ANCIENT MAYA EXPLOITATION OF JUTE {PACHYCHILUS SPP.) AT

MINANHA, WEST CENTRAL BELIZE

A Thesis Submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science

TRENT UNIVERSITY

Peterborough, Ontario, Canada

© Copyright by Wendy Solis 2010

Anthropology M. A. Graduate Program

January 2011 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada

Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68217-3 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-68217-3

NOTICE: AVIS:

The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats.

The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission.

In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these.

While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis.

1+1 Canada ABSTRACT

Ancient Maya Exploitation of Jute {Pachychilus spp.) at Minanha, West Central Belize

Wendy Solis

Until recently, zooarchaeological investigations in the Maya subarea followed a traditional approach to the study of human/animal interaction, by focusing primarily on the reconstruction of ancient Maya subsistence economies. With the help of modern technological innovations, zooarchaeological procedures can now be applied to investigate a wide range of topics, including the social, economic, and ritual affairs of the ancient Maya. With this in mind, the goal of this study is to shift the attention away from our one- dimensional view of animals as a source of food, towards a focus on their social significance. Specifically, this research will examine the jute {Pachychilus species), a freshwater snail frequently observed in a wide range of archaeological contexts throughout the Maya subarea. As a thick-shell gastropod, this species has a tendency to preserve well in the archaeological record, enhancing our opportunity to explore patterns of spatial, temporal, and cultural distributions. Although it was originally assumed that this species only served a dietary purpose, detailed analyses of the jute shell collection from the ancient Maya centre of Minanha, in West Central Belize, suggests that this species entered the archaeological record through a diverse array of processes, only some of which involved consumption. This study contributes to the growing body of data on the importance of molluscan species for the ancient Maya, and provides a more accurate view of the relationship that existed between the ancient Maya and their surrounding animal populations. Keywords: Ancient Maya, Zooarchaeology, Jute {Pachychilus species), Belize, Archaeomalacology, Ancient Maya Economy.

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Gyles Iannone for accepting me as a graduate student and providing the guidance and support necessary to complete this thesis. I am forever grateful to Gyles for giving me the opportunity to work at such a remarkable site in Belize, and for allowing me to become a part of the SARP family. I would also like to thank all of the wonderful Belizeans who have welcomed me into their homes during my months of fieldwork in Belize, particularly Mr. Landy and Mrs. Erva, and the rest of the Espat Family. I am also grateful to Joe and Miriam for providing a home for us in the jungle, as well as the other members of the Martinez family. Our drivers and friends in San Ignacio also deserve a special thanks. This includes Carlos

Ayala, Alwyn Smith, Everald Tut, and Mrs. Julia and family. Your friendship and support have made my time in Belize an unforgettable experience. I would also like to thank the staff of SARP, particularly Kendall Hills, Andrew Snetsinger, Ameeta Lodhia, Maxime

Lamoureux St-Hilaire, Sonja Schwake, Jim Conlon, Scott Macrae, Matthew Longstaffe, and Melissa Elliott-Allen. I would not trade our time in Belize for anything in the world.

I also have to thank all of the wonderful SARP students over the years (especially the

2007 group) for making our field school the best in Belize. A special thanks to the

Institute of Archaeology in Belize for allowing us to conduct fieldwork in their beautiful country and for their helpful assistance and cooperation. I am also grateful to Trent

University for all the financial support which it has provided me over the past two years.

This support provided me with the finances necessary to return to Belize year after year.

iii My sincerest gratitude go to my internal supervisors, Dr. Paul F. Healy and Dr.

Eugene Morin. Thank-you for taking the time out of your busy schedules to guide me through this thesis research. I am also grateful to my fellow graduate students in the

Anthropology Department at Trent University, as well as Dr. Leigh Symonds, for their encouragement and support over the past two years. I am especially thankful to Norbert

Stanchly and Kitty Emery. Their research on the fauna of Central America served as a principal reference during my analysis. Last, but not least, I wish to thank my parents and my brother and sisters for their love and support, as well as Jamie for taking the time to read about shells, and to mi querido Dave, esto no seriaposible si nofuerapor ti. Thank- you for allowing me to run away to Belize year after year and for putting up with mis locurasW

I dedicate this thesis to the memory of our dear friends, David "Ciego" Valencio, and

Everald Tut. You will forever be missed.

