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10-1-1979 Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Investigation of the Boone-St. Joe Limestone Aquifer in Benton County, Arkansas Albert E. Ogden
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Recommended Citation Ogden, Albert E.. 1979. Hydrogeologic and Geochemical Investigation of the Boone-St. Joe Limestone Aquifer in Benton County, Arkansas. Arkansas Water Resources Center, Fayetteville, AR. PUB068. 140
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Arkansas Water Resources Center
HYDROGEOLOGIC AND GEOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE BOONE-ST. JOE LIMESTONE AQUIFER IN BENTON COUNTY, ARKANSAS
By
Albert E. Ogden Department of Geology
Publication No. PUB-0068
October 1979
Arkansas Water Resources Center 112 Ozark Hall University of Arkansas Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701
PROJECT COMPLETIONREPORT
PROJECTNO.: A-O44-ARK ANNUAL ALLOTMENT AGREEMENTNO.: 14-34-0001-9004
STARTINGDATE: 10/1/77 COMPLETIONDATE: 9/30/79
HYDROGEOLOGICAND GEOCHEMICALINVESTIGATION OF THE BOONE-ST. JOE LIMESTONE AQUIFER IN BENTON COUNTY, ARKANSAS
by
Albert E. Ogden Department of Geology
ARKANSASWATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER
University of Arkansas Fayetteville, Arkansas
The work upon which this publication is based was supported in part by funds provided by the Office of Water Research and Technology (Project No. A-O44-ARK), U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., as authorized by the Water Research and Development Act of 1978
October 1979
72701 Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by funds provided by the Arkansas
Water Resources Research Center of the Office of Water Resources and
Technology, United States Department of the Interior, as authorized
under the Water Research and Development Act of 1978, Public Law 95-467.
The work of this project was performed and completed with the
direct assistance of many individuals. The foremost acknowledgement
must go to three graduate students who chose to work on this project
for their Master's thesis. They are: Nasser Rezaie, Richard Brooks, and William Willis. In addition, five undergraduate students worked on special problems related to this project. They are: Jerry Cox,
Charles Barlow, Nancy Taylor, Steve Thompson, and Greta Slavik. Admin-
istrative assistance was provided by Dr. Robert E. Babcock and
E1ai ne Smi1ey. A special appreciation goes to Diana Luger for her
secretarial and typing skills. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES v
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF APPENDICES. 1. vii
INTRODUCTION I 1
ObjectivesDrainageBasinsLocationPhysiography of Study Area. 2 2 2 4
REGIONALGEOLOGY I 5
d .I StructuraStrataHydrogeologicIntrouctlon St.Boone Joeof 1Formation. the Geology.Formation. SignificanceBoone-St. Joe of Aquifer. Strata. ! 5 5 6 6 8 9 HYDROGEOLOGY. 1. 11
Photo-Lineaments.ResultsPumplngTestsIntr~duction SpecificWellsDelMethodsPermeabiProcedureHiCoefficientIntroduction. Low gh WellsayedHomogeneousCavitySolution Permeable ofPermeable with 1the Viof Capability.i in eltoofty MappingRecharge ofdPumpingKarstified aCarbonate andAquifer AquiTransmissibility.PumpingHigh Leaky fer Tests.ProductiveBoundaries. Wells. Rock.Test.WellHydrology Conditions. s Wells.0 .1..0 0 00 . 11 13 13 14 15 17 18 20 23 27 29 33 35 39 44 44 45
Relationship of Photo-Lineaments to Aquifer Characteristics. . 48
IntroductionFisher Exact Probability Test. o 48
WaterTableMap CharacteristicsDischargeProcedure. and Recharge of the Boone-St.Areas. ooo J e o Aquifer. 50 56 57 58 l 61
; GEOCHEMISTRY. 63
MethodsSampleComparisonRelationshipIntroduction Boone-St.Pearson's SulfateChloridePhosphateNiWaterPhosphate Collection trateof Analysis.of Level BetweenJoeCorrelation vsvsChemical vs vs CalciumWellSul vsNitrateMethods.vs Nitrate.WellSul fate. NitrateWellChemical Waters.fate. Parameters.Depth. andCoefficient andDepth. Totaland ParametersSul pHfate. Hardness. Test. and 63 63 63 64 64 64 65 66 66 69 69 72 72 74
SeasonalBacteriaSummary SignSignificantIntroductionIntroduction SulfateChloride.Phosphate i offi Analyses.Variation ca Well nt ReRelationships. andWater 1 at ofionsNitrate. Photo-LineamentChemi Boone-St. hips. stry Joe WellProximity. ~Jater 76 76 78 78 79 79 80 80 81 83 84
CONCLUSIONSRecommendations for Future Research. 86 88
REFERENCES. 89
i i Abstract
The Boone-St. Joe limestone aquifer is an important unconfined aquifer for rural residents of Benton County, Arkansas. Pumping tests indicate a large range in production capability of the aquifer. The coefficient of transmissibility and specific capacity range from 24.8 to 24640 gpd/ft and 0.03 to 30 gpm/ft, respectively. No statistical relationship at a = 0.10 was found between each of these parameters and photo-lineament proximity. Drillers' estimated well yield (gpm) also showed no relationship to photo-lineament proximity. It is there- fore concluded that choosing well sites along photo-lineaments for higher production is not as reliable for karstified carbonate aquifers such as the Boone-St. Joe as for other aquifers.
The pumping tests indicate that six aquifer conditions exist within the Boone-St. Joe that may exist in many karstified carbonate aquifers
The following classes are proposed: 1) wells intersecting caves with rapid recharge, 2) wells intersecting caves with slow recharge
3) aquifer permeability charges within the saturated zone, 4) delayed yield or leaky conditions, 5) wells intersecting recharge boundaries, and 6) wells in homogeneous aquifer conditions
Water in the Boone-St. Joe aquifer exists under water table con- ditions. The water table map constructed for this aquifer indicates t'#o ground-water high areas: one near Decatur and the other around
Lowell. The hydraulic gradient ranges from 47-121 ftjmile and averages
53 ftjmile.
iii The ground-water quality of the aquifer is generally poor as indicated by coliform bacteria analyses performed on 70 samples.
Fifty-one percent of the samples had fecal streptococcus counts of greater than one colony/lOa ml sample. Samples analyzed for total coliform showed the following results: 1) 67% of the wells had 1 or more colonies per 100 ml sample, and 2) 24% of the wells had greater than 100 colonies per 100 ml sample.
Ground water from 253 wells showed that many wells have higher than unpolluted background levels of nitrate, chloride, phosphate, and sulfate, but few wells exceed public health standard limits
Only sulfate and specific conductance change significantly with season with specific conductance being higher during_the dry season. Wells closer to photo-lineaments have statistically higher concentrations of chloride and sulfate.
iv """.. "'! '1. !!II!.'"
LIST OF FIGURES Figure (abbreviated titles) Page 1. Location of Study Area in Benton Co., Ark. 3
2. Arkansas Physiographic Regions. 3
3. Generalized Stratigraphy Showing Aquifers. 7
4. Location of Pumped Wells in Benton Co., Ark. 19
5. Location of Pumped Wells in Washington Co., Ark. 19
6. Theoretical Time-Residual Drawdown Plots. 24
7. Time-Recovery Graph of L~ell No. 57 26
8. Time-Recovery Graph of Well No. 215 26
9. Diagrammatic Illustration of a Well Intersecting a Large, Water-Filled Cave. 28
10. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. 229 30
11. Time-Recovery Graph of Well No. 229 30
12. Time-Recovery Graph of Well No. 113 32
13. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. L~-3 34
14. Time-Recovery Graph of Well No. W-3 34
15. Diagrammatic Illustration of a Well Intersecting a Small, Water-Fill ed Cave. 36
16. Type Curves of s Versus t Showing Delayed Yield. ...38
17. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. 10 38
18. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. W-4 40
19. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. 196 40
20. Time-Drawdown Graph of Well No. 130 42
21. Low Altitude Lineament Orientation Rosette forBentonCo 47
I v
- U-2 Lineament Orientation Rosette for BentonCo 47 23. Straight Cave Segment Passage Orientation Rosette for Benton Co. 47 Relationship Between Fractures and Solution Activity 49
25. An Example of a Contingency Table 51 Illustration of Three Wells Penetrating to Di fferent Aqui fers 60
Plot of Chloride Concentration versus Nitrate Concentration. 67
Plot of Chloride versus Sulfate Concentration 67 Plot of Phosphate versus Nitrate Concentration. 68
30. Plot of Phosphate versus Sulfate Concentration. 68
Plot of Nitrate versus Sulfate Concentration. 70
Plot of Sulfate versus Calcium Concentration 70 33. Plot of Sulfate versus Total Hardness Concentra t ion. 71 34. Plot of Phosphate Concentration versus Well Depth. ...73
35. Plot of Nitrate Concentration versus Water Level 75
Plot of pH versus Water level. 75
vi
26.28.29.36. PLATES rl ate Page t 1. Photo-Lineament/Fracture Trace and Well Location Map. in pocket
2. Water Table Map of the Boone-St. Joe Aquifer in pocket
TABLES Table 1. Pumping Test Results 21 2. Results of the Fisher Exact Probability Test for Well Yields. 53
3. Results of the Fisher Exact Probability Test for Coefficients of Transmissibility. 54
4. Results of the Fisher Exact Probability Test for Specific Capacity. 55 5. r.1eans for Measured Parameters on and off Photo- Lineaments 77
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Well Inventory Data. 94
APPENDIX B Selected Well Water Analyses 117 APPENDIX C Bacter i a Anal ys es 130
vii INTRODUCTION
Northwest Arkansas has experienced a rapid growth in popula- tion in recent years. This rapid growth of population has been accompanied by a growth of water use. Due to great distances from surface reservoirs, most rural residents of Benton County,
Arkansas must use groundwater. There are four major aquifers in the area which furnish water for residents. These are (1) the Potsi-Eminence Dolomite, (2) the Gunter Sandstone, (3) the
Everton Sandstone, and (4) the Boone-St. Joe limestone aquifer
High cost of drilling and the existence of some natural gas and sulphur in deep aquifers, limits the residents to using the shallow surface exposed, Boone-St. Joe imestone aquifer.
A detailed hydrogeologic investigation of the Boone-St.
Joe aquifer has never been exclusively made before with disregard of deeper aquifers. The aquifer is a carbonate aquifer composed of two formations. The upper formation is the Boone Limestone" and the lower part is the St. Joe Limestone. Existing data shows a variable yield for the wells in this aquifer, and little is known about the aquifer's hydrogeologic characteristics and the geologic controls over those characteristics. Also, the recharge and discharge areas and direction of groundwater movement within the Boone-St. Joe aquifer are unknown in the study area. Finally, Qnlya few studies have undertaken the task of describing the
1 2 water quality of this aquifer. The degree of pollution and pollu- tion sources are only moderately understood in Benton County. The effect of season on water quality in the study area has also not been determined.
Objectives The objectives of the study are therefore to:
1 Map photo-lineaments and study their relationship to well productivity.
2) Map the water table of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer to deter- mine recharge and discharge areas, water movement direc- tions, and average hydraulic gradients.
3 Determine the range in the coefficient of transmissibility and specific capacity of the aquifer from pumping tests.
4 Develop a classification scheme of unconfined carbonate aquifers due to karstic and non-karst effects determined from pumping tests.
5) Determine the overall water quality of the aquifer.
6) Relate water quality statistically to photo-lineament proximity and season.
Location of Study Area
The study area includes all of Benton County west of Beaver
Reservoir. The study area is bounded to the north by the Arkan- sas-Missouri state line and to the west by the Arkansas-Oklahoma state line. The southern boundary is the Benton-Washington County line (Fiugre 1
Physiography The state of Arkansas is located within two major physio- graphic regions (Figure 2). The northwest part of the state is 3
AVER
AU
ARKANSAS r~~~~t : : :~ StudyArea
Figure 1 location and map of Benton Co.. Arkansas
~ L t ~~;;.;:1 I ~,. ,.,' -~. ' ,', r
if 0 25 MILES
0 40 Km. -..)1 ,-,.. ~-=_.J f';~"'.~-";: ~.:~.:.::'
Salem Plateau
Springfield Plateau ~- ~ Boston Mountains f ~ Arkansas Va11eyRegion ~ Ouachita Mountain Region
D Gu1f Coastal Plain
Figure 2. Arkansas Physiographic Regions. (after Arkansas Oepartment of Planning, 1973) 4 a part of the Interior Highlands, and the southeast part of the state is within the Gulf Coastal Plain
The Interior Highlands region includes two major provinces:
(1) The Ouachita Province in west central Arkansas, and (2) the
Ozark Highlands Province. The Ozark Highlands Province is composed of three different Plateau surfaces: (1) the Boston Mountain
Plateau, (2) the Springfield Plateau, and (3) the Salem Plateau
(Figure 2). A detailed description of these plateau surfaces is given by Quinn (1958).
Drainage Basins
Benton County, Arkansas is drained generally by three rivers:
(1) the White River, (2) the Illinois River, and (3) the Grand
River. All of these three basins ultimately drain to the Arkansas
River and finally the t-'1ississippi River.
The eastern part of Benton County is part of the ~~hite River
Basin. The western part of Benton County is within the Illinois and Grand River basins. The northern part of the study area is drained by the Grand River, and the southern part is drained by the Illinois River. Spavinaw Creek and Sugar Creek flow to the southwest into the Grand River. Osage Creek, Spring Creek, and
Flint Creek are part of the Illinois River Drainage Basin. " , 'C",,", "
5
REGIO~'IAL GEOLOGY
Introduction The study area is completely underlain by the Boone Lime-
stone and St. Joe Limestone except those places where stream
dissection has cut below the St. Joe exposing other formations
such as the Chattanooga and Clifty. According to Staley (1962)
the oldest rocks exposed in Benton County are of the lower Or-
dovician System. These formations are reported to be 100 ft. thick
and are now inundated by the impoundment of the White River to
form Beaver Reservoir. The oldest rocks that are presently ex-
posed in Benton County, Arkansas are assigned to the Everton
Formation of Middle Ordovician age.
