first mandolin and guitar recitals. He also started the Mandolin and

Guitar journal in 1916.

Takei played a guitar with steel strings, although he had actually started with gut strings. The high humidity in Japan made gut strings impractical for many guitarists; most of the imported guitars had steel strings. He may also have switched to steel strings to be heard while playing with the mandolin orchestra.

In 1919 Takei purchased three guitars from Philip Bone in England including an 1858 Lacôte that was originally owned by the famous /composer Carulli. Takei later owned a terz-guitar by Stauffer. In 1922

Takei bought the larger half of Bone’s collection. This is when many of the important standard works of the guitar repertoire were first brought to Japan.

Bone had to sell some of his collection to cover his expenses while he wrote his book The Guitar and Mandolin. These scores included works by Mertz, Molino,

Giuliani, Shultz, Call, and Kuffner. In addition to the scores Takei also bought approximately 500 journals from the nineteenth century. Takei’s collection was

29 lost in a fire resulting from The Great 1923 Kanto Earthquake, including all the scores bought from the Bone collection. 36

In 1925 Takei took over four European libraries and again bought more music from Bone. Later that same year Takei published his book Glimpses of the

Mandolin and Guitar. This 500-page book offered criticism about guitar and mandolin performers as well as works by individual composers. Most of his information about other guitarists comes from Bone’s book. In 1929 Takei wrote several articles about the Segovia tour in Japan.

In 1941 the Mandolin and Guitar journal had to stop publication because of a paper shortage caused by the war. In 1945 Takei’s home was burned down in an air raid, fortunately his collection was in the basement and most of it was saved. Takei’s collection is now housed in the Kunitachi Music University library in Tokyo.37

Most of Takei’s life was spent in his other activities as a public figure. All of Takei’s fifty-seven works for guitar were published in 1965 by Zen-on music.

Takei is not remembered as a performer or composer but is remembered in the form of the Takei Prize awarded for new guitar works.

Takei began composing for guitar in 1919. His first two works are; Ricordi d'Infanzia (using an open E Major tuning E,B,E,G#,B,E) and Passegiata Campestre

(using an open tuning of D,G,D,G,B,D). These were the only works that he wrote using an extensive alternate tunings. Harmonically they are rather simple in

36 Murao Susita, “A Brief History of Moreshige Takei,” from Japanese Melodies for Guitar, music by Takei, Zen-on guitar library, Tokyo, 1965. 37 Coldwell, “Morishige Takei” from“The Early Guitar and Biographies of Important Guitarists in Japan,” http://home.earthlink.net/~coldwell/japan/j- intro.html; Internet; accessed 1 March 2002.

30 major keys that are never ventured outside of. Takei sets the formal design of these two works as intro A, B, A. The second work, Passeggiata Campestre, shows

Takei’s knowledge of the Romantic style and uses tempo indications to separate the sections of music;

A –Allegro m1-20 B – Andante m22-29 C – Adagio m30-35 D – Allegretto m36-57 Cadenza Adagio m58-64 B – Andante m65-72

The third work in this publication of Takei’s music is a dedication to the guitarist composer . The main stylistic traits of Tárrega’s music that Takei uses are the portamento effects and habanera rhythmic figures. These devices return many times throughout Takei’s works.

In The Floating Cloud (Example 2.1) both the portamento effect and a modified habanera rhythm are used to create an underlying ostinato figure. This example was composed toward the end of Takei’s life in 1946 but is still quite similar to earlier works, harmonically and formally.

Example 2.2 was written in 1944 and shows his later developments with harmony. Takei was a very educated person and would have been aware of the nationalism that was showing itself in other composers’ works. In the beginning he appears to be working in A minor but then he is clearly in a pentatonic mode in the third line when the scales appear.

31 Example 2.1. Takei The Floating Cloud ©1946 Zen-On Music Company, © renewed, all rights reserved, Used by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole US and Canadian agent for Zen-On Music Company Limited.

Example 2.2. Takei Le Crab Ermite © 1944 Zen-On Music Company, © renewed, all rights reserved, Used by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole US and Canadian agent for Zen-On Music Company Limited.

32 Takei’s works are usually rather brief, comprised of less than two pages each. The quality of his music is consistently strong throughout his career and marks one of the best of the early guitar composers. Takei was also active in trying to get other composers to write for guitar, but the success of that quest is unknown. Several of Takei’s works were performed by other guitarists as can be read at the beginning of his scores in the Zen-On publication.

Before World War II there were a total of eleven journals published in

Japan for guitar.38 These guitar magazines usually doubled with the mandolin as the main subject. One of the most important journals, Armonia, was published in

Sendai from 1927 until 1941 when it too was forced out of publication. After the war it resumed publication in Sakamoto from 1954 to 1959. The publisher of the

Sendai Armonia was Chuzaemon Sawaguchi, an amateur guitarist from Sendai who learned to read German and worked at a bank most of his life. His German ability helped him correspond with other guitarists in Germany and he was able to translate articles from the German magazine Die Gitarre into Armonia.39 Most importantlyArmonia published scores by both European and Japanese composers. The scores from Armonia make up the best collection of early works for guitar in Japan.

In 1926 the new Emperor took over and there was a change in attitude in

Japan. Where musicians of the previous periods concerned themselves with teaching and learning about music, the new generation was able to refine its

38 Werner Schwartz, Guitar Bibliography: an International Listing of Theoretical Literature on Classical Guitar from the Beginning to the Present, (New York, 1984), 5 –6. 39 Coldwell, “Chuzaemon Sawaguchi.”

33 tastes. This was a period when the Japanese composers began to realize that they would face artistic stagnation if they did not experiment with the synthesis of

Western and Japanese music. The main ideas of national music came from the music of Yamada and Fujii in the previous years.40 By 1930 there was a large organization called The Newly Rising Composer Federation. This group believed that Japanese national music should be promoted throughout the world. The composers from this group moved away from Western models and explored nationalistic style composition. These compositions included: 1) Japanese scale fragments (pentatonic scales), 2) vertical tone clusters similar to Gagaku harmony (quartal harmony), 3) linear focus, and 4) more varied use of timbre.41

In the early 1930’s there were suddenly new opportunities for many

Japanese, such as foreign companies willing to publish Japanese scores. In 1931 the Japanese national radio began to broadcast works in Western style by

Japanese composers. This was in response to the high fees that were expected for playing music from Western countries. In 1926 the Tokyo Philharmonic began to sell tickets for concerts instead of just giving them away for free. From 1917 onward there were always performers visiting from other countries, and by 1937

Japan had the largest market in the world for classical records.42 This is the time when Armonia appeared. This new magazine was an important source of the new national style as it appeared in guitar music.

40 Herd, 27. 41 Ibid., 29. 42 Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, 286.

34 Yoshie Okawara [Yosie Ohcawara] (1903 -1935)

One of the guitarist/composers who had scores published in Armonia was

Yoshie Okawara. Okawara was one of the few guitarists who attempted to be a professional performer. He was born in Hokkaido and moved to Tokyo in 1925.

He was unique because he preferred to play works by Japanese composers more that any other music. In 1928 Okawara was one of the first Japanese to have solo guitar recitals in Japan. The following year Andrés Segovia made his first trip to

Japan. He was the first great performer to show what the guitar was capable of.

This visit inspired many guitarists to perform a more Segovia style of repertoire.

Okawara, on the other hand, turned even more to Japanese composers for his repertoire. In 1930 he played a program of sixteen works of which only two were by Western composers. Most of the music on this recital was by himself, Takei and Sawaguchi. Okawara recorded two records for Polydor Japan and wrote one of the first guitar methods in Japanese.

Okawara wrote about thirty works for guitar, many of which were published by Armonia. In 1930 Armonia published five short works by Okawara entitled “ A Bouquet (Suite). The five short works were named after flowers:

“Matsumushi-flower,” “Song of Hydranga,” “Dance of Oriental Poppy,” and

“Bolero Amaryllis.” These works are an excellent blend of traditional sounds in

Western forms.

Example 2.3 from “Matsumushi-flower” shows the use of pentatonic scale in the opening section. The piece uses a tonal center of E with pentatonic notes being E, F, A, B, D. Only at the first ending does the G# appear to give a clear modulation to A in the second section. The flat second degree (F) displays his use

35 of the miyako-bushi sound. This would have been heard in urban melodies played on the koto, shamisen, shakuhatchi and biwa.

Example 2.3. Okawara “Matsumushi-flower,” 1930 Armonia

The B section of “Matsumushi-flower” starts with a strumming sound that is common in shamisen performance. This example uses a virtuoso effect that intertwines a melodic part above the ostinato figure. This is a texture that would not occur in shamisen practice due to the plectrum that is used.

Example 2.4. Okawara “Matsumushi-flower,” 1930 Armonia.

The third movement also uses a shamisen type of accompaniment in the B section, this time using an open fourth sound for the ostinato pattern.

36 Example 2.5. Okawara, Dance of Oriental Popy, 1930 Armonia.

The final piece from Okawaras suite is the “Bolero Amaryllis” (example

2.6) which gives us a taste of his understanding of Western forms. Here he uses a

Bolero rhythm that would be more common to the early Spanish version of it, which is closely related to the traditional polonaise rhythm.

Example 2.6. Okawara, Bolero Amaryllis, 1930 Armonia.

Okawara’s work was hailed as important, even in his day, because of his ability to synthesize traditional sounds on a guitar in a polyphonic style.

Technically these works show a daring guitarist who must have taken many risks with challenging textures and jumps in his performances. The technical ability of guitarists at this time was becoming much more advanced as can be seen in the works of Takayuki Oguri.

37 Takayuki Oguri (1909-1944)

Not much is known about Takayuki Oguri, other than that he died in the war and his guitar teacher was Shun Ogura (1901-1977). Shun Ogura is worth mentioning because he was highly influential. Ogura was primarily a teacher, although he appears to have performed on occasion in the 1930’s. He was a colleague of Takei, Nakano, Sawaguchi and Okawara. Possibly the most important contributions that Ogura may have made to the guitar in Japan were his translations of Spanish text into Japanese. Ogura also held the position at

Ongaku-no Tomo to advise what music to publish for guitar. Today, Ongaku-no

Tomo is the largest publisher of music in Japan.

The influence of Ogura must have had quite an impact on Oguri’s music.

His music is some of the most technically demanding of the prewar composer.

Oguri’s scores show that he was quite aware of common techniques used by

European guitarist/composers.

Doraji-Taryung, published byArmonia in 1938, came with the subtitle

“Danza Coreana.” This work is loosely based on the famous Korean folk song

Doraji Taryung. Doraji is a bellflower that grows in the mountains and Taryung means song. The meaning of this song is about love of mountain maidens.

Oguri’s style in this work is very closely tied to European romantic conventions.

Some of the most obvious of these are the dramatic changes in tempo, key, and cadential material.

In this first section (Example 2.7) the vivo section uses a rolled three and four-string technique that is one of the favorites used by most European guitar composers to create a thick and exciting sounding texture.

38 Example 2.7. Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, 1938, Armonia.

Big tempo changes are used in the transition from the opening vivo introduction to the main melody in example 2.8. In this example the expression marks move from molto apassionata to a measure in adagio of dolce e tranquillo.

39 Example 2.8. Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, 1938 Armonia.

Example 2.9. Oguri, Doraji-Taryung, 1938, Armonia.

In example 2.9 the cadenza figure takes us through a brief modulation to the key of F major and ends with modulation to the proceeding section in C major. This is very distant modulation from the E major key the previous page of music was in. This sort of unprepared modulation was a staple of romantic writing style.

Oguri’s style of guitar writing is tinged with the quirky techniques of the last generation of composers such as Barrios. Other works of

40 Oguri show he must have been a technical wizard to be able to play his quasi tremolo work Spinning Song (Example 2.10). The tremolo figure used in this work has a melodic note to be played on the second thirty-second note of the group, a very unusual effect.

Example 2.10. Oguri,The Spinning Song, Armonia.

Oguri is one of the first to use the guitar’s arpeggiated strumming style to imitate the traditional Japanese koto. The koto is a ten-string zither type of instrument that is laid flat and plucked with the fingers. Harp type arpeggios appear frequently in the music written for this instrument. In his work Preludio para guitarra sobre una moda Japanese anticuada, Oguri is imitating the koto by using pentatonic chords that can be played with one finger to glissando across the strings. Example 2.11 was probably published from Sendai Armonia. Although it is not dated, it probably was published around the mid 1930’s when several composers began writing in a mixture of Japanese and Western styles for guitar.43

43 The copy of this score that I have came from the Jiro Nakano collection that was donated to the Kyoto University Library and photocopied into hardbound books. Many of the score covers were omitted from the photocopies.

41 Example 2.11. Oguri, Preludio para guitarra sobre una moda Japanese anticuada, Armonia.

Seiichi Suzuki also uses a similar effect in his variation on Sakura published by Sendai Armonia in 1934 (Example 2.12).

42 Example 2.12. Suzuki, Sakura Variations,, 1934, Armonia.

It is evident that the guitarists/composers from this period were quite aware of the current thoughts on music in Japan, as can be seen in their combinations of Western and Japanese music. In 1931, at the same time as this nationalistic attitude was beginning to shape classical music in Japan, there were already the undercurrents of the ultra-nationalists who wanted to censor

Western music. As early as 1930 this ultra-nationalism was brought about through government-controlled censorship. Music education was being changed and all Western songs were replaced with military songs. By 1934 music was heavily censored, including how long a person could listen to Western music in the public library.44 In 1937 the government considered music an essential tool for transmission of state propaganda and took over the popular music industry.

This military controlled industry copied over a million records of nationalist

44 Herd, 71.

43 songs.45 There was an almost complete ban on Western music from radio programs during this period. This ban included the use of the steel string guitar and banjo. The ban on steel string Western instruments was founded on the grounds that the glissando and slur figures weakened people’s will. The ukulele

(or ukelele) completely disappeared from recording and Hawaiian music vanished until after the war.46 The classical, nylon, stringed guitar was probably not excluded from radio programming, if it was heard at all.

Some composers prospered during this period, others found it a daily struggle and had to suffer from having their paper rations reduced for not complying with the war effort. This may be one of the final blows that stopped

Armonia’s publication. Some composers quit writing altogether; others, such as orchestra members, had to work almost non-stop at the radio stations.47 In 1944 all public musical activities stopped by government decree due to the desperate wartime period. For some musicians this was the end of their careers.48

For the guitar no scores were published in Japan between the end of

Sendai Armonia in 1941 and the first scores published in 1960 by Casa de la guitarra. However there are later editions of works by composers who were active during these years and wrote for guitar who will be discussed in the next chapter.

45 Ibid., 73. 46 George S. Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians; an Illustrated History (Honolulu, University press of Hawaii, 1979), 184. 47 Herd, 75. 48 Ibid., 76.

44 Chapter 3

Post-war Music 1945 through the 1950’s

Immediately following the war there was a great deal of finger pointing and blame given to several people for the wartime censorship of musicians.

Several major composers quit composing because of guilt from the war. From

1945 to 1949 the United States occupational forces only censored music where the text conflicted with policies of the occupation. Some critics said this inhibited free expression. For others this was a time when they could finally boycott music that they had grown tired of hearing.1

Many new works were introduced following the war. The Japanese quickly began to rejoin the intellectual exchange of ideas with foreign musicians, an exchange that had been silenced during the war. All of the new currents in

Western music were again adopted in Japan. Some composers returned to the nationalist music for inspiration to create new music that would be closer to the

Japanese sensibility. The composer Kosaku Yamada continued composing but with little success. The public made strong judgments against those who were most powerful during the war and were unwilling to support them again.2

There was a new wave of nationalism that came about as composers began to realize that the foreign artists who toured in Japan played music rooted in their own cultures. This music was rooted in the history and society of Europe and America. For the Japanese to have a national music they would have to go beyond the mere acquisition of techniques from these countries, they would have

1 Herd, 95. 2 Ibid., 97.

45 to create their own language.3 This new generation of composers had a much larger palette of musical styles to choose from than the pre-war composers did.

As with Europe and America one of the most important forces that drove the post-war period was that of a highly individualized musical language for each composer. Japan was no different and many composers adopted every new musical trend that they could learn in an attempt to create their own style.

For the guitar in Japan, one of the most important trends that began in this post-war period was the publication of scores by composers who did not actually play the instrument. All of the previous scores from before the war were by guitarist/composers. Immediately following the war there were several scores written for guitar that were not published until the late 1960’s by Zen-on publications. Many of these scores show a new level of compositional complexity, and a refined technical advancement achieved by the guitarists who helped make these works playable on guitar. This first example (example 3.1) by

Kojiro Kobune shows one of the earliest twelve-tone works for guitar. This work is published by Zen-on in a collection entitled Selected Pieces by Japanese Composers in 1969. Only some of the works from this collection have actual composition dates printed at the end of the work. The following example is not given a composition date in this publication, yet it appears to be from the mid 1960’s. In this work Kobune gives us the twelve-tone row that this composition is based on before the piece.

This second example, Poème (1963) by Takeo Saito, is a highly chromatic work from this same collection. This example (Example 3.2) is highly chromatic

3 Ibid., 98.

46 Example 3.1. Kobune, Essey, © 1969 Zen-On Music Company, © renewed, all rights reserved, Used by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole US and Canadian agent for Zen-On Music Company Limited.

Example 3.2. Saito, Poem, © 1963 Zen-On Music Company, © renewed, all rights reserved, Used by permission of European American Music Distributors LLC, sole US and Canadian agent for Zen-On Music Company Limited.

