Caboolture to Corridor Study Final Impact Assessment and Land Use Transport Strategy

section of the railway corridor, which lies within the catchment of Pumicestone Passage as the proposal No water quality data could be sourced for Currimundi has the potential to further increase pollutant loads. Creek, however it is known that the creek system is Potential water quality impacts from the route are effectively freshwater (based on vegetation species discussed in Chapters 8-11. observed) due to obstruction of the ocean entrance to the creek by sand bars. 5.11.3 Caloundra Road to Mooloolah River Only limited information was available for the In this section of the railway corridor, two major Mooloolah River. Water quality data for the Mooloolah waterways will be immediately adjacent to or crossed River were derived from EPA water quality monitoring by the railway. They are Currimundi Creek and the data and are summarised in Table 5.11.3a below. Mooloolah River.

Table 5.11.3a: Summary of Water Quality Data (Mooloolah River) AMTD pH D.O. Cond. Turb. TSS TN TP Chla (km) mg/L mS/cm NTU mg/L mg/L mg/L g/L ANZECC 6.5-9 >6 <0.75 <0.5 1-10 Mooloolah River Average - - - - - 0.94 0.09 - N. Data 10 10 WBM Av 5.17 7.70 0.85 116.5 47.0 1.75 1.23 <5

From the limited information available, it seems that the solids levels observed as nutrient and sediment loads water quality of the Mooloolah River is poor, with low would have been washed into the river with catchment pH indicating acidic conditions, high total suspended runoff. The low conductivity illustrates that only limited solids and very high nutrient levels. Salinity in the tidal influence was present at the time of the water Mooloolah River would fluctuate with tidal conditions quality survey. However, the available data for the river and catchment runoff. suggests high total nitrogen concentrations are commonly observed in the river. More data would be The heavy rainfall prior to the water quality survey required to more fully describe the existing water quality would contribute to the high nutrient and suspended of the River.

Table 5.11.3b: Summary of Water Quality Data (Cornmeal Creek) AMTD PH D.O. Cond. Turb. TSS TN TP Chla (km) mg/L mS/cm NTU mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L ANZECC 6.5-9 >6 <0.75 <0.5 1-10 Cornmeal Creek Average 8.10 8.87 49.03 15.8 5.7 0.44 0.06 - Min 7.83 4.94 46.40 3.8 4.3 0.22 0.02 - Max 8.60 7.60 52.30 55.0 8.1 0.61 0.09 - N Data 25 25 25 25 6 3 6

The water quality of Cornmeal Creek can be seen to be area. The Creek is however well flushed by the reasonable to poor, with moderate to high nutrient , which maintains generally good water levels, acceptable pH and high dissolved oxygen quality. concentrations. Total suspended solids concentrations also appear to be moderate from the available data. 5.11.4 Maroochydore Centre to Sunshine Coast However, this water quality data is limited in extent and Airport further data would be required to make firm conclusions on the water quality of Cornmeal Creek. See Table In this section of the railway corridor, the only major 5.11.3b. waterway to be crossed by the railway is the Maroochy River. As discussed in section 5.9.2.5, the Maroochy The catchment and waterways extent of Cornmeal River is a Fish Habitat Area and as such protection of Creek has been extensively modified as part of both water quality in the river is very important. flood mitigation works and urban/retail development. The waterway retains few of its natural characteristics Existing water quality for the Maroochy River (up to with the lower reaches dominated by retail development 10km adopted middle thread distance, or AMTD) is up to and including the creek banks (revetments) and summarised in Table 5.11.4 below. The proposed the upper catchment developed as a major residential railway corridor crosses the Maroochy River at

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approximately 3.5km AMTD (shaded in table below). It showed lower pH and conductivity levels than can be seen from these results that the water quality in are typical but higher dissolved oxygen, turbidity, total the Maroochy River recorded by WBM Oceanics suspended solids and nutrient levels. Chlorophyll a

Table 5.11.4: Existing Water Quality for the Maroochy River AMTD (km) pH D.O. Cond. Turb. TSS TN TP Chla mg/L MS/cm NTU mg/L mg/L mg/L J/ ANZECC 6.5-9 >6 <0.75 <0.5 1-10 0.00 8.26 6.11 52.4 3.3 6.8 0.34 0.05 - 0.30 8.30 6.29 52.3 4.4 11.3 0.25 0.05 2.38 2.60 8.11 6.45 47.0 5.8 8.2 0.42 0.06 4.18 4.80 7.94 6.94 40.7 8.8 15.7 0.53 0.06 4.68 7.10 7.73 5.60 36.1 7.5 11.8 0.56 0.07 6.13 9.70 7.60 5.24 31.2 10.7 15.2 0.53 0.04 5.65 WBM Av 6.25 7.88 0.3 153.0 53.0 1.77 0.62 <5 concentrations were similar to typical concentrations in suitable landforms and rock surfaces upon which rock this section of the river. art could be executed. They also affected the ease with which people could travel across the landscape. The high rainfall prior to the monitoring survey would have resulted in large catchment inflows, which would All items in the following discussion are standardised to also be associated with high sediment and nutrient the format prepared by McDonald et al. (1990). loads. The low pH is of some concern, as this suggests acidic material is being flushed into the river, which may 5.12.2 Topography, Geology and Geomorphology be caused by exposed acid sulfate material in the catchment. The water quality at the proposed crossing The topography through this region can be referred to, location would typically show oceanic salinities (ie. (as per Davies 1995:14), as coastal and sub-coastal around 33g/L) which would be restored following lowlands. Elements within these divisions may have catchment runoff by tidal exchange. implications in the archaeological record based on differing uses of the landscape by people over time. Typical nutrient levels in the Maroochy River in the vicinity of the proposed railway crossing are much Coastal areas are identified as sandy coastal plains, lower than the ANZECC criteria, indicating good water with tidal rivers and wetlands. Sub-coastal lowlands quality is maintained. Concentrations of chlorophyll a are areas with undulating topography and wide valleys are also low, indicating the algal populations supported with deep soils (Davies 1994:14). Height above sea by the river are not excessive. However, further level rarely goes above 200 metres through the study increases in either nutrients or suspended solids would area. Sugarbag Road was one of the areas with the degrade water quality, which may adversely affect the greatest height. protected Fish Habitat Area. The coastal drainage system is quite extensive and 5.12 Cultural Heritage consists of various creeks and rivers including Bells Creek, Currimundi Creek, Mooloolah River and the 5.12.1 Introduction Maroochy River. These provide the lifeblood of the coast and are important parameters for Aboriginal site In an archaeological survey, a study of vegetation, location. geomorphology and geology is important to establish the interpretative environmental background to any Underlying the study area is a complex geology based items of the cultural record. As well, environmental on sediment erosion after the eruptions of the North factors may have an important bearing on the Arm Volcanics ceased (between 210 and 180 million distribution of people - and thus by implication, years ago). The main geological feature in this region archaeological sites - across the landscape. As is associated with the formation of the current eastern Hughes and Sullivan (1984:35) noted: edge of Australia. Erosion of the mountains to the west caused deposition of sands and gravels over the Numerous investigations throughout Australia have coastal plains. Sands, with minor gravels and muds shown that the nature and distribution of archaeological formed the Landsborough Sandstone (Willmott and sites across the landscape are generally very strongly Stevens 1988:8) which comprise the base geology for influenced by environmental factors such as bedrock the study area. geology, landforms and associated soils and vegetation and climate. These factors influenced the organic raw During the middle Tertiary renewed volcanic activity materials, water, and raw materials for stone artefacts, about 25 million years ago resulted in basalt capped