Middle Ordovician, Upper Ordovician and Silurian strata
are absent as a result of either pre-Devonian erosion or non-
deposition. The Penters Formation of Early Devonian age is also
absent. Strata of Middle and Late Devonian age are represented
by the Clifty and Chattanooga Formations. Mississippian strata
(Lower Carboniferous System) within the area of the study includes
the Bachelor, St. Joe, and Boone Formations.
Hydrogeologic Significance of Strata
The Mississippian Boone-St. Joe Limestone aquifer overlies
the Devonian Chattanooga Shale. The shale can be up to 70 feet
thick and perches water above it. The Chattanooga Shale also
confines water in the underlying Sylamore, Clifty and Everton sandstones. These sandstones form an aquifer zone that in con- junction with the Boone-St. Joe aquifer, yield most of the water 6
to rural residents of Benton County and most of the Springfield
Plateau (Ogdenet. al..1979). Figure 3 shows the stratigraphic
relationship of the aquifers
Strata of the Boone-St. Joe Aquifer St. Joe Formation
The name St. Joe Limestone was first used by Hopkins (1893)
for the basal chert free strata of the Boone Formation in northern
Arkansas. Girty (1915) later formalized the St. Joe as a member
of the Boone Limestone. The type section of St. Joe Limestone is located on a railroad outcrop along Mill Creek one and a half
miles northwest of St. Joe, Searcy County, Arkansas (Girty, 1915).
Recent studies of the St. Joe Limestone by ~1cFarland (1975), Shanks
(1976), and Manger and Shanks 1977) have supported the proposal of Cline (1934) that the St. Joe should be raised from member
status to formational rank in northern Arkansas. According to these workers (McFarland, Shanks, and Manger) the St. Joe For-
mation can be subdivided into three members: (1) Compton, (2)
Northvi.ew, and (3) Pierson. Some investigators that have
studied the St. Joe Limestone in Missouri and Oklahoma believe
that the St. Joe should be elevated to group status
The St. Joe Limestone is generally a light-gray mud supported
crinozoan-bryozoan calcilutite (Manger and Shanks, 1977). The thickness of the St. Joe Formation in northern Arkansas ranges
from six to 84 feet with an average of 45 feet (~1cFar1and, 1975;
Shanks, 1976) on the basis of associated conodonts within the
st. Joe Formation, its age is entirely t-1ississippian and spans
the Kinderhookian-Osagean boundary and Fellows, 1970).
Thompson 7
~
QJ ..c
0) t: or- 3: 0 ..c U1 ra QJ S- ra >. 0 "OU1 ~S- QJ U11+- \, or- QJ~ ..cO- ra 1+-"0 Ot: >. ra ..cU1 D..QJ rau 'M S-t: O)'r- or-""'0 > raS- S-D..
U1U or- "O..c QJD.. Nra or- S- .--0) roo S- Or- QJU1 t:>, QJ..c ~D.. . M
:',- QJ I~ S- ':r ::3 0') or- :';j. LJ.. -j J"
~ '
H[;[:; 8
Boone Formation
The name Boone was used first by J. C. Branner (1891) for a succession of chert and limestone in Boone County northcentral
Arkansas. The first usage of the Boone in the literature was by
Simond in 1891. In 1907. Smith and Siebenthal introduced the name of Short Creek Oolith Member for an oolith zone near the top of the Boone Formation in the Tri-State Mining District of south- west Missouri. Purdue and Miser 1916) and Croneis (1930) reported the Boone Formation to be a sequence of light gray, chert-free limestones. cherty limestone. and bedded chert. They also recog- nized the relatively chert free limestone at the base as the St.
Joe Member and an oolith bed near the top of the Boone Formation.
The only detailed analysis of the Boone has been performed by Smith (1977), van den Heuve1 (1978), and Liner (1979). Ac- cording to Smith 1977), the Boone Formation is composed of four different facies. Van den Heuvel 1979) added two more facies and measured the permeability and porosity of hand specimens from the Boone Limestone. According to his report, the Boone Limestone has low values of permeability and porosity, generally less than
0.001 md (millidarcies) and less than 1.0 percent, respectively.
Biosparite and oospartie on the average have the highest values of porosity and permeability with intercrystalline and fracture porosity being the important porosity type, (van den Heuve1, 1979)
The Boone Formation in Missouri has been subdivided into four formations: the Reeds Spring, Elsey, Burlington, and Keokuk
(Thompson and Fellows, 1970). In northwest Arkansas, these sub- divisions cannot be made. The limestones of the Boone Formation 9
degrees by cementation, recrystallization, silicification, dolo- mitization. and stylolite development. There are six groups of petrographic types within the Boone Formation: micros pari te. biomicrosparite, biosparite, oosparite, pelsparite, and chert
(van den Heuvel, 1979). Sixty to 70 percent of the Boone For- mation is composed of chert and 30-40 percent is made of other petrographic types. The Boone Formation is underlain conformably by the St
Joe Formation and overlain unconformably by the Hindsville
Limestone. The thickness of the Boone Formation ranges from 100
in eastern Oklahoma to a reported 485 feet in southern
Missouri.
Structural Geology
The study area is located at the extreme southern edge of
southern flank of the "Ozark Dome" or rise. The core of the Ozark Dome (place of maximum uplift) is in southeasterly Mis- souri where Precambrian igneous rocks are exposed. The first major uplift occurred during the Ordovician Period and continued sporadically until late in the Mississippian Period (Ham and
Wilson, 1967). The Paleozoic strata in north-western Arkansas unconformably rest on Precambrian rocks.
The strata in the study area are nearly flat lying, dipping very gently toward the south. The dip of the strata according to Mapes (1968) ;s one half degree to the south. The geologic map of the state of Arkansas (1976) indicates little structure 10
in the study area. Mapes (1968) noted that there are two major
normal faults in Benton County. The larger one has a strike of NSoE and is located northwest of Sulphur Springs, Arkansas.
There is also one major fold in the study area having an axial
trace trending northeast. The dip associated with this fold
was too slight to be measured with a Brunton Compass. ~,1apes also mentioned possible subsidence structures within
Benton County.
1968) 11
HYDROGEOLOGY
Introduction to Carbonate Hydrology
Since the early part of the present century, geologists and hydrogeologists have made considerable progress in under- standing the hydrology of carbonate rocks. Carbonate aquifers have proven themselves to be a problem because they do not easily lend themselves to the standard concepts associated with the more frequently studied non-carbonate aquifers (Hess,
1974) Hydrologists differ in their ideology about the occurrence and movement of water in carbonate rocks.
In spite of these controversies, it has become possible to recognize and differentiate two major ideas about the occurrence and the movement of water in carbonate rocks. One group of investigators (Katzer, 1909; Martel, 1910; Burdon and Papikiz, 1963; and Jennings, 1971 believe that groundwater circulation is en- tirely restricted to underground streams and water-filled frac- tures with an undefined water table. The other group believes in water table conditions in which groundwater is diffused throughout the aquifer at some base level. These geologists believe that cave origin is a result of fluctuations of the water table in carbonate rocks (Matson, 1909; Davis, 1930; Piper, 1932;
Bretz, 1942; Thornbury, 1954; l~hite, 1969; and Ogden, 1976)
This research indicates the existance of a zone of saturation within carbonate rocks. This saturation zone is known as the phreatic zone with the upper contact with the zone of aeration called the water table for unconfined aquifers. For conti ned aquifers, the level to which water rises in wells is termed the 12 potentiometric surface. The movement of the water in carbonate rocks such as the Boone-St. Joe aquifers occurs in two ways:
(1) concentrated flow through subsurface conduits on route to springs and (2) diffuse flow through the aquifer under water table conditions. This situation causes the prediction of the water table in carbonate rocks to be difficult. Some wells have higher water levels due to the intersection of the well with a subsurface conduit or the presence of a local perched aquifer. Although wells drilled in unfractured Boone-St. Joe limestone areas must go deeper for adequate production, they will have similar water levels to nearby,shallower, more productive wells drilled on fractures. Therefore, a careful analysis of water levels in wells must be made before an accurate piezo- metric map can be made
Carbonate rocks have very low primary porosity. t1ost of thei r porosity and permeability is secondary due to soJutioning. As ttie water percolates through limestone or dolomite, solutioning takes place along the joints, fractures, and bedding planes
Gradually, the openings are enlarged until appreciable subsur- face conduits and enlarged fractures are formed. Under specific conditions solutioning may increase enough to cause the formation of a cave.
Joint systems and fractures in carbonate rocks playa big role in the direction of movement of the water. Since carbonate rocks in the study area lack sufficient intergranular permea- bility, joint systems are essential for the initiation of 13
downward percolation into the aquifer. ~/ater may move a long
bedding planes where the bedding planes are approximately parallel
to the hydraulic gradient. In the study area, the Boone-St. Joe
aquifer is underlain by impervious beds of shale (Bachelor
Formation and Chattanooga Shale) that perches groundwater and
causes a change in water movement from downward flow to lateral
flow. In the study area, the flow is mostly toward the bottom
of the valleys and south and southwest.
Pumping Tests In order to study the movement of groundwater within car-
bonate rocks, it is necessary to know some of the parameters'
which are indicative of the hydraulic properties of the aquifer.
These parameters are porosity, permeability, coefficient of
transmissibility, coefficient of storage, and specific capacity.
In this study, the coefficient of transmissibility, specific
capacity, and permeability of the aquifer are the subject of
investigation. These parameters can be measured in either the laboratory or in the field, but field determinations are much
more accurate. Pumping tests were used in this study to deter-
mine these parameters.
Permeability
The property of a water bearing formation which is related
to its pipeline or conduit flow function is called permeability.
It is defined as a capacity of a porous medium for transmitting water. According to the Glossary of Geology (Gary, et. al., 1974)
the definition introduced by Stearns (1947) is: 14
The Coefficient of Permeability is the rate of flow of water in gallons per day through a cross section on one square foot under a unit gradient at the prevailing tem- perature (60oF).
Synonymous to the permeability is the hydraulic conductivity.
The units for permeabi 1 ity are gpd/ft2, and they have the dimension of velocity.
L3 -1. = LT-l p = ~= - ( 1 ) L2T L2r -T where: P = permeability in gpd/ft2
Q = discharge in gpd (during the pumping test)
L = length unit in feet
T = time in minutes
Coefficient of Transmissibility
This parameter indicates the capacity of an aquifer or a medium to transmit water through its entire saturated thick- ness of the medium. The definition of the coefficient of trans- missibility according to Theis 1938) is:
The rate of flow of water in gallons per day at the pre- vailing water temperature through each vertical strip of the aquifer, one iioot wide having a height equal to the thickness of the aquifer and under a unit hydraulic grad- ient.
The coefficient of transmissibility of an aquifer gives an indication of the permeability of the aquifer, because trans- missibility can be obtained by multiplying the permeability of the aquifer by the saturated thickness of an aquifer.
T=PxM (2) where: T = coefficient of transmissibility in gpd/ft
M = thickness of the aquifer in feet 15
Note that the units of the coefficient of transmissibility have the dimension of L2T-1.
Specific Capacity
This parameter is an important indicator of well produc- tivity. According to the Glossary of Geology (Gary, et.al.,
1974) it is defined as:
The rate of discharge of a water well per unit of drawdown.
It is commonly expressed in gallons per minute per foot (gpm/ft) by the following equation:
C = Q (3) s where: C = specific capacity in gpm/ft
s = drawdown of water table in feet
Q = discharge of the well in the equilibrium stage.
Specific capacity usually varies slowly with duration of discharge. If the specific capacity remains constant during the pumping test, it indicates that the water level in the well and discharge are constant. This occurs when the discharge from the well equals the recharge to the well by the aquifer. The well is then said to have recharge equilibrium conditions.
Pumping tests enable the hydraulic properties of aquifers to be determined by pumping a well at a constant rate and ob- serving the drawdown of the water table or piezometric surface in the pumped well. In exploration projects, one or more observation wells are drilled for accurate measurement of the change of the water table. ~~here there is no observation well, the water level is measured in the pumped well. The amount of -""00__-
16
drawdown and the rate of recovery is a function of the aquifer's
permeability and porosity and the intersection of the cone of
depression to recharge and barrier boundaries.
Two types of pumping tests are commonly performed:
(1) steady state or equilibrium state and (2) a nonsteady or
nonequilibrium state. ~Jith the steady state test, pumping
is continued for a sufficient length to allow the water levels
in the pumped well and observation wells to reach equilibrium
(draw down almost stops). ~Jith the nonsteady state pumping tests,
the water level drops in the pumped well and observation wells
and is measured in relation to the time regardless of equilibrium
conditions.
For nonsteady state pumping tests, Theis (1935), Jacob (1963),
and Chow (1965) have introduced methods of modifications for
calculation of the aquifer characteristics. In order to simplify
JaCob's method, Chow (1965) developed a method of solution
which has the advantages of avoiding curve fitting and being
restricted in its application. In Chow's (1965) method a recovery
test is performed in the pumped well or observation wells. For
convenience in obtaining a solution, residual drawdown is plotted
on a linear scale against tit' on a logarithmic scale. tit' is
a ratio in which t is the time since the pumping test started
and t' is the time since the recovery test started. T is cal-
culated by the following formula:
T=~ ~s where: s = the change in the drawdown between two cycles of the logarithmic scale. 17
Procedure of a Pumping Test
After arrangements for a pumping test, the following con- trols and measurements must be done:
1) Measure the static water level in the pumped well and all of the observation wells if any), before pumping.
2) Measure the distance between the center of pumped well and the center of each observation well
3) Pump the well at a constant rate (Q), even though the pumping level may vary during the pumping period
4 Accurately measure the drawdown in the pumped well and in observation wells.
5) Accurately record the time as each water level measurement is taken as pumping proceeds.
6) Cease pumping and proceed to measure and record the rate of recovery in the pumped and observation wells.
The duration of each pumping test depends on the type of test, method of solution, and type of aquifer. Usually, pumping tests are run from thirty minutes up to a few weeks long. How- ever, for some methods of solution like Theis's (1935) method, the pumping test has to be continued until the water table reaches a dynamic level or a constant level. In recovery tests, measurementsare taken until the water table recovers to the initial static water level or at least very close to it.