47 to the point of having no clear tonal center or harmonic function, but this is not a twelve-tone or serial composition.

Composers from the post-war era quickly broke with the tonal languages of the past and embraced the new currents in Europe and America. Specifically they embraced the new freedom to use dissonance without fear. In several sources it is said that in 1948 Toda Kunio brought to Japan René Leibowitz’s book Schoenberg et son école about twelve-tone music theory.4 This is how the first twelve-tone music came to Japan. It was not till the early 1950’s that the first serial works appear. For guitar the earliest works do not appear until the early

1960’s.

One of the first Japanese to use twelve-tone theory was Yoritsune

Matsudaira (b.1907). Matsudaira spent most of his life studying gagaku (imperial court music) and applying combinations of avant-garde techniques with it.

Matsudaira had a good deal of success in the 1930’s, and Alexander Tcherepnin arranged to sponsor some of his works for publication. During the war years he quit writing music for lack of inspiration. After the war he started to blend gagaku and twelve-tone music. Matsudaira found that gagaku was similar in bimodality to the polytonalities found in the music of Stravinsky. He also found that chord clusters created with the Sho (type of bamboo flute where several notes are played simultaneously) were similar to Debussy’s quartal harmonies and tone clusters.5

4 Uenami Wataru, Orientation Seminars on Japan: 20, The Characteristics of Japanese Postwar Music (Tokyo, The Japan Foundation, 1985), p 1. 5 Herd, 149.

48 Gagaku is based on Chinese music theory that uses a chromatic scale based on perfect fifths. The Japanese have used this scale to create two scale types: Ryo and Ritsu. From these two types the first six scales used in gagaku are derived (Figure 7). Gagaku often combines the ascending and descending versions of these scales to create minor seconds and tritones.

Ryo scales

Ristu scales

Figure 7. Ryo and Ritsu Scales found in gagaku

One work by Matsudaira published by Ongaku no Tomo that uses the guitar is Katsura (1959). This work is for voice, flute, harpsichord, harp, guitar, and percussion. The guitar only appears in the third, seventh and eighth movements of this work. In example 3.3 the instruments enter in a stretto-like technique that is common to gagaku orchestration. The instrumentation is also imitating gagaku instruments used in saibara-style songs. The vocal part is

49 suggesting an imitation of roei chanting that would also have been heard in these songs. Matsudaira is not using strict twelve-tone technique in this work. Instead he chooses to focus on the opening motive as the main point of interest. In the second half of measure two the guitar part presents a retrograde version of the first three fragments from measure one and the first half of measure two.

Example 3.3. Matsudaira, Katsura,1959 ©Ongaku No Tomo Sha, used by permission of the publisher

50 Sannin No Kai was a group of three composers that openly promoted their own music, even at their own expense.6 This group believed that the new

Japanese music should come from a combination of nationalism and European avant-garde. The composers from this group were Toshiro Mayuzumi (b.1929),

Yasushi Akutagawa (b. 1925), and (b. 1924). From this group only

Mayuzumi has written for guitar.

Mayuzumi studied with Tomojiro Ikenouchi and Akira Ifukube at the

Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music. Then, from 1951 to 1952, he went to study with Tony Aubin at the Paris Conservatoire. Here he absorbed the

European avant-garde trends he found in Paris, such as strict serialism, aleatory, and prepared piano techniques. When he returned to Japan he began experimenting with combinations of instruments to create new sounds. In his works Ectoplasm (1954) and Microcosmos (1957) he calls for an amplified guitar, but it appears from the writing that he specifically wants an electric guitar.

In example 3.4 from Microcosmos Mayuzumi uses the combination of clavioline, guitar, vibraphone, xylophone, piano, bongos, congas, and musical saw. Mayuzumi creates tone color through the combination of instruments similarly to the music of Edgard Varèse. This work is rather interesting due to his combinations of guitar and percussion techniques, which create a unique tone color. For the classical guitarist this work offers the guitarist none of the virtuosic techniques of the modern performance standard, with little more than a single note line. This work was written before his famous Nirvana (1957-58)

6 Ibid., 131.

51 and thus does not contain the same pentatonic/ harmonic configuration of temple bells7 as does his well-known later style, although there are similarities.

Example 3.4. Mayuzumi, Microcosmos, 1957 © by C.F. Peters Corporation. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

In the fifth movement of this work he is experimenting with the use of contrasting polymodal elements. This section (Example 3.5) uses a fugue-like technique where each time a new instrument enters it plays the complete theme of the piano. The main theme here contains only four notes D, E-flat, C- sharp, and the octave D. At rehearsal C in the following example the xylophone makes its entrance with the opening theme. At the same time the guitar plays a different

7 Ibid., 135.

52 pattern of notes, much more rhythmically simple than the other parts and using different notes. The guitar plays E, F, D-sharp, and the octave higher E. The combination of notes from the two parts is C-sharp, D, D-sharp/E-flat, and F.

These five adjacent notes of a chromatic scale together would form a tone cluster similar to the chromatic sound Mayuzumi found in his study of temple bells.

Example 3.5. Mayuzumi, Microcosmos, 1957 © by C.F. Peters Corporation. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

These works show that the Japanese were right in step with the trends in guitar music being composed in Western countries. Adoption of Western styles was complete for many composers almost immediately following the war.

53 Also in the 1950’s there was a huge boom in the number of guitarists in

Japan. In 1955 one of the leading classical guitar makers in Japan, Masaru Kohno

(1926-1998) reported that he had over two-hundred orders for new guitars. This was such a large order that he needed to hire several helpers.8 In 1949 the first

Guitar Contest was held in Tokyo. This Contest was renamed in 1982 as the

Tokyo International Guitar Competition9 and has become one of the most prestigious competitions in the world today. Also the famous Nibori guitar schools that are presently in every city in Japan, started during this period. The presence of a large guitar instructional system helped catapult the level of performers to an international level. The guitar has never been accepted as an instrument of serious study at the University level in Japan. Private instruction has been the primary way the guitar was taught.

8 Masaru Kohno, ‘Interview with Masao Kohno,”Interview with Andrea Tacchi, 1998, Classical Guitar 20, no. 3, November 2001, 24. 9 Program, 41st Tokyo International Guitar Competition 1998, (Tokyo, Japan Federation of Guitarists), 25.

54 Chapter 4

1960 through 1980

Casa de la Guitarra Publications

The first publications for guitar in Japan following the war came from

Casa de la Guitarra (Casa). Takehiko Aoyagui founded Casa in 1965, as the first classical guitar specialty shop. This company began by selling guitars, scores, offering classes, as well as publishing scores by new composers, methods, and general European classical guitar repertoire pieces. In 1966 Aoyagui married the daughter of a well-known classical guitar performer by the name of Yasumasa

Obara. This guitarist convinced many Japanese composers to write for the guitar.

Consequently, when Casa began publishing new music there were many scores to choose from. Then Aoyagui also approached many composers to write new works for guitar.

Japanese composers were for the first time taking the guitarists seriously because of the formation of the group Guitarists 20th Century. This was a group comprised mainly of Obara’s students, whose focus was on performing new works by Japanese composers. Obara also established the Takei Prize for new guitar works. This prize was named after the prewar guitarist Morishige Takei discussed earlier in this paper. This prize helped bring many more composers to write for the instrument. Many of the scores published by Casa have been awarded the Takei Prize.

Casa published some of the best of the new generation of composers, and is by far the most diverse of the post-war publishers. The many different styles of

55 composition that were published by this company, as a whole, show the vast changes in music in the post-war period.

Several new groups of composers were formed at this time that focused on creating a new national music in various ways. One composer published by

Casa was part of the group Yagi No Kai, which formed in 1953. This was a group of three composers: Hayashi Hikaru, Mamiya Michio, and Toyama Yuzo, who utilized elements of folk songs to create a Japanese sense of music in the manner of Bartók. Hayashi wrote several works that use the tuning of the shamisen to create a language based on tetrechordal elements. One of these works is a duet for two guitars written in 1960. Hayashi uses the Okinawan style, or Tetrachord

IV, Ryukyu, tuning to create the language for this piece. These tetrachords are, as explained earlier, a theoretical creation of Koizumi Fumio, who was also the director of the folk music study group at the Tokyo National University of Fine

Arts and Music. This is where all of the members of this group studied. In this example by Hayashi, Fumio’s influence on his students can be seen (Example

4.1). The most Western elements that are used in this excerpt are the canon-like parts in line number three. Traditionally shamisen would have played in unison.

This example is quite tame compared to the manner in which other members of this group and others used traditional music elements in their compositions.

56 Example 4.1. Hayashi, Etude for Two Guitars, 1960 © Casa de la Guitarra, used by permission.

Another composer published by Casa is Tsyoshi Otai (b 1932). The one guitar work published by Otai is Sho for two guitars (1973). Sho is an instrument that was used in gagaku (imperial court music). This instrument (figure 8) is a sort of mouth organ that is played by blowing into a resonating chamber connected to seventeen bamboo pipes. Each individual pipe contains a small

57 reed like a harmonica that only produces sound when the resonating hole is covered, with the exception of the two mute pipes.

Figure 8, Sho Player.

The sho is used to produce chords. There are eleven chords that are played on this instrument as shown below.

Figure 9, Sho harmonies1

1 Shigeo Kishibe, The Traditional (Tokyo, The Japan Foundation, 1982), 36.

58 The most characteristic sound from these chords is the A B (whole step) combination in the middle of every chord. In Example 4.2 Otai chooses, instead, to use a half step combination, here set to the notes D-sharp and E.

Example 4.2. Otai, Sho, 1973 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

Another member of the Sannin No Kai was Ikuma Dan. Although he did not write for guitar, Dan’s ideas of music are important for this study. Dan was a supporter of the idea that composers who were trained in Western music have lost their Japanese sense of time. Dan believed that western concepts of time were based on logic and symmetry. These were not Eastern ideas according to

59 him.2 One of the key aesthetics that Dan believed in was the Japanese sense of silence that occurs in Japanese traditional arts. The concept that Dan is referring to is commonly called Ma.

Ma is an important concept for understanding some of the works by

Japanese following World War II. Many composers found ways to use Ma in their music starting in the 1960’s. In the article on Ma by Richard B. Pilgrim he explains the concept of Ma through its religious and historical perspectives. The main religions in Japan are Buddhism and Shinto. Shinto is the official religion of the Imperial family and thus has been an enormous influence for a large part of

Japan’s history. One of the key elements of the Shinto religious experience exists in the thousands of shrines built in every town and village in Japan. These shrines are a place to stop, relax and pray so as to replenish the self before returning to daily life. This is similar to Zen Buddhism where chanting and meditation are used to achieve a state of harmony by freeing one from the self.

This is the religious concept of Ma that is carried on in many aspects of Japanese daily life.3

Literally Ma means interval or space between and among. It is not just a silence, but a perfect silence that joins the objective elements together. It is a mode of experience that allows both the objective and subjective to be joined together. Ma is a space between events in time that transcends spatial positioning

2 Ikuma Dan, “ The Influences of Japanese Traditional Music on the Development of Western Music in Japan,”The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan 8, no. 3, Dec 1961, 216-217. 3 Richard B. Pilgrim, “Intervals (Ma) in Space and Time: Foundations for a Religio-Aesthetic Paradigm in Japan,”Japan: in Traditional and Postmodern Perspectives (New York, State University of New York Press, 1995), 55-76.

60 to become part of the whole. In traditional Japanese performing arts Ma is one of the main aesthetics. Noh drama is said to be the art of Ma.

For post-war composers in Japan this realm that is opened through Ma is extremely important, since it is Ma that deconstructs all boundaries that the mind creates to impose order on chaos. It is for this reason that Ma blends so well into the avant-garde postwar music in Japan.

The earliest work composed for guitar that uses Ma is the work published by Casa entitled Composition II (1960) by Takeo Noro (1925-1967). The most striking thing about this example is the sparse texture and use of rests between all of the short, two to four note, fragments.

Example 4.3. Noro, Composition II, 1960 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

61 Noro gives the following performance indications for Composition II in the score:

A: Rests should be played freely according the player’s interpretation B: Eighth notes are equal to one beat. The Tempo is left to the player’s own interpretation. C: Notes with fermata over them may be held without regard for the tempo.

Noro is clearly indicating that the performer should be active in determining the lengths of silences according to their interpretation. So while there are silences between fragments they are not without form or reason, and must be carefully controlled by the performer to join the fragments and silences together.

In solo compositions when Ma is used interpretations can be much more varied than is possible in ensemble works. When more than one instrument is used other means must be devised to organize the work without imposing metric organization. In many works the difference between Ma and other static forms is blurred to the point where it is difficult to say what works are or are not Ma. The concepts of silence and freedom of rhythm as a key factor in music effects most of the experimental music in post-war Japan.

Noro wrote a total of five works for guitar and an unfinished sixth work.

Casa published one other work by Noro posthumusly in 1969, Impromptu, pour 2 violins et guitare (1961). This is an example of the experimental attitudes toward composition, especially in the area of time. In this work (Example 4.4) Noro leaves the rhythm free from meter and tempo and the connections of notes between parts are left up to graphic devices such as lines and arrows.

62 Example 4.4. Noro, Impromtu pour 2 Violins et Guitare, © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

Following the Second World War there were many striking new styles that clearly mark the period. One of the most influential composers of the post- war era was John Cage (b1912-). Cage adopted indeterminacy or chance as one of the principle factors in his compositions. In indeterminate compositions one or more of the elements of the music are left up to the performer. Throughout the history of western music there have always been indeterminate factors found in music. However in the post-war period indeterminacy was one of the most characteristic elements of composition.4 Herd notes that when Toshi Ichiyanaga returned from the United States in 1961, indeterminate style was already widely adopted in Japan.5 Looking back at Composition II (example 4.3) by Takeo Noro that was discussed above, it was clear that composers in Japan were already

4 Robert P. Morgan, Twentieth-Century Music (New York, W.W. Norton Company), 359. 5 Herd, 190.

63 using these new indeterminate forms to develop their own compositional styles, which reflected the newest trends in the West.

There were many scores published for the guitar in Japan that show this new indeterminacy movement; the works by Noro above is but one of many to follow. Probably the most important composer for guitar in this form from Japan is Kenjiro Ezaki (b 1926). Ezaki studied composition at Nippon University. Later he received a Fulbright scholarship to study at Illinois University and Columbia

University in 1965. Here he met the Japanese guitarist Yasumasa Obara who was touring the United States at that time. Ezaki agreed to write a work for him.

Ezaki completed the work Music for guitar and Electronic Sound in 1967 after returning to Japan. Casa de la Guitarra published two works by Ezaki; Contention for Female voice and Guitar, and Music for Guitar and Electric Sound (1968).

Music for Guitar and Electric Sound is written to be performed with an amplified played back through a delayed tape loop while at the same time a prerecorded tape sound is played through a separate set of speakers that are to be set back behind the guitarist. The score gives the stage set up to ensure correct positioning of devices on the stage for performance (Figure 10).

The performance notes say to contact the publisher for the tape part but they have apparently lost the tape, so we will have to have to imagine what the tape part may have been from the graphic notation. Ezaki says that this score is a collage of old and new music, between baroque and modern sounds.

64 Figure 10, Ezaki Music for Guitar and Electric Sound: Stage set up

The tape loop that is used creates an echo/delayed part that is partially noted in the score (Example 4.5). At the 1’00” in this score the guitarist is asked to

“Play one section of a popular classical piece like J.S. Bach or Mozart for about 25 seconds.” Ezaki is contrasting the new electronic sounds with a sentimental glimpse of the past poking through the mist of, it is presumed, unpitched electronic sounds.

65

Example 4.5. Ezaki, Music for Guitar and Electronic Sounds, 1967 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

In Contention for Female Voice and Guitar, Ezaki gives us twelve musical gestures written on a broken staff that only appears when the instruments are used. The performance notes are in a Japanese with a rather bad English translation. Here is what he clearly says in Japanese:

66 1) Order of performance: perform in regular order from 1 – 12, including both the sections 7 and 7’, and also 8 and 8’. After the twelfth section you should repeat several sections. The number order has to be planned by both performers in advance.

2) Duration & Velocity: First time: about 25 seconds for each page. Repeat: about 15 seconds for each page Total duration: 6~8 minutes.

3) Finish: at end of fifth or twelfth section during the repeat.

4) Stoppages: places where the staff disappears use your eyes to measure the distance of seconds

5) Caution: fundamentally performed without rhythm, decide length of notes freely by measuring distance with your eyes

Ezaki has created a work that utilizes chance operation by leaving the repeated sections up to the performers to choose the music, what order it will be heard, and where it will end. He has also given us an example where he seems to want no connection to rhythmic drive created by standard notation. This leaves the work totally free to be nothing more than gesture figures rather than phrases.

Ezaki also uses several non-standard notational practices such as having the size of the note head determine the volume of the pitch in relative contrast to the other notes (example 4.6). Percussion effects to be played on the guitar are used extensively throughout this work. Ezaki uses his own set of symbols to mean different ways of striking the strings, soundboard, or scratching the strings with a plastic object. These new uses of the guitar’s sound possibilities show

Ezaki’s knowledge of the new experimental age of using all the sounds that an instrument is capable of besides the normal pitched sounds.