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hills to the west of the study area. At about this time An area of remnant vegetation occurs in the Sugarbag plugs of rhyolite and trachyte magma intruded through Road and Kalana Road areas containing eucalypt the older rocks filling volcanic vents or laccoliths forest remnants and some rainforest. Eucalypt open (subsurface bulges) (Willmott and Stevens 1988:11). forest and woodland ecotones occur near Currimundi Creek with extensive cleared pastoral areas north and Erosion once again carved the landscape, removing the west of Currimundi Creek. softer sediments and exposing the harder plugs. Alluvial sedimentation was then being deposited along Melaleuca Forest and woodland ecotones are the major the banks of streams and accumulating along the vegetation type north to the Sunshine Motorway whilst coastline. the landscape along the Motorway is largely cleared with sugarcane plantations and industrial development. Geology has a range of archaeological implications including the availability and proximity of good lithic The northern section of the study area near the material useful for creating stone tools. A variety of Sunshine Coast Airport is an ecologically sensitive area lithic material was used by Aboriginal people. However with Melaleuca Forest and Heathland covering much of throughout the study area few areas exist where good the landscape. stone sources could be quarried. The location of any quarries and axe-grinding grooves would be an Throughout the proposed route wildlife corridors indication of the exploitation of these resources as local encourage the spread and continuation of diversity geology. within the local plant and animal community. Fauna are dependant on vegetation type, water availability and The breakdown of these geological types to soils also topography. Within these diverse habitats a variety of affects archaeological visibility, particularly through fish, yabbies, eels and frogs can be located. Frogs erosion and soil profile. Soils, which have a deep soil were more evident in the northern section of the study profile, can often have a high potential to hold area and less vocal in the southern Pine Plantation archaeological material, although location is areas. constrained by this. In areas, which have a shallow soil profile, the probability of location is enhanced. A large number of Eastern Grey Kangaroos, swamp wallabies and other macropods were noted along the 5.12.3 Vegetation and Fauna study area. Along the creeks a variety of birds could be seen including ducks and kookaburras. Reptiles, The habitats of flora and fauna are determined by including snakes, and lizards were scarce. Probably geology and soil type. Particular vegetation species this is more an indication of the season, as field work provide a wide variety of resources for exploitation by was carried out in winter. Aboriginal people. Archaeologically, the indicators of this exploitation can be found in specific stone tools The variability of vegetation probably reflected changes such as ‘bungwall pounders’. in populations of fauna. Within wallum areas, commentators (eg., Dwyer et al. 1979: 82) have The Sunshine Coast was considered a valuable consistently reported on mammalian fauna in wallum resource area during early exploration because of the displaying low abundance, and, in places low total large area covered by forests. Timber getters felled species richness. While this statement probably thousands of trees, opening up the landscape for applies to a large proportion of the study area, pastoral activities. depauperate land fauna would have been substantially compensated for by the richness of marine and avarian However the vegetation currently present in the study life in that zone. Other areas would have offered area has been significantly modified since early non- habitats for a different range of fauna, especially indigenous occupation and exploration. Across the macropods, echidnas, and reptiles. study area, a variety of different eco-tones exist, resulting in a mosaic of vegetation and associated 5.12.4 Implications of Environmental Background fauna. for Indigenous Lifeways

Pine forests cover much of the land between Beerwah Landscapes of swampland across much of the and Pelican Waters. Areas of remnant vegetation and proposed corridor route are dominated by Melalueca regrowth exists primarily along the banks of Bluegum quinquinervia communities and Blechnum indicum, Creek, Bellbird Creek, Mellum and Bells Creek. flora species known to have been used regularly by Remnant rainforest exists along the eastern border of Aboriginal communities. Archaeological evidence the CSR pine forests, with some eucalypt forest would be indicated by the presence of bevelled remnants. Between Bells Creek and Lamerough Creek pounders (‘bungwall pounders’), portable sandstone extensive melaleuca forest and heathland areas still grinding platforms, other stone artefacts and by scarred survive despite the Pelican Waters development. trees.

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Paper bark trees Melaleuca quinquinervia, had a variety of the nature of the project. Each group was asked if of uses in traditional times. The bark was removed to they wished to make further input into the assessment create containers and the tree also had medicinal of cultural heritage values. purposes. Eucalypt species can also be found with bark removal scars caused through removal to create a Prior to the fieldwork required for Stage 3 of the container or to create footholes. During the survey, CAMCOS assessment discussions held during Stage 2 several trees were noted with scars of this pattern, had identified three groups with an interest in the study probably caused to assist in climbing to obtain honey or area (Ann Wallin and Associates 1997). At the start of possums. the field survey, during an initial site visit held with representatives of the Undumbi, a representative of the Faunal species present in traditional times and hunted Gubbi Land Council, and a representative of the Baul by Aboriginal people include mammals such as Eastern and Crowe families of the Gubbi Gubbi people, it Grey kangaroo, swamp wallaby, koala, possums, and became apparent that all of those groups had flying foxes. Reptiles such as goannas, lizards, and undergone changes. It was no longer acceptable that snakes and aquatic species such as turtles, fish and all the families who had connections with the study area eels were also exploited as food. Archaeologically the be represented by three spokespeople. An implication physical representations of these activities would be of this was that the Traditional Owners felt that each difficult to find. Evidence is more likely to be found family should be represented by two members of their through microscopic assessment of stone tools for families thus sharing responsibility for passing residues left during the processing of food, but such information back to the rest of the family. In addition data collection is beyond the scope of this study. descendants of the Dunne, Crowe and Baul families wished to be represented during fieldwork and 5.12.5 Non-Indigenous Environmental Impact meetings separately to the representative of the Gubbi Land Council as had been the case formerly. The ability to detect and locate cultural heritage within this environment is conditional upon natural and cultural A meeting was held with representatives of the Richard formation processes. Dalton family at the area called Duck Holes next to the Caloundra Aerodrome. The area has immediate Given the environment of the study area it is expected historical significance to the family members who grew that a large proportion of the landscape would have up on the site, as well as traditional significance prior to been utilised by Aboriginal people. The strategies non-indigenous settlement. Some of the memories and employed in living within these environments would outcomes of this meeting are covered in section 11.9. have left physical indicators in the landscape, such as stone artefacts and scarred trees. A further meeting was held towards the end of the field survey to discuss the survey process thus far and Natural activities such as erosion, soil deposition and expectations of the report with all the representatives. climate affect the survival of these physical indicators. At this meeting the issue of separate families speaking Bone and wood deteriorate very quickly in the tropical for areas rather than being represented by one conditions experienced by the study area. Soil spokesperson was discussed and protocols set in place deposition can often cover former living surfaces while for further meetings and fieldwork. erosion can remove material from its original area of deposition. A final meeting was held after field work had finished to discuss the draft report and the results covered in the Culturally, the activities of other people within these report. Issues of confidentiality towards family areas can obscure this material. Whilst these latter intellectual property were covered during this meeting. cultural activities can be detrimental to older material, It was agreed that any information which the Traditional they also can become culturally significant and owner representatives wished to keep confidential was archaeological themselves over time. For example to be respected and not included in the public timber cutting through much of the Sunshine Coast has document. Recommendations regarding protection or removed many trees scarred by Aboriginal people, mitigation of impact on sites defined by the survey were however a tree with springboard scars from this timber raised by the Traditional owners representatives to be cutting process can also be historically significant. included in the report complied by the cultural heritage consultants. 5.12.6 Aboriginal Consultation Consultation was held separately after fieldwork had been completed with descendants of the Richard During this assessment of cultural heritage issues, a Dalton line (of the Undumbi people), who had lived on transparent approach towards consultation with the area referred to as Duck Holes, in Caloundra. At indigenous groups was taken, as is required by State this meeting issues covered included the need to Government advice. During meetings with each group, provide more adequate signage showing the information on the proposed project was given, connection the Undumbi people had to the site, and for including maps of the proposed route and a description

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culturally appropriate street sign naming for any further Road. This park is also known as Duck Holes and has streets which may be planned for future development special significance for the Richard Dalton line of the near or on the Duck Holes site. Although the Undumbi people. representatives understood that this was an issue to be discussed with the Caloundra City Council planning 5.12.7.1 Site List department, they wished the issue to be raised in light of the impact of the CAMCOS transport route through Sites defined during field assessment are described the area. below (see also Figure 5.12.7):