IV TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ii

Acknowledgements iii

Table of Contents v

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Thesis Proposal 1

The Setting 3

Maya Chronology 4

Organization of the Thesis 8

Chapter 2: Background 12

A Brief History of Archaeomalacology 12

The Symbolic Importance of Shells for the Ancient Maya 15

Freshwater Molluscs 17

The Pachychilus Species: Ecological Habitat and Physical Description 20

Ethnographic Studies of Pachychilus 23

Archaeological Studies of Pachychilus 27

Pachychilus as a Food Source 28

The Natural Occurrence of the Pachychilus species 32

The Accidental Introduction of the Pachychilus species 32

The Cultural Significance of the Pachychilus species 33

v Summary 44

Chapter 3: Minanha 45

Introduction 45

History of Minanha 47

SARP Research Goals 49

Summary of the Investigations in Minanha's Royal Court Complex (Phase I) 54

Summary of Investigations in Minanha's Supporting Population (Phase II) 62

Excavations on the site Core Survey zone 63

Related Excavations in the Site Core Survey Zone 63

Excavations in the Contreras Valley Survey Zone 69

Summary 77

Chapter 4: Methodology 78

Introduction 78

The Life Assemblage 80

The Death Assemblage 81

The Fossilized Assemblage 82

Excavation and Recovery 82

Post-Excavation 84

The Modern Comparative Sample 84

The Minanha Pachychilus Assemblage 87

Quantifying the Minanha Pachychilus Assemblage 89

Age and Size 91

vi Shell Counts 91

Additional Observations 92

Summary 94

Chapter 5: Analysis of the Minanha Pachychilus Assemblage 96

The Modern Pachychilus Sample 96

Element Portions in Modern Sample 98

Size of Modern Sample 99

The Minanha Assemblage 100

Distribution by Species 109

Context Ill

Temporal Distribution by Context 112

Associated Artifacts 115

Modified Shells 117

Element Portion 122

Element Distribution by Context 123

Temporal Distribution of Elements 125

Size Measurements 127

Width 128

Aperture Width 129

Temporal Variation in Average Size 131

Temporal Variation in the Size of Pachychilus glaphyrus 133

Puncturing and Burning 135

vii Summary 138

Chapter 6: Discussion of the Pachychilus Assemblage from Minanha 139

Structure 2A and 3 A 140

Temporal Distribution 141

Contextual Analysis 142

The Tamped Earth Floors from Contreras 145

Element Portion 146

Size 150

Size as Indicative of Use 152

The 2010 Pachychilus Assemblage 155

Summary 157

Chapter 7: Conclusions ....158

Research Questions 159

Closing Comments and Future Research 168

References Cited 170

Appendix A: Pachychilus Genus Geographical Distribution 182

Appendix B: SARP Project Designation Guide 184

Appendix C: Catalogue of the Various Contexts 186

Appendix D: Catalogue of Associations and Average Measurements 190

Appendix E: Frequency Histogram: Size/Time Period 200

Appendix F: Permission for Image Reproduction... 211

viii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map of the Maya Southern Lowlands and Modern Political Boundaries 11

Figure 2. Representations of God N in association with shells 16

Figure 3. Nephronaias sp 18

Figure 4. Pomacea sp 19

Figure 5. Pachychilus indiorum and Pachychilus glaphyrus 22

Figure 6. Preparingy'z/fe for Consumption 27

Figure 7. Jute Soup (Courtesy of Kitty Emery) 27

Figure 8. Bas-relief of "The King" in a cave setting from Chalcatzingo 35

Figure 9. Modified Pachychilus shells from Naj Tunich and Uaxactun 40

Figure 10. Map showing the location of Minanha 46

Figure 11. Map of Naranjo and Caracol in relation to Minanha 47

Figure 12. The 1927 Map of Minanha 49

Figure 13. Isometric plan of the Minanha Site Core 53

Figure 14. Map of the SARP Permit Area 63

Figure 15. Map of Contreras Survey Zone 70

Figure 16. Shell Length and Width 90

Figure 17. Spire Lopping 90

Figure 18. Aperture Width 90

Figure 19. Proximal, Medial, Distal Sections 90

Figure 20. Shell Puncturing 93

ix Figure 21. Broken Apex 93

Figure 22. Profile of Units 3A-1 103

Figure 23. Profile of Unit 2A-1 104

Figure 24. Distribution of Shells at Minanha 105

Figure 25. Temporal Distribution of the Pachychilus Species 108

Figure 26. Pachychilus Species Present at Minanha 110

Figure 27. Temporal Distribution of Pachychilus glaphyrus. 110

Figure 28. Artifact Type 119

Figure 29. Drilled Shell from Group S 120

Figure 30. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15 120

Figure 31. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15 120

Figure 32. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15 121

Figure 33. Worked Shell from Group S 121

Figure 34. Worked Shell from Group S 121

Figure 35. Live Pachychilus 147

Figure 36. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River 147

Figure 37. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River 148

Figure 38. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River 148

Figure 39. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River 148

Figure 40. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River 149

Figure 41. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha 149

Figure 42. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha 149

x Figure 43. BrokenPachychilus from Minanha 149

Figure 44. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha 150

Figure 45. Average Length/Width of Pachychilus from Minanha 154

Figure 46. Average Length/Width of Pachychilus from Modern Assemblage 155

Figure 47. Average Length of Pachychilus Exploited by the Lacandon Maya 155

XI LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Nutritional Composition of Selected Foods 29