67 Example 4.6. Ezaki, Contention for Female Voice and Guitar, © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

68 Ezaki published one other work through Suvini Zerboni in 1964 for solo guitar. Nodule contains many of the conventions of the later graphic notational devices that Ezaki uses in the scores published by Casa. In Nodule Ezaki uses a greatly expanded number of percussion effects on the guitar and uses a notation to show rhythm values (Example 4.7). The score contains three lines: the tone; one five line staff (actual notes to be played), noise; single line staff (percussion effects) and tempo; single line that is bent to show changes in tempos with tempos in parenthesis written above it. Nodule is an interesting score that shows how Ezaki was already approaching a much freer musical form that he later expresses in the Casa scores.

Example 4.7. Ezaki, Nodule 1964 © Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, permission of Sugurmusic Ltd/Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, Milano.

Of the several other works worth mentioning in the free experimental attitude of the 1960’s is the work written by Maki Ishii and published by Casa titled Fünf Elemente; fur Gitarre und sechs Spieler (1967). This work was written for famous German guitarist Siegfried Behrend. This is the only score published by

Casa where all the texts are in German and Japanese. The instrumentation for this work is for piccolo one and two, percussion, guitar, violin, viola, and cello. The

69 composer uses score staves only shown when the instruments are playing. This score in particular is reminiscent of some of the scores by George Crumb. On page two there are two large boxes for each piccolo player to pick and choose from. In each box are ten different fragments to be played in any order for forty seconds. Pages three to four from the Ishii score gives us a harmonic language of quartal fragments positioned in minor second relations to each other in the strings. The harmonic language Ishii uses in this work contains the harmonic dissonances common to the chordal language of the sho. The guitar displays a vast array of percussion and sliding effects throughout the piece that are more or less left up to the performer where on the instrument to perform them (Example

4.8).

70 Example 4.8. Ishii, Fünf Elemente; fur Gitarre und sechs Spieler 1967 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

The work Ki and two Ritsu (1973) by Mao Yamagishi is another example of free form musical composition. In this work the indeterminate devices used are in the rhythmic relationship between the flute and guitar. In this example the flute and guitar seem to be playing a Messiaenic type of coordination. The flute is playing a random birdcall-like figure over the guitar part that is a repeated twelve-chord pattern (Example 4.9). The two parts are not locked together by a pulse but are free to play at will till the end of the section. This work contains some strict twelve-tone usage in the last movements and a freely atonal first movement.

71 Example 4.9. Yamagishi, Ki and Two Ritsu, © Casa de le Guitarra, used with permisson.

Ryo Noda is a saxophonist/composer who has written only one work that uses guitar. Nagare (1974) for flute and guitar was published by Alphonse Leduc in

Paris and composed for the duo of flutist Maxence Larrieu and guitarist Ichiro

Suzuki. Noda captures a unique combination of modern techniques such as percussion effects and string slides marked with “Schu-“ below the notated symbol in the third line of example 4.10. Noda is also relying on Ma to create a quiet between gestures. In the middle of this work Noda takes the composition into a song like texture with the flute playing a melodic line and the guitar

72 accompanying in an arpeggiated chord style. The scale is one of the Ritsu types that give a koto instrumental flavor to the section.

The B section

Example 4.10. Ryo Noda, Nagare, 1974 © 1977 Editions Alphonse Leduc, Used by Permission of the Publisher.

73 One of the most characteristic features of Noda’s saxophone music is his use of grace notes. All of Noda’s solo saxophone works start with the same grace note figure before the first note followed by many more grace notes with large intervals. His work Mai for solo saxophone has a similar structure with a rapid middle section that uses larger divisions of the beat to create acceleration, exactly like Nagare, except that Mai ends with silence instead of the jump to the melodic material in Nagare. In his dissertation, Andy Young-Wen describes Noda’s use of grace notes as characteristic of music.6

In the early 1970’s Casa published several excellent scores, including one by Kazuko Hara (b1935). Hara is a librettist, singer, composer, and professor of music. She studied composition with Tomijiro Ikenouchi in Tokyo and graduated in 1957. In 1962 she studied in Paris with Henri Dutilleux and then the following year in Nice with Alexander Tcherepnin. She also studied voice in

Venice. She won second prize in the NHK and Mainichi music contest in 1955, the Takei prize in 1974. Since the 1980’s Hara has mainly been composing operas.7 She began teaching at the University of Arts in 1968. She is also married to the composer Hiroshi Hara who has also written several excellent works for guitar. This is the source of her married family name. Like Americans in the 1950’s through 1970’s many Japanese went to Europe to study music.

Quite a few Japanese composers studied in Paris, and several of the well-known

6 Andy Young-Run Wen, “Improvisation I and Pulse 72+, By Ryo Noda: an Analytical and Interpretive Study” (DMA diss., University of Georgia, 1995). 7 Japan Federation of Composer: Catalogue of Publications 1984 (Tokyo, The Japan Federation of Composers) “Yugato Eika.”

74 ones studied with Dutilleux. Kazuko Hara must have met her husband Hiroshi

Hara here, since he also studied with Dutilleux.

Kazuko Hara’s work for guitar strongly reflects her European education rather than the experimental indeterminate American tradition. The modal harmony is set in a linear melodic fashion that sounds a bit like other guitar works that appear in Europe around this period. The harmonic structure utilizes the tritone as a basic structure for the entire composition. Many times this dissonance is de-emphasized in the linear motion of the driving melodic pulsation (Example 4.11).

Example 4.11. Hara, Preludio, Aria, e Toccata, 1971 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

In the second movement the tritone harmony is made quite clear in the accompaniment. Here in example 4.12 the E minor chord with an added A- sharp start the mood for the piece under a lyrical aria-like melody.

75 Example 4.12. Hara, Preludio, Aria et Toccata, 1971 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

This work was written for Norio Sato, who premiered it. Norio Sato has worked with many composers on new guitar music including the piece Toward the Sea by Toru Takemitsu and Metatheses 2 by Yuji Takahashi that are discussed later. Sato is an important figure in the creation of new music for the guitar, and has premiered and recorded many new works for the guitar by Japanese composers.

Probably the most often played work published by Casa is the work

Intermezzo (1978) by Teruyuki Noda (b.1940). Noda studied with Tomojiro

Ikenouchi and Akio Yashiro at the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and

Music. Speaking about his own music, Noda claims to compose “very freely”:

76 In my music, there may be a feeling of tonality, but analysis will show that it is not tonal music. I employ a personal technique, choosing each note through a filtering of my entire life experience.8

The harmonic vocabulary in this work is definitely of a freely atonal language, however the several returns to the opening material give it a sort of harmonic center on the first chord of measure one. This chord (F, B, D, A-sharp,

D-sharp, E) occurs three times. The first and third times function like a theme and recapitulation.

Opening

Recapitulation

Example 4.13. Noda, Intermezzo 1978 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

8 Shuko Watanabe, “Tradition and Synthesis: Influences on the Solo Piano Works of 34 Japanese composers Surveyed” (DMA diss., University of Maryland, 1992), 632.

77 Shuko Watanabe notes that the only influences that can be traced in

Noda’s music are to the music of Berg.9 The most obvious of these are the expressionistic use of chromaticism similar to European composers before serialism, gestures as opposed to phrases, and passages that cover a wide range of registers within a short span of time. And like many composers of this period

Noda uses chords built on fourths to avoid tertian harmony.

Casa de la Guitarra published a broad range of music. Many of the compositions not mentioned here, specifically the works by Teiho Matsumoto and Atsumasa Nakabayashi, continue in the nineteenth century guitarist/composer style. These works are simple in tonal and formal elements.

Nakabayashi’s music reflects his love of Spanish music. Matsumoto’s compositions seem to draw on the music of Chopin as models for his works using titles such as valse, nocturn, and etudes. Matsumoto’s Nocturn is one of only a few guitar works written with five sharps in the key signature.

Example 4.14. Matsumoto, Nocturn, 1971 © Casa de la Guitarra, used with permission.

In 1980 Casa stopped publishing new works for guitar and has fallen into the mode of just promoting their old catalogue. Many of the works published by

Casa still appear as set pieces for the Tokyo International Guitar Competition.

9 Watanabe, 636.

78 However, I have not found any recordings of these works, with the exception of

Intermezzo by Teruyuki Noda, recorded by Kazuhito Yamashita. Casa is one of the most important of the postwar publishers of guitar music simply for the broad range of music by young composers it promoted as well as the quality of the works it published.

Zen-on

One of the most well known publishers in Japan is Zen-on. This company is a household name, especially if anyone in the house plays piano. Zen-on was founded in 1931 and currently has a catalogue of over 3000 scores. The piano library is the main part of Zen-on’s publications. They also have published a small number of scores for guitar by several of the best-known composers in and outside of Japan. The main publishing range of years for guitar scores by Zen-on comes between 1968 and 1977.

One of the most internationally recognized composers in Japan is Akira

Ifukube (b 1914). Ifukube is a composer who had a great deal of success immediately before the war, when his music was performed frequently. Ifukube was able to capture all of the developments of the prewar years and incorporate them into his compositional style. Born in Hokkaido (Northern island of Japan),

Ifukube studied to be a forest engineer at Hokkaido University, where he graduated in 1935. Out of his own curiosity, he studied the music of the earliest known inhabitants of Japan, known as Ainu, who mainly live in Hokkaido, and

79 also Japanese folk music, known as min-yo. Ifukube’s only known teacher was

Alexander Tcherepnin who he studied with briefly in the mid 1930’s.10

His work Ballata Symphonica was dedicated to his brother, who died in the war. This was written in 1943 and was performed in the United States the same year. Ifukube wrote five ballets from 1948 to 1953, then turned his attention to orchestral music. Later he focused on film music, and is known for the extremely popular Godzilla movies that he wrote music for. Ifukube played the piano, violin, and lute. His brother was a guitarist who did not seem to fair well as a concert performer and was told not to perform in public after his first concert.11

Ifukube wrote three works for guitar that were published by Zen-on: Toka, cantilena ballabile sul Modo Antico de Giappone (1968), Kugoka, Aria Concertata diKugo-Arpa (1969), and Toccata per Chitarra (1970). These works were published individually first then republished in a new collection in 1995.

Kugoka means music for the kugo harp. The kugo harp was an instrument from ancient Japan that was known to have been used around 710 to 780 A.D.

This instrument is also known as a vertical angled harp. The Kugo harp had 23 single strings attached to silken tuning –rings on the horizontal neck, Figure 11.

The tuning of this instrument is not known.12

10 Herd, 61 11 Tamaki Yoshihiro, http://www1.nisiq.net/~y-tama/history.html; Internet; accessed 1 March 2002. 12 Akira Ifukube, Music for Guitar, Tokyo, Zen-on Music Company Ltd., 47.

80 Figure 11, Kugo Harp.

Kugoka begins with a slow introduction, followed by sextuplets that bring a harp–like glissando sound into the work (Example 4.15). The materials from the introductory section are the same materials used to create the slow B section in the middle of the work.

After the introduction, the A section begins (Example 4.16). The harp-like arpeggiation is used for ninety-one measures in the first A section and one hundred and twelve measures in the return of A. Ifukube says about the texture:

Kugoka is modeled on kinka (koto song). The theme is the arpeggio keeping in mind the kugo effect. A somewhat particular fingering is used so that each note of a set is to be played with a different string.13

Having the arpeggio as the theme makes for a unique texture in the guitar repertoire. Usually the upper melody given with opposite stems will have the

13 Ibid.

81 greater musical interest. Here Ifukube is saying the opposite; here the arpeggio is to have the interest. Harmonic progression created by the arpeggio gives a tonal center of A minor, with plenty of B – flats to give it a phrygian modal sound.

Example 4.15. Ifukube, Aria Concertata di Kugo –Arpa, © 1969 Zen-On Music Company Limited, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen- on music Company Limited.

82 Example 4.16. Ifukube, Aria Concertata di Kugo –Arpa, © 1969 Zen-On Music Company Limited, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen- on music Company Limited

Ifukube was greatly influenced by Ainu music. One feature of Ainu music is its long phrases built up on repeated figures. Ifukube builds a similar texture in Kugoka with phrases of eleven, thirty, and fifty measures contrasted by subtle harmonic changes.

Masakata Kanazawa describes Ifukube’s music as ethnic exoticism and says that his use of rhythm is often described as barbaric, like Stravinsky or

Prokofiev. 14 The shifting meters and driving arpeggiated figures in this piece are similar to some of Stravinsky’s music, with an almost random barring created to fit the music.

14 Masakata Kanazawa, “Ifukube, Akira,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London:Macmillian 2001).

83 Another work published by Zen-on is Epithalamium (1976), by Yasuhiko

Tsukamoto (b 1934-). Tsukamoto was born in Manchuria (northeastern part of

China). He graduated from the Tokyo University of fine arts and music in 1961 where he had studied with Mareo Ishegeta. He presently teaches at Gumma

University as a professor of music, and he is a member of the Japan Music

Education Society.

The title, Epithalamium, comes from the Greek word for a marriage song or poem that is usually in praise of the bride and bridegroom. Sometimes this is an instrumental piece intended to be played at a wedding or evocative of the ceremony. Tsukamoto’s work is not about any particular wedding of any known persons. The sections depict the joining of a man and woman in wedding. The sections represent male and female, although they are not marked as either.

There are three sections to this work; A, B, and AB. A, being one set of material,

B, being another set of material. AB, then, is both of them together.15 In the AB

(marriage) section the A theme is only heard in 19 of the 157 measures of this section. Harmonically the language of this work is clearly tonal. The music is not developed as would be expected with this sort of music. Tsukamoto instead chooses to write through composed sections and then combine pieces of them for the AB section.

Epithalamium and Kugoka are excellent works that are rarely performed.

These works represent some of the best of the tonal music that is usually forgotten when considering twentieth century Japanese music.

15 Yasuhiko Tsukamoto, Epithalamium (Tokyo, Zen-on music, 1976) composer’s notes on back cover.

84 85 Example 4.17. Tsukamoto, Epithalamium © 1976 Zen-On Music Company Limited, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited

Just as these two works by Zen-on show a rather conservative tonal vocabulary there are other important works by several world-renowned modernist composers. The contrast between these two groups show the vast differences between the purely academic compositional style and a more popular style that would be performed more often by the generation raised on Segovia repertoire.

Akira Miyoshi (b1933) was a student of composition at an early age under

Kozoburo Hirai and Tomojiro Ikenouchi. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire

86 in 1955-7 with Gallois-Montburn. His most notable influence is that of

Dutilleux.16 The obvious influences to Dutilleux are Miyoshi’s use of pivot chords to establish unity and absence of progressive growth in a work. At present only two of Miyoshi’s guitar works have been published, although a new collection is due to be printed soon by Gendai Guitar.17

Epitase (1973) is the second scene from his first work for guitar duo entitled Protase. Protase means continuation, while Epitase is continuation with change. Change is symbolic for crisis in this work.18 One of the most striking characteristics of this work is the compactness of Miyoshi’s style. The entire work is in three movements, with each movement taking only one standard size page.

Yet, on the first page alone there are a total of eleven tempo changes: molto vivo, lento, vivo, lento, senza tempo, animato, vivo, lento, moderatamente vivo, senza tempo, lento. Each of the three movements contains these frequent changes in tempo similar to the first movement (Example 4.18).

Miyoshi uses slashes ( / ) to separate the gestures in this work. Due to the undetermined length of these slashes it can be presumed that the length of silence between each gesture is being left up to the performer. This is to say that

Miyoshi is, in a modernist sort of way, using Ma or Ma-like breaks to help distinguish the gestures from each other.

16 Yoko Narazaki, “Miyoshi, Akira” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London:Macmillian 2001). 17 The web page for Gendai Guitar, Tokyo has listed a new collection of works by Akira Miyoshi for the past two years with “n.p.”(not priced) in their catalogue. I tried to order it, but was told it is not yet available. 18 Akira Miyoshi, Epitase, Tokyo, Zen-on 209, 1975, composers comments on back cover.

87 Miyoshi is not using tonal or serial techniques in this composition.

However, the work has a modal sound due to the many returns of the opening chord, and inversions of it. The main components in the first and third movements of this work are chords that mainly use the combination of E-flat, A, and D that are easily sounded on guitar in the lowest open strings. The guitar is tuned to an E – flat on the sixth string to facilitate this combination. The second movement focuses more on the intervals of m2 (m9), M3 and m3, as well as M6 and m6. The tt-P4-P4 combination comes back a few times but is less of a factor in the harmonic sound of the second movement.

Example 4.18. Miyoshi, Epitase, © 1975 Zen-On Music Company Limited, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

88 The tt-p4-p4 modal sound is firmly established in the final cadence-like material at the end of the work when the last line shifts to an E-flat, B-flat, D

–sharp, A, B, (P4, P4, P4, tt, M2) chord that gives a tonal-like resolution to the final chord of E-flat, A, G - sharp.

Example 4.19. Miyoshi, Epitase, © 1975 Zen-On Music Company Limited, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

Miyoshi’s music falls into the post serialism and indeterminacy generation. This period in the mid 1960’s through 1970’s was marked by a complete breakdown of temporal direction. The conventions of Romantic music used harmonic and rhythmic factors to give the listener a sense of where the music is at, from the proceeding material, and where it is going. Serialism was used to remove harmonic direction and indeterminate forms took away rhythmic direction. From these new techniques composers developed a more static concept of musical form. With Miyoshi’s Epitase , the motion of the piece still has quite a bit of forward motion in both the modal pull from the repeated harmonies and the drives in the rhythmic notation of the gestures. However, the overall structure of the work is more important than the parts, which points to some of the new developments by Xenakis and Stockhausen in Europe in the 1960’s

Another important composer published by Zen-on is who was active in this new post-serialist/indeterminate period was Yuji Takahashi (b 1938).