Thirty-nine pumping tests were performed during April, June,
July, and September of 1978 at random locations. In order to obtain a sufficient number of wells for pumping tests within the study area, the newspaper was used as a device for advertisement 18 to inform the local residents. Unfortunately, not many people responded to the advertisement. ~1ost of the peop1e that did call for a pumping test had some problems with their wells, such as a deficiency of water, pollution, or pump problems. This caused an obvious bias in the aquifer characterization data towards lower values. Another restriction in using wells for pumping tests, was the limitation of the depth of the well to a maximum of approximately 300 ft. Wells over this depth were suspected of penetrating aquifers below the Boone-St. Joe.
Only 22 wells were considered adequate for pumping tests in Benton County. Twenty-two wells were not sufficient for giving the true nature of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer, so some pumping tests were performed on the geologically and hydrologically simi- lar Boone-St. Joe wells in Washington County. Figures 4 and 5 show the locations of the wells pumped in the two counties.
Results of the Pump;nq Tests
Generally, each individual well in the study area has a certain characteristic which is related to the depth, water table, type of pump, etc., but there are some other features that are similar for all of the wells. These features are related to hydro- geologic characteristics of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer which will be discussed in the following section of this chapter.
The drillers' estimated range in yield of wells in the study area is ~ gpm to 60 gpm with a median yield of 3.5 gal/min. The results of the pumping tests show a range for specific capacity from 0.02 gpm/ft to 30 gpm/ft with a median of 0.29 gpm/ft. The range of the coefficient of trans- 19
'" .-.0 . " -.-c- .\\-" 'i"",) ~
..' , Ii--: ":...,.' ~. ~{~ ~:-: .!- !! " ,
.)~~;~::i::'.:.1 ..~ ~
~..
." BENTON COUNTY ARKANSAS t
I ,.:..'~,:...\ ..~?-", " ':';"'-"'_.' : ~::.,'- ' ~ '- ... Figure 4. Location of pumped wells in Benton County, Arkansas
" -"..:"" :r , WASHINGTONCOU :
I .Well Sit~
"""~- t..; !
l ..~!?;!!.:r::,-; , \ .",'.. '"1 \{ i'{;:(...:'f.~t,,0K " 7r ~: :~,.r:::{.::.(::-:~:.~~~~':~:~'.:'li. ~'~::' :~ , .~~~~f:"" U; ,j{ i~. \t~",~ ~1
I ,,->Ii \\ ' " ~,.. '; '..' c' , ::\ :~. '"':.i : .' ::'-.-Ll r -' ,;. S~~(l,~ ;:. ~ '. 1.!.~~ ' ~::jr- %~
Figure 5. Location of pumped wells in Washington County, Arkansas
~1."~;/'[""1 .~1 20
missibility is from 24.79 gpd/ft to 24640 gpd/ft with a medium
of 176 gpd/ft. Table 1 shows the results of the pumping
The results of the pumping tests show that carbonate aqui-
fers respond in a variety of ways that are dependent on such fac-
tors as the presence or absence of cave, recharge boundaries,
leakage and/or changes of permeability within the aquifer. These factors can be accurately described from pumping test results.
Therefore~ a classification of unconfined carbonate aquifer con-
ditions is hereby being presented based on an aquifer's response
to pumping and recovery. Within the study area three main types
of wells are recognized: (1) high permeable aquifer wells, (2) low permeable aquifer wells~ (3) wells with a recharge boundary.
Subclasses of these groups will be subsequently presented.
High Permeable Aquifer Wells
These wells have high yields and low drawdown, and thus have
high coefficient of transmissibilities and specific capacities.
levels of production are believed to be related to two pos-
sible reasons: (1) the existence of open fractures and joints so
water diffuses easily through them toward the wells, and (2) the
intersection of water filled caves by the well. The productivity
of such wells depends on the size of the cave and also the amount
of recharge to the conduits. High productivity wells are divided
into two subgroups: (1) "homogeneous" high productive wells and
(2) wells in karstified rock.
s. 21
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S-+>QJ QJQJU +,QJ/o /OLJ..tI- :3 S- U") U") . C ::3 CX) .-I ~ "" U") a 0'1 ~ a .-I ~ CX) "C U..-(/) .. or- 0 cY') 1.0 r--. o::j" .-I cY') N CX) r--. .-I U') U') CX) +'r--3 N U') o::j" o::j" cY') r--. .-I N CX) N U') .-I U') cY') ~QJO .-I N .-I +'>r-- (/)QJQJ -JaJ . .-i
OJ ..- -N CV) -:t" LC) 1.0 .0 ..-0 ~ --0'\ CV) --0 0 CV) --0 -0 -N CV) -:t" rtj aJZ CV) I 0 LC) N I I 0'\ 0 0'\ -I CX) I CV) CV) CV) CV) CV) I- ::=: -33-N33-- N3 3NNNNN 23
A. Homogeneous high productive wells
These wells have relatively high yields and low drawdown,
and consequently have high values of transmissibility and spec-
ific capacity. Wells no. 57 and no. 215 are examples of this
case. Well no. 57 has a maximum residual drawdown of 0.5 ft
and coefficient of transmissibility of T = 2640 ft. (Table 1)
Before interpretation of the time-recovery graph of the wells in
the study area, it is necessary to describe possible cases and
different conditions of the recovery graphs.
In the ideal recovery test, water levels thoughout the aqui-
fer tend to return to the original static level where the residual
drawdown approaches zero as the value of tit approaches one on
a semilogarithmic plot. Therefore, the straight line of the time-
recovery graph should pass through the upper left hand corner of
the diagram as shown in Figure 6. Study of the residual drawdown
curves from actual pumping tests, shows that the curves do not always pass through the origin. In the case where the curve fails to pass through the origin, it is concluded that aquifer conditions do not conform to the assumed idealized conditions. There are three ways in which the conditions differ from the theoretical aquifer. One condition is when the curve shows a residual dravJdown of several inches or feet or more as tit' becomes unity. This sit- uation is due to the existence of an aquifer which has very slow
or no recharge and is not well extended. The lowest curve of
Figure 6 illustrates this kind of result. The second case is where an aquifer is subjected to variation in the coefficient of storage which is due to the change of the ratio of water to air within the 24
0 0 ~ -0 i Q}s.. UQ} i ~-I-> z ~ 0 ,... r-r-tI- ~ w ~C-~ 0 &.. U(/)or- or- Q - i j ,~ a ~ -1->-0Q} . ~ c s..Q}E o.o~ Q 0 0 Q} s...... c~0') 0 w -I->~~ ~ '" E or- E -0 ~ ~ OQ} N C s..>(/) : tI- s.. ° r- :3.c 'C~ s..U-I-> ...~ 0 Q} 'a,. &.. N tI-~~ tI- ::: ° r- "'0U or- 0 ~ w -O-O~ w C.) / 3:::: ...z ;I '" (/) ~ 0-- ; ~s...cL!) ! - ~ or-0-0(/) I ~ 0 -I->r-(/)r- .w > iii ~ or- ~ ~ Q) i=':3~ .. '" 01 ~ (I) E ~-o:::c.. c - ~ or- 0 or- 0 I- U(/)Q}~ ~ Q}Q} ,... s.. s.. s.. .. Q} .c~ CO tl-Q}-I->O I j or- .c or- It) :3-1->Q}(/) 0" .c or- ~ "-1-» (/) or- .. r-~tl-C ~OO ~ Q} or- ~ s..-I->~O III C') or- ~ (/) III 110 j If: - ~-o~~ Q}~ .c .c0~0 3 U°r- '"":) 1II~~it- ~ III 110 N .I :I -'1II>t-0 ~ - . " \0 ~>_Za.1II~t- OJ / 0°-,111U t- ~ / UIIIO>< :3 !~t-ill C) I J or- U- T .-~ 0 ... N In co ~ ~ ~ M . 0)
+J--UMOpM~~a L~np~sa~
vF.,-. 25 voids during both drawdown and recovery. In this condition, the
displacement is usually little and the residual drawdown reaches zero as tit approaches between 1 and 2 In the third situation the water level reaches static level much earlier than ratio tit' approaches unity. In this case, tit' is usually 2 or more due to a recharge boundary being intersected (Johnson division, UOP, 1975)
Figure 7 is a time-recovery graph of a Boone-St. Joe well showing the curve displaced from the theoretical position and indicating a recharge effect on the well. This recharge is from surrounding fractured and highly permeable limestone. As the water level drops, the hydrostatic pressure within the aquifer makes the water move toward the low pressure zone. The specific capacity of this well is 9 gpm/ft and the coefficient of transmissibility is
2640 gpd/ft. This well entirely penetrates the Boone-St. Joe limestone. Using the thickness of the limestone at this point, the permeability (p) can be calculated from Equation 2. The per- meability of the aquifer at this point is 10.15 gpd/ft2
A pumping test of 110 minutes duration (both drawdown and re- covery) was performed on well no. 215 in order to investigate the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer. After 50 minutes of pumping with an average discharge of 6.5_gpm, the water level dropped only 3.2 ft. The values of the coefficient of transmis- sibility and specific capacity were 1430 gpd/ft and 2.31 gpm/ft respectively. These values indicate the potential high productivity of the aquifer at this site. Data of the recovery indicate that the strata within the Boone-St. Joe aquifer are nearly uniform in structure and permeability. The recovery graph shown in Figure 8. again indicates the recharge effect to the well. 26
...
co 3 2 ."0 3 ..00 0 -.. ."~ 3 '" OJ
I I I I I I . I I I -I --I I I I 2 3.5575810 2Q 30 ~O 50 eo 70~ ~ 100 tit'
Figure 8. Time-recovery graph of well no. 215 showing the d1splace- ment of the curve by a variation in storage. 27
B. Wells in karstified rock
Wells no. W-l and no. 229 are the examples of this type of aquifer. Springs, caves, and sinking and losing streams in the study area are evidence of the karstic nature of the aquifer and the extent to which they have modified the groundwater hydrology by solution. Some of these caves are exposed at the surface, but
(1958) has shown mathematically that many more caves are in
subsurface yet to be exposed. Well reports. drillers. and home owners substantiate this.
Drawdown graphs show that most of the small cavities exist- ing in the well act as reservoirs or storage areas. Some of them are not well developed having slow recharge, whereas, others are fully developed with rapid recharge.
Well no. W-1 has a total depth of 125 ft and a static water
of 74 ft. Upon pumping 35 minutes at 9 gpm, the well had a residual drawdown of 2.6 ft. After pumping ceased, the water level returned to the static level after only eight minutes. There is some evidence that a cave was intersected. The first piece of evidence is that water at the beginning of the pumping test was clear, but after 16 minutes it became muddy and cloudy. This well is interpreted as having intersected a cave (Figure 9). Resistiv- ity results indicate a large cave or fracture (Eddy, personal communication, 1979). As the water is pumped from the well, the laminar flow of the water changes to turbulent flow. The water running down the side of the well from the water-filled cave or enlarged fracture removes the previously deposited fine grain material and makes the water muddy. Another possibility is that the water moves through the cave faster and stirs up the 28
Q) Q) >.c ~OI-.) u c ~ -r- .c 1:/)01-.) C-r- -r- :3: 01-.) UQ) Q)I:/) V) ~ >- >- Q)O 01-.)01-.) CV) -r- Q) r-1:/) r->- Q)~ :3:r- - >- ~>-Q) 04- 4- -r- OQ)::S 1:/)C1" C>-~ 0 ~ -r- .c Q) oI-.)UC ~Q)O >->-01-.) 01-.) V) V)Q)Q) ::suE r- ~-r- r-4-r- -r- >- ::SQ) UV)O -r- ~ 01-.)"0 ~ -r- - E 0.01-.) E~V) ~ >- I >- Q) I:/).cc ~0I-.)0 -r- -r- 0 O:3:~ j-. <1Y\
OJ ~ ~ 0) or- LJ- 29 mud. The existence of nearby conduit springs, caves, and infor. mation about the drilling further indicates the existence of a water filled conduit in the well.
Well no. 229 located in the southeast corner of Benton County shows the same characteristics of the last well. Of all pumping tests performed, well no. 229 is the best producer. After 30 minutes of pumping with a discharge of 14 gpm, the water level dropped only 1.3 ft. The coefficient of transmissibility for the is T = 24640 gpd/ft and the specific capacity is 10.7 gpm/ft
Figures 10 and 1 show the drawdown and recovery graph of this well, respectively. Well no. W-2 shows the same feature as the
two wells and subsidence of an area 20 ft from the well further suggests the presence of the cave.
Low Permeable Aquifer Wells
This group of wells are characterized by having a low pro- duction and high residual drawdown. The coefficient of transmis- sibilities of the wells are very low and usually less than 170 gpd/ft. Specific capacities are also very low and range from
0.02 to 0.52 gpm/ft. The reason for the aquifer having very poor production at these sites is probably due to the low permeabil- ity associated with being farther away from concentrations of fractures and joints, or lesser degree of karstification, or partial penetration. There are many wells in the study area with a very low production. Amont the pumped wells, 43.7 percent are in this cate- gory based on a major break in the transmissibility values. The following examples will help demonstrate the aquifer's characteris- tics in low permeable and low production areas: 30
..."- c 3 0 "to 3 .0... a
Time-drawdown graph of well no. 229 showing the intersection Figure 11. of a recharge boun~ary after 5 minutes of pumping. 31
1) Well No. 113 is 250 ft deep, and it is 70.1 ft to the water table. A pumping test with a duration of 23 minutes was performed, and the coefficient of transmissibility and specific capacity were calculated to be Tl = 13.4 gpd/ft, T2 = 37.0 gpd/ft, and
C = 0.1 gpm/ft. The two different transmissibilities are attributed
to changes in permeability within the aquifer. Figure 12 is the
recovery graph of this well and data of the recovery shows that
after 50 minutes the water recovered only 29.5 ft; 2.9 ft lower than the original static level. The graph shows a displacement from theoretical position (Figure 6) which passes through origin of dia- gram. This left side displacement from the origin is due to incom- plete recovery because of the limited extend of the aquifer or low
permeability of water bearing rock surrounding the well.