Table 2. Distribution of Jute from Cave Contexts 36

Table 3. Element Distribution in Modern Sample 98

Table 4. Average Length (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample 99

Table 5. Average Width (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample 100

Table 6. Average Aperture Width (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample 100

Table 7. List of Structures with Pachychilus Remains Based on Site Locus 102

Table 8. Total Shells in Epicentre 105

Table 9. Total Shells in Site Core 106

Table 10. Total Shells in Contreras 106

Table 11. Temporal and Spatial Distribution of'the Pachychilus Species 108

Table 12. Spatial Distribution by Context 113

Table 13. Temporal Distribution by Context 114

Table 14. List of Artifacts Found in Association with Pachychilus Remains 117

Table 15. List of Artifacts Found in Association with Pachychilus Remains from Floor

Fill Deposits 117

Table 16. Distribution of Artifact Type by Site Locus 122

Table 17. Percentage of Element Portion for Analyzed Sample 122

Table 18. Percentage of Different Element Portions Based on Context 124

Table 19. Temporal Distribution of the Various Elements of the Pachychilus Shell 126

Table 20. Mean Length (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Contexts 128

xii Table 21. Mean Width (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Contexts 129

Table 22. Mean Aperture Width (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Context 130

Table 23. Mean Length (cm) of Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period 134

Table 24. Mean Width (cm) Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period 135

Table 25. Mean Aperture Width (cm) Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period 135

Table 26. Average Measurements (cm) for Nearly Complete P. glaphyrus Shells per Time

Period 135

Table 27. Total Shells in the Sample with Puncturing 136

Table 28. Puncturing by Context for the Analyzed Sample 137

Table 29. Frequency of Puncturing per Context 138

Table 30. Shell Count per Time Period (2010 Excavations) 157

Xlll 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The Maya subarea is comprised of a mosaic of ecological zones, which together house a wide variety of animal species available for human exploitation. This diversity is clearly reflected in the archaeological record, with remains of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and molluscan species (of both freshwater and marine origin) recovered at most sites throughout the Maya subarea. Within this subarea, traditional archaeological reports primarily focus on recording the presence of vertebrae fauna, overlooking the high quantities and often ubiquitous remains of invertebrates. The freshwater Pachychilus snail

(jute) is an example of such a species and, until recently, this mollusc was rarely identified in taxonomic terms or analyzed for cultural significance. When molluscan species were discussed in archaeological reports it was assumed that they only served a dietary purpose. This assumption ignored the varied and complex role which different molluscan species, such as the Pachychilus, played in different aspects of ancient Maya society.

In 1910, Alfred M. Tozzer and Glover M. Allen's publication entitled Animal

Figures in the Maya Codices, stressed the importance of understanding the social and ritual significance of molluscan species in ancient Maya cultural practices. Since the earliest zooarchaeological reports it has become apparent that the Pachychilus snail was the most commonly exploited freshwater molluscan species in the Maya region, and its presence in non-domestic archaeological deposits suggest that this snail was socially or symbolically important. Thus, the main objective of this thesis research is to examine the importance of this snail not only as a dietary resource, but also as a ritually and socially 2

significant species in the Maya subarea. Although studies of the ecological habitat and ancient use of this species have been published, a detailed analysis has yet to be carried out for a single site in Mesoamerica (Emery 1988; Halperin et al. 2003; Healy et al.

1990). By looking at a number of questions, both spatial and temporal in orientation, my research will contribute to our understanding of this species and its use at the ancient

Maya centre of Minanha, located in West-central Belize. Moreover, this study will enhance our overall understanding of how early humans interacted with their environment, and provide a more accurate view of the relationship that existed between the ancient Maya and their surrounding animal populations. The questions that will be addressed in this analysis include:

1) From where, and how, did people at Minanha obtain jute!

2) What types of jute were obtained?

3) Is the presence of jute indicative of their use as food?

4) How else were the snails used?

5) Was there differential access to jute?

6) Did the use of jute change through time?

7) Do size differences exist, and if so, do they indicate overexploitation of the

snail?