5.12.7 Beerwah to Caloundra Road - Sites Defined from Field Assessment

Archaeological field survey began at the point where the rail corridor is proposed to leave the existing North Coast rail line. The route through the Beerburrum Forestry land and CSR Pine Plantation land was walked. Sections of the Pelican Waters land were walked except when it became evident due to water levels that the land surface was obscured. Survey ended for this section at Rotary Park on Caloundra Site Jinkers Tree S1 Geographical Location On banks of Mellum Creek, 2 eastern, 1 western and 2 located in the centre of extent of creek area. Grid Location Geological Environment Landsborough sandstone base with combination of alluvial soil and sand. Vegetative Environment Remnant rainforest. Description of Site/ A collection of jinker’s trees in an area measuring approximately Artefact 100 x 100 metres. The truck of trees range between .75m to 1.5m in diameter. Heights range from 2.5m to 5m Archaeological Medium to High. The trees represent a technological process Significance used by early timber getters in acquiring timber. The process of spring boarding involved the use of a long board which was secured to the trunk in these grooves and allowed the cutter to stand at an appropriate height to aid in chopping large trees down. Cultural Significance Medium to Low. Historically the tree represents the activities of early timber getters in the Mellum Creek region and is an important reminder of early settlement activities.

Site Silcrete Flake S2 Geographical Location On high eastern bank of Mellum Creek in sandy soil of graded track. Grid Location Geological Environment Landsborough Sandstone. Sandy alluvial surface. Vegetative Environment Melaleuca and Eucalypt open forest. Description of Site/ A large single silcrete flake was located in sandy surface c.20 Artefact metres from creek on sandy track. The flake exhibits bulb of percussion and striking platform. Appears to be heat treated. Archaeological Medium to High. The possibility exists that further stone material Significance could be located under the sand top soil. These may have good stratigraphic and associative integrity, particularly if there is any depth to the site. Cultural Significance High. These sites provide tangible evidence of present Aboriginal peoples ancestral occupation and use of the land. They are important links to Aboriginal people’s culture and their past.

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Site Flaked Piece S3 Geographical Location On southern side of dam directly east of Hapgood Road. A single silcrete flake was located on path on slope towards dam. Grid Location Geological Environment Landsborough sandstone. Vegetative Environment Paperbark, open Eucalypt woodland. Description of Site/ Single small grey silcrete flaked piece. Artefact Archaeological Low. There is a high degree of loss of scientific integrity through Significance erosion Cultural Significance High. These sites provide tangible evidence of present Aboriginal peoples ancestral occupation and use of the land. They are important links to Aboriginal peoples culture and their past.

Site Quarry Site S4 Geographical Location Quarry occurs on a high ridge that has been cut into to create an access track. Grid Location Geological Environment Landsborough sandstone. Vegetative Environment Pine forest. Description of Site/ Pits and mullock heaps from former extractive industry. Artefact Archaeological Low. This area dates from the time of APM ownership. Significance Cultural Significance Low

Site Possible Scarred Tree S5 Geographical Location On western side of west arm of Bells Creek. Grid Location Geological Environment Alluvial soil with sandy base. Vegetative Environment Melaleuca open forest Description of Site/ Paperbark tree with small oval scar on trunk. Artefact Archaeological Low. Mr Alex Davidson indicated that he felt this was of some Significance importance. Analysis indicates that the scarring is not thick enough nor the scar large enough to be cultural. Cultural Significance Medium. Importance may be placed on the tree depending on Mr Davidson’s interpretation of the scar.

Site Scarred tree S6 Geographical Location Approximately 500 metres south of Corridor. Northern bank of Bells Creek. Grid Location Geological Environment Coastal sedimentary clays and wallum podzols. Vegetative Environment Open forest/melaleuca wetlands. Description of Site/ Large stringybark with diameter of 90cm and height of 30-40m. Artefact Possible stone axe-marks on regular shaped oval scar 60cm from ground. Archaeological One of a number of scarred trees along Bells Creek recorded Significance prior to Pelican Waters development. High significance due to associated sites. Cultural Significance Medium to High.

Site Scarred tree S7 Geographical Location 500 metres south of corridor on the northern bank of Bells Creek

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Site Scarred tree S7 Grid Location Geological Environment Coastal sediments and wallum podzols Vegetative Environment Open forest/melaleuca wetlands. Description of Site/ Large grey gum with diameter of 1 metre and height of 30-40m. Artefact Irregular shallow scar 1 metre from ground. May be natural scar. Archaeological Low to Medium. Is one of a number of scarred trees recorded Significance along Bells Creeks. Some doubt as to its archaeological integrity, as this scar does not meet all the criteria of scarring caused by Traditional activities. Cultural Significance Medium to high.

Site Scarred tree S8 Geographical Location 100 metres south of corridor on northern bank of Bells Creek Grid Location Geological Environment Coastal sedimentary clays and wallum podzols Vegetative Environment Open forest/melaleuca wetlands Description of Site/ Large grey gum with diameter of 90cm and height of 30-40m. Artefact Probable four regular shaped oval scars at 1m, 3m, and two at 4 m from ground. Archaeological Medium. One of a number of scarred trees along Bells creek. Significance Significance increases with association. Cultural Significance High to medium.

Site Scarred tree S9 Geographical Location 100 metres south of corridor on northern bank of Bells Creek. Grid Location Geological Environment Coastal sedimentary clays and wallum podzols. Vegetative Environment Open forest/melaleuca wetlands. Description of Site/ Melaleuca with diameter of 50cm and height of 20 metres Artefact probable scar at 1.10m from ground. Steel axe marks present. Archaeological Medium. One of a number of scarred trees along Bells Creek. It Significance significance increases due to its association with other sites and scarred trees in the region. Cultural Significance Medium to High.

Site Midden S10 Geographical Location 500 metres south of corridor, on northern bank of Bells Creek. Grid Location Geological Environment Coastal sedimentary clays and wallum podzols. Vegetative Environment Open forest/melaleuca wetlands. Description of Site/ Low density scatter of shell on either side of small side creek. Artefact Shell includes cockle, whelk and oyster. Archaeological Low. Site is in poor condition and has lost much integrity through Significance erosion. It is one of a number of sites associated with Bells Creek. Significance increases through association. Cultural Significance Medium to high.

Site Fringe Camp, Duck Holes S12 Geographical Location Location of present day Rotary Park, south of Caloundra Road directly east of the Caloundra airport. Grid Location Geological Environment Landsborough sandstone. Vegetative Environment Melaleuca and eucalypt open forest. Description of Site/ Extensively modified during landscaping activities undertaken

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Site Fringe Camp, Duck Holes S12 Artefact during the 1980s? Archaeological Low. Poor surface integrity. Significance Cultural Significance High. Members of the Undumbi people have strong cultural affiliations with the area. See discussion below:

Holes as it was an environment similar to those in 5.12.7.2 Fringe Camp, Duck Holes which she had grown up and where she was taught to be self sufficient. Swamps in particular have been Rose Cleary nee Dalton and her children lived in this shown to be extremely important for Aboriginal people. park on and off during the 1950s and 60s. Four of her Wetlands provided maximum food resources for daughters visited the site with Suzanna Pembroke to indigenous people in Southeast . talk about what the area meant to them. Waterholes, lagoons, creeks and swamps contained a diverse variety of food species, both vegetable and This area has strong significance for the Dalton family. animals, as well as fresh water for drinking. While it is Rhonda Cleary, June Reeks, Clara Johnston and widely recognised that wetlands are of major Peggy Barker nee Cleary accompanied Suzanna significance for environmental reasons, less recognition Pembroke to the site in June 1999 to talk about their has been given to their importance to Aboriginal hunter- memories and the cultural implications of the CAMCOS gathers. scheme. Because wetlands provided such a wealth of food Although the landscape has been considerably altered resources, it is not surprising to find camp sites, since Rose Cleary and her family lived there the area Dreaming sites, and other sacred or ceremonial areas still retains is associations with the natural environment. are frequently associated with swamps (Steele, 1984, The creek of Duck Holes was a focus for the family, Gaiarbau cited in Langevad, 1982). with Rose planting many lilies and flowers around the house and landscape. 5.12.8 Caloundra Road to Mooloolah River – Sites Defined from Field Assessment The family first moved into the area in the 1950’s. The family was evicted from the site in 1969 when police North of Caloundra Road the route was walked where removed them after complaints from people who lived possible. This covered most of the land with across the street. exceptions being where land was waterlogged. This area is divided into land unit boundaries based on land There was a bus stop on Caloundra Road at Duck title and landscape definition. Information about each Holes where the school bus would stop to pick up the unit was recorded using this basis. Cleary children. Rhonda remembers that they used to catch the school bus as far as the beach. A variety of vegetation habitats exist in this section, ranging from riparian rainforest in the southern section Their youngest brother Kevin Cleary was born on this through to wallum and melaleuca swampland, open site. June said that she and Rhonda were arguing dairy land and mangrove to the north. Each of these about who was going to ring the ambulance but Kevin vegetation habitats has implications for the was born before this was resolved. archaeological record.

As they didn’t have a fridge they would keep their butter 5.12.8.1 Site List in a waterproof container which was then placed in the creek during summer to keep it cool. This was pulled See also Figure 5.12.8. up on a string when it was needed. They had a campfire area outside the shed on which they did most of their cooking.

Rhonda commented that she felt some resentment towards her mother for always making them live in a swamp until she recently went to visit Myora on Stradbroke Island where Rose Cleary grew up. Myora exhibits similar environmental conditions to Duck Holes in that it is also close to a swamp. Traditionally swamps were a focus for Aboriginal people in terms of accessing material resources, food and water.

It is probable that Rose chose to live in area of Duck

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Site Jinkers tree S13 Geographical Location In rainforest landscape between Kaloma Road and Sugarbag Road. Grid Location Geological Environment Vegetative Environment Eucalypt forest and remnant rainforest. Description of Site/Artefact Single tree with springboard scars on trunk. Archaeological Significance Low Cultural Significance Low

Site Artefact scatter S14 Geographical Location Located on Meridian road, a dirt track c.500 metres north of Currimundi Creek and 100 metres south of large inland dam. Western end abuts eastern section of corridor. Grid Location Geological Environment Alluvial soil. Vegetative Environment Open grassed pasture grazing. Description of Site/Artefact Extensive artefact scatter exposed on dirt track of proposed road. Extends for c.150m x 5 m, with associated large silcrete core. Archaeological Significance High Cultural Significance High

Site Artefact scatter S15 Geographical Location Located on eastern bank of Mooloolah River Grid Location Geological Environment Tidal silts Vegetative Environment Coastal heath. Description of Site/Artefact Dispersed scatter of flakes. Since the sites was recorded by E. Crosby in 1993 disturbance to the site has continued. There has been much movement of sand through surface clearing activities directly to the east of the site. Sand is now covering this area. A number of large silcrete flakes were located in this area. Archaeological Significance Medium. Crosby noted in her 1993 report that several of the artefact scatters had similar composition and suggested that this might indicate similar functions. Cultural Significance High

Site Artefact scatter S16 Geographical Location East bank of Mooloolah River. Grid Location Geological Environment Tidal silts. Vegetative Environment Riverine mangroves Description of Site/Artefact Scatter of quartzite flakes in an area measuring 20 x 30 metres. These are still apparent from Crosby’s initial identification, 1993. Archaeological Significance Low to medium. Cultural Significance High. Site Artefact scatter S17 Geographical Location East bank of Mooloolah River. Grid Location Geological Environment Tidal silts Vegetative Environment Riverine mangroves. Description of Site/Artefact Scatter of flakes silcretes etc Archaeological Significance Low to medium Cultural Significance High.

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Site Midden S18 Geographical Location East of corridor on north east bank of Mooloolah River. Grid Location Geological Environment Tidal Salts Vegetative Environment Mangrove and some melaleuca. Description of Site/Artefact Extensive shell midden extending 100 metres along river and 30 metres wide. Primarily oyster Saccostrea calculata. Archaeological Significance High. This is a major midden site. It was first recorded in 1939, it is still quite extensive and is the largest midden from this area. It is registered with the EPA. Cultural Significance High

Central Option 5.12.9 Mooloolah River to Maroochy Central Three routes are proposed crossing the Mooloolah The proposed middle route crosses the Mooloolah River and heading north along the Sunshine Motorway. River close to the eastern bank and runs parallel with They are described below. the Sunshine Motorway.

Western Option Eastern Option

This option has the route crossing close to the eastern This option crosses the Mooloolah River and crosses bank of the Mooloolah River. It crosses a small island east over the Nicklin Way bridge to run along the in the middle of the river before reaching the opposite eastern road reserve of the Sunshine Motorway. north bank, west of the Sunshine Motorway. The corridor goes west of the Mooloolabah entrance to the 5.12.9.1 Site List Sunshine Motorway and runs slightly west of the Sunshine Motorway before rejoining the motorway south of Horton Park Golf Course. Site Scarred tree S19 Geographical Location East bank of Mooloolah River Grid Location Geological Environment Tidal silts Vegetative Environment Open eucalypt woodland Description of Site/Artefact Scar 500mm long, possibly used for a coolamon, located on a grey gum Eucalyptus propinqua. Archaeological Significance Medium to high. Cultural Significance High

the study area 9 locations were chosen at different 5.12.10 Maroochy Central to Sunshine Coast Airport sections along the proposed railway corridor. These monitoring locations were selected to give information This area follows the Sunshine Motorway north along representative of the existing noise environment along the road reserve to State Land where it heads east the study corridor. The microphone was located away towards the Sunshine Coast Airport. Most of this area from reflecting surfaces to obtain “free field” data, and is zoned rural and has been used for agricultural at sites where existing noise sources were clearly purposes. West of the Sunshine Motorway cane is audible (eg. along the Sunshine Motorway), the being grown. The surface coverage of vegetation is microphone was located in line with the adjacent house extremely thick through this area. facades. Figures 4.7.7 depict the location of these noise monitoring sites along the proposed railway The section covered by state land is comprised mostly corridor. of heath land and fringed by melaleuca open forest. The existing noise environment was monitored using No sites have been identified in this section. the RION NA - 29 and Larson & Davis (LD 700) sound level meters (SLM), and up to 3 (ARL 125) 5.13 Noise and Vibration environmental noise loggers. These instruments conform to AS 1259 “Acoustics - Sound level meters” and the measurements were undertaken in general To ascertain the existing ambient noise environment of

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accordance with AS 1055 - “Acoustics - Description and address indicates the monitoring location on the map of measurement of environmental noise”. The the railway corridor in the south to north direction. instruments were calibrated before and after each measurement period.

The results of the noise monitoring are given in Tables 5.13a&b below. Table 5.13a contains the results of the noise measurements with SLM, while Table 5.13b contains the results of the noise measurements with ARL 125. The results are presented in the order that they have been recorded while the number before the

Table 5.13a: Ambient Noise Monitoring Results - Sound Level Meters

Location Number Date/ LT Sound Noise Sources & Average Average Average General and Time Pressure Noise Character Temp °C Rel. H % Wind Conditions Address Level dB(A) Speed/Dir

4 24/02/99 L10 51 Tree leaves, insects, 28 68 Light, Fine 13 Rhodes Place 11:30 AM Leq 49 birds, voices, aircraft Southerly L90 42 52 - 65 dB (A).