2) Well No. 164. After pumping well no. 164 for 45 minutes, the water table dropped from 174.75 to 272.3 ft with a residual draw- down of 102.45 ft. A recovery test was then performed for 60 minutes
During that time, the well recovered only 11.7 ft. The T and C values for this well are T = 27.4 gpd/ft and C = 0.02 gpm/ft. respectively.
The data indicate the low permeability of the aquifer at this site and that most of the water pumped during the 45 minutes was water stored in the well.
In addition to these described wells, there are several wells which do not lend themselves easily to the standard form of inter-
pretation of normal aquifers. Actual pumping test data and rela- ted graphs are different from "type" interpretive curves. Nor- mally, the water level drops continuously with a relatively decreasing rate until the well reaches the dynamic water level 32
0 E ~ 0 i tl-0S-tI- i 0 ~~ ,... ccc OJ OJ or- E~ i OJX(f1 UOJOJ ~ ca C) oc a.OJca 0 (f1~..c: .. or- or- U -oE or- 0 C)..-~ ~ C or- -0 OJ ~c~ oca-o ..c: 0 (f1 >,-0 N S-OJ MOJ~ ..->ca ..-0..- U~ ° OJ U - OSC ca ~ OJ U ° 0 ..-~ S- ~ ~ ..-OJOJOJ 0) OJ..-S-tI- ~ a. ca Or- = E ~ tl-0(f10" "- OUOJca c~ CO ..c: °r OJ a. ca..c: caO>~ 10 S-~ C) I-C OJ or- >,~O .. S--o~>, OJ I-~ > C or- 0 or- ..- CO) U C) o°r- OJ or- S-.o S-S-OJca lOti-OJ OJ or- E N EOJ~S- °r-..c: 0" OJ I-~caa.
N H OJ S- -. .. :3 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0') N C') ~ It) Or- U- (:l.J) UMOpM~~a l~np~Sa~ 33
(equilibrium condition). The graph of drawdown and recovery are
usually curves or straight lines without any disruption. In some
specific wells in the study area, this normality is not seen in
the graphs. Data of some wells not fitting Iitype" interpretive
curves show that the water level drops in the well with a rela-
tively fast and constant rate for a short period of time. Then it will drop at a slower or faster rate and almost reach a constant
level for a short time, after which it begins to drop at a rate
approximately the same as at the beginning of the test (Figures 13
and 14). This phenomenon may occur once or more depending on the
characteristics of the well. Although this case is not generally
seen in all of the recovery tests, a few of them have shown some
change in the shape of the recovery graph which is believed to be
related to the following possible phenomenon: (1) these wells
intersecting cavities or vugs (cavity solutions) and (2) change in
the rate of drawdown due to "delay of yield" or leaky conditions.
Cavity Solution. The rate at which the water level lowers in
the well upon pumping is a function of the volume of water stored
in the well, and the volume of open spaces which are filled with
water. Consequently, wherever there are some cavities filled with
water, the water drops slower than the other parts of the well, as
the water level lowers to the zone of the cavity (Figures 13 and
After depletion of a cavity,the rate of the drawdown
increases again. These changes in drawdown are reflected on the
shape of the time-drawdown graphs as a steplike or sigmoid curve
(Figures 13 and 14). This abnormality is observed in the time-
14). 34
0
10
..... c~ 0 -0~ '0 S- O "'0 -0 "' ~.,
1 2 3 ~ 5 e 7 e I 10 20-- 30 cu ~ 00 'u- ~ 100
t (minutes) Figure 14. Time-recovery graph of well no. W-3 showing a sigmoidal curve caused by slow refilling to the intersected cavity. 35 recovery graphs as well. It usually occurs at the same depth as for drawdown. Figure 15 shows a schematic representation of a well intersecting a cavity. In the study area there were four pumped wells that showed evidence of cavity solution. The follow- ing is an example
Well No. 90 is 150 ft deep, and as both the drawdown (Figure
13) and recovery graph (Figure 14) show, there is an anomaly which is probably related to intersecting a cave. The depth to the cave or conduit is about 60 ft from the ground surface. The calculated coefficient of transmissibility and specific capability are:
T = 55.87 gpd/ft and C = 0.125 gpm/ft respectively
Delayed Yield and Leaky Conditions. The water from storage in the aquifer is not in immediate response to the drop of the water level in the well. As a result, the rate of the drop of the water table may be faster than the rate of which pore water is released.
Some of the pore water is released immediately when the water level lowered. This is due to the hydrostatic pressure in the aquifer and well. One of the reasons for this delay, is the nega- tive air pressure that is developed due to restrictions of the air movement to the space and cavities left by draining water. Such air movement is restricted by wet soil layers in the zone of saturation or the existence of clay size materials that partly surround the vugs and spaces.
The recovery graphs of a well with delayed yield show only a displacement which is due to a change in the coefficient of storage. In theory, the storage coefficient is assumed to be 36
~ aJ~ ..c:"- tC ~> tC""O O>UaJ ~ ~ "- tC U ~ aJ tC""ol/) S-aJS- ~~aJ aJU~ ~aJ~ aJ 1/).,- CoS- ,- aJ~ I/)~O QI r--~~ r-- .,- ~ aJ I/) :3: I/) tC . tC..c:aJ O..c: 0> :3: COS- ~c:tltC Ir c: tl-r--r--U Or--aJaJ aJ3S- C3 0 aJaJ "- r-- I/) ~ ."- =' tCS-..c:tI- S-aJ:3:tI- ~ tI- "- 1/).,- aJ""O ='='0> r--0"S- .. r--tCtC:3: "- ..c: 0 aJUr-- UOaJl/) "- '"":>S- ~ ""0 tC .:3:~ E~OtC EV')r-- tCll/)~ S-aJ ~ 0> ~ ..c: "- tCO~> ',- 0.'- tC OCO:3:U . Lr\ .-I
aJ s... ;:, C) or- LL. 37 constant during both the pumping and recovery periods of the
(Johnson Division, UOP, 1975). During the drawdown test, voids, and small spaces within the rock are dewatered and air occupies them instead. When pumping is stopped, the rising water level may trap some of the air as bubbles in the voids. Thus, a slightly smaller volume of water will refill the dewatered portion of the formation resulting in a corresponding displacement of the recovery graph because of the variation in storage.
A plot of drawdown versus time appears to be similar to plots of test data from a leaky aquifer at the early part of the curve.
The difference is that~ drawdown seldom stabilizes with time in wells having delayed yield as may be the case with leaky aquifers.
Since in all of the pumping tests the duration of the pumping was short, stabilization of the drawdown never was observed. As a result~ it may be possible that this early part of the curve shows the previously mentioned abnormality is due to existence of leakage from overlying, locally perched water. Delayed yield reflects on the shape of draw down graphs and produces a sigmoid draw down curve.
This behavior is shown in Figure 16, where the time drawdown curves of delayed yield is compared with type curves of confined
(left) and unconfined aquifers (right). The best two examples for delayed yield are wells 21 and ~1-4
Well No. 21 is 115 ft deep with the water standing at 12.5 ft below the surface. Figure 17 shows the effect of the delayed yield only on the time-drawdown graph with the pumping test being 38
......
~ ~ ."0 ~ 00 S- O
00 -."" .,VI cx: 39 performed at 8 gpm for 40 minutes. Delayed yield occurred at a depth of 30 ft from surface after 10 minutes. This abnormality is not shown on the recovery graph. The coefficient of transmissi- respectively. The recovery graph for this well shows that the curve is displaced from the theoretical location due to the varia- tion in aquifer storage. Well No. W-4 is another example showing delayed yield. Figure 18 shows the time-drawdown graph of this well. This pumping test was performed at 4 gpm for 42 minutes
Wells with Recharge Boundaries
t4ost formations recei ve recharge to some extent, and recharge to the aquifer is either continuous or intermittent. Where recharge is intermittent, the aquifer may perform without recharge occurrence during certain periods of time ranging from weeks to seasons of the year. Most of the time-drawdown curves that have been presented so far could represent wells with no surface recharge during some length of time.
When recharge in an appreciable quantity is reaching the aquifer, the time-drawdown graph from the pumping test reflects this recharge. Figure 19 shows how the time-drawdown plot flat- tens out as the cone of depression intersects a recharge boundary and the discharge of the well equals the recharge causing drawdown to stabilize.
There are some wells within the study area that intersect a 40
......
c ~ ""0 ~ oa '"'- ~ oa """ '" OJ co:
... c ~ 0 "0~ ~ '"L- "~ "0 -., a:..
3 4 5 0 7 0 910 20 30 40 SO 60 70~ 90 100
t (minutes)
Figure 19. Time-drawdown plot of well no, 196 showin9 the effect of intersection of a recharge boundary,
! 41
recharge boundary during pumping and consequently this is reflected on the time drawdown graph. The following wells are some examples.
1) Well No. 196. This well is drilled on the northern bank
of Osage Creek. Figure 19 shows the time-drawdown graph for the
pumped well. The well was pumped at a constant rate of 6.5 gpm for
50 minutes. The points plotted on the semilog graph define two
straight lines. The first part of the graph has a slope of
~s = 4.8. The second part of the graph is horizontal and indicates recharge to the aquifer within the zone of influence of the pump-
ing well.
The first part of the graph indicates that the cone of depres-
sion was continuously enlarging during the first 16 minutes of pumping, but from this moment on, recharge from Osage Creek affected the graph. The calculated transmissibility and specific
capacity are T = 377 gpd/ft and C = 0.87 gpm/ft. respectively.
2) Well No. 130. This well also indicates the intersection of a recharge boundary. The possible source of recharge to Well
No. 130 is probably the water from a nearby spring. The cone of
depression probably intersected the fracture system feeding the spring (Figure 20). The relatively flat, but not horizontal part of the graph, indicates the recharge to the well. The reason that the second part of the graph is not exactly horizontal is due to the con- tribution of water from the spring and aquifer not equaling the dis- charge. The calculated transmissibility and specific capacity are as follows: T = 113.9 gpd/ft and C = 0.28 gpm/ft, respectively 42
-I-' U 0) tI- tI- 0)
0) .c -I-'
C1 C or- 3: 0 .c V) . a ~ M S- r-- ~"0 ° s:: 0 :;, C 0 V) .0 Q) r-- +> r-- 0) :3 0) 0) ~ 3: S- or- ~..s:: E tI- - 0 u 0) +> .c S- Co to ~ ~ C1 0) s::'r- c 3: ~ 0 U -0 0) 3: (/) to S- ~ O) -0 ~ I s::'r- 0) E or- tI- I- 0 . 0 N
QJ s... ~ 0) or- u.
:1..:1-) UMOpMe.AO 43
According to the driller for the Well No. 130, the thickness of the water-bearing limestone is m = 68.5 ft (saturated zone), there- fore the permeability is 1.662 gpd/ft2. 44
Photo-Lineaments
Introduction
The study of photo-lineaments and fracture traces has been recognized as a good method for understanding the structural char- acteristics of an area. Photo-lineament and fracture analyses have been used in different areas, especially in exploration for petro- leum, minerals, and gound water.
Geologists and photogeologists have a variety of definitions for a lineament, but they are essentially the same. The defini- tion usually refers to some topographic features that are expressed by vegetation and soi tone alignments which are visible on aeri al photog,raphs. The definition that is accepted by
According to his definition a lineament is "a natural feature con- sisting of topographic (including straight stream segments), vege- tation or soil tonal alignments visible primarily on aerial photographs or mosaics and expressed continuously for at east one mile but which may be expressed continuously or discontinuously for many miles". A fracture trace is similar to a lineament, but is less than one mile in length. Lineaments are believed to be the result of stresses that produce fractures and joints. Gibbons (1962) studied the fracture patterns in northwest and west-central Arkansas. According to
Gibbons (1962), fractures in this area originated from compress-
;onal forces. Barlow and Ogden (1978) found that the orientation of joints and photo-lineaments of Benton County, Arkansas are 45 statistically dissimilar. They suggest that photo-lineaments may be swarms of fractures but of a different orientation and perhaps origin than joints. A recent analysis of joints and photo-line- aments of the Arkansas Valley Province has been made by Tolman
(1979).
Methods of t.1apping
One of the objectives of this study is to investigate the relationship between lineaments and fracture traces and water well yi el d. Black and white low altitude photographs with a scale of
1:20,000, and color IR, U-2, 1:120,000 scale photographs were used to make a photo-lineament map for Benton County, Arkansas. A
Lietz MS-27 mirror stereoscope was used in tracing the photo- lineaments on acetate overlays placed over the photographs. After tracing the lineaments, they were transferred to sixteen, 7.5 minute, topographic quadrangle maps which covered the study area.
These lineaments were finally transferred to a Benton County owner- ship map (1972) which served as a base map (1:62,500). In order to transfer the lineaments accurately to the base map, the beginning and end of each lineament had to be found on the photo- graphs, topographic maps, and finally the base map. Although care was taken, inaccuracies were introduced in the exact positioning of the lineaments due to the significant difference in scale bet- ween the photographs and the topographic maps.
What were mapped as a photo-1ineament, mayor may not be considered a photo-lineament by others. Siegal (1976) analyzed the significance of operator error in mapping photo-lineaments 46 using photographs taken under various illumination conditions.