8) Did the snails enter the archaeological record in different ways? 3

THE SETTING

The Maya subarea is a part of the culture area known as Mesoamerica (Coe 1995;

Kirchhoff 1952). This area extends from northern Mexico, through Central America, to northwestern Costa Rica (Kirchhoff 1952; Sharer 1994). Mesoamerica is defined on the basis of shared cultural traditions, and includes ancient cultures such as the Olmec, the

Aztec, and the Maya (Sharer 1994:20). The Maya subarea encompasses the largest part of the landscape in Mesoamerica. Although much variation exists in the cultural practices of different Maya groups, this society as a whole occupies a significant percentage of

Central America. Maya groups, in both the past and in the present, are widely distributed throughout Mexico, in areas to the west such as Chiapas and Tabasco, and in the northeastern section of the country, in the Yucatan Peninsula (Sharer 1994:19). Further south, this cultural group extends into the nations of Guatemala, Belize, and western parts of Honduras and El Salvador (Sharer 1994:19; Figure 1). In addition, the Maya subarea is further divided into two loosely defined environmental zones: the highlands and the lowlands (Sharer 1994:20). These different environmental zones create a diverse climate that ranges between cooler temperatures, and hot/humid conditions. This division also serves to represent differences in cultural traditions, which led to some variation in the cultural development of different Maya groups.

The Highlands

The highland Maya region is characterized by a diverse climate of temperate (800 m - 2,000 m above sea level) and cold land (2,000 m above sea level; Sharer 1994:20).

This diverse environment divides the region into two distinct zones: the northern 4

highlands and the southern highlands. The northern highlands consist of the northern part of Guatemala, and parts of highland Chiapas, in Mexico (Sharer 1994:31). This region consists of mountain ranges and valleys, rich in minerals such as jadeite and serpentine, which were highly valued by the ancient Maya. The second zone is the southern highlands, which is comprised of an active chain of volcanic activity that runs from the

Soconusco region of Chiapas, and continues along the Pacific coast into parts of

Guatemala and El Salvador.

The Lowlands

The lowland Maya region consists of a "hot land " environment (from sea level to

800m; Sharer 1994:20). Like the highlands, the lowlands are also divided into distinct environmental zones. This includes the northern and southern lowlands. The northern lowlands consist of the northern section of the Yucatan Peninsula, which is characterized by a dry environment, with a low and flat topography, and limited amounts of surface water (Sharer 1994:40). The southern lowlands separate the highlands and the northern lowlands, extending from the Gulf of Mexico, to the Gulf of Honduras, including parts of

Guatemala and Belize. This region is largely comprised of lush rainforests, with rich soils for planting, and abundant rainfall (Sharer 1994:35).

MAYA CHRONOLOGY

The Preclassic Maya (1200 B.C. - 250 A.D.)

This period marks the beginning of Maya civilization. Although there is much debate over the location and time of the origins of a distinct Maya culture, archaeological 5

evidence suggests that by the Middle Preclassic period (900 B.C. - 400 B.C.) the earliest

Maya ceremonial centres were being constructed in the highlands (Johnston 2006:179).

These early centres appear to have been built under the control of a chief, who was primarily in charge of foreseeing the religious and economic affairs of the community

(Evans 2004:206). As the power of the chief and their kin intensified during the Late

Preclassic period, we find evidence for an increase in social complexity, and the rapid construction of massive ceremonial centres at sites such as Kaminaljuyu (Martin and

Grube 2008:8). According to Martin and Grube (2008), these early highland Maya rulers sponsored not only the construction of these massive public structures, but also encouraged the development of distinct cultural traditions, such as stelae. These monuments were important for rulers, as they visually commemorated the power of these individuals through the use of hieroglyphic texts and imagery. In addition to containing the earliest Maya glyphs, early stelae from the Preclassic period also contained the first calendric dates of the Maya.

The Preclassic period also marks the introduction of elaborate funerary shrines, which were constructed for the interment of deceased rulers and their kin (Evans

2004:231). Many of these tombs were filled with exotic and symbolically important objects such as stingray spines, jade beads, and elaborate ceramic vessels. By the end of the Preclassic period, evidence suggests that many of the centres that prospered during this time experienced a collapse (Sharer 1994:133). According to Sharer (1994), this collapse led to a decrease in agricultural production, followed by a decline in population, which eventually led to the abandonment of many Preclassic centres. This collapse marks 6

the end of the Preclassic period and paves the way for new centres to flourish during the early Classic Maya period.

The Classic Maya (250 A.D. - 900 A.D.)

Early Classic Maya centres continued to expand on the various developments that were introduced during the Preclassic. This is a period of increased social, political, and economic complexity. It is a time when we are truly able to envision the extent of power held by individual rulers. These individuals were capable of commanding mass forces of labour for the construction of monumental temples and palaces that served as thrones and the living headquarters of ruling families (Inomata and Houston 2001; Palka 1995;

Paynter 1989). In the lowlands, for the first time, Stelae became especially important as markers of power used by rulers, in Classis period, to record historical information regarding their accession, military conquests, and political alliances (McKillop 2004:94).