89 Takahashi is known as both a composer and an excellent performer who is able to perform difficult avant-garde works with brilliance. He studied composition at the Toho Gakuen School of Music with Shibata and Ogura from 1954 to 1958.

Then he was able to study with Xenakis in from 1963 to 1966 on a Ford foundation grant. In 1966 he came to the United States on a Rockefeller grant, which used to spend time at Tanglewood, The Lukas Foss Center in Buffalo New

York, and Indiana University.

Takahashi’s Metatheses 2 (1969) for solo guitar is a structurally organized work that shows his understanding of the new trends in European music.

Stockhausen’s influence can be felt in Takahashi’s formal design and absence of serial-like structures. This is one of the few works for guitar from Japan at this time that uses this kind of rhythmic complexity to avoid temporal direction.

Textural changes mark the main points of location within the temporal space; the beginning and end are quite simple with a single note line, while in the middle of the work the texture becomes very thick and complex (Example 4.20). The organization of this work is based on probability calculations.

The score is also unique in its notation for guitar. The lower six lines are a tablature system to help guide the performer through this complicated notation.

This tablature is helpful since the tuning of the guitar is changed to:

Figure 12, tuning for Metatheses 2

90 The notation for Metatheses 2 is rather sparse in dynamic and articulation indications, again showing his separation from European serialism that used dynamics and articulations for every single note.

Takahashi, Yuji, Metatheses 2, Opening section

Example 4.20. Takahashi, Yuji, Metatheses 2, page 6, middle section, advanced complexity. Takahashi, Metatheses 2, © 1969 Zen-On, permission granted by composer.

Toru Takemitsu (1930-1996)

The most famous and internationally accepted composer to ever come out of Japan is Toru Takemitsu. At the age of sixteen, Takemitsu decided to take up

91 music after hearing Western music from both his father, who loved Jazz and dixieland music, and western classical music that he heard while working at an

American military base. He received intermittent instruction from Yasuji Kiyose, but was largely self-taught. Ichiyanaga was a colleague who introduced

Messiaen’s music to Takemitsu. Messiaen and Debussy were important influences on Takemitsu’s style from his earliest days. Takemitsu was profoundly influenced by John Cage, and where he claims to have learned about

Zen Buddhism. Takemistu’s musical language is a combination of modal and chromatic elements. Rhythmically his music usually contains irregular metric combinations and moments where the forward motion is suspended. Takemitsu was a member of the experimental workshop Jikken Kobo that was founded in

1951. This group contained musicians and artists who worked together to create mixed media works. Some of the composers involved with this group included

Joji Yuasa, Hiroyoshi Suzuki, Keijiro Sato, and Kazuo Fukushima.

Takemitsu wrote a total of twenty-three works that use the guitar either as the main instrument of melodic and textural material in a solo or small ensemble setting, or as a color within a larger instrumental texture. The latter of these will not be discussed here. His best-known works for guitar are Toward the Sea, All in

Twilight, and Folios. These works have received numerous performances by many of the major performers of classical guitar repertoire.

The earliest work by Takemitsu that uses guitar is Ring for flute, terz- guitar, and lute, published in 1961. Ring is often discussed in writings about

Takemitsu’s music as one of his first aleatoric and freest works. Takemitsu was greatly influenced by the music of John Cage and even performed several happenings with him in 1964. Ring consists of five sections R (retrograde), I

92 (inversion), N (noise), G (general theme), and the 0 section which is a graphic notation19. The R,I,N,G, sections are to be performed in any order with the 0 between each section. The 0 sections (see Example 4.21) leaves many factors up to the performer, including which notes to perform within the given mode (black key or white key), rhythm and meter, and tempo. Dynamics are marked in the outer rings to show general scale in relation to the individual part.

Example 4.21. Takemitsu, Ring, @ 1974 Editions Salabert- Paris, used by permisson.

The G section in example 4.22 shows that Takemitsu used a similar method of notation as Noro in his work, Impromptu, for two violins and guitar

(Example 4.4). In example 4.22 Takemitsu uses arrows to show the relationship of the parts to each other. Here, Takemitsu uses notes that do not have rhythmic or

19 Noriko Ohtake, Creative Sources fir the Music of Toru Takemitsu, (England: Scolar Press, 1993), 9

93 metric values for two of the parts, while contrasting in layers with a third rhythmically notated part. Spatial organization of the notation is important for temporal location of notes in these sections. The harmonic language of the work is freely atonal. The flute part in the N section begins with a twelve-tone row but never fully restates the row again.

Ring also contains several indications of a theatrical presentation. In the opening instructions ‘the flute player should have a ring which looks very gay’ are given. In the N section the flutist is instructed to knock on the mouthpiece and joint with this ring. Takemitsu finds it important to note how it looks indicating that he wants the ring to be a visual part of the performance.

Example 4.22. Takemitsu, Ring ©1974 Editions Salabert-Paris, used by permission. (top , middle terz-guitar, bottom lute)

Another work by Takemitsu composed in 1965, revised in 1969, is Valeria.

This work is written for violin, cello, guitar, two piccolos, and organ. Similarly to

Matsudaira’s Katsura, discussed earlier (example 3.3), Takemitsu is using an instrumental ensemble to imitate gagaku orchestration. Gagaku instrumentation usually contains wind, strings, percussion, and sho. In Valeria the organ part is

94 similar in function to the chordal harmony of the sho. The guitar is also filling the same function as the biwa would in gagaku by reinforcing and embellishing the main materials played by the strings (example 4.23).

Example 4.23. Takemitsu, Valeria, © 1962 Universal Editions, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

Herd points out the symmetrical divisions of this work into metered and un-metered sections and materials that are repeated. The harmony for the first movement of this work is entirely built upon one harmonic unit and its inversions (Figure 13):

Figure 13, harmonic unit of Valeria in Opening section.

95 This harmony is similar to one of the chordal figure played by the sho (see figure 9). In example 4.24 the harmonic unit is clearly presented in the guitar part.

Example 4.24. Takemitsu, Valeria, © 1969 Universal Editions, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

The first solo guitar work written by Takemitsu is Folios (1974). This music draws on one of Takemitsu’s most important influences: the music of J.S. Bach, specifically St. Matthew Passion. Takemitsu began each day by listening to this work before he composed. In Folios, Takemitsu uses a quotation technique by adding a direct quote from Bach’s music. ‘Choral no. 72’ is a strange number that can not be fully explained here since there are not 72 chorales nor is the 72nd work (Aria. Coro II: Konnen Thranen Meiner Wangen) related to the chorale he quotes. The choral Takemitsu is quoting is the 75th work from St Matthew

Passion; Choral. Coro I.II O Haupt voll blut und Wunden.

96 Example 4.25. Bach, St. Matthew Passion, © 1990 Dover Publications, from 1856 Bach-Gesellschaft, Chorale: O haupt voll blut und Wun-den, used with permission.

Example 4.26. Takemitsu, Folios ©1974 Editions Salabert-Paris, used by permission.

Takemitsu uses the anacrusis notes of the chorale several times in the other three movements to create an easier transition to the chorale without causing undue discontinuity. This can be seen in the opening line of Folios.

97 Example 4.27. Takemitsu, Folios ©1974 Editions Salabert-Paris, used by permission

The term folio has to do with the folded page rather than any connection to the pattern found in Spain in the seventeenth century. For this work, a folio is a single sheet of paper folded in half. This score is three folios or three single pages folded in half.

In the 1970’s Takemitsu was able to work with many excellent performers to ensure that his works were playable. The guitar style of Takemitsu uses thick textures and many harmonics, a combination that often is found to be un- performable. Folios was written for one of the most famous guitarists from Japan,

Kiyoshi Shomura. Takemitsu’s earlier works for guitar do not use indication of timbral changes for the guitarist. The later works from the 1980s show a much greater use of these markings, specifically in All in Twilight, composed for Julian

Bream, and Equinox, for Manuel Barrueco. Collaboration with these artists has ensured playability of his works.

Takemitsu’s duet, Toward the Sea (1981), for alto flute and guitar, is currently one of the most often played works by flute and guitar duos. The sea,

98 as a programmatic title, is the most used image that Takemitsu refers to for his compositions. So much so that he even developed a motive to represent the sea.

The SEA motive that is used in this work uses the notes E-flat, E, and A. The

German equivalent of E-flat is Es, hence the pronunciation SEA.

Figure 14, the SEA motive.

In Toward the Sea, Takemitsu uses this motive many times in the second and third movement. The piece ends with motive, first in the lowest notes of the guitar, then in the flute (see Example 4.28).

Example 4.28. Takemitsu, Toward the Sea, © 1982 Schott Company Ltd, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

The second movement, Moby Dick, begins with an inverted form of the

SEA motive. Also in Toward the Sea Takemitsu uses Ma to bring a static mood to the work. This example from Moby Dick shows a 2” pause after the dying away in the flute part. The silence here is more than just a separation of gestures,

99 Takemitsu is inviting silence into his work here by offering a calm moment

(example 4.29).

Example 4.29. Takemitsu, Toward the Sea, ©1982 Schott Company Ltd, © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

The solo work All in Twilight (1981) is a four-movement work. Each movement is in ABA form with coda like endings. Harmonically All in Twilight is so tonal sounding, compared to his earlier work Folios that one almost wants to analyze this work within the framework of traditional major tonality. Timbre color is important for this composition to express the dynamic contrasts. Also, in the second line, fourth measure of this example Takemitsu uses another figure that is common during his later compositions. This figure also appears in the

100 concert for and Guitar, Vers, L’arc-en, Palma (1984), and appears to have been borrowed from Messiaen. 20

Example 4.30. Takemitsu, All in Twilight, © 1987 Schott Company Ltd., © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

The second and fourth movements from All in Twilight are tonally centered in a modal harmony (example 4.30). Both of these movements exhibit song-like qualities in their textual presentation. The second movement has an accompaniment figure that starts in an ostinato-like pattern, reminiscent of Eric

20 Peter Burt, The Music of Toru Takemitsu (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 211-212.

101 Satie’s famous Gymnopédies. Over the ostinato pattern Takemitsu adds a simple and rather static melody.

Example 4.31. Takemitsu All in Twilight, © 1987 Schott Company Ltd., © renewed, All rights reserved, Used by permission of European America Music Distributors LLC, solo US and Canadian agent for Zen-on music Company Limited.

Takemitsu’s guitar works are published by a number of important publishers including Schott Japan, and Salabert in Paris. The only guitar music published by Schott Japan is Takemitsu’s music and one other rarely heard work by (b 1955) entitled Renka I (1985). Takemitsu’s later style of writing for guitar is a harbinger of the new tonality that is being explored by the next generation of composers.

102 The newest generation of composers from the 1980’s to the present has several publishers in Japan to choose from. The music these companies publish is either of a more academic nature or are strongly influenced by popular music. In the next chapter we will consider the music of two publishers and the recent scores they have produced.

103 Chapter 5

1980’s to 2000 - the Present State of Guitar Music in Japan

The Japan Federation of Composers (JFC)

The Japan Federation of Composers began as the Composers Union in the

1960’s. In order to receive government funding the name was changed to The

Japan Federation of Composers. Publications began in 1970 with help from government subsidies and later in 1983 JFC was established as a non-profit organization. The composers who belong to this group are some of the most prestigious in Japan. Most of these composers have works published by major publishers and are teachers of composition at universities in Japan. Quite a few of the members have attained international success and have had articles written about them in important journals and dictionaries of music.

As already mentioned, most of the composers in JFC teach in academia, where most of them remain aware of the newest trends in music. Works published by The Japan Federation of Composers are centered on the art music languages that have become part of the academic tradition of the late twentieth century. This language is freely tonal or atonal with little concern for breaking down tonal centers such as was the ideal of the serialist schools in the mid twentieth century. Several excellent works for guitar that are published from JFC are by composers such as Toruh Aki, Masao Homma, Yoko Kurimoto, Mieko

Shiomi, Kazu Munakata, Masanori Iida, and Hiroaki Zakohji.

One of the earliest scores published by JFC that uses guitar is As it were

Floating Granules (1975) by Mieko Shiomi (b.1938, real name Chieko Sakaguchi).

This work is for nine male and nine female vocalists, synthesizer, six ,

104 guitar, violin, viola, and cello. There are also two kinds of white noise to be played through different channels of the speakers. These two noises are set to cause waves from the six and eight second interval of the recorded noises. The stage is set with seven slide projectors and spotlights to form areas of congregation where the vocalists are to gather (figure 15). In the first and fourth section of this work the chorus is to be in the audience in attempt to bring the audience into the performance.1

Figure 15. Vocalists positions, ‘the round conference of vocalist’. Mieko Shiomi, As it Were Floating Granuels, © 1975 Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission.

Example 5.1. In this section seven virtuosos are to surround a guitarist. Shiomi, As it Were Floating Granuels, © 1975 Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission.

In example 5.1 the guitarist is instructed to play with no concern for the vocal ensemble and to leave intervals of 10-25 seconds between every two groups of materials. The guitarist has three groups of materials to choose from, A and C groups are notated, while the B group has instructions on what to do with

1 Japan Federation of Composer: Catalogue of Publications 1975, (Tokyo, The Japan Federation of Composers) “As it Were Floating Granules”

105 notes that are selected by the guitarist. Indeterminacy is an important factor in

Shiomi’s works. Her style reflects the influences from her time as a member of

Fluxus in New York from 1964 to around 1970. One of the most important members of Fluxus was John Cage, with whom Shiomi performed with on several occasions.2 Shiomi wrote many works for Fluxus, including works like

Disappearing Event; where the performers were to just smile and relax their faces as would happen in daily life. The Fluxus ideals were closely connected with dada-ism, where any object from daily life could be a work of art.

In the fifteen pages of Shiomi’s score there is very little actual music notation (notes on a staff); most of the score is instructions on how to perform the given materials. Shiomi says the instructions are like “game rules,”3 where the performers can choose how they want to contribute to the performance. Shiomi is attempting to create an intermedia work to show the symbol and sound relationship in the text ‘as it were floating granules’.

Later, in the 1980’s, several more works with guitar appear from JFC. June

Ends Songs (1984) by Yoko Kurimoto is for recorder and guitar. Kurimoto’s music contains gesture-like instrumentation that is usually carried through by one instrument playing much longer phrases. Kurimoto also likes rather static and sparse material with minimalist type of quality. The following example from June

End Songs contains a simplistic guitar part, along with a humming part to be

2 Ken Friedman, The Fluxus Reader, (Great Britain: Academy Editions, 1998). The Fluxus Chronology, p 257 to 282, lists the many performances of Fluxus. Shiomi appears many times in the mid sixties and several times with Cage. Ichiyangi who is often said to have brought Cages music to Japan is also listed in several of the performances. 3 Japan Federation of Composer: Catalogue of Publications 1975 (Tokyo: The Japan Federation of Composers), ‘As It Were Floating Granules.’

106 performed by the guitarists. Over this part the recorder is playing a gesture-like part with quarter note bends and then adds a hummed line for the recorder player. Between the first and second movements Kurimoto indicates that the performers are to ‘attacca without tuning;’ clearly she is attempting to keep the mood of the sections going without the usual break given by many performers, especially guitarists who sometimes add long breaks for re-tuning of the instrument.

Example 5.2. Kurimoto, June End Songs, © 1984 Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission.

Borrowing from traditional Japanese music continues on to the present day. A good example of this is in the work published for guitar by JFC, For Guitar

(1988), by Masao Homma (b. 1930, also spelled as Honma). Homma studied with

Kiyohiko Kijima and Kanji Tonosaki. From 1958 until 1974 he taught at Wako

Gakuen School. In 1974 Homma entered the Miyagi University of education as an assistant professor of music, and in 1979 he became a professor of music. He

107 retired from this position in 1994. Homma was part of a group known as Ashi- no-kai, a group of six composers all who graduated from Nihon University.

Homma’s style early began with a neo-classic approach based on polychords (bitonality and polytonality). In the 1950’s and 1960’s he began using twelve-tone technique with elements of the Japanese musical language. In the

1970’s He began to use the tetrachords (or fourth frame chords) devised by

Fumio Koizumi to create a mixture of modal elements.4

For Guitar was written in 1988 for Kazuhito Yamashita and premiered

June 6th 1989 by him. This was Homma’s first composition for guitar. His goal for this work was to realize his compositional technique on the guitar.5 Homma says he is trying “to create a contemporary sound structure based on rhythms and melodies derived from national music,” and he is “as much as possible, searching for beauty of sound without the use of tri-chordal harmony”.6

In Example 5.3, the work opens with a motive that returns throughout the work (F, B, A). This may be the ryukyu fourth-frame chord augmented by a half step. The augmented fourth and perfect fourth are the main intervals used in this work, usually in combinations of the two together, such as the last chord of line two. The importance of the fourth may be the most important indicator to

Homma’s own description of his musical language.

4 Watanabe, 361. 5 Japan Federation of Composer: Catalogue of Publications 1989 (Tokyo: The Japan Federation of Composers), ‘For Guitar’ 6 Watanabe, 361.

108 The beginning section is a slow introduction (Ha) has an improvisational sense in the rhythmic progression.

The middle section begins a new tempo and material of a different character more progressive than before. This is the main feature of the Ha section.

109 Example 5.3. The beginning of Kyu (rapid). This section brings the big final climax before ending with a rapid deceleration of events. Homma, For Guitar © 1988 Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission

Jo-Ha-Kyu is the most common musical form in Japanese music. This is based mostly on rhythmic material rather than melodic changes. This form originally comes from Gagaku music and profoundly affected No Theater as well as other instrumental and vocal forms. Jo- slow introduction, or beginning section; Ha- breaking apart section, with a building tempo; Kyu- rushing, rapid section that ends with a rapid slow down at the end of the work. Jo-ha-kyu is the formal design of For Guitar, with the opening motive reoccurring between each section.