3 24/02/99 L10 44 Birds, road traffic, 28 68 Light, Fine Seventh Day 1:15 PM Leq 43 fan noise at Village, Southerly Adventist L90 38 aircraft Retirement Village – Harker Court

8 4/05/99 L10 62 Motorway noise, 23 62 Light, Fine Henley Park 3:30 PM Leq 59 local traffic, flag pole South-easterly Maroochydore L90 53 shackle in the wind, tree leaves

9 4/05/99 L10 55 Motorway noise, 23 63 Light, Fine Vacant Block 4:30 PM Leq 53 local traffic, dog South-easterly 59 - 61 Kowonga St. L90 50 barking, tree leaves, Maroochydore small aircraft

6 4/05/99 L10 67 Motorway noise, 22 78 Light, Fine Easement adjacent 5:20 PM Leq 65 local traffic, insects, South-easterly to 79 Amarina L90 59 dog barking, tree Avenue leaves,

5 4/05/99 L10 59 Motorway noise, 22 73 Light, Fine 10 Incana Court 6:30 PM Leq 58 local traffic, insects, West -South- Mooloolaba L90 44 dog barking, tree westerly leaves

9 17/05/99 L10 61 Motorway noise, 22 70 Light, Fine Vacant Block 4:00 PM Leq 61 local traffic, birds, South-easterly 59 - 61 Kowonga St. L90 48 insects, tree leaves. Maroochydore

7 17/05/99 L10 60 Motorway noise, 21 71 Light, Fine 38 Dalton Road 4:45 PM Leq 60 local traffic, birds, Southerly Maroochydore L90 49 insects, tree leaves.

6 17/05/99 L10 64 Motorway noise, 21 72 Light, Fine Easement adjacent 5:50 PM Leq 71 local traffic, birds, South-easterly to 79 Amarina L90 50 insects, tree leaves. Avenue Mooloolaba

1 20/05/99 L10 64 Glass House 21 70 Light, Fine Foley Street 4:10 PM Leq 69 Mountain Road, Southerly Beerwah L90 47 local traffic, birds, insects, dog barking.

2 20/05/99 L10 63 Local traffic, birds, 20 73 Light, Fine 63 Nelson Street 5:00 PM Leq 68 insects, tree leaves. Southerly Pelican Waters L90 44

5 26/05/99 L10 51 Traffic on the bridge 25 71 Light, Fine 10 Paraka Court 2:30 PM Leq 49 of Sunshine Easterly Mountain Creek L90 46 Motorway, birds.

2 26/05/99 L10 47 Local traffic, birds. 25 71 Light, Fine 63 Nelson Street 3:15 PM Leq 43 Southerly Pelican Waters L90 37

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Table 5.13b: Ambient Noise Monitoring Results - Environmental Noise Loggers

Location Number Date/ LT Sound Noise Sources & Average Average Average General and Time Pressure Noise Character Temp °C Rel. H % Wind Conditions Address Period Level dB(A) Speed/Dir

8 Evening L10 61 Motorway noise, 23 62 Light, Fine Henley Park 4/05/99 Leq 58 local traffic, flag South-easterly Maroochydore L90 50 pole shackle in the wind, tree leaves

8 Night L10 56 Motorway noise, 23 62 Light, Fine Henley Park 4/05/99 Leq 55 local traffic, flag South-easterly Maroochydore L90 46 pole shackle in the wind, tree leaves

8 Day L10 64 Motorway noise, 23 62 Light, Fine Henley Park 5/05/99 Leq 61 local traffic, flag South-easterly Maroochydore L90 56 pole shackle in the wind, tree leaves

9 Evening L10 61 Motorway noise, 22 70 Light, Showers Vacant Block 17/05/99 Leq 58 local traffic, birds, South-easterly 59 - 61 Kowonga L90 55 insects, tree leaves. St. Maroochydore

9 Night L10 56 Motorway noise, 22 70 Light, Showers Vacant Block 17/05/99 Leq 55 local traffic, birds, South-easterly 59 - 61 Kowonga L90 49 insects, tree leaves. St. Maroochydore

9 Day L10 64 Motorway noise, 22 70 Moderate to Rain Vacant Block 18/05/99 Leq 61 local traffic, birds, strong, 59 - 61 Kowonga L90 60 insects, tree leaves. South-easterly St. Maroochydore

7 Evening L10 58 Motorway noise, 21 71 Light, Showers 38 Dalton Road 17/05/99 Leq 55 local traffic, birds, South-easterly Maroochydore L90 49 insects, tree leaves.

7 Night L10 55 Motorway noise, 21 71 Light, Showers 38 Dalton Road 17/05/99 Leq 51 local traffic, birds, South-easterly Maroochydore L90 41 insects, tree leaves.

7 Day L10 64 Motorway noise, 21 71 Moderate to Rain 38 Dalton Road 18/05/99 Leq 62 local traffic, birds, strong, Maroochydore L90 60 insects, tree South-easterly leaves.

6 Evening L10 62 Motorway noise, 21 72 Light, Showers Easement adjacent 17/05/99 Leq 58 local traffic, birds, South-easterly to 79 Amarina L90 49 insects, tree Avenue leaves. Mooloolaba

6 Night L10 54 Motorway noise, 21 72 Light, Showers Easement adjacent 17/05/99 Leq 52 local traffic, birds, South-easterly to 79 Amarina L90 40 insects, tree Avenue leaves. Mooloolaba

6 Day L10 68 Motorway noise, 21 72 Moderate to Rain Easement adjacent 18/05/99 Leq 65 local traffic, birds, strong, to 79 Amarina L90 60 insects, tree South-easterly Avenue leaves. Mooloolaba

1 Evening L10 58 Glass House 19 73 Moderate to Showers Foley Street 20/05/99 Leq 55 Mountain Road, Strong Beerwah L90 49 local traffic, birds, South-easterly insects, dog barking.

1 Night L10 55 Glass House 19 73 Moderate to Showers Foley Street 20/05/99 Leq 51 Mountain Road, Strong Beerwah L90 41 local traffic, birds, South-easterly insects, dog barking.

1 Day L10 64 Glass House 19 73 Moderate to Showers Foley Street 21/05/99 Leq 62 Mountain Road, Strong Beerwah L90 60 local traffic, birds, South-easterly

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Table 5.13b: Ambient Noise Monitoring Results - Environmental Noise Loggers

Location Number Date/ LT Sound Noise Sources & Average Average Average General and Time Pressure Noise Character Temp °C Rel. H % Wind Conditions Address Period Level dB(A) Speed/Dir insects, dog barking.

2 Night L10 50 Local traffic, birds, 20 65 Light, Fine 63 Nelson Street 24/05/99 Leq 47 insects, tree South-easterly Pelican Waters L90 34 leaves.

2 Day L10 50 Local traffic, birds, 20 65 Light, Fine 63 Nelson Street 25/05/99 Leq 48 insects, tree South-easterly Pelican Waters L90 42 leaves.