Religion also played a crucial role during the Classic period, as it served to solidify the power of the ruler, through his/her ability to trace his/her ancestry to powerful deities

(Rice 2009). In turn, this provided the ruling class with a venue for enforcing their power and control over the supporting population (McKillop 2004:92). During this period of time we also see the expansion of many large centres such as Tikal, Calakmul, Palenque,

Tonina, Caracol, and Copan, as these sites competed with one another for political control over the landscape (Martin and Grube 2008).

The Late Classic marks a period when the Maya achieved their peak in development. During this period, population levels in most centres reached a climax, and elite control over labour and resources was at an all time high point. Ultimately, such cultural factors led to the overexploitation of the natural resources available in this region 7

(Beach et al. 2006; Emery et al. 2000). This, in turn, led to a continuum of downfalls in social organization. Within the political realm, the demands for power from the ruling elite led to an increase in warfare, which resulted in a decrease in population levels, and caused a disruption in the socio-economic and socio-political system (Andrews et al.

2003:151). Climatic changes during this period of time further contributed to this collapse. Evidence for long periods of drought demonstrates that the land was no longer capable of supporting the large populations of many centres (Iannone et al. 2009). These internal and external factors eventually led to a decline in the quality of life, and forced the abandonment of many Classic Maya centres, particularly in the southern Maya lowland (Halperin and Foias 2010; McKillop 2004:99-100).

The Postclassic Maya (900 A.D. - 1525 A.D.)

The Maya Postclassic period is marked by a shift in the location of settlements.

The abandonment of many southern lowland centres led groups to settle in the northern lowland region (Andrews et al. 2003:151). This shift led to the expansion of centres in areas such as the Yucatan Peninsula, and along the coast of Belize (McKillop 2004:100).

Important cities such as Chichen Itza, Uxmal, Labna, and Mayapan grew to prominence in the Postclassic period. The political organization of these centres appears to demonstrate a shift from centralized authority, based on one individual, to decentralized authority, based on shared power by a council group (Andrews et al. 2003:153). There was also a shift in the subsistence practices, towards a greater focus on marine resources.

The proximity of many Postclassic centres to the sea enabled communities to expand their trade networks and create alliances with non-Maya groups (Sharer 1994:413). These 8

alliances allowed Postclassic Maya groups to acquire exotic objects such as turquoise and gold from distant regions, and eventually led to the integration of external influences

(McKillop 2004:105). The end of the Maya Postclassic period is marked by the colonization of this society by Spanish conquistadors (Andrews et al. 2003:153).

Nevertheless, there are still millions of Maya speakers living today in what was the homeland of their ancestors.

ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The present chapter provides an introduction to the research goals of this thesis. In this Chapter, I begin by highlighting the importance of understanding the role of molluscan species for the ancient Maya. Specifically, my focus is on understanding ancient exploitation of the freshwater Pachychilus sp. and its role at the site of Minanha. I then proceed to outline eight research questions which I feel will help Maya archaeologists understand the significance of this freshwater mollusc in the past. The remainder of the chapter provides a brief introduction to the ancient Maya culture, including the geographical setting, differences between lowland and highland Maya groups, and a chronological synopsis of the cultural development of this society.

Chapter 2 serves to outline all previous archaeological and ethnographic research on the distribution and use of the Pachychilus sp. within the Maya subarea. I begin by briefly describing some key contributors to the study of ancient molluscs, more specifically freshwater species in the Maya subarea. This is followed by a summary of the importance of molluscs for the ancient Maya, which includes both marine and freshwater 9

species. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to describing the Pachychilus sp., including its physical characteristics, ecological habitat, and cultural use, both in the past and in the present.

Chapter 3 provides an introduction to the ancient Maya centre of Minanha. This includes a description of the geographical location of the site, as well as a brief discussion of the environment and topography of the subregion. This section is followed by a descriptive account of all previous archaeological work at the site. This includes a summary of the earliest investigations by the British Museum following the discovery of the centre, as well as an overview of all the research that has been conducted by the

Social Archaeological Research Program (SARP) of Trent University. Within this section, I proceed to describe the research objectives of SARP, as well as a description of

Phase I and Phase II of the project. I conclude this chapter by providing a brief summary of the results from previous research at the site.

Chapter 4 is intended to provide a detailed description of the various methods that

I have adopted for the analysis and interpretation of the Pachychilus shell collection from

Minanha. This chapter begins by outlining some of the various taphonomic processes and biases that may have affected the Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha. I then proceed to discuss the various steps that this assemblage has undergone from the time that it was deposited in the archaeological record, to when it was recovered by the SARP team and, finally, to when it was processed and analyzed.

Chapter 5 presents a detailed description of the data that I have collected on the

Pachychilus shell assemblage from Minanha. I begin by dividing my dataset in chronological order, beginning with the Preclassic occupation of Minanha, and ending 10

with the Terminal Classic abandonment of the site. Within this chapter a detailed analysis of the contextual, cultural, and temporal distribution oiPachychilus at Minanha is presented, as well as an analysis of shell size, modifications, and associations, including their implications for our understanding of the use of this freshwater mollusc.