Guitar works based on books, such as the famous guitar solo The Black

Decameron (1983), by the Cuban composer Leo Brouwer (b.1939), appear occasionally in later twentieth century guitar music. Japan also has several works

110 based on books. By far the most complex of these is the flute and guitar duo Noon

City Suite (1989) by Tohru Aki (b 1956). Aki bases this work on the novel by

Truman Capote Other Voices, Other Rooms (1955).

The titles of all the movements are parts of the story that the composer felt illuminated the mood of the story. JFC publishes a catalogue every year of works they publish. The 1991 catalogue gives a short history of Tohru Aki and his ideas on this work. Aki says it is about:

A boy captured conversely by a figment of his imagination – the fragile but enchanting world the boy saw, and finally parted with, stimulated by sympathy like deja-vu, while the mental images of the hero, in the story were strangely associated in my mind with those of urban people wriggling along under an infinity of weird illuminations. Between this association image full of artificial lights and the name of Noon City, I found an ironical analogy, which inspired me to write this suite. 7

The five movements are named “Tiger Lilies,” “Skully’s Landing,” “Other

Voices,” “The Little Blue Flowers of Forgetfulness,” and “The Far Away Room.”

This story is about Joel, a thirteen-year-old confronting his own sexuality and mortality. Joel is traveling from New Orleans to a place just past Noon City called Skully’s Landing where his father lives. The swamp alongside the road that leads to Noon City is full of enormous tiger lilies and luminous green logs that look like drowned corpses; images that represent Joel’s search for self.

Skully’s Landing is a strange place where he hopes to discover himself by meeting his father, only to find his father is an invalid unable to take care of himself. Joel spends his time retreating to his imagination, symbolized as the far- away room, to protect himself from the strange people who live with his father.

7 Japan Federation of Composer: Catalogue of Publications 1991, (Tokyo, The Japan Federation of Composers), ‘Noon city Suite.’

111 Later Joel and Idabel, the man-hating tomboy, plan to run away, but only with plans to go as far as the traveling show. But a thunderstorm stops the rides and Joel runs around in the rain trying to find his love Idabel, only to end up sleeping outside and getting a terrible fever. When he wakes up from his long sickness Idabel is completely forgotten. Skully’s Landing is always described as covered in deep green foliage and used as a symbol for forgetfulness, or as the name Aki uses for the fourth movement: The Little Blue Flowers of

Forgetfulness.

Aki creates a five-movement work where the first, third, and fifth movements represent Joel’s daydreams and light, while the second and fourth movements are symbols of the darkness of Skully’s Landing and the Little Blue

Flowers of Forgetfulness.

The first movement, “Tiger Lilies,” is rather dreamy and represented with a whole tone harmonic sound that he achieves within an E minor mode (Example

5.4). Aki’s musical style is very impressionistic with singing lyrical melody lines within a modal tonality of exotic design. The mode is E, F-sharp, G, A, B, C- sharp, D-sharp/E-flat, which is roughly an E melodic minor scale. Aki uses the last six notes of this scale to create the whole tones scale sound.

112 Example 5.4. Aki, Noon City Suite © 1989, Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission.

The third movement, “Other Voices,” represents Joel’s excursions into his imaginary world. Aki represents this with playful, improvisatory like gestures in the flute part over a continuous ostinato figure in the guitar (Example 5.5). The romantic cadenza for the solo guitar clearly delineates the tonality of D major and the relative minor of F sharp is symbolic of Joel’s search for love.

The fifth movement is similar to the third in its playfulness. “The far

Away Room,” is Capote’s symbolism for Joel’s imagination. Aki sets this symbolism in the fifth movement with a quirky, rhythmically driven, combination of 5/16 and 3/8 meter that is to be played prestissimo.

113 Example 5.5. Aki, Noon City Suite © 1989, Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission

The second and fourth movements represent Skully’s Landing where he has to live with several very strange characters in a house that has several rooms burned out from a fire, and is in terrible disrepair from neglect. Aki represents these elements with a tonally ambiguous harmonic language and unpredictable gesture-like motion in the parts (Example 5.6).

Example 5.6. Aki, Noon City Suite © 1989, Japan Federation of Composers, used with permission.

114 The strangeness of Joel’s surroundings and reality at the landing are what

Aki chooses to use as subjects of the contrasting movements. These compliment the much lighter lyrical first, third and fifth movements, which represents Joel’s imagination. The lack of forward motion in the second and fourth movements is evocative of Capote’s style of symbolism that is used to describe the house.

Gendai Guitar Scores

One of the most exciting publications to take place after the war is Gendai

Guitar magazine (contemporary guitar). This magazine was founded by one of the most important of guitars in Japan, Masau Kohno. Since 1967 this magazine has been an important source of information about current guitar news in Japan. In a typical month this magazine will advertise for dozens of guitar recitals. Usually there is at least one guest from Europe or America giving a recital in Tokyo every month. This magazine offers sections on theory, technique, new music, popular music, flamenco, as well as historical reflections on past repertoire. There is also ample evidence of an extensive number of guitar schools and teachers, as can be seen in the advertisements that fill the last fifteen pages of this magazine.

This magazine also offers new scores every month by Japanese composers, many of which are composers/guitarists. In 1995 Gendai Guitar also began publishing scores for guitar. Gendai has published several collected-works editions by a number of important composers in Japan, which will be discussed below. What is most striking about Gendai Guitar publications is their connection

115 to the guitar-playing community. The guitar community around the world, as well as in Japan, has, throughout the post-war years, avoided performances of most of the avant-garde and serialist music that was published during this time.

The new music published by Gendai Guitar could possibly be best summed up with the music of Takahashi Yoshimatsu (b. 1953).

Figure 16, Gendai Guitar cover page and concert schedule. Gendai Guitar © 2001 Gendai Guitar, used with permission.

Yoshimatsu had a collection of his works published by Gendai Guitar in

1995, which included the following works: Guitar Sonata “Sky Color Tensor”(1992),

Wind Color Vector (1991), Water Color Scalor (1993), Canticle and Noel (originally for piano or harp, arranged by composer), and Litmus Distance (1980). Yoshimatsu was mostly a self-taught composer who learned by playing jazz and rock music, except for a brief period where he studied with . Yoshimatsu is

116 against “unmusical modern music” and pushes for a new lyricism in his music.8

In this score (Example 5.7) by Yoshimatus entitled Wind Color Vector (1991), he clearly stays within one key throughout the entire three movements of this work,

E minor (Example 5.7). Allusions of other keys come through repetition of notes as opposed to dominant-tonic types of progressions.

Example 5.7. Yoshimatsu, Wind Color Vector © 1995 Gendai Guitar, used with permission.

In the example 5.8 we can see Yoshimatu’s fascination with syncopation and added rhythms. Here in example 5.8 Yoshimatsu gives unmetered measures of 14/16 (or 1/4 + 3/16 + 1/4 + 3/16) followed by a measure of 12/16 (or 1/4 +

2/16 + 3/16 + 3/16). Asymmetrical measures are an important feature in many of his guitar works. This gives his music a unique rhythmical drive that keeps his music lively and exciting.

8 Takahashi Yoshimatsu, Wind Color Vector (Tokyo: Edition Gendai Guitar 1995) profile of composer.

117 Example 5.8. Yoshimatsu, Water Color Scalor © 1995 Gendai Guitar, used with permission.

One of the most active composers in recent years is Hirokazu Sato (b.

1966). Sato was born in Hirosaki Japan and began to play guitar when he was 14 years old. He graduated from Hirosaki University in 1988, where he majored in music education, and studied piano and composition. He studied guitar with

Norihiko Watanabe and Shiki Nagashima, and won the second prize at the 21st

Classical Guitar competition in Tokyo. In 1992, Sato gave his debut concert in

Tachikawa; presently he is a member of the Tokyo Guitar Quartet.

Sato had several scores published in Gendai magazine between 1991 and

1994. Gendai published several of these works that were previously published in their magazine into a new collection of works, including thirteen short works,

Twelve Preludes for Guitar Duo, and Sonatina no. 2.

About these works Sato says:

I have been feeling for a long time that the guitar has not so many easy and enjoyable pieces by Japanese composers compared to piano and other instruments. It made me want to write these pieces, therefore these are easy to understand and also technically they are not demanding. I wish these pieces may be enjoyed by many guitar lovers.9

9 Hirokazu Sato, Collected works of Hirokazu Sato (Tokyo: Editions Gendai Guitar, 1996).

118 Sato’s style is like a combination of the elegance of the sonata style in

Manuel Ponce’s guitar works with a new-age jazz type of tonal vocabulary. The main harmonic unit is the major-seventh chord that gives the overall sound of this work. Where this luscious sound could get excessively sentimental, Sato gives life to the music through his gorgeous lyrical writing style that avoids being too melodramatic (example 5.9).

Example 5.9. Sato, Sonatine no. 2 © 1996 Gendai Guitar, used with permission.

Sonatina no. 2 was composed for guitarist Hiroyuki Enomoto in 1994 and performed by him in Tokyo that year. The second movement was originally entitled “Autumn Song,” so he named the whole work Autumn Song although he says that the first and last movements are not very autumn-like. Example 5.10 is an excellent example of Sato’s highly lyrical composition style.

119 Example 5.10. Sato, Sonatine no. 2 © 1996 Gendai Guitar, used with permission.

Sato recorded his own works, including Sonatina no. 2, for a compact disk released from Gendai Guitar in 1998 titled Sato plays Sato [GGBD2013].

Sonatina no. 2 is more typical of the new music coming from Japan than the types of compositions that Casa de la Guitarra published in the 1970’s. Casa was more interested in the new avant-garde style that was very popular in

Europe and America. New compositions published by The Japan Federation of

Composers still reflect the avant-garde; however, Gendai Guitar seems to focus more on the music that the average player, without a background in academic music styles, will actually play. We have to keep in mind that the guitar was not accepted into the academic environment of universities or music schools in

Japan, where avant-garde concepts are still alive and well with composers who are producing new works.

120 Summary

The guitar (vihuela) was brought to Japan by Portuguese traders and

Jesuit missionaries in the sixteenth century. Music was printed in Japan at this time, however no scores appear to have been printed for guitar. If there was music written for guitar by Japanese during this period it probably perished in the early seventeenth century when foreigners were expelled and all foreign influences ordered to be destroyed.

The guitar was reintroduced to Japan in 1854 when Commodore Perry hosted a concert at Nagasaki to celebrate the new treaty that opened Japan to trade with America. At this party the Japanese were introduced to Ethiopian

Minstrels (blackface performers) who performed wild dances to music played on guitar, banjo, violin, tamborine, and bones. Hiroshi Hiraoka (1856-1934) brought the first classical guitar to Japan in 1871. The first guitar teachers were Kenpachi

Hiruma (1867-1936) and Adolfo Sarcoli (1872-1936) who both were active around

1900. The first solo classical guitar recitals began in the 1920s and showed that

Japan was already aware of European classical guitar repertoire.

Western music education was adopted during the reign of Emperor Meiji, who established mandatory education for all Japanese. Isawa Shuji (1851-1917) was in charge of creating the curriculum for the music program, and he chose mostly Western music set to Japanese text. From the beginning there were protests to the total use of Western music in education and changes were made to adopt more Japanese melodies. The first works composed in Japan around

1900 adopted both European forms and traditional Japanese music, specifically pentatonic scales to create the first Japanese style of Western music.

121 Early compositions for guitar between 1915 and 1945 show that the guitarists/composers were aware of, and part of, the trend of borrowing from traditional Japanese music. Works by Moreshige Takei focus mainly on pentatonic scale usage for his borrowings, while Okawara, Oguri, and Suzuki used imitations of Japanese instrumental techniques such as from the koto and shamisen.

The post-World War II period saw a huge surge in the number of players of classical guitar as well as many new publishers of guitar music. Zen-on and

Casa de la Guitarra both help publish a substantial body of new music for guitar reflecting the new trends of music in Japan. The new music for guitar by composers in post-war Japan took up all of the new European and American trends. This is the first generation of Japanese composers who write for the guitar but are not performers of the instrument.

The classical guitar around the world in the post-war era was split into two separate schools of repertoire. One was a continuation of tonality and sonata forms from the nineteenth century that are often infused with popular music rhythms, a music we can define by calling it the Segovia repertoire. In Japan

Ifukube, Tsukamoto, Matsumoto, Nakabayashi all are based in tonal music and many have strong ties to popular music forms, and thus fall into this tradition.

The other repertoire was deeply entrenched in the avant-garde traditions of atonality and indeterminate forms. In Japan there are many composers who write in these western styles and also many who combine traditional Japanese music to these forms to create a new nationalism in music. Several of these composers combine serialist techniques with materials from Japanese modes of

Ryo and Ritsu to create what is known as twelve-tone gagaku. Others use silence

122 from the Japanese concept of Ma to create new static forms. Works by Ezaki,

Noro, Ishii, Matsudaira, Yamagishi, Noda Miyoshi, Takahashi and Takemitsu all reflect these academic traditions of aleatoric and non-tonal music.

From the 1980’s through the 1990’s there has been a greater emphasis on lyricism and tonal guitar music that could best be ushered in by the late music of

Takemitsu, and the compositions by Yoshimatsu and Sato published by Gendai

Guitar. Gendai Guitar is also the publisher of the most important classical guitar journal in Japan. This company deals much more with what the masses of guitarists is Japan actually play, which is still heavily indebted to the Segovia repertoire and popular music.

The guitar music published by The Japan Federation of Composers, on the other hand, represents music by the more academic trained composers, who teach as well as compose, and thus are more in touch with the newest thoughts and trends in music. The scores by JFC are much less attached to the serialist schools of thought that created harsh harmonic dissonances in the 60’s and 70’s publications. Works by Homma, Kurimoto, and Aki published by JFC reflect some of the best of the most recent literature for guitar in Japan.

Rarely do histories of music contain information about compositions written for guitar. The guitar has become an important medium for many twentieth century composers, including most Japanese composers. The repertoire of works by Japanese composers has grown so large that a history of western music in Japan could be traced through the guitar literature alone. It is time this music found its place in the history of music in Japan and in concert programs of classical guitarists around the world.

123 Appendix Guitar Works by Japanese Composers This list is made alphabetically by the family name of the composer. Publication number refers to one of the following company names (see below), no entry here means that it is not known if the work is published, Unpub(lished )means that we know the work has not been published. Whenever possible the publication number is also given. Year refers to the year(s) the work was written; if this is unknown then year of publication is given. On several occasions only the composer and name of work appears with no instrumentation given; this means that this work is listed in a source of guitar music but did not give instrumentation - presumably most of these works are solo based on sources they came from. Occasionally the name of the composer is listed with publication number and instrumentation but no name for the work has been found for this work.