2 Evening L10 52 Local traffic, birds, 20 65 Light, Fine 63 Nelson Street 25/05/99 Leq 49 insects, tree leaves. South-easterly Pelican Waters L90 40 Bureau of Meteorology (see Figures 5.14a-c). The noise levels measured vary from location to location and time of the day when monitoring has been The climate is subtropical characterised with hot and carried out. The noise levels measured are wet summers and mild and dry winters. Based on the consistently higher at locations closer to major arterial records since 1899, the average maximum annual roads (Bruce Highway, Sunshine Motorway or Glass temperature in the coastal area is 24.8oC, while the House Mountain Road), or busier local roads. The average minimum annual temperature is 15.5oC. The time of the day also contributes to the level of noise highest summer temperature recorded is 32.5oC. The measured, usually associated with the peak - hour lowest winter temperature recorded is 3oC. traffic on normally quiet suburban roads. The average annual rainfall based on the available Occasional high noise events of short duration, such recorded data is 1,487 mm. The highest summer as light aircraft noise or dogs barking, have also rainfall recorded is 1,218 mm, while the lowest winter contributed to the overall measured noise level. rainfall recorded is 1.3 mm. Finally, in the areas with dense vegetation - tree leaves, birds and insects have also contributed to the The air movement in the investigated area, as overall noise levels measured. represented by the meteorological information from the Caloundra, Maroochydore and Nambour The background noise levels recorded are typical of meteorological stations, is driven by the synoptic winds quiet residential areas with the exception of the and diurnal pattern of sea and land breezes. The measurement at location 1 (Foley Street, Beerwah), prevailing synoptic winds are south-easterlies in location 6, (easement adjacent to the property at 79 summer and south to south-westerlies in winter. The Amarina Avenue, Mooloolaba) and location 8 (Henley meteorological observations from the Nambour station Park, Maroochydore). The elevated background noise show that the south-easterly winds are dominant at Foley Street in Beerwah is attributable to the traffic throughout the year in this localised area. on Glass House Mountain Road and the bird and insect noise in the adjacent bushland. The Sunshine The diurnal pattern of sea and land breezes is very Motorway has been the major contributor to the pronounced in the stations located at Caloundra and elevated background noise level at 79 Amarina Maroochydore. The onshore winds are dominant in Avenue, Mooloolaba and Henley Park, Maroochydore. the afternoons when the hot air above the land is being replaced by the cooler sea air. Winds are usually light The level of ground vibration in the study area is to moderate with tendency to get stronger later in the negligible, and would rarely be perceptible. Potential day. The Nambour station has a larger percentage of sources would relate to road traffic, road construction/ calm periods, than the coastal stations. Most of the maintenance works, earth moving equipment and recorded calm periods occur overnight and early in the compacting equipment used during housing morning, before 9:00AM. construction in developing residential estates. The overall pattern of wind movement is in close 5.14 Coastal Climate correlation with the results of the macro modelling of the movement of air pollutants in the Southeast The oldest meteorological station in the study area is Queensland airshed. The technical report “Air Quality the one that has been located at the Caloundra Signal in the South-East Queensland Airshed” published by Station. Meteorological conditions have been the Queensland Department of Environment in August recorded in this station from 1899 until 1992. The 1997, summarises the regional air movement as other two meteorological stations in the study area are characterised by strong summer seabreezes that Nambour, operational since 1952, and the Sunshine move onshore in the middle of the day or early Coast Airport, operational since 1994. Meteorological afternoon and offshore at night. Synoptic winds are records from these stations were obtained from the also stronger in summer, while winter conditions are

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calmer and more stable. particles that settle at a short distance from the source. Some fine lead - containing particles remain 5.15 Air Quality suspended in air, and can be inhaled. In urban situations, a significant part of the body’s lead load 5.15.1 Overview of Air Pollution comes from inhalation of these airborne lead - containing particles (Streeton, 1990). Vehicular traffic is the main source of air pollution in the Sulphur Dioxide (SO ) study area. The type and quantity of air pollutants 2 emitted from vehicles is dependant on the type of engine Sulphur dioxide (SO ) is a pungent, irritating, fuel used. Petrol powered engines, mainly used in cars, 2 colourless gas. The main anthropogenic source of have higher carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides SO is the combustion of fossil fuels which contain (NO ) and volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) 2 x sulphur. Sulphur dioxide emissions are usually emissions, compared to similar sized diesel engines. associated with high particle emissions. When The diesel engines, mainly used in commercial vehicles, associated with high levels of aerosol particles SO is have higher particulate content as a result of unburnt 2 converted to sulphuric acid (H SO ). Sulphur dioxide carbon particles in the diesel “black smoke”. 2 4 and its reactive products are removed from the atmosphere by rainfall, generating "acid rain". 5.15.2 Types of Air Pollution Particulate Matter Pollutants of the atmosphere can occur in several different forms, ie. gases, liquids or particulates. Particulate matter, often refered to as dust, comprises These pollutants are placed into two categories; of particles in size range 1 to 75 micrometers (µm). pollutants emitted directly by the source (primary Sources of particulate matter, associated with traffic, pollutants) and pollutants caused by chemical include vehicle exhaust emissions, abrasion of brake reactions in the atmosphere (secondary pollutants). linings, the road surface and tyre wear. Most of this particles are likely to be of an intermediate size (10 - 5.15.2.1 Direct Emission Pollutants 30 µm) or small size (less than 10 µm). When airborne, intermediate sized particles are likely to These air pollutants are emitted directly from the travel up to 500 metres, while smaller particles can source, eg. from motor vehicles or industry. The most travel up to 1 kilometre from sources (UK Department common pollutants with respect to air emissions are of Environment, 1995). summarised below. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) are result of This pollutant is a product of incomplete combustion of fossil fuel evaporation and incomplete combustion in a carbonaceous fuel such as petrol or diesel. In industrial processes and internal combustion engines. general, in typical urban areas, motor vehicles account This large group of chemical compounds comprises of for up to 90 percent of all carbon monoxide (CO) organic gases such as paraffins, olefins, aldehydes, emissions. In south-east Queensland motor vehicles ketones, alcohols and acids (US Department of Health, contribute 83% of total CO emissions. 1967). In the south - east Queensland motor vehicles contribute 52 percent of the total emissions of VOC’s. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Of that more than 33 percent is a result of passenger vehicle emissions (Queensland DoE, 1998). Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) consist of mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). NOx is produced Odour during any combustion process that has a high enough temperature to oxidise atmospheric nitrogen. The Odour can be defined as perception given by the concentration of nitric oxide at the exhaust point is brain’s interpretation of the stimulus caused by the usually 5 to 10 times greater than the concentration of chemical compounds in the environment. The official nitrogen dioxide (US Department of Health, 1967). odour definition in Australia is organoleptic attribute Upon release to atmosphere NO is eventually oxidised perceptible by the olfactory organ on sniffing certain to form NO2. The results of measurements of volatile substances (Standards Australia, 1999). atmospheric concentrations of oxides of nitrogen are expressed in terms of NO2 concentration. Odour concentration is expressed in odour unit (OU). The definition of odour unit is that amount of odourant, Lead (Pb) that when evaporated into 1 m3 of neutral gas (purified air or nitrogen) triggers a physiological response from Airborne lead (Pb) is released into the atmosphere by a panel equivalent to one reference odour mass the combustion of leaded fuel. Lead is emitted as (ROM), evaporated in 1 m3 of neutral gas. By