Five operators produced ineament maps which had significant differences in both number and length of photo-lineaments. The variation in length of photo-lineaments was 22 percent due to operation errors and two percent attributab1e to the type of imagery. Only four percent of photo-lineaments present were delineated by all five operators. Siegal (1976) recommends that comparing different operators results in photo-lineament analysis must be done with extreme caution. Tolman (1979) has also found only a four percent agreement in lineaments mapped in the Arkansas
Valley by various geologists at the University of Arkansas
A statistical comparison of joints, straight cave segments, and photo-lineament orientations by Barlow and Ogden (1978) has shown that photo-lineament orientations from U-2 and low altitude black and white photographs (Figures 21,22) and straight cave segment orientations (Figure 23) are statistically similar. This similarity of orientation strongly suggests that the ineaments mapped in this study area are actual geologic fractures, that are controlling the orientation of caves and therefore the movement of groundwater. Joints and straight cave segments were found not to be statistically similar (Barlow and Ogden, 1978), thereby both suggesting that caves form along joints and fractures with many orientations different than joints. Figure 21. Low altitude lineament orientation rosette ' for Benton Co (after Barlow and Ogden. 1978)
Figure 22. U-2 lineament orientation rosette for Benton Co. (after Barlow and Ogden. 1978)
w 12% 10 e 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12%
Figure 23. Straight cave segment passage orientation rosette. (after Barlow and Ogden. 1978) 1"or Benton Co. .c coc., "",,~,
48
Relationship of Photo-Lineaments To Aquifer Characteristics
Introduction
Lattman and Parizek (1964) studied the relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of ground water in carbonate rocks of the Nittany Valley of Pennsylvania. They concluded that the specific capacity for wells drilled in dolomite or sandy dolo- mite strata on or near single fracture traces and at the intersec- tion of two fracture traces is ten times to one hundred times greater respectively than off-fracture wells. Figure 24 shows the relationship between fractures and solution activity in a carbonate rock.
Lariccia and Rauch (1976) applied a non-parametric statisti- cal analysis using data of yield and specific capacity of wells in the FYi'ederick Valley, r~aryland,to test the relationship between well yield and photo-lineament proximity. The results of the test show that wells within 100 ft of a lineament have significantly higher productivities compared with other wells. They also concluded that photo-lineaments are often associated with fracture zones and areas of secondary solution porosity and permeability that extend at least 100 ft laterally on either side of the lineament. The
Frederick Valley is composed of Ordovician carbonates that have little karstic development. In the neighboring Hagerstown Valley,
Lariccia and Rauch (Ogden, personal communication, 1979) found no relationship in this karstic terrain. Ogden (1976) found no rela- tionship between the well yields and lineaments in central Monroe
County, West Virginia, which is also highly karstified.
50
Gaines (1978) studied the relationship between well yields of
relatively deep water wells and their proximity to lineaments drawn from both ASCA air photo mosaics and Landsat images of
northern Arkansas. Results of her study indicate a good relation- ship between yield and the proximity of photo-lineaments.
Fisher Exact Probability Test
The Fisher Exact Probability Test was used in this thesis to test the relationship of well yield to photo-lineament proximity in the study area. The Fisher Exact Probability Test is a non-para- metric statistical test. This test determines the probability of a significant relationship or trend in data (Siegel, 1956).
According to this technique, the populations of two random samples are divided into two mutually exclusive classes. This method is by constructing a four-celled contingency table as shown in
Figure 25. Three individual tests were performed for this study using the specific capacity, coefficient of transmissibility and yield (drillers' gpm estimates) data
1) One hundred and eighty-four wells were used to test the relationship between yield (gpm) and photo-lineament proximity,
2 shows the location of the wells and mapped photo-lineaments.
Water wells used in this test were classified as being near or far from the closest lineament. Since the zone of influence or width of a fracture is unknown, three arbitrary classes of lineament proximity were tested. These are (1 250 ft, (2) 500 ft, and
(3) 1000 ft on either side of a lineament. The wells were also classified as being low or high productive based on the medium
of each parameter tested 51
WELL YIELD
r-- r-- OJ 3
0 of-> Less Than 1000 ft ~ of-> 'r- E 'r- X 0 s... Coo
of-> C OJ E Greater Than to 1000 ft OJ C 'r- -J
Figure 25. An example of a contingency table for the Fisher Exact Probability Test. This cell tests well yields versus well proximity to photo-lineaments for the Boone-St. Joe aquifer, with number of wells indicated in each table or cell category. 52
2) The coefficient of transmissibility of 32 wells was tested using each of the three lineament proximity classes, and the median of the coefficient of transmissibility.
3) The specific capacity of the same 32 wells versus their proximity to the lineaments was tested in a similar manner.
Once contingency tables are constructed for each test, the following formula is used to calculate the alpha probability level of significance (Siegel, 1956):
p = (A+B)!(C+D)!(A+C)!(B+D)! N!A!B!C!D! (5) were A, B, C, and D are the number of wells in each respective cell. P is the alpha probability of a significant relationship.
~Jis the sum total of all wells used in that test. The resul t of the tests are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4. The Alpha probability value chosen to indicate a statistical level of significance level was 0.10. If the calculated value of the alpha probability is greater than the significance level, then the Null hypothesis of there NOT BEING A SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPIS ACCEPTEV. Otherwise, the null hypothesis is rejected. The results of the tests show that in all cases the calculated alpha probability value was greater than 0.10. Consequently, the tests suggests that there is not a statistical relationship between aquifer productivity as measured by yield, transmissibility or specific capacity versus photo- lineament proximity. The Boone-St. Joe aquifer is highly karsti- fied, and therefore the conclusions found here are in agreement with Ogden (1976)~ Laraccia and Rauch (1976)~ and Whitesides (1971) for similar karst terranes 53
~ oj..) or- to..- rr0- r-- ..c or- 0'1 N Q.oO M r0- r-- In ..-to . ~ ct;oO a o 0 r- 0 QJ S- or- O- >-
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t~ater Tabl e ~'1ap
One of the most frequently used methods of plotting the most basic piece of hydrogeologic data is a water table or water level contour map. Even though the importance of water table maps has long been recognized, the number of water table maps of carbonate terranes is surprisingly few. In northwest Arkansas, except for a few isolated places, there is not an accurate and reliable water table map.
A water table map shows the upper surface of the zone of saturation by means of contour lines. Once the true water level is measured in a sufficient number of wells in an area, contour lines of the water table can be drawn. To construct a water table map the following considerations must be made:
1) The map must be constructed for only one aquifer or a number of aquifers in which the water level is representative of a single aquifer.
2) The number of the selected wells in one area should be enough to meet the demands of the purposes of the water table map.
The more well levels plotted, the more accurate wil be the map.
3) Some geological structures such as faults, folds, frac- tures, joint sets, unconformities and feature of the strata like thickness, dip, and strike should be well recognized before the construction of water table maps. This information will aid in better understanding water fluctuations and water movement in an area.
4) \~ater levels in an aquifer are related to both local and regional factors. Local factors include permeability and 57 topography and an example of a regional factor is climate. The least amount of error is introduced with the least amount of time
for the measurement of water levels.
A water table map can be used for the following purposes:
1) The identification of general ground water flow directions.
2) The measurement of the hydraulic gradient
3) The recognition of recharge and discharge areas. 4) An estimate of overall permeability and general change in permeability.
5) The prediction of the depth of water.
6) The measurement of productivity of an aquifer by the construction of flow nets using water table contours and flow lines.
Procedure
Four hundred and thirteen wells were chosen in a random fashion with no regard to topography and geology. It was found impossible to obtain all of the data by direct measurement of water levels within the wells due to lack of cooperation of the residents of Benton County. Consequently, other sources of information had to be used in order to meet the prescribed sampling density
Sources of the information are as follows: (1) field measure- ments made for this report, (2) information that was given by wel owners, and (3) well completion records from the Arkansas Geologi- cal Commission. Reliiabil ity of the data sources other than those measured directly is not confirmed. \'1ater level data recorded in the driller reports are relatively close to actual 58 water table, but since they represent the water level at the time of drilling, some inaccuracies are introduced due to seasonal change. However, twelve of these wells were measured in order to compare the results and the differences. The result of this comparison showed that six of the wel reports had differences within 1 to 7 ft from the actual measurement and six of them within 10 to 25 ft from the actual measurement. Data furnished by well owners are generally from rememberances of the time of drilling or at a time of subsequent pump repairs. Therefore, they are also not as accurate as actual measurement.
An electric water level indicator Soil Test, Model DR-762A, was used for the measurement of water levels in the wells. It con- sists of an electrode that is suspended by a pair of insulated wires and an ammeter that indicates a closed circuit and flow of current when the electrode touches the water surface.
Characteristics of Boone-St. Joe Aquifer
Based on the pumping tests results recovery tests), and the driller reports, the Boone-St. Joe aquifer is primarily an uncon- fined aquifer with local semi-confinement by chert layers or dense massive limestone beds. These chert bands or layers separate the local body of water from the atmosphere. Consequently, the hydro- static pressure exceeds the lithostatic pressure. This case has been reported by drillers many times in the study area (Jim Little personal communication, 1978). The Boone-St. Joe aquifer is under- lain by Chattanooga Shale (an aquiclude) that acts as a lower perching boundary. Below this, the Evermore aquifer (Ogden et al.,
1979) is encountered. 59
rocks.
leys.
above the general water table of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer. This water is perched on dense limestone beds, unfractured chert, or
fragipans that acts as a local impervious lense or layer. An example of this is found in Well No. 165 located east of Gallatin
(Plate 2). At this site, there are three wells that are 25 and 30
feet apart. Well No. 165-A is 410 feet deep, and it penetrates
the Evermore aquifer. This wel has a water level of 89 feet from
surface (Figure 26). The static water level in this well is the result of the interaction of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer and the confined Evermore aquifer. The hydrostatic pressure within the Evermore aquifer is more commonly lower than the water table within the Boone-St. Joe but occasionally the water level will raise up to level of the Boone-St. Joe water table or even higher. The second well, 165-B, is 30 feet from Well No. 165-A. Well 165-B is in the Boone-St. Joe limestone, and the water level in the well represents the static level of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer. This water level corresponds with other wells measured nearby. The water level in
165-8 is 21 feet from the surface (Figure 26). The third well
(165-C) is a shallow well. The water level in this well is 15 feet 60
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0. or-V'> <+- S- o)QJ~ICQJ CS-o-QJO<+- Or- m C U Or- oj..)c:J: Ol~ m I QJ 0 or- 0-
s-r--s-ooEm oj..)r--O QJ QJQJEQJV)QJ c3s-oC 0 QJ QJ oj..) ~'"';) o.c> r-- or- L.I.J<+- r-- . V) omoj..) r--r--QJ UV'> r--QJoCQJOI QJ>oj..)r--r--QJ :S:QJ .c C r--<+-mmo QJ Ooj..) 0 QJS- V) 00 S-QJQJS-QJ oCoj..)UQJoj..)QJ oj..)mmoj..)moC :S:<+-muoj..) <+- S-:S: Or- OQJ~ "OC oc V) QJ C or- C I- oc or- oc 0 Uoj..) oj..) or- or- U or- oj..) .S-V) I:S: mV)oj..)QJr-- S-S-QJoj..).-S- oj..)QJEmQJQJ V)<+-Ou3<+- ~ or- N or- or- .--~QJ"o"o~ ..-o-°r- C C 0- I-f m o.°r- m m
\0
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from the ground surface, and it represents a local perched water
level.
Two interpretations are possible for these three wells.
first interpretation is the existence of three different water
levels due to two major aquifers and one perched aquifer as men-
tioned. The second possible interpretation is that there is
stant recharge from the upper aquifers toward the Evermore aquifer
through well 165A.
Discharge and Recharge Areas
The direction of water movement within the Boone-St. Joe
aquifer is different from one location to another. Discharge occurs via springs and seeps which usually are found along valleys.
The range in discharge from seeps and springs is variable from
intermittent seeps to a maximumof a few hundred gallons per
minutd. Big Spring, located northwest of Gravette and within the
Joe Limestone and perched on the Chattanooga Shale had a dis-
charg~ of approximately 750 gpm on August 12, 1978.
There are two major recharge or ground-water high areas within
the study area. One of the largest recharge areas in Benton County
is located around Centerton and Decatur (Plate 3). The highest
water level measured in this area is 1375 feet above mean sea level
The second recharge area is located along Highway 71 north, between
Springdale and Rogers, Arkansas (Plate 3). The highest water level
in this area is 1350 feet above sea level. Ground-water moves east
from this area to Beaver Lake conforming to potentiometric lines
drawn by Hunt 1974) around the reservoir.
St. 62
Discharge areas surround the recharge areas. The base flow water of all the streams and rivers in Benton County is derived from the Boone-St. Joe aquifer. Large springs commonly are found at the head of major creeks. Other than the natural discharge, the wells in the Boone-St. Joe limestone are a significant form of dis charge from the aquifer.
The hydraulic gradient was measured in 18 different locations and in different directions. The hydraulic gradient ranges from
4.7 ft/mile (0.09 %) to 121 ft/mile (2.3%) with an average of
53 ftjmile (l.Ol%). 63
GEOCHEMISTRY
Introduction
A total of 274 samples were collected and analyzed through standard chemical procedures. Of this total, 21 are spring sam- ples and 253 are from wells. Thirty samples of the original 253 were resampled in order to investigate possible seasonal effects upon ground-water chemistry.
Sample Collection Methods
Samples were collected at random with the intent of gathering a representative population for the entire study area. The War
Eagle and the Sulphur Springs areas were not sampled because wells were completed in aquifers below the St. Joe Limestone. Sample site locations are shown on Plate 1.
Two samples were taken at each site in one-liter plastic bottles. One sample was acidized with six drops of 1:1 nitric acid to prevent precipitation of ions, to prevent bonding between the chemical constituents and the plastic, and inhibit organic growth.
The unacidized sample was taken to the laboratory and tested for pH, total hardness, calcium hardness, alkalinity, and specific conduc- tance. Samples were kept on ice to retard biological and chemical activity during the interim between collection and analysis. Well site samples were collected as near to the well as possible,
Methods of Analysis
Chemical tests were performed using standard methods modified by Hach (Hach Chemical Company~ 1975). Alkalinity, chloride, total ""~ ., " .,.."
64 hardness, and calcium hardness were determined by Hach titration methods. Nitrate and phosphate were analyzed by colorimetry methods utilizing the Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20. Sulfate was determined by the turbidity method outlined by Hach (1975) using the Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20. Ph was measured by a Markson and Fisher pH meter. Specific conductance was determined using the Hach kit, r~odel dr/2 conductivity meter. Temperature was measured in the field in degrees Centrigrade with a pocket mercury thermometer. Detailed chemical results of selected samples are available in Appendix B.
Comparison of Chemical Parameters
Pearson's Correlation Coefficient Test
Interactions among the various chemical parameters were com- pared using the Pearson correlation coefficient test. An 0.05 alpha significance level was chosen for the Pearson test. The significance level is a measure or indicator of the probability of an interrelationship between the chemical parameters to be com-! pared. Therefore, all probabilities calculated in this study are not considered significant unless they reach the 95% probability level. The Pearson test was run on well water data obtained from the Boone-St. Joe aquifer (Appendix B).