Publisher Abbreviations:

ACA= American Composers Alliance BH= Breitkopf & Hartel Casa= Casa del la guitarra Cashiers=Les Cashiers de la Guitare DYOZ= les production d’Oz ERI= Edizione Russa Ignota ESZ= Editioni Suvini Zerboni GBE=Gerard Billaudot Editeur GG= Gendai Guitar JFC= Japan federation of Composers Moeck=Moeck Verlag TO= Tonos Musikverlage T= Musikverlag Joachim Trekel ON= Ongaku no tomo sha Peters= Peters Editions Pierrot= Pierrot Press Puget= Puget Sound SJ Schott Japan TAS= Tokyo art service TOS= Tokyo Ongaku Shoin Tre Media musikverlage V&F= Voct & Fritz UE= Universal Edition UME= Union Musical Espanola Unpub= Unpublished (listed with works that are known to be unpublished) ZG-= Zen-on ZM= Musikverlag Zimmermann

Instrument abbreviations: Numbers given before instrument indicate how many are needed bsn = cb = bass

124 clar = clarinet db = double bass elec pf = electric piano fl = flute G = guitar hrpsd = harpsichord ob = oboe orch =orchestra perc = percussion pf = piano rec = recorder shaku = shakuhachi synth = synthesizer trbn = trp = vibra = vibraphone vln = violin vla = viola vlc= cello

Composer title pub &# year instruments

Abe, Yasuo [ ] ZG 110 1978 G solo Kojono ZG 47 1976 G solo

Aiba, Yoshimi (1950-) Aria for five players 1981 G, vln, vla, vlc

Aki, Tohru (1956-) Aura 1992 G, synth Noon City Suite JFC 9109 1989 G, fl Hikarinagi 1990 2 G Little suite 1997 G-ensemble

Ando, Etsuo (1950-) Rand 1987 G, nar, synth, perc, computer Two part 1987 G solo

Andoh, Hisayoshi (1938-) Where is the wind to go? 1990 G solo

Aoki, Takayoshi (1951-) Spirous II – capriccio for four players 1998 G, perc, mandolin, db

125 Aoshima, Hiroshi (1955-) Seven Colored Pieces GG 206 1996 2 G Peace of female 1985 G, rec, perc, soprano, female chorus

Arima, Reiko (1933-) Rainy Blue 1991 G, orch Noir’s Dance 1992 G, orch Thermal Balloon’s Travel 1989 G-orch Makyo 1989 G-ensemble Mt. Fuji in Twilight 1994 5 G Cats on Harpsichord 1993 G, orch Andantino and samba of 3 rabbits Harmony 1995 G ensemble Cronos 1980 G, rec Rondo at Dawn 1980 G-ensemble In Autumn 1980 G-ensemble Umi no Sanka 1981 G-orchestra Fog fantasy 1985 2 G Sange 1985 G-orch Uzushio 1986 G-orch Hana-no 1986 G solo Yamatoji 1986 G solo Windy march 1987 G, orch Prayer for the green and clean earth 1988 G, orch

Asaka, Mitsuru (1958-) Invention 1998 G, fl, db, pf

Asami, Noboru (1921-) Introduction et Rondo Casa 271 G solo

Asano, Katsuhiko (1960-) Umare te Oide yo 1990 G, , perc, ondes martenot Undecided 1986 G, singer

Ashikawa, Satoshi Still Space G solo

Emura, Tetsuji (1960-) Intexterior Unpub 1995 G, fl, bass trb, perc, piano resonace Asterisk dot exc. Unpub 1995 G, banjo, fl, perc, prepaired piano

Endo, Masao (1947-) Two Children of Nyx Unpub 2002 G solo Wind’s corridor Academia 6011 1977 G, alto fl

126 Play, echo, play and then…II GG 240 1990 4 G Trio Tropus I 1994 G, vln, db Garden of Eternity 1985 G, vln

Ezaki, Kenjiro (1926-) Contention Casa 1004 G & female voice Music for Guitar Casa 1005 1968 G & electronic sound Nodule Zerboni 6963 1964 G solo

Fujii, Bondai (1931-) Cantata “fuji no uta” 1985 G & mand -ensemble, brass, strings, mixed choir, Japanese -ensemble

Fujiie, Keiko (1963- ) Bodrum sea 1992 G solo Dialogue with the night 1995 G solo The night 1994 G solo Now the horizon comes into view 1993 G solo Three poems 1995 G solo To the far off land 1993 G solo Sweet Tenderness 1995 G solo Guitar no. 1 1996 G, orch Reverbration 1997 G, db, orch Guitar Concerto no. 2 1999 G, orch Fujin 1995 G, vlc, shaku Nina de Cera (monologue opera) 1995 G, 2 vln, vla,2 vlc, pf, mezzo soprano The Red Calm (monologue opera) 1996 G, shaku, tenor Sun and Moon 1998 G, db The Fountains of Paradise 1995 G, vln, choir Sampo 1996 G, tenor Akai Nagi 1996 G, tenor, shaku Maria’s Cheekbone 1989 G, mezzo In their shoes 1998 G, vlc, vln, pf, singer

Fujii, Keigo (1956- ) The Legend of Hagoromo GG 097 G solo Suite "Dies Irae" GG 104 1997 G duet Twelve Studies GG mag G solo Medieval Suite GG329 1994 G solo Preludio Melancolico GG329 2001 G solo Waltz in a Dream GG329 2001 G solo Linkoping waltz GG329 1997 G solo Lullaby for Homa GG329 2001 G solo

127 Introduccion y Danza no. 1 GG329 2002 G solo Variations on “Haru ga Kita” GG329 2001 G solo

Fujieda, mamoru (1955-) “Kyrie” resounded II 1987 G, 2 soprano, tenor

Fujikake, Hiroyuki (1949-) Spectrum 1983 G, mandolin-orch Yoake no Sana 1984 G, mandolin-orch Fujisawa, Michio (1947-) Music for Video 1981 G, pf

Fukuda, Akira (1956-) Rhapsody 1992 G, clarinet Rhapsody (revised) 1997 G, fl

Fukuda, Rere Infantia Unpub 1996 G, alto sax

Fukushi, Norio (1945-) Ode 1 ON 34/4 1974 G, perc, Baritone Follia 1982 G solo Dawn Brightens the Day of Mortals Robed in Purple 1992 G, fl Furukawa, Kiyoshi Zwei Rilke Lieder aus “Den Ungeborenen Gottern” Unpub 1996 G, pf, vla, clarinet, soprano

Gondai, Atsuhiko (1965-) Le Poeme de la Force 1994 G, soprano Zwischenraum III 1993 2 G

Harada, Hajime Sonata for Guitar GG 1987 G solo

Harada, Keiko (1935-) After the summer… 1995 G, pf, fl, vln, vlc, perc, tape Sonora Distancia 1996 G, perc, vln, bass -clar Plateau 1997 G, vln, Sonora Distancia II 1997 G, eleven instruments Heavy wood 1998 G, vln, pf, bass cl, contra bassoon Wa-ta-ri I 1999 G, twelve instruments

128 Hashimoto, Kunihiko Okashito Musume ZG 1959 G solo Okashi ZG 1959 G solo [ ] ZG 161

Hara, Kazuko (1935-) Preludio, Aria e Toccata Casa 1024 1972 G solo Introduction and Allegro for guitar trio 1981 3 G

Hara, Hiroshi (1933- ) Canto Funebre Casa 1015 1969 G solo Offrande GG 275 1981 G solo Divertiment GG 275 1988 G duo Felicita felicita tanyi auguri GG 275 1994 G duo Suite GG 275 1968 G trio

Hattori, Kazuhiko (1944-) Bonzo del monte ZG September blue 1998 G solo Miminashi Hoichi 1989 G, fl, perc, narrator Horizon 1987 G, fl, cem Blue fantasia 1988 G, nar Guitar works for children I 1988 G solo

Hattori, Ryoichi Yamadera ZG 108 1959 G solo

Hattori, T. Canzone Giapponese ARM 1954 G, voice

Hattori, Takayuki (1965-) Dans un Sommeil Solitaire 1989

Hayakawa, Kazuko (1944-) In 1998 G solo Sou G solo

Hayakawa, Masaaki (1934-) 3 preludes Casa 1008 1968 G solo Soundscape 1998 G-orch, mandolin -orch

Hayashi, Hikaru (1931-) Song book 1985 G, harmonica Northern Sail 1993 G, orch Etude for two Guitars Casa 1007 1960 2 G Villon, le rire du moyen age 1997 G, rec, vla, vlc, marimba, mixed

129 choir

Higo, Ichiro (1940-) Elegia per koto e chitarra 1985 G, koto

Hinohara, Hidehiko (1964-) E suseri-bime cosi canto… 1998 G, mezzo

Hirai, Kozabura (1910-) Cradle 1972 G solo Naryoma ZG 1972 G solo Yuikago ZG

Hirai, Takeichiro (1937-) Narayama ZG 160 G solo Yurikago ZG 171

Hirota, Hamachidori Japanese song ZM 86 1976 G, string orch

Hirayoshi, Takekuni (1936-1997) El vent de Catalunya 1991 G, string quartet Preludio E Fantasia Casa 1016 1970 G solo Concerto for guitar and orch JFC 8201 1980 G, orchestra

Hisada, Noriko (1963-) Phase for Guitar Tre 1997 G solo

Hisatome, Tomoyuki (1955-) Arabesco Magico Unpub 1990 G solo

Honma, Masao (1930-) For Guitar JFC 8907 1988 G solo

Hori, Kiyotaka Barcarola

Horikoshi, Ryuichi (1949-) Through the looking glass 1995 G solo The legend of winter forest 1996 G, fl Horie, Haruyo (1944- ) Sonatina Snail Press 1991 G solo Pulled from pocket Snail Press 1992-4 G solo For Hirokazu Sato Snail Press G solo

Horikoshi, Ryuichi (1949-) Through the looking glass 1995 G solo Legend of winter forest 1996 G, fl

130 Hosokawa, Toshio (1955-) Renka I Schott 1986 G, soprano

Ichinose, Tonika (1970-) Blooming colors 1998 elec-G

Ifukube, Akira (1914-) Toka ZG 238520 1968 G solo Kugoka ZG 238520 1969 G solo Toccata ZG 138 1970 G solo

Ideta, Keizo (1955-) 3 Strucke 1984 G solo

Iida, Masanori (1930-) La riviere; 3 Folios JFC 8513 1979 G solo Waves 1989 G, madolin L’eau et La Femme 1983 G, soprano, 2 perc La dia Logue 1983 2 G

Ikebe, Shin-Ichiro (1943-) Tu Sens La Terre et laRiviere 1994 G, fl, vln,vla, vcl Au fond D’un Soir… ZG 35 2000 G, fl, perc

Ikeda, Satoru (1961-) Kizuta, Gansaku “le pont mirabeau” 1989 G, fl, bariton, harp, perc

Imai, Shigeyuki (1933-) Metamorphose Flamenco 1993 G, Pf, perc Illusiones de ‘Chorau-Ji Templo” 1994 10 G Metamorfosi Concertante Sulla “Siguiriya Gitana” 1993 G, Orch Metamorfosis de la Siguiriya 1994 G -ensemble

Inagaki, Seiichi (1935-) Schnell Voruber schweben slle (A. von Platen) 1988 G, fl, vlc

Irino, Yoshiro (1921-1980) 7 Inventions Casa 1001 1967 G, fl, clar, bassoon, vibraphone, vln, vcl

Ishida, Hidemi Memory without memories Unpub 2 G Pastime Music Unpub 1978 G solo amplified

Ishida, Ichiro (1909-) Cinq pieces a l’historiette ZG 1969 G solo

131 L’Autumne ZG 149 1969 G solo Three short pieces for guitar ZG 1971 G solo Three preludes 1972 G, fl Sonata for 2 guitars 1972 2 G

Ishii, Maki (1936- ) Charaktere op. 8 Moeck G, fl, ob, pf, vln Funf Elemente Casa 1011 1967 G, 2 pic, per, vln, vla, vcl Japanische Suite I ZM 1965 G, orch

Ito, Hideo (1932-) Melancolia gitana ZG 107 1968 G solo Sakura flamenco ZG 109 1968 G solo

Ito, Minoru (1947-) Sonatos for guitar JFC 145 1976 G solo

Ito, Ohsuke (1911-) Akidesu ne Okaasan! Nihon Shinjin 1990 G, voice

Iwamura, Mitsuoki (1929-) Hatshepsut Ji G solo

Kainuma, Minoru Satonoaki ZG G solo

Kajitani, Osamu For Two GG 321 2000 2G

Kamimoto, Toshihiro (1953-) Voices on the field II “Ones who flap the Wings” 1990 G, recorder Todokanai Ototachi 1988 3 G

Kaneda, Shigenari (1942-) Attempt III 1995 G solo Sueno de Mexico GG 257 1980 3 G Introduction and Rhapsody 1977 G solo Live 1995 G, fl Gen 4 G, soprano, double- bass Teeta isoytak G solo Kaneko, Shin-ichi (1937-) Lexington –Ave. 51st 1990 G, db Staten Island 1990 G, soprano sax Isis 1987 G solo

Kaneto, Yutaka (1931-)

132 Five Impromptus 1990 G solo Duet 1983 G, shakuhachi

Kanno, Yoshihiro (1953-) Quicksand 1992 2 G

Kato, Yumiko (1968-) Opera “yoritomo” 1997 G, pf, fl, vln, vlc, perc, shino, shami, 17 string koto, 38 singers, mixed choir Here is a tableland, It’ starry tonight G, fl

Kataoka, Yoshikazu (1933-) Parade 1984 G, Synth, pf, perc, bass-guitar Nakaniida-style Bach 1985 elec-G, synth

Kawagoe, Mamoru (1932-) “Mai” for two guitars Casa 1019 1970 2 G

Kawasaki, Etsuo (1959-) The Missing Angels 1993 G, Synth, solo voice Twelfth Night by Women 1993 String quar, fl, rec, G, lute, 3 trp, tuba, perc, hpsd

Kimura, Masanobu (1941-) Preludes 6-10 1984 G solo Ricecare 1987 G solo Astrerisk I op.77 Casa 1031 1976 G solo de Nagasaki op. 236 1992 2 G 12 etudes op. 149 1985 G solo Print-temps op. 168 1986 G sop-rec, cem Sign from the white birth op. 169 1986 G, cem Concerto consort op. 177 1986 G, perc, rec- ensemble 4 movements on the picture of Migisgi Kotaro 1988 G, cem Canon op.106 1988 G, 2 rec

Kihara, Fukuko Mr. N. S. 2000 2 G

Kikuchi, Masaharu (1938-) 3 paraphrases for children’s song 1981 G, 2 alto recorders, Gamba Kitazume, Michio (1956-) Blue cosmic garden 1985 G solo The ring twinkles… 1987 G, pf, vln,vla, vlc

133 Kino, Seiichiro (1946-) Genki NoEngine Mawasoyo G, children’s chorus

Kiyofuji, Takeji (1924- ) Hisho waltz Casa 1018 1967 G, vln

Kobashi, Minoru (1928-) Jyo, Ha, Kyu , 1981 G, strings Guitar Duet 1982 2 G “UI” 1983 G solo Banka JFC 8206 1980 2 G

Kobata, Ikuro (1951-) Sinfonia 1991 G-orchestra Kiritorareta Mado no auu Fukei 1983 G solo Sequentia II 1983 2 G 4 palattes 1984 G, fl Hikari wa ryushi to narite taiki no nakani tadayou 1984 2 G

Kobayashi, Arata (1929-) A motto (with one’s whole heart) and Shiguseigan 1991 G, fl, 2 vln, vla, vlc, Soprano, harpsichord Divertimento 1981 G, perc, fl, clar, pf, contra bass, elec keyboard Dialogue 1993 fl, 10-string G Prelude et Fugue 1977 4 G

Kobune, Kojiro Collected works ZG 1969 G solo Insenpo; Odori ZG 1969 G solo Uta ZG 1969 G solo Arabesque ZG 1969 G solo Essay (fukucho-shugi) ZG 1969 G solo Essay (mucho junionshugi) ZG 1969 G solo Nocturno ZG 1969 G solo Nocturno; Essay no. 3 ZG 1969 G solo Sonata ZG 1969 G solo Suite; Dorian mode ZG 1969 G solo

Kohei, Mukai Four Poems op. 8 1992 2 G Breeze, path and… 1992 G, fl

Kojima, Yuriko (1962-)

134 Music for Alto flute and guitar 1993 G, alto fl Lunar Distance 1995 G, cl, fl, vib Moment 1997 G, dat tape

Kondo, Jo (1947-) Winsen dance step 1995 G, fl, vibra In early Spring Knots 1977 2 G, elec pf, 7 cowbells Spacing inaudible 1972 G, vln, bongo Calamintha 2000 G solo Dithyramb 1996 G, fl Duo 1982 G, harp Isthmus 1985 G, vln, ob, bassoon, pf, 2 perc Pass 1974 2 G, banjo, harp, harmonica, taisho- koto Kondo, Tsuneo (1912-) Fantasia Kamakura ZG 195 1973 G solo Fantasia Kyoto ZG 194 1973 G solo Fantasia Nara ZG 193 1973 G solo Acacia Avenue ZG 1969 G solo Dahlia ZG 1969 G solo Gladiolus ZG 1969 G solo Hydrangea ZG 1969 G solo Moon light cherry blossom ZG 1969 G solo Ranunculus op. 69-3 ZG 1969 G solo Romanza no. 1 ZG 1969 G solo Wild Goose ZG 1969 G solo

Konishi, Nagako (1945-) Serenade 1990 2 G Estranger 1988 2 G, 2 alto G, bass G, elec db guitar Ode for the Eleven ACA 1994 G, fl, cl, b -cl, bsn, trb, 2 marimba, perc, ob Vase for Lamentation 1992 G, 2 sopranos, pf

Kono, Hidetake (1931-) Guitar concerto 1972 G, orch

Koshino, Hiroyuki (1961-) The time of a dream for napping in spring 1998 G solo

Kozawa, S. Crysalis no. 1 Puget

135 Kubo, Mayako (1947-) Le Mie Passacaglie BH 8215 1984 2 G Auf den Saiten G, string quar Sieben Spiele NM 2303

Kurauchi, Naoko (1963-) Aria 1991 G solo Lavande 1995 G solo Triptych JFC0009 1999 G solo Yosomono no Uta 1997 G, pf, singer, mixed choir Aria of the hat 1997 G, pf, singer, mixed choir

Kurimoto, Yoko (1951-) Puer Aeternus 1981 G, clar June End Songs JFC 8403 1982 G, recorder A plan of 4x4 1982 G, fl, vlc Prism in Winter, Prism in Spring 1990 G solo

Kurokami, Yoshimistu (1933-) “Our Native Town” 1982 G solo Cranes of Hiroshima 1983 G, shino, singer Trio for guitars “8 paraphrases by the international” 1983 3 G Kushida, Tetsunosuke (1935-) The seasons 1989 G, mandolin-orch, Narrator Sinfonia 1990 G, shamisen, shakuhachi, koto, mandolin-orch, jushichi-gen

Kuwahara, Yasuo (1946-) Eclogue 1991 G, mand Beyond the Rainbow V&F 1106 G ensemble Blue blowing II 1989 G, mandolin

Makino, Katori Intermittences IV GBE 1984 2 G Vox dilecti mei GBE 2 G, voice

Mamiya, Michio (1929-) Moon freezing 1991 G, nokan Sacred Spells Unpub 1979 G solo Four visions “tomb o the fireflies” 1987 G, clar, elec-pf, hp, strings, pan-fl, celesta

136 Matsudaira, Yori-Aki (1931-) Undulations 1986 G solo Grating Tre Media 410 1998 G solo Spectra 1979 amp G, 2 on tape Transient 1974 G, armonium, perc Colorization 1992 G, clar, perc, pf Canon XXIX & VIII 1997 G, mandolin, clar, vln, vla, vlc Theme and variations 1997 G, mandolin, clar, vln, vla, vlc