Chapter 6 presents the results of my analysis. Within this chapter I provide a detailed discussion of the general patterns that I have observed based on my analysis of the distribution of this freshwater species in various contexts at Minanha. I then proceed to discuss the possible different uses of this mollusc by the ancient inhabitants of this centre based on my observations. I also make various inferences regarding the social and symbolic importance of this snail and how this changed over time.

Chapter 7 summarizes the purpose of this thesis, including results. In this chapter I also outline some of the limitations which I experienced during the process of analysis and interpretation of the Minanha Pachychilns assemblage. I then proceed to discuss the significance of this study to the field of Maya zooarchaeology, including a discussion of future research in the study of ancient Maya freshwater molluscan resources. 11

Figure 1. Map of the Maya Southern Lowlands and Modern Political Boundaries (map courtesy of Gyles lannone). 12

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND

This chapter provides a comprehensive account of previous research on the

Pachychilus species within the Maya subarea. I begin by briefly outlining some of the key scholars that have contributed extensively to the field of archaeomalacology, more specifically, to the study of freshwater molluscan species within the Maya subarea. I then proceed to provide a concise review of the significance of shells for the ancient Maya.

This is followed by a brief summary of the two other freshwater molluscan species that were commonly exploited by the ancient Maya. Finally, the remainder of the chapter is devoted to the Pachychilus snail. Here I provide a detailed account of the physical characteristics, ecological habitat, and cultural use of this species, both in the past and in the present.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARCHAEOMALACOLOGY

Since the earliest account of snail shells from an archaeological context was recorded by King Charles II, during a visit to the site of Silbury Hill in England, the field of archaeomalacology has moved quite literally at a snail's pace in terms of research

(Brobowski 1984; Erlandson 1988). Although casual observations of molluscan species from archaeological contexts were recorded, it was not until the 1940s, and more specifically in the 1970s, that scholarly attention was devoted to the importance of snails as a culturally significant resource (Brobowski 1984:79). J. P. E. Morrison's 1942 publication on the study of freshwater snails in the archaeological record was a significant 13

accomplishment in the field of archaeomalacology, due to Morrison's careful recovery methods and observations (Brobowski 1984:79-80). A similar contribution was made in the 1970s by Paul W. Parmalee and Walter E. Klippel's (1974) study entitled "Freshwater

Mussels as a Prehistoric Food Source". Although these studies were based on molluscan species from North America, they demonstrated the importance of understanding the role of freshwater molluscan species in prehistoric contexts (Erlandson 1988; Lange 1971;

Parmalee and Klippel 1974). A decade later, Peter T. Brobowski (1984) made another major contribution to the study of prehistoric molluscs by proposing four major explanations to account for the presence of shells in the archaeological record. According to Brobowski (1984:81), molluscs appear in archaeological deposits due to: 1) their use as food; 2) their natural occurrence at archaeological sites; 3) the accidental introduction of these species to the site; and, 4) the cultural function of these species, in addition to their use as a food source. Though simple in nature, these four possibilities continue to be the foundation for any major investigation into the use of molluscan species by societies in the past.

Within the Maya subarea, one of the first studies to recognize the significance of understanding the role of molluscan species in the archaeological record was Alfred M.

Tozzer and Glover M. Allen's (1910) publication entitled Animal Figures in the Maya

Codices. This study focused on the symbolism attached to snails by the ancient Maya, and their association with water, fertility, and death. Tozzer and Allen's publication is significant as it shifted the attention away from the use of molluscs as a source of food, and included their social and ritual significance. Although it was evident that shells were highly valued by the ancient Maya, it was not until the 1960s that another major 14

contribution was made to the field of archaeomalacology within the Maya subarea. In

1969, Edward Wyllys Andrews IV published a study entitled The Archaeological Use and Distribution ofMollusca in the Maya Lowlands. In this, Andrews conducted an inter- site analysis of the ecology and cultural distribution of molluscan species from the

Caribbean and Gulf Coast. Although Andrews focused on the exploitation of marine molluscs, and ignored the significance of freshwater snails, the study served to further demonstrate the importance of molluscs in the various realms of the ancient Maya.

Through detailed observations, Andrews made a significant contribution to the available body of data on molluscan exploitation by the ancient Maya.