Boone-St. Joe Well Waters
A total of 32 statistically significant correlations were found. Numerous predictable correlations were found that do not need detailed explanation due to simple equilibria reactions of water and carbonate rock. For example, correlations between 65
calcium and total hardness, calcium and calcium-magnesium ratio,
calcium and alkalinity, etc. are readily explained by these car-
bonate equilibria reactions.
Another predictable group of correlations include the posi-
tive correlations between specific conductance and various chemi-
cal parameters. Those parameters \vith a positi ve carrel ation were
chloride, nitrate, sulfate, alkalinity, calcium, and total hardness.
Increases in dissolved constituents will obviously result in an
increase in the specific conductance. All correlations between temperature and the other chemical parameters were rejected due to
the lack of reliability of recorded temperature data.
Chloride vs. Nitrate and Sulfate
The correlations found between chloride and nitrate and ichloride and sulfate are very strong (alpha=O.OOl each). Hi gh con- centrations of nitrate, chloride, and sulfate in the study area
are probably due to water interacting with fertilizers, animal wastes, and household sewage. Because all three of these ions are
indicators of household sewage contamination (Nutter, 1973), it is
expected that they should increase together. If there had not been a strong correlation, a different type of pollution source would have been suspected
Another possible source of sulfate and chloride may be the weathering of pyrite and/or minor amounts of connate brines in the
Chattanooga Shale. Small amounts of connate water from the
Chattanooga Shale would be sufficient to add to the chloride 66
content. But, since most of the sampled wells do not intersect
the Chattanooga Shale, and because of a nitrate correlation, a
pollution source of these ions is the favored explanation. Deeper Benton County wells, not sampled for this research, do pass through
the Chattanooga Shale and may be naturally contaminated from this
rock unit. Figures 27 and 28 show the plots between chloride vs.
nitrate and chloride vs. sulfate, respectively.
Phosphate VS. Nitrate
Phosphate and nitrate show a positive correlation (probability
Figure 29 shows a plot of phosphate concentration versus
nitrate concentration. Coincidental high values of these chemical
parameters are indicative of fertilizer introduction into the well,
or the presence ofa nearby industrial effluent (Hem, 1959).
Sewage from household septic tanks are also very important.
Since both parameters increase together, and since phosphate is
found in many household detergents, a septic tank source is highly
possible. Chicken manure rich in nitrates and phosphates (Hem, 1959) are commonly spread on fields as fertilizers. Infiltration
of precipitation would naturally carry both ions to the water
table. Therefore, phosphate and nitrate contamination could also
come from this latter source
Phosphate VS. Sulfate
Phosphate and sulfate show a strong correlation (alpha=O.OO58)
as exemplified by the plot in Figure 30. Simultaneous increases in
these parameters in the study area are also probably related to
>99%). 67
STAr'STltA' A.A'T'IS STsr..
. . I I I " .., ,." . ,.,...... " . " . " . ,.. " . ,."" ... . . ,. . c ,.. -"., u. .'1., ,...... ,..I 1'. , ". .. ,.i' . .,.., ... ",....,.,
., , I ,. ,. .,-",.,. ,.
~igure 27.Plot or chloride concentration (ppm) versus nitrate concentration (ppm) ror Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells ( 11 observations missing, 12 hidden).
S'a"S".aL a.aL'SIS
I I . . ,. .. J." . ,." .. " . ,." . ...Ji). ....,lI. . '0. LC .....,.... .'0..ll. I ". .". ,.".. . ".," . . :."...... ,...... , ...... I ... I I I I 0 '0 , '0SIlLP...', '0 '0 0 '0 .0
Figure 28. Plot of chloride (ppm) versus sulfate (ppm) in Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells (6 observations missing, 20 o~servations hidden). 68
Sf.f.S"C', '.".S'S S.S... '.1. ,I .I . 1.1.I ,I ,I I.' .I I I I I .I I, 1.0' I .,-I , I .I .i.I' ,S , .I .I .'.l.: I . .. ,I . , , I 0.- . I I . . I . J...' .. 0.0', I 0 ..,. i' " " ,. ,. '0 " '0"
'8 .. -".." Figure 29.Plot of phosphate (ppm) versus nitrate (ppm) in Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells (15 observations missing, 21 observations hidden).
J.Z. , I I Z.o.I I I I I ZoO.I I I ,I G0 Z.D. I r I .I G.., I .,G I." .I .I .I .I T I .toZ. I I I I Do'., I I I , . Do'.,
.. 69
pollution from barnyard wastes, household detergents, and/or sewage
effluents. Contributions of phosphate from the Chattanooga Shale
are negligible. Therefore, this correlation must be attributed directly to pollution.
t~itrate VS. Sulfate
Nitrate and sulfate show a strong correlation (alpha=O.OO2).
A plot of this relationship may be seen in Figure 31. Similar to the correlations between sulfate and phosphate and nitrate and
phosphate, the correlation between sulfate and nitrate is most
easily explained by simultaneous introduction of both chemical
parameters by a pollution source.
Sulfate VS. Calcium and Total Hardness
The presence of strong correlations between sulfate and cal-
cium (alpha=O.Ol and sulfate and total hardness (alpha-O.O173)
indicate that sulfate as sulfuric acid produced from the oxidation
of pyrite may play some role in limestone dissolution. Increases in sulfate, as previously stated, are the result of surficial con-
tamination or oxidation of sulfur rich minerals such as pyrite.
sulfuric acid will be produced with increases in the amount of sulfate in the ground-water system. Sulfuric acid readily dissolves
limestone thus liberating more calcium ions and producing a higher
hardness. Figures 32 and 33 illustrate the relationship
between sulfate VS. calcium and sulfate vs. total hardness respect- 70
""IS',C" '."'SIS S'S',. '. . .I ...I ,I ...I ., ,. .I I I ., .I I I ... I .I I I .,.., I 0 I , I E '0. I I . ,. .I ..I " .I . I ... . I .. .. " ...... I .. I ...... I ...... I ... ~. ... " ... ,. ,/ ,. ,. " ..,. " ,. ..,. SUl,.o'E Figure 31. Plot o~ nitrate (ppm) versus sulfate (ppm) in Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells (11 observations miosing, 14 observations hidden).
10. . ,0 '" . I ,, ,.. . I I I ".. . . I I . I '0...... I . . I I .. '0...... ( I' .., . L.0 , .. . , .,...... 0 , ... . ., .. . .I ...... ,I . ,.. I . , , . ... 0 I 0.' 0 . 0 0 I. . 0 0 I ..0 71
Q)I . , ~ ~..., ~0 ~ "" 0 ~ : ~ Itj ,I 'C +N,I '" ..-1 ""..-1 M
I cn IS"" ~O Pt 0' : '" Pt. .-I , of:> : ~ ro I '.-I ,+m N ~ I ..Q) : C""\cn : 0 P +.0 0 0 :N ro : 0 ~ I """' ~... cn IN ro .. E : '-'"'" QD ... : ~ I cn ..-1 .. +N cn cn VI :N CD cn ~ : c -.-I VI : rC S +0 ~ :'" ro cn ... I ~ ~ : 0 , r-I-.-I ... +m ... ,... 1M ioU of:> .. I ..of:> ro .. : ~ 0 c ,I ..." ...T"' ~ z +.0:.. '" ~ cn Q)cn c I ;:j P : cn 0 .. ~... ~ .. ,... Q) N u :I > ,I cn +N S r-I .. ,-, t-. .-i '" , Pt Q) ~ ...... 1-0 .. I Q) ~ .. I of:> Q) .. I ...... ,I ro ~ +& ~ ..-1 I r-I ;:j I I ;:j of I cn ro I I + ~ I ~ Q) .. ,I 0 0 .... I !oJ I I of:> .or 0 . : r-I of:> I p.. m .i ..."" , :. , ~ 1 C"') I I .I Q) 0 I ~ I ;:j "".--1 QD 0~~~~0~N~~O~N~~O4~~~U4N~~O~~~~O~N~~O~N~~O~N~~ N-~OOO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~NN~~~OOO~~~~~~~4~~~~~~ ." N N N N NN""" ~... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~..~... ~ ~ %,. 72
Phosphate vs.. Well Depth
There appears to be a positive correlation between phosphate concentratiorl and well depth (al pha=O.O378). A plot of this rela- tionship may be seen in Figure 34. Since sources of phosphate in the study area are surficial in nature, it would be expected that phosphate would show higher concentrations in shallower wells
The exact reasons for phosphate concentrations to increase with depth is unclear
One possible explanation may involve the solubility of phos- phate. The solubility of phosphate is lower than that of either nitrate or sulfate. This indicates that more time is required to dissolve phosphate into ground-water. Therefore, longer percola- tion times through regolith may allow water to incorporate more phosphate. Subsequently, water at greater depths might be slightly more enriched in phosphate
Water Level vs. Nitrate and pH
A negative correlation was found between water level and nitrate (alpha=O.O2). Water levels were measured from the land surface down 1:0 the water in the well. Increasing values for water levels indicate increased depth to the water. The negative correla- tion found between water level and nitrate means that wells with a water level nearest to the surface have higher amounts of nitrate dissolved in them. Large nitrate values commonly occur at high water table ar'eas. Higher concentrations of nitrate are expected in wells where the water table is nearer to the surface because verv
74
few wells in the study area are cased below the shallow regolith-
bedrock contact. This important correlation strongly suggests that
wells should be cased to a greater depth in high water table areas
to lower the chance of contamination. A plot of this relationship
is shown on Figure 35.
Water level and pH show a positive correlation (alpha-O.OOOI).
As the depth to water in wells decreases, pH increases. Wells in high water table areas contain ground-water which has not traveled
through as much soil and carbonate rock than where the water table
is lower. The length of time that the ground-water is in contact
with bedrock and soil will allow the water to dissolve CO2 and to
fuel carbonate equilibrium reactions. The influx of CO2 rich waters will llower the pH of the ground-water. A plot of this
relationship may be seen in Figure 36.
Water Level \IS. Well Depth
The correlation between water level and well depth may be
explained by the effect of the topography upon the level of the
water table in carbonate rock terranes. The water table will con-
form slightly to the topography, but it is much subdued beneath
ridges and hilltops. Since all well samples are considered within the Boone-St. Joe aquifer, wells drilled on topographic highs will have to penet:rate far more strata to intersect a sufficient satura- ted thickness of aquifer. Therefore, wells drilled in valleys will
obv;ous'ly be 1 ess deep 75
""I"'C.. ,.""" ,y". 'l , 0 I I ..0 I , I ..0 , I I '0 0 I , ..0 , , , ol , 0 I I ,. 0 I I I,. . , I Il' 0, j I I ..0 .I .. I Ilo ... I . ,I ...... 0 . I ...... : .'0 ~ ., '" .,.; ." ..."0 .., '. ...,.. ."," L"'L Figure 35. Plot of ni~rate (ppm) versus water level (in feet) in Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells ( 42 observations missing, 4 observations hidden).
'."""C.. ..","., "",.. , ,. . . I I '." 0I 0 '." 0 '.1' 0 '." 0 0 ,.,.'." o. 0 . ,... 0 1.,. 0 . '." 0 .0 0 . '." 0 ... '." 0 '."'." . 0 1.J' 0.' .. .'." '.2' O.o. ..'.1' . o. .. '.1' 0 . '..' 0 '."'..' 0 0 ... ,." 0 .. '.1'.." .. 0 . ,.,.'." .. 0 ..., . 0 ... ,.,..,." 0 .." 0 ,.,.. . ,." . ..,. 0 . I I I I I I I .,.0 0 It 0 " 0 ., 0 " " 0 "2 0 '"'- ." ,.. ", .,. 2.. U' Z" Z', Z'Z Zl. 0"
..". L"" Figure 360 Plot of pH versus water level (in feet) in Boone-St. Joe aquifer wells (77 observations missing, 2 observations hidden). 76
Relationshi Between Chemica) Parameters and ~hoto-Lineament Proximity Introduction
The chi-square test (Mode, 1966) was used to determine the
relationships between chemical concentrations and distances from
photo-lineaments. The presence of subsurface fractures delineated
by photo-lineaments may influence the migration of ground-water,
and enable contaminants to reach the water table more easily.
Statistical relationships between chemical concentrations and
photo-lineaments may help to determine the zone of influence of
photo-lineaments. The zone of influence is assumed to be some
distance on both sides of the photo-lineament. This zone of influence is dependent upon such variables as rock type, length of
the fracture, type of photo-lineament, and style of tectonics that
produced the assumed fracture (Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971).
The chemical. concentration val.ues for each wel.l. water sampl.e
were compared to photo-lineament proximity at distances of 250,
and 1000 feet from the well to the nearest mapped photo-
lineament. Since photo-lineaments were transferred in two steps
the error factor in photo-lineament placement, and hence, photo-
lineament distance to the well site, dictates the use of an
alpha-O.lO, or a 90% probability of a relationship over alpha=0.05.
Table 5 gives the means for all measured parameters in each of the
three photo-lineament proximity classes.