Matsudaira, Yoritsune (1907-) Sonatine pour Guitare ZG 173 1973 G solo “Katsura” ON 1957-67 G, voice, fl, harp, perc Petite piece pour guitare et harpe 1986 G, hp

Matsunaga, Michiharu (1927-) Timescape in a Dream Unpub 2001 G solo Let the Foam of a wave Survive a little longer 1989 G, vlc The Wavering of Time 1993 G, clar, mand, fl, harp, vln, vlc Sai-Hyo (chromatic ice) 1979 G, 5 cow bells, Recorders Yuna 1986 G, 2 ten-rec, bass -rec, great bass-rec

Matsumoto, Teiho Etude no 1 Casa 1021 1975 G solo Etude no 2 Casa 1022 G solo Nocturn Casa 1023 1971 G solo Valse(homage to Chopin) Casa 1020 1975 G solo Valse II Casa 1028 1976 G solo

Mayazumi, Toshiro (1929-) Ectoplasme Peters 1954 Orch (w/G) Microcosmos Peters 6332 1957 G, vibr, xil, perc, pf, clavioline, musical saw

Mikami, Jiro (1961-) 3 stray thoughts 1991 G solo In-ei 1992 G, fl

Miki, Minoru (1930-) Tomurai no Uta 1967 2 G

Mimura, Yoshiaki (1951-)

137 Three songs from the deep 1982 G solo Kari No Doji 1994 G, erhu Summer leaf music 1982 G, fl La folia 1987 G, digital delay

Minami, Satoshi (1955-) 2 Intermezzo JFC 9002 1987-9 G,vln, fl, pf The Rossingol Made in Japan op 29 1994 G, fl, ob, clar, vln, vcl, pf, perc Epilogue (from: “of the Garden of Joyful Intellection”) op. 15-7

1992 G solo Symphony op. 8 1983 elec G, voice, 2 elec Keyboard Fragment of “hi no sono yume no hana” 1985 G, pf, fl, clar, hrn, 2 vln, 2 perc Gekkaso 1986 G, ob, vlc, fl Yume no hana op. 15-2 1987 G, vln

Minemura, Sumiko (1941-) Suite “afterglow” etc. 1995 G solo Guitar suites “floating cloud” etc. 1997 G solo

Mise, Kazuo (1947-) Nocture 1989 G, clarinet Poem 1990 G solo

Miyagi, Michio (1894-1956) ZG 44 1977 G solo The sea in springtime Pierrot G105 1929 G, fl

Miyake, Haruna (1942-) "Sonnet" Casa 1012 1969 G solo Music for piccolo, flute and guitar, ZM 1777 1968 G, pic, fl, 10 Canciones Populares Japonesas Casa 1027 G solo

Miyata, Masao Promenade ARM G solo Sovenire ARM G solo

Miyazaki, Shigeru Consolazione Unpub 1989 G, fl

Miyoshi, Akira (1933-) Epitase ZG 209 1977 G solo Epitase for Guitar and Percussion 1975 G, perc Protase “de loin a rien” ZG 208 1974 2 G Cinq Poems 1985 G solo Constellation Noire 1989 G, 2 vln, vla, vlc

138 Mizobuchi, K. Due Elegie 1974 G solo

Mori, Ikue Blue Seeds 1991 G, vln, voice

Mori, Kurodo (1950-1997) Anamorphose ZG 211 1977 G solo

Mori, Junko (1948-) Sho Shishu G solo Autumn Mist 1984 G, fl(or shaku) An April Idyll 1998 G solo Meditation G solo Song in the Songless 1991 G solo Twilight 1983 G solo Nightfall G, fl, 2 ob, bsn, strings Spring Dawn 1983 G, vln or vla In the wood of flowers 1985 G, db, mand -ensemble Guitar concertino “Nightfall” 1985 G, fl, 2 vln, vla, vlc or db Echo 1988 G, fl, clar, vln, db, soprano

Munakata, Kazu (1928-) 3 compositions 1981 G ensemble Run hard melos! 1982 G, vlc, pf, baritone Appealing water 1982 G, niko Los Colors Misticos 1980 G solo Requie JFC 8208 1980 G, vln Chieko-sho 1991 G, narrator Panegirico a Van Gogh 1979 G solo Fantasia – sen I 1977 G, shakuhatchi Fantasia – sen II 1979 G, Shimbue Fantasia – sen III 1978 G, Shakuhatchi 3 situations 1979 12 G Romance 1979 3 G The Water I 1982 G, Erhu The Water II 1987 G, Erhu ? 1977 2 G, narration Cradle-song 1984 G, orch Goodby’s Gone 1985 G harmonica Appealing water II 1987 G, erhu

Murakumo, Ayako (1949-) Polymorph II 1989 G, recorder

139 Prelude 1985 G solo Music for guitar and flute 1985 G, fl

Naito, Akemi (1956-) Winter Shadow for Guitar 1994 2 G Secret song for Guitar JFC 202 1979 G solo

Nagasawa, Katsutoshi (1923-) Ode to spring G, fl

Nagata, Tetsuo Solo Guitar works 1-85 G solo

Naka, Yukichi (1903-) Koiji Kaigan ON 1989 G, voice Tasogare TOS 1996 G, ob, tenor

Nakabayashi, Atsumasa (1927 -) Danza no. 1 Casa 1013 1970 G solo UME 22036 G solo Danza no. 2 ZG 38 1976 G solo UME 22144 1976 G solo Danza no. 3 ZG 39 1977 G solo Danza no. 4 ZG 40 1979 G solo Jota castellana ZG 188 G solo para omenaje a A. Barrios M ZG 62 1979 G solo Suite Espanola Casa 277 1969 G solo Bolero ZG 42 1968 G solo Camino del naranjito ZG 188 G solo Viento Mordaz Casa 237 1967 G solo UME 22038 collected works GG 196 1998 G solo & duets Historia de un Pais del sur Casa 242 G solo UME 22037 Himno a la guitarra Casa 289 5 G Isabiri ZG 199 1973 G solo Tobenai yoru; tema ZG 88 1977 2 G Tobenai yoru, dan-ni tema; Ereji ZG 88 1977 2 G UME 22039 La Campanita del Pueblo UME 22184 G solo Suite Pictorica Latino America GG 129 G solo Suite Pictorica Espanola UME 22035 G solo Suite Pictorica Sudamerica UME 22040 G solo ON Melody of Japan by guitars Suiseisha 402609 vol I ON Melody of Japan by guitars Suiseisha 402609 vol II ON Prelude 1990 G solo

140 Nakada, Kazutsugu (1921-2001) Suite for three guitars 1994 3 G

Nakagawa, Nobutaka Japanese Songs arr. v I GG 107 1995 G solo Japanese Songs arr. v II GG 35 1982 G solo

Nakajima, Yoshifumi (1944-) Shiki Kamikochi 1991 G, fl, vln, vlc, harpsichord Kamigami no Sobo 1995 G, cl, pf, string Quartet, soprano, female choir Nakagawa, Toshio (1958-) Conotation 1985 2 G, hp

Nakamura, Akikazu (1954-) In Paranowhite II G, Pf, Shaku Magnetic Fantasy 1993 G, db, 2 perc, b solo Phosphorescence 1994 G, db, perc, shaku, koto, B solo Dorian in blue sea 1995 G, koto, shaku, perc, elec bass

Nakamura, Hitoshi (1967-) Falsetto 1995 G solo

Nakamura, Setsuya (1950-) Yoh and Toh 1986 G solo Yoh and Toh (revised) 1987 G solo Crossroad of light 1983 2 G

Nakamura, Shigenobu (1950-) Lyric for 4 guitars JFC 8102 1978 4 G Seven Desirable Events G, fl, clar, bsn, trbn, vln, pf, marimba Songs of four season 1980 G, 30 string koto The dream in the dream 1997 G solo

Nakamura, Yushitake (1944-) 2 little pieces 1981 2 G Fantasia in “Yakabushi” 1982 2 G “Futoki hone wa” “Ko ka haha ka” 1985 G, alto Opera “hora kikoete kuruyo” 1985 G, fl, pf, vlc, soprano, alto, female choir Okawa no 1987 G, alto ImageIII 1988 G solo

141 Nakano, Jiro (1902-1999) El camino del campo Arai Boeki G solo Lluvia de Mayo G solo Un Mosquito que Queda G solo Juego de Pelotilla G solo Canto de la Peregrina G solo Le tour de reclame etincelant G solo La danse de Boufura G solo Sei pezzi improvisi G solo Preludio (Enramada de Jardin) G solo Tema e Variazioni (su Arie popolari coreane) G solo Sentimento de Otono G solo Uno Fiore G solo La Iglesia sobre la colina G solo IX Variations prises pour leur theme dans la Francais G solo Una Gaviota G solo Dal Cassa di vecchio giocattli G solo Canto de Primavera tarde G solo Komageta G solo Variations sur un thema de Mozart G solo 30 variations (thema Paganini) Berben 1956 G solo Minuetto G solo Malinconia G solo A L’ecole Maternella G solo Le Crepuscule G solo

Nakata, {Naohiro b 1939-?} ZG 15 1977 G solo Nakayama, Yoshinori (1931-) Sho Shishu 1984 G solo

Nakazawa, Hisanawa Phonoherdron Unpub G, clarinet, vibra Beneath the Sky Unpub 1995 G, fl Pouring Particle III Unpub 1997 2 G

Narita-Yoshida, Kazuko (1957-) Monanthe 1985 G solo Ainsi les Reveries S’Evanouissent Unpub 1985 G ensemble Parenthese I 1985 elec-G

Nawata, Modern Japanese Guitar solo and Ensemble 1979 G solo, ensemble

Nihashi, Jun-ichi (1950-) Five Images GG 194 2000 G quartet 7 Portraits GG 151 1999 G & violin

142 Tarantus Unpub G solo Chaccone Unpub G, vlc, mandolin

Niimi, Tokuhide (1947-) Melos II ZG 56 1999 G, fl

Nikura, Ken (1951-) Warp and woof or night and morning 1987 2 G Warp & woof II 1992 G solo

Nishimori, M. La Nomeolvides ARM G solo

Nishimura, Akira (1953-) ZG590134 1989 3 G

Ninomiya, Hiroshi (1950-) Vocal Suite “Hyakunin-isshu” 1981 2 G, soprano

Nishida, Koshiro (1958-) Grey birds 1982 G, fl, perc, elec keyboard, singer dim…on dim… 1984 G, fl

Noda, Teruyuki (1940-) Intermezzo Casa 1030 1978 G solo Kokiriko Variations GG 149 1996 G, fl Concerto for Guitar ZG 238600 1986 G, orch Rhapsodie Adriatique GG 101 1994 G, orch

Noda, Ryo (1948-) Nagare A.L. 25426 1974 G, fl

Nodaira, Ichiro (1953-) Arabesque IV HL 24674 1982 G solo The Ways G, fl, pf, marimba, Vibra La cord du feu HL 1990 G elec, instruments Texture du delire 1986 2 elec-G, 2 synth, chamber ensemble

Noro, Takeo (1925-1967) Composition I&II Casa 1010 1960 G solo Impromptu op 11 Casa 1009 1961 G, 2 vln Meet op.13 TO 7269 1964 2 G

Odaira, Koichi (1960-) Yuhaky no Kkyoku 1990 G, wadaiko

143 (Japanese -perc), perc, Shakuhachi, Sho

Ogura, Shun Preludio No. 4 Arm G solo

Oguri, Takayuki (1909-1945) Four pieces ZG 169 1972 G solo

Ogawa, Takashi (1960-) Elegie pour la style d’un inconn DYOZ 176 1995 G solo Quatre Images Cahiers 1994 G solo

Ohmae, Satoshi (1943-) Spacing for guitar, op. 119 Unpub 2002 G solo Festone II op. 85 1993 G, mand, vibra, perc Double-talk no. 9 op. 34 1981 2 G Stripe: Double-talk No. 11 op. 42 1983 2 G Shimmers: Double-talk no. 14 op. 55 1984 G, Mandolin Osaka 83 1983 G, perc, rec, 30 string koto Trailing away (cross –stitch version) 1988 G, 2 rec, perc

Ohno, Masao (1943-) Guitar Suite “Journey” op. 30 1980 G solo

Okabe, Fujio (1947-) Paesaggio III 1982 G solo Paesaggio VI “yu” 1985 G, shakuhachi A Paean for Swans 1994 Fl, G Kumishi Chieko-sho 1993 G, nar Three songs 1993 G, shakuhachi Boku ga moeteshimau 1987 G, nar

Okada, Kyoko (1932-) Kazeno Tabi 1985 G, alto

Okawara [Ohcawara], Yoshie (1903-1935) Matsumushi flower Arm A018 1930 G solo Song of Hydranga Arm A018 1930 G solo Dance of Oriental Popy Arm A018 1930 G solo Mongolia in the evening Arm A018 1930 G solo Bolero Amaryllis Arm A018 1930 G solo

La Samiseno Arm AO82 1929 G solo Danza Grotesca Arm AO82 1929 G solo Nocturne Arm AO82 1929 G solo

144 El Insecto Arm AO82 1929 G solo Luz de Calle Arm AO82 1929 G solo

El Prologo Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, Kasasagi Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, Hikibune Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, Iri-hi Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, obligato Aka ku nutta Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, obligato Yamabatake no Arm AO83 1930 G, voice, obligato Benkei – basi Arm AO83 1930 G, voice

Etude Arm G solo Legend Arm G solo Koen Arm G solo Preludio Arm G solo Dream Arm G solo Hymn for Kreisler Arm G solo

Heilige Nacht Arm 1930 G solo

Okasaka, Keiki (1940-) Intrada (jo) Unpublished 1985 G solo

Okazaki, Mitsuharu (1935-) Sho 1989 G, 3 voices

Ono, Tadasuke Yoima ZG G solo

Osawa, Kazuko (1926-) NEN Casa 1033 1980 G solo

Otai, Tsuyoshi (1932-) Sho Casa 1026 1974 2 G

Ozaki, Toshiyuki (1946-) Unendliche Sehensucht 1982 G solo

Saegusa, Shieaki (1942-) Suite “Hannyaharamitta” 1983 G, synth, vocoder, elec-bass, drums, latin perc, fue (shino, ryu, nokan) Utau 1985 G, soprano, harmonica

Saito, Takeo (1904-1982) Collected works ZG 1970 G solo Chant d’ automne ZG 1969 G solo

145 Danza Populare ZG 1969 G solo Improvisation ZG 1969 G solo Music for Guitar ZG 1970 G solo Nocturne ZG 1969 G solo Poeme ZG 1969 G solo Prelude ZG 1969 G solo Rhapsody Kyoekishosha 1938 G solo Scherzo ZG 1969 G solo Shukaku ondo JFC 7205 1972 G solo

Sasaki, Shigeru (1945-) Impressionen Japanischer Volkslieder Ricordi-IT 2583 G solo

Sasaki, Tadashi Sakura-lullaby Dam 147 1998 G solo Two Japanese Songs GG 266 1999 G & violin

Sato, Hirokazu (1966-) Sonatine no. 2 GG 169 1996 G solo Pierot GG 169 1996 G solo March GG 169 1996 G solo Berceuse GG 169 1996 G solo A simple song GG 169 1996 G solo Petit Sicilienne GG 169 1996 G solo La coquette GG 169 1996 G solo Scherzino GG 169 1996 G solo Marionetto GG 169 1996 G solo Merry-go-round in sorrow GG 169 1996 G solo Un principe piccino qui passa GG 169 1996 G solo Rondino GG 169 1996 G solo Duex Valses GG 169 1996 G solo Gavotte GG 169 1996 G solo 12 preludes GG 169 1996 2 G When I was twenty GG 226 4 G Cherry Blossoms GG333 2002 G solo May song GG333 2002 G solo Wedding march GG333 2002 G solo Spring Waltz GG333 2002 G solo Romance to the stars GG333 2002 G solo In a summer garden GG333 2002 G solo September rain GG333 2002 G solo Summer Serenade GG333 2002 G solo Under the autumn sky GG333 2002 G solo Menuet sentimental GG333 2002 G solo The Song of Advent GG333 2002 G solo Christmas Song GG333 2002 G solo Autumn minuet GG333 2002 G solo New Years Song GG333 2002 G solo A winters days story GG333 2002 G solo

146 Winter etude GG333 2002 G solo The arrival of spring GG333 2002 G solo

Satoh, Ai (1947-) Kyanbas no Naka no Shiki 1996 G, mezzo soprano

Satoh, Masami (1952- ) Mother Tree GG 67 1988 G solo, G & string quartet Naturally GG59 G solo Shade GG64 G solo

Satoh, Toyohiko (1943-) Tombeau de Mr. D. Philips Tree G solo

Sawa, Tsunehiko Preludio Reimeisha 1925 G solo

Sawaguchi, Chuzaemon Danza ARM Volslied ARM

Sendo, Sakuzo Asura 1980 G, perc Buddha (part 3) 1978 G, voice, tape Three Dialogues 1976 G, fl When I rise above the world 1979 G, vln, vla

Senshu, Jiro (1934-) Variations on Green Sleeves 1983 G, fl Sonatine: drawing in the wind 1986 G (11 string)

Sei, Ichiji (1899-1963) Windmill laughs TAS G, harp, synth

Sekiguchi, Masaki Aberdeen Unpub 1989 G solo

Shibata, Minao (1916 -1996) The story of Mini-nashi-hooichi 1981 G, pf, koto, singer Candelabra Kwaidan G, koto, voice