Although most Maya scholars have focused on ancient exploitation of exotic salt water resources, there are a number of notable studies which focus on the exploitation of freshwater resources. For instance, Willey et al. (1965), reported 805 Pachychilus shells from Middle Preclassic housemounds in the Barton Ramie area of Belize. Although not much interpretation is given regarding the use of these shells, Willey and colleagues do provide a physical description for two distinct species: Pachychilus: P. largillierti and P. glaphyrus (Healy et al. 1990; Willey et al. 1965). More recent analysis of the importance of freshwater snails for the ancient Maya have been conducted by researchers such as

Moholy-Nagy (1978) on the Pomacea snail, Powis (2004) on the Nephronaias freshwater mussel, and Emery (1988, 1989), Healy et al. (1990), and Halperin et al. (2003) on the

Pachychilus snail. 15

THE SYMBOLIC IMPORTANCE OF SHELLS

FOR THE ANCIENT MAYA

To the ancient Maya, water was closely associated with a number of supernatural forces, and considered to be the foundation for life. It comes as no surprise, then, that this society shared an intimate connection with the sea; and this relationship was expressed in a variety of different forms. Representations of sealife appear in a number of tombs, caches, sculptures, codices, monuments, and painted pottery vessels throughout the Maya subarea. These depictions clearly demonstrate the significant role that marine animals, including molluscan species, played in the cultural patterning of this society. The ancient

Maya evidently went to great lengths to acquire marine, and at times, non-local freshwater, resources with shells from various species serving different functions in Maya society.

Due to the wide variety of available marine species more emphasis by Mayanists was placed on the exploitation of these molluscs in comparison to the few available freshwater species. Excavations at a number of coastal and inland sites within the lowland

Maya region reveal an existing connection in the use of marine and freshwater molluscs, primarily within ceremonial contexts. Supernatural properties were attached to molluscs throughout the Maya subarea as a symbol of water and the sea (Andrews 1969:48). A number of inscriptions and artistic depictions on monuments and ceramics highlight this relationship, and emphasize the importance of shells in Maya cosmology. According to the Madrid and Dresden Codices, the large marine shells, such as Spondylus sp. and

Strombus sp., were closely associated with various deities (Thompson 1970:134). A 16

popular god often represented in association with these shells is the Old God N or

"Mam", who is frequently depicted carrying a large shell on his back, or at times emerging from one (Thompson 1970:133; Figure 2). These depictions can be found in

Colonial period codices as well as in several structures and ritually symbolic artifacts.

Figure 2. Representations of God N in association with shells (modified from Maudslay 1889-1902).

In hieroglyphic writing, the shell was a symbol of completion, and was used as the glyph to represent zero. The shell also functioned as a period-ending sign, symbolic of the five unlucky days of Uayeb (associated with God N) at the end of year (Thompson

1970:133). This association appears to be related to the use of the molluscan symbol to represent death and the underworld (Thompson 1970:133). Alternatively, there also appears to be a link between shell representations and such life-giving forces as rain and fertility (Aizpurua and McAnany 1999; Thompson 1970). This association is clearly represented in the depictions of God K, the long nose, lightning deity, in combination with shells (Andrews 1969:48). This deity was portrayed in different forms during the

Late Classic period, such as on the Tablets of the Foliated Cross at Palenque, where in 17

addition to emerging out of a shell, God K is also depicted holding in his hand a plant-like object which resembles growing corn (Maudslay 1889-1902:80-81). In the large Cenote of sacrifice at Chichen Itza two gold disks were recovered which depict both God N and

God K emerging out of shells (Andrews 1969:49). Since cenotes functioned as portals into the underworld it seems likely that such objects would be included as offerings. The occurrence of shells in ritual contexts attests to the existence of a "cult of the sea" in the ancient Maya belief system (Andrews 1969:50). Thus, according to Andrews, shells were symbolically charged objects representative of this cultural tradition.

FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

While most studies have focused on ancient exploitation of exotic marine species, it is evident that freshwater molluscs also played an active role in the daily and ceremonial life of the ancient Maya. Archaeological, ethnographic, and colonial data from a number of lowland Maya sites attest to the importance of these species in ritual and domestic practices (Andrews 1969; Moholy-Nagy 1963, 1978, 1985; Thompson 1971).

The Nephronaias sp., for example, is a freshwater bivalve that appears to have been commonly exploited in various forms by the ancient Maya (Powis 2004; Richards and

Boekelman 1937; Figure 3). Although widely distributed in northern sites like

Dzibilchaltun and Chichen Itza, as well as in the southern lowlands at Cahal Pech, and

Blackman Eddy, very little is known about this freshwater shell (Powis 2004:125). Terry

Powis (2004) was the first individual to conduct an in-depth analysis of this clam, and its function in ancient Maya society. Nephronaias shells collected from archaeological 18

deposits range in size from about 2.5 to 8 cm, while the modern day species are somewhat larger, ranging from 2.5 to 25.5 cm (Powis 2004:127). Modern species of Nephronaias can usually be found in static river beds, lakes and streams; this was likely similar in the past, with ancient inhabitants collecting this species from nearby rivers and streams

(Powis 2004:129).