500, 77 (X) a N CX) 0 M L!- . . . L!- a M 0 -=to .-t o:t" 0) .-I L1") m .-I ~ 0 a .-I .-t .-I 1.0 Ln M .-I q- N .-I of..) I- M .-I M .-I .-I c lLJ 0) lLJ E L!- ItS 0) a C a or- a 0 0 r-- (V) LC) c.o N I 0 z ~r 0 0 q- 0'\ L!') r ~ M Ll)
of..) 0) 0) I+-
0 0 0 .-4 rN L() "0 N ~ N C 1.1.. . . . ItS 1.1.. M N <:> q- 0 'Of" ""'" ~ 1.0 0 .-i M ~ .-I 0 c.o .-I .-i .-f ~ -=:t o::t" N "'" N .-I " .-. - M .-i r-I 0 ..- 0 LLJ Lt) LLJ LJ.. " 0 0 Lt) 0 N N U') M m 0 N 0) z ,'d- .-f C> U") m 1.1") . ..c:: 0 .-f .-I .-i ""' M (V") C> C> o::t" 0'1 (V") of..) Ln 0 -.j" (V') o::t" r-i r-I .-. .-I M r-I r-f S- ~ VI oIJ C 0) E ItS 0) C m Lt) or- N M ~ N r-- ~ . . . I ~ 0 .-I 0 ~ 0 LC') r N C"\ C> M CV) U') N 0 0 1.0 .-I .-I ~ .-i c.o (V') o:j" N o:j- N .-I oIJ .-f CV) .-i r-I 0 I- ..c:: w 0- W LJ.. l+- I+- 0 0 Lt') 1,0 <=> N N I"-. - N "0 C z "'" .-f (;) I.D - ~ r r-.. rm 0 0 r'O:t" - 0'1 ItS a "'" .-f r-I - r-I L!) L!') M N .-4 M .-i .-I C 0
VI S- O) oIJ r-- r- 0) E C) C1 ItS E E M S- u C> ItS " " u U 0- QJ QJ ItS 01-' oj.J 1/1 U "0 . ta ItS 0 0) VI ..c S- ..c: (/) S-oIJ 0- oj.J ItS ~VI V1 or- ~ 0 VI 0) 0 C "'-' ..- or- ltSoIJ ..c I -+-' 0) 0- C QJ -C) to Er-- 0 QJ U E s.. ItS ..c C1 t: S-U 01-' 0 "' E 0 or- S- S- r-- oj..) (/) ::3 l+-oIJ ~ O oj.J u u (/) r-- or- VI I+- ..- ..- 0) 0+-) =' QJ (/) VI or- "-' C r-- -0) V1 ~ E "- "0 t: QJ ColJ -0') ;:J ta t: E s::: ItS ItS r-- -0) S- 0'1 E In QJ 0 O)oIJ Q) ItS E S- >, .c: U ItS to ~VI 0:: > QJ =' +oJ -+-> ..c: E E LI.J Q) QJ 01-' +.I or- 0- U ~ r-- -0 ta QJ 0) or- - U1 I- OJ Ct3 C 0,- E E LI.J or- ..c oj.J of..) S- or- "0 t!- ::I (/) ::3 ~ ~ S- 0- ItS ItS QJ r-- o,- 'r- OJ or- LJ.J ~ Q) o V1 S- <+- 0- It! ro- U U t:: U -I 0:: ~ ..- 0 oj.J r-- E ~ r0- QJ ..- 0) ..- m ~ ItS .c ..c 'r- ~ QJ :J:: r-- O) 0- ItS It! to ~ c.. 3 u C- Z V) t- Co c3: :;: (/) U ~ U I- 78
Significant Relationships
Chloride
Concentrations of chloride appear to be related to photo-
lineament proximity. Chloride concentrations were found to be
statistically higher for wells located within 250 and 500 feet of
a photo-lineament. Probabilities of 92.1% and 95.5% were deter-
mined for the 250 and 500 foot classes respectively. The value for chloride at the 1000 foot test was alpha-0.81 (19% probability)
The rapid decrease in chloride probabilities from the 500 foot test
to the 1000 foot test suggests that a zone of influence created by
photo-lineaments is less than 2000 feet.
As previously mentioned, chloride is an excellent tracer of
pollution and may remain in high concentrations over larger dis-
tances than other chemical constituents as exemplified by the
results of this study. Chloride concentrations near fracture
traces would be substantially increased if the availability of
pollutants such as chicken manure and sewage from septic tanks were
(Hileman, 1972). Fracture zones are therefore believed to allow more rapid infiltration and thus less purification than non-
fractured areas
A study by Gaines (1978) also found a relationship between
concentrations of chloride in wells located near high altitude
photo-lineaments in northwest Arkansas. Her study dealt more
specifically ""ith deeper confined aquifers over a large portion of
state of Arkansas. Gaines (1978) attributed higher chloride concentrations to natural contamination from shale units 79
Sul fate
Sulfate showed a relationship between photo-lineament proxi- mity and increased concentration in the 250 foot test. The alpha level for sulfate in this test was 0.073 (92.7% probability)
Results of the 500 and 1.000 foot tests yielded alpha levels of
0.562 and 0..877 respectively. The major source of non-surficial sulfide may be from pyrite in the Chattanooga Shale, pyrite in the
St. Joe Limestone, or from natural gas in the Boone Limestone. A few landowners in the study area report the presence of natural gas in their wells which, at times, may be used as a household power source. Similar to chloride, sulfate is an indicator of pollution and is easily introduced into fractured rock. Surfi cial sources of sulfate would be from chicken manure or septic tanks
(Hileman, 1972) in the study area. Higher infiltration rates associated wi'th fractures woul d allow rel ati vely unfi 1 tered poll u- ted water to easily enter the ground-water system.
Phosphate and Nitrate
The results of comparisons between phosphate and nitrate con- centrations versus photo-lineament proximity were all negative.
Alpha levels for all the tests exceeded 0.50. Well samples were taken mainly during mid-spring and early summer. At this time of year plant activity is usually at a maximum, and most available nitrate and phosphate may be utilized by these plants and nutrients
Comparisons made during winter or late fall may show a relationship between nitrate concentrations and photo-lineament proximity. This deems further research in Benton County ,..'". 1"
80
Seasonal Variation of Boone-St. Joe Well l4ater
Introduction
Thirty wells that had been sampled during the wet season
were resampled during a dry period in mid-July, 1978 to search for
any significant difference in the concentrations of ionic species. The Mann-Whitney U test (Snedecor and Cochran, 1971) was used to ,'
test for differences at the alpha-0.05 level. Seasons are dis-
tinguished here from one another by the following definitions:
1) wet- consecutive six month period of maximum recharge to the
water table, and 2) dry- consecutive six month period on minimum
recharge to the water table (June to November).
Recharge to the water table is controlled by the soil moisture
condition and the amount of evapotranspiration. The amount of soil
moisture is a function of temperature and the volume of precipita-
tion, while the amount of evapotranspiration is a function of temp-
erature, amount of plants, and the quantity of precipitation.
Because recharge to an aquifer will not occur until the soil
reaches field capacity conditions (saturation), the dry period represents a time of greater temperature, higher evapotranspira- tion, drier soil, and accordingly lesser recharge. The purpose of such a comparison is to search for any significant chemical changes
in well water chemistry due to changes in recharge caused by dilution, surficial contamination, and/or long residence time.
For this test, the ~1ann-Whitney U test (Siegel, 1956) was employed. The null hypothesis of "no significant difference" in concentration of a particular ion between the wet and dr,¥'!seasons 81
was rejected at the 95% probability level (alpha-O.O5). At this
be related statistically to seasonal variations versus con-
centration
Significant Relationships
The' concentration of sul fate appears to be si gni ficantly
related to season. Sulfate increases during the wet season. The significance level for sulfate is very strong (alpha-O.OO4). Since sulfate is readily put into solution, the amount of sal fate in the
ground-water is a function of the amount of precipitation available
to dissolve the available sulfate. If the sulfate in well water is related to septic tank contamination, higher concentrations
would be expected when the soil is at field capacity conditions
when sufficient recharge to the Boone-St. Joe aquifer can
occur. Therefore, less sulfate is expected during dry periods when there is insufficient recharge to carry sulfate to the water table.
Specific conductance appears to increase during the dry season.
The statistica probability of a relationship is approximately 97%.
Increases in dissolved ions are related to residence time and lack
of dilution within an open carbonate aquifer system. The amount of water entering a well from the upper zone of aeration is severely
depressed during dry periods because of lack of recharge. There- fore, most well waters are derived from ground-water that has been
in storage for a relatively long time. Ground-water within a
declining water table has had a longer residence time than
recharging water, and is likely to reach saturation. Accordingly, specific conductance goes up 82
Bacteria Analyses
Seventy well samples from Benton County were collected and analyzed for coliform bacteria. Although coliform bacteria are harmless to humans. they are relatively easy to measure in the lab and are excellent indicators of contamination and the possible existence of harmful bacteria
Samples sizes of 300 ml were taken at each site and imme- diately stored on ice. The samples were analyzed the same day by the membrane filter technique (Hach Chemical Co., 1977). Samples were tested for total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal strep- tococcus. Two plates were cultered for each well (10 and 50 ml sample sizes) for each coliform type. All glassware were auto- claved before use and samples were incubated for the time and temperature dictated by standard methods (Hach Chemical Co., 1977)
The results are shown in Appendix C.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976) has recommended that drinking water should not exceed 1 colony per 100 ml when monthly samples are averaged, and not more than 4 colonies per 100 ml sample when less than 20 samples are collected per month.
The results of this study show that 51% of the samples had fecal streptococcus counts of greater than one colony per 100 ml sample.
Samples analyzed for total coliform showed the following results:
1) 67% of the wells had 1 or more colonies per 100 ml sample, and
2) 24% of the wells had greater than 100 colonies per 100 ml sample.
Ten percent of the wells had fecal coliform counts of one or greater colonies per 100 ml sample, (Cox, personal communication, 1979). 83
These results are similar to those of Keener (1972) for his study area of northwest Arkansas
The bacteria results of this study show that an alarmingly high percentage of household wells are contaminated. It is prob- able that the contamination is derived from septic tanks and/or animal wastes. Deeper well casing and farther distance from a pollution source are necessary to reduce the risk of contamination in all new wells in the study area 84
Summary of Well Water Chemistry
The interrelationship among sulfate, nitrate, chloride, and phosphate indicates that these parameters may be grouped together as a pollution factor. The mean chemical concentrations in Boone-
St. Joe aquifer wells for sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate were
10.3, 14.7, and 0.3 mg/l respectively. Many wells did not exceed the U.S.P.H.A. (1962) limits, but since these parameters are gen- erally very low in concentration in uncontaminated carbonate well waters, even moderate concentrations indicate pollution
Coughlin (1975) and Wagner, et. al., (1976) concluded that increases in nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate in northern Washington
County, Arkansas were due to simultaneous influx of the anions by pollution mechanisms and leaching of animal wastes. Slavik (1979, personal communication) has also found high nitrate and phosphate levels in wells near chicken houses in the Boone-St. Joe aquifer in
Benton and Washington Counties, Arkansas.
The susceptibility of water wells to pollution indicates that extreme care should be exercised when new wells are located and dril'led. The Arkansas State Department of Health (1969) recommends that water wells be located a minimum of 100 feet from a septic tank system. Work in northwest Arkansas by Keener (1972), and this study, suggests that this distance should be increased for wells in carbonate rocks. Visual examination of the chemical concentrations in waters derived from the Boone-St. Joe aquifer indicates that 85
tamination. This agrees with the conclusions by other workers in
northwest Arkansas and Benton County. However, this study has further substantiated the important pollution problem in the carbonate rocks of northwest Arkansas, and has extended the find- ings of others from former qualitative observations to statistical quantification. 86
CONCLUSIONS
A hydrogeologic and hydrochemical study was conducted on the
Boone-St. Joe limestone aquifer in Benton Co., Arkansas. Thirty- nine pumping tests were performed, and from these tests the range of the coefficient of transmissibility was found to be 24.8 to
24640 gpd/ft and the range in specific capacity to be 0.03 to
30 gpm/ft. Three pumping tests performed with observation wells showed no lowering of the water table in observation wells as close as 150 ft from the pumped well. This demonstrates the small amount of interconnection of fractures within the aquifer. It can be concluded from this that a well field of many relatively shallow and inexpensive wells can be drilled in this aquifer when large pro- duction is needed.
The classification scheme developed from the pumping tests on the Boone-St. Joe aquifer allows for the prediction of aquifer characteristics. This set of conditions may be seen in many other unconfined carbonate aquifers outside the study area.
A statistical comparison of well yields. coefficients of trans- missibility and specific capacities was made versus photo-lineament proximity. No significant relationships were found at a = 0.10. It is concluded from this and the work of others that photo-lineaments are not as useful in locating high yield wells in karstified rocks as compared to other rock types.
A total of 413 well-yields and water levels were obtained through various sources. This evidence shows that the Boone-St. Joe limestone aquifer is primarily unconfined within the study area. A water table map of the aquifer was constructed. It indicates two large recharge 87 zones (ground-water highs); one near Decatur and the other around
Lowe11 . The hydraulic gradient calculated for 18 locations ranged from 47 ft/mile to 121 ft/mile with an average of 53 ft/mile.
Ground-water from 253 wells was analyzed for nitrate, phosphate, sl!llfate, calcium, total hardness, chloride, magnesium, bicarbonate al kal inity, and pH. Pollution indicators such as nitrate, phosphate, sulfate, and chloride were found statistically to be related. A pol- luted well high in anyone of these parameters was generally high in all of them. Averaged bacteria counts were determined for 70 well samples with respect to fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, and total coliform. Fifty-one percent of the samples had fecal strepto- coccus counts of greater than one colony per 100 ml sample. Samples analyzed for total coliform showed the following results: 1) 67% of the wells had 1 or more colonies per 100 ml sample. and 2) 24% of the wells had greater than 100 colonies per 100 ml sample. Ten per- cent of the wells had fecal coliform counts of one or greater colonies per 100 ml sample
It is therefore concluded that the water in the Boone-St. Joe limestone aquifer is easily contaminated by such pollution sources as septic tanks, chicken houses, fertilizer sp~eading, and landfills. It is recommended that wells be cased to greater depths and located as far as economically possible to minimize chances of contamination. 88
Recommendations for Future Research
This study is a broad look at the hydrogeology and geochemistry
of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer of Benton County. More information on
yield and water levels are necessary for more exactness. A detailed study of a small area within the study area would yield information on
the role of faults and depth of weathering on yield. More work is also needed to pinpoint pollution sources and to determine the relation-
ship of soil type, regolith thickness, and pollution sources proximity
to a well, to the degree of contamination. A detailed hydrologic
budget study of Benton County is necessary to determine the true
potential of the Boone-St. Joe aquifer. To do this, detailed data of annual precipitation must be obtained form a variety of sources, and
water levels must be nnnitored continuously in a few wells to check
for seasonal fluctuations in the water table and changes in ground-
water storage. Also, the discharge of rivers, streams, and springs in the area shoud be monitored and rating curves and hydrographs produced.