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definition, in the force choice dynamic olfactometry, Carbon Monoxide (CO) ROM is 123 µg of n-butanol (Standards Australia, 1999). Exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) is reflected in a reduction of the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. In the olfactometry practice the strength of the odour is The CO combines with haemoglobin to form expressed in terms of number of dilutions required for carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb). Once the haemoglobin it to be just detectable to an odour assessing panel. has been transformed it can no longer carry oxygen. The amount of dilution air used to reduce the odour At high concentrations CO can cause death, but this is concentration to just detectable level, represents the associated with deliberate or incidental prolonged odour concentration in odour units per cubic metre exposure to CO in confined spaces. (ou/m3). Considering the high costs of the olfactometry analysis, for most practical applications The general ambient exposure to CO can affect odour assessment is based on subjective assessment exercise capacity in healthy adults. In experimental of authorised officer as to the presence, or absence, of conditions the elevated COHb levels in adults as a offensive odour at the investigated site. result of exposure to CO have caused disturbances in neurobehavioural function. The main effects have 5.15.2.2 Pollutants Caused by Chemical Reactions in been on the ability to discriminate time intervals and to Atmosphere perform complex motor and sensorimotor activities (NEPC, 1997). These are pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere due to chemical interaction between Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) directly emitted pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. An example of this occurs when NOx and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can cause significant damage VOC’s combine in the atmosphere in the presence of to the defence mechanisms of the respiratory tract sunlight to form photochemical smog. Other forms of which leads to an increased susceptibility to, and pollutants caused by chemical reactions in the severity of, respiratory infections and asthma. atmosphere include photochemical oxidants. Exposure to higher levels of NO2, such are found in some industrial situations, may cause serious lung This important group of pollutants consists of ozone damage, possibly leading to emphysema (Streeton, (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN's), peroxybenzoyl 1990). nitrates (PBN's), formaldehyde, organic hydroperoxides and a number of highly reactive Lead (Pb) chemical species. Of these, ozone is the predominant oxidant. Low level exposure of airborne lead (Pb) can adversely affect children before birth and up to 5.15.3 Effects of Air Pollution approximately six years of age. The lead can affect the development of the nervous system which in turn impairs intellectual, psychological and neurological Studies indicate that air pollution does have an impact functioning. Kidney and bone marrow are also on public health, visual amenity and vegetation. There affected by lead exposure (WHO 1979). is evidence to indicate that regional and global climate change is occurring as a result of air pollution. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) While air pollution can be relatively easy to quantity, As sulphur dioxide (SO ) is highly water soluble it is the effects of air pollution are often difficult to measure, 2 readily absorbed in the moist passages of the upper mainly due to differing responses of individual species respiratory system. This then irritates the nerve and individuals within a species. Air pollution effects endings and leads to irritant cough and mucus are normally categorised under the following sub- hypersecretion from both upper and lower respiratory headings: tracts. Elderly people and those already suffering from asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema are at q Health effects; most risk in relation to SO (WHO, 1979). q Vegetation effects; and 2 q Other effects. Particulate Matter 5.15.3.1 Health Effects The human respiratory system can deal with normal ambient levels of particulate matter. The upper Air pollution in the form of single or multiple pollutants respiratory tract can remove particles down to has been known to cause irritation of the eyes, nose, diameter of 10µm. The lower airways generally mouth, throat and bronchial tree. In the case of lead remove particles down to approximately 1 µm. While and carbon monoxide they are absorbed into the body. dust and most other particles are inert, some may be The general health effects of some common air coated with an irritant such as sulphur dioxide. This pollutants are given below.

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can lead to respiratory complaints. If the particular concentration can damage vegetation, normally in the matter comprises of material that is toxic, than other form of dead patches on the upper and lower surfaces acute or chronic symptoms can be manifested. For of the leaf. If SO2 is converted to sulphuric acid mist example, the particulate emissions associated with the then black spots can appear on leaves. diesel “black smoke” are considered to contain a number of carcinogenic compounds (Bofinger, 1993). Significant quantities of ozone can damage plant foliage or in extreme cases can reduce plant growth In normal atmospheric conditions particulate matter is and crop yield. Ozone reacts with photosynthetically usually a nuisance more than a health problem. The active cells on the upper surface of leaves causing an effects of nuisance dust are usually reversible and internal injury. Experimental crop plots set up by the cannot be considered as being toxic (Orlemann, US EPA has suffered as much as 30 percent reduced Kalman, Cummings & Lim, 1983). crop yields as a result of exposure to atmospheric O3 (Kan CRN, 1999). Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) 5.15.3.3 Other Effects Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) have until recently been controlled for the purpose of reducing Other effects of air pollution include damage to various photochemical smog. However, some of the VOC’s, materials used in structures, equipment and other such as benzene, are known to have an adverse effect goods. The nature of such damage is usually a slow on human health. As a known primary carcinogen, deterioration of the material such as in: benzene causes disorders of the blood, ie. acute non- lymphatic (myeloid) leukaemia (WHO 1979). q Rubber due to oxidants; and q Masonry constructions and metals due to acid Ozone (03) particles.

The major health effects associated with exposure to 5.15.4 Existing Air Quality high concentrations of ozone (O3) are inflammation and irritation of the respiratory tract. Canadian studies The study area is characterised by a rapid residential has evidenced coughing, throat irritation and breathing growth mainly along the coastal strip around the larger difficulty among people exercising when exposed to townships such as Caloundra, Kawana, Mooloolaba atmospheric O . Children are particularly susceptible 3 and Maroochydore. There are no large industrial to exposure to O . Lung function test has shown that 3 facilities in the area that can contribute to large scale children exposed to atmospheric O , can suffer decline 3 discharges to air. The local service industry is mainly in lung capacity (Ontario Medical Association, 1999). geared towards the needs of the dominant tourist industry and is mainly free of discharges to air. Most Odour of the pollutant discharges to air are result of the road traffic on the Bruce Highway, the Sunshine Motorway In high concentrations odour can cause nausea and and the other roads in the area. even physiological response such as vomiting, but in atmospheric exposure odour is more a nuisance than In August 1997, Queensland Department of a health hazard. Environment (now known as the EPA) published an air emissions inventory for the Southeast Queensland The impact of odour on the exposed population is airshed, from the New South Wales border to dependant on the frequency, intensity, duration and Caloundra. Although only the southern tip of the study offensiveness of the odour (FIDO factor). In addition area (around Caboolture and Caloundra), has been to this, the association factor has to be considered, as included in the inventory, the results are indicative of there are industrial activities that are perceived by the the air quality in the wider area. Based on the air public as inherently smelly even if sophisticated odour emissions data from 1993, an estimate of annual control systems are implemented. Odour is a highly emissions in tonnes has been prepared for a range of subjective matter and in spite of the attempts to pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds quantify the odour concentration, its impact is mainly (VOC’s), oxides of nitrogen (NO ), carbon monoxide assessed on the basis of number of complaints. x (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulates. The inventory results have indicated that almost 83 percent 5.15.3.2 Vegetation Effects of the CO, 70 percent of the NOx and 52 percent of non-natural emissions of VOC in the Southeast To some extent all vegetation is affected by air Queensland airshed are the result of motor vehicle pollutants. The majority of species will show any exhausts. adverse effects by way of foliage damage, however for some, plant production or growth is impaired. The main pollutant generated by traffic emissions is photochemical smog, a product of the chemical Sulphur dioxide when present in high enough reaction between NOx and VOC’s, usually indicated by

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ozone (O3) concentration. The reaction between NOx The nearest permanent air quality monitoring station to and VOC’s is enhanced by sunlight, with additional the investigated site is located in Deception Bay, 35km factors of photochemical generation being south of Caloundra. It has been operational since temperature, VOC and NOx concentration. In terms of 1994 and monitors ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide spatial distribution the only air pollutants of significance (NO2) concentrations. The results of the monthly in the Sunshine Coast airshed are VOC’s, NOx and maximum one hour concentrations of these pollutants CO. The highest concentrations of these pollutants at the Deception Bay monitoring station for the twelve occur along the major traffic routes, such as the Bruce months between May 1998 and April 1999 are Highway corridor and in the densely populated coastal presented in the Table 5.15.4a, below. strip.

Table 5.15.4a: Ambient Concentrations of Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide - Monthly Maximum One-hour Concentrations (1998 - 99) for Deception Bay

Maximum One Hour O3 Concentrations (ppm) May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Annual Ave. 0.059 0.046 0.050 0.045 0.048 0.052 0.055 0.067 0.092 0.052 0.075 0.054 0.058

Maximum One Hour NO2 Concentrations (ppm) May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Annual Ave. 0.038 0.066 0.046 0.031 0.050 0.028 0.033 0.056 0.016 0.018 0.022 0.039 0.037 Source: EPA (Air Quality Bulletin, Southeast Queensland – April 1999)

In order to compare the existing air quality in Sunshine Table 5.15.4c: Concentrations of CO in Coast airshed with an urban industrial area, the results Brisbane’s Woolloongabba and CBD of the permanent monitoring stations at Eagle Farm in (respectively) Brisbane will be used. The air quality indicators Air Quality Conc. Ave. EPP monitored at this station are O3, NO2, sulphur dioxide Indicator Time (Air) (SO2) and particulate matter of diameter less than 10 Goal microns (PM10.) The concentrations of these CO (W’gabba) 3.4 8 hours 8 ppm pollutants at the Eagle Farm monitoring station for the ppm twelve months between May 1998 and April 1999 are CO (CBD) 2.4 8 hours 8 ppm presented in Table 5.15.4b, below. ppm

Table 5.15.4b: Maximum Ambient Concentrations of lead (Pb) are permanently Concentrations of the Air Quality Indicators monitored at only two stations in Brisbane, of Interest Woolloongabba and Fortitude Valley. A summary of Air Conc. Averaging EPP (Air) the concentrations of Pb in Woolloongabba and Quality Time Goal Fortitude Valley in the May 1998 to April 1999 period is Indicator presented in Table 5.15.4d.