Shida, Shoko Aya 2000 2 G, fl

Shimazu, Takehito (1949-) Ist Herr Daruma…..? II 1994 G, fl, perc

147 Shimizu, Tamaki (1915-) Scherzo Casa 1002 1968 G solo Cancion de Cuna Casa 207 G solo Variations on a Scottland Air Casa 233 G solo

Shimomaki, Y. Fantaisie for duex guitares Unpub 2 G

Shimoyama, Hifumi (1930-) Dialogo for two guitars ESZ 6869 1965 2 G Dialogo no 2 for two guitars ESZ 7235 1970 2 G Dialogo no 3 1984 2 G Homage to “N” 1988 G solo Gamma 1990 G, 3 strings Music for torquato tasso 1997 G solo

Shiomi, Mieko (1938-) As it were floating granules JFC7509 1975 G, 6 clar, 2 vln, tape

Shiraishi, Akio (1920- ) Improvisation and four pieces Casa 1017 1971 G solo

Shishido, Mutsuo (1929- ) Prelude and Toccata Casa 1014 1970 G solo Pour les trios timbres 1983 G, fl, perc

Shono, Hiroshia (1957-) Au Cours Des Jours 1993 G ensemble

Sugano, Hirokazu (1923- ) Variazioni Casa 1003 1966 G solo Canti, Nordici GG 1969 G solo

Sugiyama, Haseo Defune ZG 83 1976 G solo

Sumi, Atsuki (1948-) Spanish Pantalets 1992 G, harpsichord

Susuki, Iwao (1932-) Concerto Unpub G, orch

Suzuki, Haruyuki The Art of Repetition 1995 G solo Souvenir 1996 G, pf Strand 1998 G, 2 fl Osmosis-floating 1998 G, fl, pf, cb, nar, tape

148 Suzuki, Hideaki (1938-) Poem 1980 G, chamber orch

Suzuki, Iwao (1932-) Idyllic Suite GG344 1954 G solo Two pieces after “Kojiki” GG344 1956 G solo Capriccio GG344 1956 G solo Ancient Dance from Gagaku GG344 1954 G solo Aria and Dance in ancient style GG344 1965 G solo Okinawa GG344 1966 G solo Variations on Gagaku “Etenraku”GG344 2002 G solo Minyo GG344 1955 G solo Reminiscences of a Flower GG344 1995 G, voice Fantasia for guitar and orchestra GG344 1962 G solo Danza misteriosa 1985 G solo Danza Caprichios 1985 G solo

Suzuki, Kazuhito (1967-) A room 1998 G, fl

Suzuki, Satoshi (1941-) To Chihiro 1983 G, nar, female Chorus

Suzuki, Shozu [Shoko ?] Roving Coyote Rising Moon Unpub 1994 2 G, fl [G, banjo, fl?]

Suzuki, Seiichi Sakura Sakura Variations ARM G solo

Taira, Yoshihisa (1938 -) Penombres I TR001672 1981 2 G,12 strings Monodrame III TR Luisances Rideau Rouge G, perc, onde- martenot

Takahashi, Isao (1907 -) Zwei Etuden Die Gitarre 1931 G solo

Takahashi, Yuji (1938 -) Metatheses 2 ZG 200 1968 G solo John Dowland Returns 1974 G, voice Chained hands in Prayer ZG 213 1979 G solo

Takano, Mari (1960 -) Are you going with me? Unpub 2 G

Takano, Yoshinaga Two Fantasias Maekawa-sha 1974 G, Koto

149 Takei, Morishige (1890-1949) Collected works ZG 24-157 1964 G solo Ricordi d’ infanzia 1919 G solo Passeggiatta capestre 1919 G solo Omaggio al grande chitarrista Tarrega 1921 G solo Minuetto in E 1921 G solo Impromtu 1924 G solo Gioia d’ oggi 1924 G solo Danza d’ Insetti 1927 G solo Spirit of falling leaves 1927 G solo La caduta della pioggia op.11 ZG 1924 G solo ARM 1956 G solo Piccola danza 1924 G solo I Petali 1928 G solo Ossevrando la collina primavera 1941 G solo Tramonto 1941 G solo Verso il fiume 1941 G solo Romanza 1941 G solo Scherzo 1941 G solo Capriccietto 1941 G solo Quattro preludio 1941 G solo Ricordo di un sogno mattino 1941 G solo Atomostera di neve 1942 G solo Con la magnolia 1942 G solo La sorgente d’ acqua 1942 G solo Nube d’ autunno 1942 G solo Finestra e pioggia 1942 G solo La giornata di una fanciulla 1942 G solo Romanza senza Parola 1943 G solo La rute di legno 1943 G solo Davanti alla lanterna 1943 G solo Pezzettino per tre cordi basse 1943 G solo Fiume “Tone” 1944 G solo La crabe ermite 1944 G solo La mattinata serena valzer 1944 G solo Invocazione al Budda 1944 G solo Rosso di tramonto 1944 G solo Ombra-Habanera 1944 G solo Fantasia d’ autunno 1944 G solo Brushwood fence 1944 G solo Variazioni sul tema “Kojo-no-Tsuki” 1944 G solo La pulce 1945 G solo La filatrice 1945 G solo Siepe d’ inverno 1945 G solo Osmanthus fragrans 1945 G solo Intorno al braciere 1946 G solo L’ infanzia 1946 G solo The floating cloud 1946 G solo

150 Caleidoscopio 1946 G solo Due preludi 1946 G solo Ricordo di torino 1946 G solo The broken pane 1946 G solo Silver scale 1945 G solo Le vin 1947 G solo Capriccietto no. 2 1947 G solo Soir 1947 G solo Farfalla che nell’ acqua cade 1947 G solo Fiore giallo 1947 G solo Album facil 1947 G solo Contemplando le stelle 1948 G solo An album for children 1949 G solo Autumn tints 1941 G, voice Haiku poem by Kiyo 1946 G, voice Le danze dei frutti, suite 1948 2 G Minuetto dell’ uva 1948 2 G Bolero della melogranata 1948 2 G Pavana della fragola 1948 2 G Nebbia mattuttina 1943 3 G Morning-glory 1942 G, voice

Takemistu, Toru (1930-1996) Folios Schirm 50403300 G solo Salabert 17208 1974 G solo Equinox SJ 1090 1993 G solo Song Arrangements ZG 1001-12 1977 G solo In the Woods SJ 1099 1995 G solo All in Twilight Schott 1051 1988 G solo Torward the sea Schott 1007 1981 G, alto fl Ring ON 20/7 1962 terz-G, lute, fl Salabert 1961 terz-G, lute, fl Stanza I UE15118 1969 G, harp, pf, cel, vibra,female voice Valeria UE 15116 1965 vln, vcl, gt, elec org, 2 Pic Bad Boy SJ 1129 1961 3 G Bad Boy (arr Norio Sato) SJ 1074 1992 2 G To the Edge of Dream Schott 1022 1982 G, orch Stanza I UE 15118 1969 G, harp, celesta, vibra,voice Crossings Salabert 1970 Orch (w/G), 12 voices Spectral Canticle Schott 1995 G, vln, orch Vers l’arc-en-ciel, Palma SJ 1054 1984 G, ob, orch Arc Salabert 1963-66 pf, orch (w/G) Cassiopea Salabert 1971 Perc, orch (w/G) Dream Window Schott 1044 1985 orch (w/G) Gemeaux Salabert 1972 ob,trb, 2 orch (w/G)

151 Music of Tree Peters 6655 1961 orch (w/G) Quadrain 1975 orch (w/G) A marvelous Kid (film score 1961) (transcription by Norio sato) SJ 1129 2000 3 G 12 songs for guitar SJ 1095 1977 G solo A boy named Hiroshima SJ 1129 1987 2 G

Takeoka, ZG 124 1975 G solo

Takemura, Jiro Kajimichi ZG 1 G solo

Tamura, Fumio (1968-) Christ Lag In Todesbanden G solo

Tanaka, Masaru (1946-) Horizontal modes 1982 G, fl (sax), perc, contra bass, drs (?)

Tanaka, Satoshi (1956-) Labyrinth 1994 G solo Nocturno de san Il defenso 1994 G solo Introduction and three poems by Ujo Noguchi 1997 G, nar

Tanaka, Tusunehiko Mondenschein auf dem schloss, vantion ARM 1958 G solo

Tanaka, Yoshifumi Eco lontanissima Unpub 1999 G solo

Tanba, Akira (1932-) Concerto pour Guitare electrique et orchestra 1988 elec G, orch

Teraoka, Etsuko (1947-) Chatty Curtain 1992 G, pf, 3 soprano, mezzo, 2 tenors, glockenspiel, bell

Toda, Kunio (1915-) “Triptychon”fur bariton blockflote in f and guitar T 0852 1967 G, baritone, block fl Togawa, Yoichi (1959-) Tamayuri 1997 G, harmonica

Tojo, Tashiaki Sakura ZG 46 G solo

Tominaga, Saburo (1916 -1988)

152 Inori 1982 G, vln

Tomiyama, Siyoh (1961-) Collected works v1 GG217 Inishie Matsuri op. 8 GG 217 1990 G solo Prelude and Fugue op. 21 GG217 G solo Let it be scattered op. 15 GG217 1997 G solo and duo

Collected works v2 Seven Deams op 14 GG218 1997 G, fl

Song and Dance no.1 Unpub 1992 G, fl Meditative Desert Unpub 1993 G, fl Longing (6 theme and Vari) Unpub 1992 G, fl Elegy Unpub 1996 G, fl Variations on a chorale like Bach's op. 1 1987 G duo Guitar Unpub 1997 G duo Doukei Unpub 1990 G, recorder Life...or once upon a day Unpub 1997 G, Ocarina Terpsichord for 6 strings Unpub 1991 G solo Jazz story Unpub 1992 G solo Four Little pieces Unpub 1995 G solo It's all an illusion Unpub G solo

Tsujii, Eisei (1933-) Naphtha ON 1967 G, fl, vcl

Tsukamoto, Yasuhiko Epithalamium ZG 8 1976 G solo Sonata “Wind” Unpub 2001 G solo

Tsukatani, Akihiro (1918 - 1995) Three movements ZG 644550 1989 G solo 4 pieces Facile ZG 644550 1989 G solo

Tsurumi, Sachiyo Toy Unpub 1998 2 G

Ueda, Masanao Ume Ueda 1972 G solo Prelude Allegro Etude Prelude Nocturn Jonokyoku

Ueda, Susumu 15 songs (2nd part by Sor) GG 156 1999 2 G

153 Ueno, Masatoshi (1947-) 37 chains 1989 G, mandolin, harp

Watanabe, Urato (1909 - 1994) Hanketsu ZG 52 1962 G solo Three Movements JFC 7209 G, orch

Watanabe, Kazumi (1953-) Astral Flakes GG124 1980 G solo

Yocoh, Yuquijiro (b 1925) Variations on the theme of Sakura GG293 G solo Cinco variaciones sobre un tema”Feliz Ano Nuevo” GG293 1975 G solo La Pimpinela GG293 1975 G solo Cancion de Cuna sobre una melodia de Matvei Blantel GG293 G solo Fantasia sobre Mikuma-river GG293 1948 G solo Sueno sobre de un arbol GG293 1977 G solo Regalo del ano Nuevo GG293 1965 G solo Sueno tranquilo GG293 1985 G solo Romanza sin palabras GG293 1965 G solo Sol Poniente GG293 G, voice Guardando GG293 G, voice Cancion de abuela GG293 1972 G, voice Carrilludas rojos GG293 G, voice Sonatine – dedicado a mi mama GG293 2 G

Yamada, Izumi (1952-1999) Memory of delicate time II 1997 G solo

Yamagishi, Mao (1933-) Trio for Flute, Violin and Guitar G, fl, vln Sonnet II 1982 G, harmonica Ki and 2 Ritsu Casa 1029 1976 G, fl Kanae II 1989 G, fl, vlc 5 Taras 1992 G solo For flute and guitar 1985 G, fl

Yamaguchi, Yasuko (1969 -) Sesam, Offne Dich! Unpub 1994 G solo

Yamamoto, Hiroyuki (1967-) Variation on Bach Unpub 1994 G solo

Yamamoto, Kizo Edisbd ZG 25 G solo

154 Yamamoto, Shigehiro (1944-) Torso ON 30/7 1972 G, fl, vibra, vlc Five eyes on Basho 1990 G, fl, 2 perc Ku no inori 1986 G, clar, db

Yamashita, Kazuhito (1961-) Kusorin “Imaginary Forest” GG217 or 32 1982 G solo

Yamashita, Takeo Shichinin ZG G solo

Yamashita, Toyoko Le paradis des enfants Unpub G, fl Toccata und Bolero fur 2 Gitarren 2 G Ameisenmarsch fur Gitarre-chor Unpub G ensemble Kleine Marchen fur Gitarre Unpub G solo Klein Stucke nach Altjapanishche volksleider for gitarre 1983 G solo Sech Miniature aus einem italienschen Bilderbuch 1986 G solo Sonate fur gitare solo G solo Ameisenmarsch fur 3 Gitarren 3 G Hepaihoi for three guitars 3 G Cancion y danza clasica fur gitarre und klavier G, pf Sonate fur gitarre und klavier G, pf An dem Marchenbuch “Kosmos” G, pf, fl, vln, vlc Das goldene und das silberne glochen G, fl, Soprano Ernnerung fur Sopran und Gitarre G, Soprano

Yanada, Tadashi Jogashima ZG 7 G solo

Yatabe, Hiroshi Scherzo G, voice

Yanagisawa, Tsuyoshi (1929-) Music no. 1 & no. 2 1983 G- ensemble

Yatsuhashi, Kengyo Rokudan ZG 45 1972 G solo

Yokota, Sennosuke (1929-) Kimagurena Yoru no event 1983 G, pf, nar, accordian, mixed choir, 13 string koto, marimba

Yoshida, Hitoshi (1953-) Serenade 1990 G solo

155 Yoshida, Junichi (1950-) Locus 2 TAS 1981 G, banjo

Yoshida, Kozo Wagamichi ZG 130 1970 G solo

Yoshida, Mineo (1953-) In Chokaison is my mountain home GG216 G, fl, voice

Yoshimatsu, Takashi (1953- ) Around the Round Ground GG222 1997 G solo & wind chimes Four Little Dream songs GG222 1997 G solo Litmus Distance GG 034 1980 G solo Tender Toys GG 1985 G solo & duets Sky color tensor GG141 1992 G solo Wind color vector GG141 1991 G solo Water color scalor GG141 1993 G solo Two little pieces GG141 1994 G solo Adam Hearts Club Duo, op 70. GG245 1998 G duo Guitar concerto “Pegasus Effect” 1985 G, orch Forgetful Angel II 1979 G, harmonica Digital Bird Suite op. 15 G, fl

Yocoh, Yuquijiro (1925-) Sakura theme and Vari GSP 04 G solo GG mag G solo ERI 1993 G solo

Yuasa, Joji (1929-) Mutterings Schott 1988 G, instruments

Yuyama, Akira (1932-) Oasis, Nagasaki 1988 elec-G, elec-bass, pf, synth, perc, female choir

Zakohji, Hiroaki (1958-1987) Mono-morphology II op.27 JFC8706 1983 G solo

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157 Herd, Judith Ann, “Change and Continuity in Contemporary Japanese Music: A Search for a National Identity,” (Ph. D. diss., Brown University, 1987).

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159 Daniel Quinn, Guitar Music By Japanese Composers, D.M. diss., Indiana University, 2003 Abstract

The guitar had two beginnings in Japan. The first was when the Portuguese sailors and Jesuit missionaries brought the instrument in the late sixteenth century. There is ample evidence that this instrument was a relative of the lute, vihuela, or . However no music from this period exists for the guitar as all foreign influence was forced out or destroyed in the early seventeenth century. Westerners and the guitar returned to Japan during the reign of Emperor Meiji in the 1860’s. This was a time of sweeping changes and reforms to bring Japan up to date with the Western world. All Japanese were to receive eight years of education, including Western music. The first guitar works by Morishige Takei in 1919 shows the first stages of assimilation through imitation. He adopted European and Latin American conventions such as Habanera rhythms, Romantic ideals of multiple tempos, and portamento devices used by Francisco Tarrega. The first guitar compositions that adopt the new trends of blending traditional Japanese and Western music are by Yosie Okawara and Takayuki Oguri in the 1930’s. This was a period when composers in Japan were looking past just simply splicing together two ideas and were looking to the formation a new national music. Following World War II the guitar had many more performers, makers, and publishers. Japan quickly adopted all the newest currents in Western composition including twelve-tone and indeterminate forms. Where in the prewar period most composers were set on creating a new national music, in the post war era individuality and originality became the main goal of composers. Publishers such as Casa de la Guitarra and Zen-on published a vast array of music that seems to cover most of these new trends. Before the war composers began to explore the harmonic vocabulary of the Sho. From the 1960 to the present this sound has permeated the tonal vocabulary of many Japanese composers. In the 1950’s composers where exposed to the music of John Cage who showed them a new way of exploring the traditions of Japan. The aesthetic idea of Ma, silence that joins sound with the other, were explored by many composers and can be seen in works by Noro, R. Noda, and Takemitsu. While Composers, such as Homma, explored the formal design of Jo-Ha-Kyu (introduction-building- rushing). From the 1980 to the present Gendai Guitar has published many new works for the mass of guitarists in Japan, in simple, easy to understand harmonic languages by composers such as Sato and Yoshimatsu. On the other hand the Japan Federation of Composers has continued with new ideas in the realm of contemporary music.