Exploration wells should be drilled and accurately logged by a suite of logs. Observation wells need to be drilled near the explora-
tion wells so that long-term pumping tests can be made. The step
drawdown and step recovery method of pumping is recommended for this.
Finally, the karst spring basins need to be defined by dye tracing methods. This would aid in the budget study and would define the move-
ment of possible pollutants within the karstified portion of the Boone-
St. Joe aquifer 89
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APPENDICES 95
APPENDIX A WELL RECORDS Explanation of Symbols
Proximity to Lineament: a = Denotes a well location within 250 feet of a photo-lineament. S = Denotes a well location within 500 feet of a photo-lineament. ~ = Denotes a well location within 1000 feet of a photo-lineament. A = Denotes a well location further than 1000 feet of a photo-lineament
Source: A = Denotes a well from which the author obtained data in the field. B = Denotes a well from which the data was obtained from asking well owners. C = Denotes a well from which the data was obtained from driller report sheets. 96
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QJQJ ...,>,tOOQJ 3-0>"-'" I.() I.() 00 0 I.() 0 ~QJ"" \,0 \,0 I.() \,0 N N o:f" U -J4- N N N N M N N N or-...,QJtO , '-"" to>QJ ...,QJt/) t/)-J -0 I.() , E ° QJOo N MN I.() I.() NM r---M 'r- 0) >-'-"" ..c:: ...,00..., I.() 0 0 C'lO I.() 0 I.() 0 c-QJ4- \,0 N 0 N N N0 o:f" 00 o:f"'--' 0 QJ 0) 333333333 Cto MMMMMMMMM0 0 Ccr. cr. cr. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 'r- ft ft ft ft ft ft " " ft ft ""C Z Z Z ZZ Z Z Z Z ca~ 0 C'I C'I 0 C'I C'I C'I C'I C'I Uoot- N t- t- t- N'--"--' t- t- I- I- t- t- -J ft ft ft ft " ft ft ft ft " ° 0 r--- r--- \,0 \,0 o:f" C'I 00 o:f" U'--'QJ -t/) :::0" 00 C'lO N Mo:f" I.() \,0 QJZ C'I C'lO 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 M M o:f" o:f" o:f" o:f" o:f" o:f" o:f" -~-- I I - 117 APPENDIXB Chemical Analysis of Well Water Abbreviations Used in Appendix B Cl Chloride; in parts per million P04 Phosphate (as orthophosphate); measured in parts per million NO3 Nitrate (as nitrogen-nitrate); measured in parts per million S04 Sulfate; measured in parts per million T Temperature; measured in degrees Centigrade pH Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity HCO3 Alkalinity due to bicarbonate; reported in parts per million Spc Specific conductance; measured in micromhos per cubic centimeter Ca Calcium (as CaCO3); measured in parts per million Tothard Total hardness (as CaCO3); measured in parts per million Mg Magnesium hardness (as CaC03); measured in parts per millionJ;;ii," --"'""""""-",,,"",-__JOI__c_~""J,,-,.."'..,,"', 118 L!') 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ID I- NNMNNNMMM N MNMN--'-L{)N MN .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f .-f S- r--~ N M L{) ID I'"-.. 00 0'\ O.-f N M L{) ID I'"-.. 00 0'\ O.-f N M WE3~ NNNNNNNNL{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{) MMMMMMMMMML{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{)L{) L{)L{) L{)L{)L{)L{) z \ 128 .-\0 0'1 ~ M LC') N 0 ~ \0 \0 M 0'1 0 LC') CX) \0 ~ 0 \0 LC') r-.. \0 U .-1.-1.-1 LC') \0 M .-I N N OOOOOOOOOLC')OLC')OOOOLC')OOOOO I NOONON.-ICX)NO'INMNNNNNCX)MMr-..M ~ 0 ~ LC') 0'1 0 \0 0 ~ 0 M \0 r-.. ~ 0 LC') LC') ~ \0 LC') 0'1 ~ ~ N ~ (/) .-1.-1 N .-I .-I M N 0'1 M .-I N N ~ ~ ~ CX) CX) CX) NON r-.. M LC') LC') LC') 0'1 .-I I .-IO.-lN.-IN.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-I.-IMNN ~ 0 ~ .-I c.. CX) 0 0 0 0 \0 \0 CX) 0 ~ 0 0 ~ \0 0 0 CX) 0 ~ CX) 0 0 J ~r-..OMN.-I~.-ICX)CX)O.-l\O~MCX)CX)~CX)Or-..O M 0 M r-.. CX) ~ r-.. r-.. \0 0'1 ~ CX) ~ N N N 0'1 .-I CX) 0 \0 ~ M 0 \0 Z .-I .-I .-I N N .-I N N .-I .-I I M ~\OO~~\OCX)O~CX)OO~NNCX)CX)CX)CX)\ON 0 0 \0 r-.. N N r-.. 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CX) 0'1 O.-lN M ~ LC') 'Q;E ~~ ~~ ~~LC')LC') LC')LC')LC')LC')LC') LC')LC') LC')\O \0\0\0 \0 \0 :3~ LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC')LC') LC') LC') Z 129 ..-~ I'"-.. U") m ~ 00 U") I.Q ~ U .-I N U")OOOOOOOU") I NU")l'"-.. CV) 0 CV) 00 U") CV) 0 ~ u")I'"-..N~O~CV)I'"-..O (/) .-I .-1.-1 CV) 0 CV) 00 0 0 U") 00 ~ .-I I N CV) N U") U") U") m U") .-I 0 ~ N .-I a.. OO~OOOI.QON I OOOOO~U")~I'"-..OU") 0 CV) ~ CV) ~ U") U") .-I .-I 00 CV) z: .-I I.Q .-I .-I .-I I CV) ~ONOOON~OOO 0 CV)~mOI'"-..Ncv).-I.-I U .-1.-1.-1.-1.-1.-1 N .-I .-I :I: N + OOOONI.Q~ 100~ I 01 I.Q N N 00 ~ N + I.QONOO~OONI.Q ~ I.QU")CV).-IU")NI'"-..NO U .-I .-I .-1.-1 .-1.-1 "0 s.. ~OO~~ 00 000 1.Q..;t- O~ CV) I'"-.. U") N U") m U") N 0 r-:I: .-I .-1.-1.-1 .-1.-1.-1 U 000000000 a.. U") 0 CV) 00 U") m 00 m CV) (/) N~CV)NCV)N~NN 000000000 :I: .-ImNOONO.-lOO Co I'"-.. I.QI'"-.. I.QI'"-.. 1'"-..1'"-.. 1'"-..1'"-.. I- .-I I'"-.. 00 I.Q I.Q 00 I.Q ~ U") N .-I .-I .-I .-I .-I .-I N N s.. ..-W 0 I.QI'"-.. 00 m 0.-1 N CV)~ WE I.Q I.Q I.Q I.Q I'"-.. I'"-.. I'"-.. I'"-.. I'"-.. :;:~ U")U")U")U")U")U")U")U")U") z: ~ " 130 Explanation of Symbols for Appendix C Num = Well number on location map Loc = Location; Section-Township-Range FC = Fecal Coliform; colonies per 100 ml sample TC = Total Coliform; colonies per 100 ml sample FS = Fecal Streptococcus; colonies per 100 ml sample Ratio = Fecal Coliform/Fecal Streptococcus Lin = Distance to nearest photo-lineament (meters) Chic = Distance to nearest chicken house (meters) Soil = Soil Type; see following descriptions -""O"""," Cll" 131 Number Symbol* ~* Contaminate~% 1 BEC Britwater 100% 2/2 2 CnB Captina 57% 4/7 3 CuF Clarksville 100% 4/4 4 Eg Elsah 100% 1/1 5 EoF Ender 100% 1/1 6 He Healing -% 7 LrC Linker 100% 1/1 8 NfC Nixa 86% 6/7 9 NfD Nixa 83% 5/6 10 NoD Noark 100% 1/1 11 NoE Noark 100% 1/1 12 NoF Noark 75% 3/4 for all Noark 5/6 13 PeB Peridge 100% 2/2 14 PeG Peridge 100% 1/1 for all Peridge 100% 3/3 15 Sc Secesh 17% 1/6 16 TsC Tonti 88% 14/16 ' 17 WeC Waben 100% 1/1 132 --,~ !JBS titJM LOC FC TC FS RATl:! LI~ SOIL : 575 0-1~-32 0 C ..J 2CO 15 .: 57b 5-1i-3Z 0 1';2 ..0(:; >15(0 d 3 577 8-1~-32 0 1::3 ..>.15CJ >,l!,;vC q 4 ~.70 24-;'Q-3C: 0 : ..>j,5C) > 115(0 13 , ,7'l 3b-;'~-33 C ;. ..>j,:;0: >";(.1) .l ., 0 ,a'J 31-~.l-3, 0 C ..25:1 i-2~o ~5 .- 1 ,Ii. 0-1~-3.2 0 V ..15) >!15':'" 1:; b 582 3 ..'-..:-: Q - 3 ~ ., 3£~ ",,-"J ' 5\;~ ., 5 ,~ 5j3 75-~d-3~ 0 C ..1(jJ >::15..0 io ..1.' 584 ..C-..a-3'.i V 15 ..10J 150 10 ..1 585 lO-~8-3v 0 C ..lv:r 2(0 12 1'- 58b 1C-:R-3() 0 (; ..70 ..~v :5 :3 5~1 15-:'8-3\i 0 ~ ..5:) 1)2( : 14 ;'18 10-18-3'J 0 ;; ..050 70 In 15 58.9 10-:8-30 0 :'8 ..35;)I"vO 1h lb 5QC 10-1R-30 0 353 ..35:" !350 !.~ ..7 ~~i 2..-'::-':'1 C 78(, ..oCJ >1?!5:;:' 10 ~8 5q2 q-Z)-~Q .15 ..) >11Is.;.r 1 .Q 5Q3 33-21-2.'1 0 0 ..33) >11",,( 5 1 4-::1-;'-' 0 5 -O- t -., 2 r.v 5~4 ~. ~" .J" .; >.,--. u" ...:Iz.c::..' ~q()'-~5 ~-l6-31--.c,-' L"" 3 ..I.,0 C0 70-'. 20..v 1 '-.;:;C .;..;~ lC;);.~,5 -r j 11:;~C'1\.\. lD ~ 7 23 :.Q1 30-?o-32 0 C ~. 5:) 1ir;LO 1:1 Z.. 5Q8 lQ-1q-3. .:2 01. l3JI1':( 7 ~5 5QI./ 28-:q-3:' 0 35 4C C.C: 5; !oS:': ~ ,0 oCJ 2C-:'Q-31 q (. 28 C.32 5) 10 q ~7 00.:. :2-:,Q-32 0 0 a C.:>: >ljuJ jO 2 ,8zq (JO2.bC3 31-Zj-310-!o'}-3.. 0.1)\; ;j 53\.!. 55 'v.J:; .3bJ!55:) I jCtilJ '0 " 30 bO., 2-1-1'-31 0 0 O. 5i:.:J I 60 (. 31 005 9-2G-3! 0 4,0 70 C.;)O jj :30 3 32 bOb 30-:'Q-C::8 0 0 3 33 &01 7-18-27 1 8 10 34 608 6-13-21 0 37 3 35 oOq 8-:'3-30 0 8 C. 46~ ZO 16 30 010 3:-:.q-30 0 ..2 10 :'.:1; 25:) 170 10 37 bli 2'1-:Q-30 0 :2 12 v.;);) d;; 15C 12 38 012. 3l-1()-ji) 0 C v. dC1 4(;0 8 39 013 2C-1Q-30 0 0 0 .>ljO) 160 10 ..0 614 22-1q:'30. ~ 0 .>150) 2..0 8 41 6j" 27-1Q-3C 0 2 4 J.CJ 32J 1)50 13 ..2 010 34-1Q-3.~ I) 170 0 .>150) >?5;JO 13 4.3 017 <1-18-30 0 52 12 O.~j 3GJ 150 .16 "4 b1B 7-..8-30 0 ;; O. 00:1 1.5") 1\ ..5 01'J 10-:"3-30 0 0 4 O.J~ >l5CJ 1C5 2 40 620 10-16-3,) 0 0 0 .>..5CJ liO 2 ~7 02i 10-:8-30 0 2 I) .>150J 120 2 "B 022 <1-18-30 0 2 0 .>15vj 120 10 ..q b23 5-2J-3l ~ q O. 5J >15JO 3 50 02'1 1-2,,-32 v 0 O. 45) dO (. 5: b25 17-2.v-32 v qo O. 5J >1';00 Q 52 020 1-2':)-33 0 15C O. 3.9:; >150(; 3 53 027 2~-ZO-33 0 CO. i5) Z5 1: 5.. oi~ 1,-~8-33 0 31~ O. ... 55 bZ9 11-17-32 ) 0 C. 30,) 35 q 'ib ,,30 1.:'-:7-32 ':) 320 1" 0.:':' 380 00 Q 57 03:' 1:'-;.7-3Z )., 0 1:' ~.uJ ..5:' lZ-C Q jd oJi. :;'-:1-32 ~ 700 33 C.v;' 7G;) 45 8 jQ 03J 12-;'7-32 4 1.. 50 (1.;)7 5) "5 I, ~(O 03.. 11-17-32 :5 Zi q i.~: 2v: 37(; b '). b35 3).-:,Q-~q J oQ ..5) >15~'O ;2 1;2 (130 31-1q-Z'1 17) 17~ .' 10;) >15(0 .2 1) 1 1.. 3 7 '0-'8-30 ) :73 0 .>15C:) 1iO 16 5) ' 5 1 I)"-\.' b3ij ... 3-1fi-3J J (I l, .>. ,.) ...0 )5 .b3'.J 3-;' 1-3:1 ) 4 0 .>l5u:l 2,,( ,'j QO b~J q-18-3J ) Q 0 .>15CJ 12~O " ,-- t ,::'lj,," 133 PLATES 1. Photo-Lineament/Fracture Trace Well Location Map 2. vJater Table Map of the Boone-St. Joe Aquifer i i II II "