O3 0.057 ppm 1 hour 0.098 ppm

NO2 0.039 ppm 1 hour 0.16 ppm Table 5.15.4d: Concentrations of Pb in Brisbane’s Woolloongabba and CBD SO2 0.020 ppm 1 hour 0.20 ppm 3 3 (respectively) PM10 38 µg/m 24 hours 150 µg/m Air Quality Conc. Ave. EPP Concentrations of CO are permanently monitored at Indicator Time (Air) Goal only two stations in Brisbane, Woolloongabba and the µ 3 Central Business District (CBD). A summary of the Pb 0.09 g/m 90 day 1.5 (W’ gabba) µg/m3 average eight hour concentrations of CO in µ 3 Woolloongabba and CBD in the May 1998 to April Pb (Fortitude 0.21 g/m 90 day 1.5 Valley) µ 3 1999 period is presented in Table 5.15.4c. g/m The concentrations of toluene (one compound of the VOC chemical group) are permanently monitored only at Brisbane’s Central Business

District (CBD). A summary of the concentrations of toluene at Brisbane’s CBD in the May 1998 to April 1999 period is presented in Table 5.15.4e.

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The observed high air quality in the Sunshine Coast Table 5.15.4e: Concentrations of Toluene at airshed is under threat from the likely increase in the Brisbane’s CBD commuter traffic as the population increases in the Air Quality Conc. Averaging EPP coastal region and in the other wider Brisbane areas. Indicator Time (Air) The main concern are air emissions associated with Goal increased traffic such as the precursors to Toluene 5.2 ppb 24 hours 200ppm photochemical smog (NOx and VOC’s) that can travel a long distance before the secondary chemical The results of the air quality monitoring at the long reactions in the atmosphere converts them into smog. term monitoring stations are used as air quality indicators. The assumption is that if the 5.16 Forestry concentrations of the main air quality indicators are below the goals specified in the Environmental 5.16.1 Plantation Ownership Protection (Air) Policy 1997 - EPP (Air) than all the other contributors to air pollution are likely to be The only areas of plantation forest along the entire present at the concentrations lower than the goal level. route are located within the section between Beerwah This assumption has been adopted as appropriate for and Pelican Waters. The Beerwah State Forest the scope of this study. operated under the control of DPI Forestry out of Beerburrum is found between the North Coast Rail Considering that the EPP(Air) goals for the main air Line and the Bruce Highway. quality indicators, as presented above, are met even at the main industrial areas of Brisbane, it can be DPI Forestry is a commercial business group and reasonably concluded that the existing air quality at the Queensland’s major forest grower, responsible for Sunshine Coast is good. The main air pollution source 80% of the State’s domestic timber production and in the study area is traffic. 95% of the State’s plantation production. DPI Forestry currently manages approximately 110,000 hectares of In August 1997, the Queensland Department of exotic and native pine and hardwood plantations in Environment, published technical report “Movement of . In addition to this within the Air Pollutants in the South - East Queensland Airshed”, study area there is an area of 6,000 hectares of presenting the results of the computer modelling of the privately owned pine plantation forest located between typical summer and typical winter day weather the Bruce Highway and the area of Bells Creek. This conditions. The modelling exercise, mainly concerned land is part of the Lensworth pine resource which is with the fate of the air pollutant precursors to managed by CSR Softwoods. photochemical smog, has shown that there is little impact on the Sunshine Coast airshed from the By the year 2003 it is intended that this whole area of industrial and traffic emissions at a wider Brisbane plantation pine will have been harvested. The area. Only on rare occasions, in winter with no Caloundra Downs Informal Land Use Investigation is synoptic winds, can seabreezes transport air pollutants currently being undertaken to investigate options for emitted in the Brisbane industrial areas to the north in this land after 2003 when the land would be available the direction of Deception Bay and Bribie Island. for replanting with pine or other uses. The coastal location and the relatively flat topography The following table presents plantation areas owned of the investigated area prevents prolonged calm by DPI Forestry and the Lensworth Group in both periods during the day. This is one of the most South East Queensland and, more specifically, the important factors that contributes to the relative ease Beerburrum District. of air pollution dispersion.

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Table 5.16.1: Plantation Areas for South East Queensland (ha) Lensworth Group Region DPI Forestry Other Caloundra Downs Total South East Queensland Exotic Pine Plantation 105,000 3,300 2,700 111,000 Native Pine Plantation 4,000 0 0 4,000 Hardwood Plantation 1,200 0 0 1,200 Totals 110,200 3,300 2,700 116,200 Beerburrum District Exotic Pine Plantation 17,100 3,300 2,700 23,100 Native Pine Plantation 3,000 0 0 3,000 Hardwood Plantation 400 0 0 400 Totals 20,500 3,300 2,700 26,500

Source: Caloundra Downs II Informal Land Use Investigation - Forestry Backgrounder by Jaakko Poyry Consulting

5.16.2 Plantation Characteristics 5.17 Landscape

Within the Beerwah State Forest the species grown 5.17.1 Introduction varies between the first and second rotation crops. The first rotation crop species is Pinus elliottii and the The landscape analysis has focused on those areas second rotation species is dominated by a hybrid that have been identified by the Consultants and between Pinus elliotti and Pinus caribbaea. These through the public consultation process as being of crops are generally grown on a 30 year rotation cycle. concern to local residents. The following text provides The stand is thinned at 22 years and then left for a broad analysis of the existing landscape and visual clearfall. In the area of forest traversed by the conditions at the following locations: CAMCOS alignment, the age of compartments varies. The oldest plantation was planted in 1971 with the q Beerwah where CAMCOS leaves the North Coast youngest planted seven years ago in 1992. Rail line and Glasshouse Mountains Road is required to bridge the rail line; Approximately 15% of the State forest is burnt each q Caloundra Road crossing where the rail line is year for resource protection, the forest is burnt in a proposed to be taken over the road on a high mosaic protection pattern. Each compartment usually viaduct structure; has one or two burns in its rotation. Areas of a q Aroona where the rail line passes through a strategic nature or high risk are burnt more frequently heavily vegetated area between town residential to provide connectivity of burnt areas. areas; q Mooloolah River Crossing where the rail would be Timber cut from the State forest has four destinations, on viaduct structure; either: q Sunshine Motorway just north of Commercial Road where the rail alignment would be located q CSR Softwoods Sawmill, Caboolture: Produces within the Sunshine Motorway corridor; and sawn/ treated product for the building industry and q Maroochy River Crossing where the bridge for chip export; structure carrying the rail line is adjacent to the q Boral Hancock, Ipswich: Australia’s largest Motorway crossing. plywood mill with an output of around 50,000 cubic metres per annum; 5.17.2 Glasshouse Mountains Road q J Joseph and Co, Mooloolah: Used for pallet and packing material; or This area is characterised by an intact and relatively q Allied Timbers, Burpengary: Used as sawn dense landcover which is predominantly a pine forest. products for the building industry. In contrast to the forest with its consistent colours, textures, and vertical form, the edge of the forest is Timber product from the Caloundra Downs site is sent visually contained by a grass verge which is both to the CSR Softwoods Sawmill at Caboolture. broad and irregular. The Glasshouse Mountains Road which passes through this area is partially absorbed into the landscape environment through the dense median planting which visually reduces the scale of the road environment and minimises views across the road corridor.

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