Figure 3. Nephronaias sp. (Reproduced with Permission of the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California; Appendix F).

In northern Belize, one of the most abundant freshwater snails is the Pomacea flagellata species, often referred to as the apple snail, or as "tote" by modern day groups of the Peten region (Covich 1983; Moholy-Nagy 1978; Figure 4). This freshwater species varies widely in colouration and size, growing up to 7.8 cm in length (Moholy-Nagy

1978:65). The Pomacea snail is well adapted for survival in shallow waters and can be collected in large quantities in near-shore deposits during its January breeding season

(Emery 1989; Moholy-Nagy 1978). However, during the remaining part of the year, this species prefers to bury itself beneath the sand of deep rivers and streams, making harvesting somewhat more difficult (Emery 1989:4). 19

Figure 4. Pomacea sp. (Modified from Covich 1983:127).

Ethnographic research among the Lacandon Maya of eastern Chiapas, Mexico, has revealed that even when certain freshwater species are available they are not necessarily consumed by humans (Nations 1979:569). In this area, Pomacea and

Pachychilus snails are plentiful in a number of lakes and rivers, but it is only the

Pachyckihis snail that is consumed by this group (Nations 1979:569). Even though the

Pomacea snail (referred to as t'at' by Lacandones) is a fatty snail capable of providing high levels of protein, comparable to the raw oyster (Ostrea luride), they are not consumed by the Lacandones, and are believe to make people sick if eaten (Nations 1979;

Powis 2004). However, the consumption of Pomacea snails by modern day groups has been observed in other areas, like Campeche and the Peten region (Moholy-Nagy

1978:71). Additionally, although modern Nephronaias inhabit the same rivers and streams as other freshwater molluscs, unlike these species, which can normally be found near the surface of the sand at one time or another, Nephronaias sp. prefer to bury themselves deep into the sand (Powis 2004:131). This behavioural practice creates some difficulties for individuals trying to gather these shells, as it becomes time-consuming to collect large quantities of this species. The time required to collect these clams outweighs 20

the nutritional value provided by this species. This adaptive behaviour likely accounts for the lack of popularity of this species in Maya communities (Powis 2004:131).

In addition to dietary purposes, large concentrations of worked and unworked

Pomacea and Nephronaias shells have also been recovered in association with ritual activity. These offerings were sometimes found alongside the remains of other sacred aquatic species, such as the crocodile and the turtle (Moholy-Nagy, 1978:70). This combination is indicative of the symbolic status that aquatic species, including molluscs, held in Maya cosmology. At the site of K'axob in Northern Belize, for example, a significant proportion of Pomacea shells were placed as a "carpet" offering at the base of several burials (Aizpurua and McAnany, 1999:121). Similar offerings have been found at a number of other sites in Belize, thus demonstrating the importance of placing the deceased in "watery environments" (Aizpurua and McAnany 1999; Powis 2004).

THE PACHYCHILUS SPECIES: ECOLOGICAL HABITAT

AND PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

As a member of the family Pleuroceridae, Pachychilus snails are most commonly found inhabiting fast-flowing rivers and streams (Emery 1988; Healy et al. 1990;

Stanchly and Iannone 1997). The speed of water preferred by this species ranges from anywhere between 20 to 30 m per minute, with average depths of about 16 cm below the surface of the water (Covich 1983; Emery 1988; Healy et al. 1990, Powis 2004). This species is well adapted for survival in shallow waters, a mechanism that enables it to survive during the dry summer months when water levels are at their lowest (Covich 21

1983; Healy et al. 1990). Pachychilus snails can most commonly be found clustered together at the bottom of rocks. This behavioural practice enables not only humans to have relatively easy access to the snails, but also other natural predators, such as the Snail

Kite, the Raccoon, and the Coati.

The physical characteristics of this gastropod include an elongated and spirally- coiled shell, with an operculum that is situated on the dorsal surface of the foot (Healy et. al. 1990:171). As an aquatic species, this snail also requires the use of gills to extract oxygen and food particles from its surrounding environment (Emery 1988:5). Live

Pachychilus are typically wrapped in a brownish-black periostracum (Emery 1988; Healy et. al. 1990; Stanchly and Iannonel997). This layer disintegrates after death to reveal a whitish-pink undercoating (personal observation).

Distinguishing Pachychilus species is a difficult task, due to the lack of diagnostic characteristics that help to distinguish between species (Covich 1983; Emery 1988; Healy et. al. 1990; Stanchly and Iannone 1997). Altogether, there appear to be at least 111 described taxa, many of which are recognized as synonyms (Kohl Martin, 2010). Over the years a number of reports have produced datasets, which provide the scientific names and geographic locations of various Pachychilus species from Southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize (Appendix A; Goodrich and van der Schalie 1937; Morelet 1849; Thompson

2008). While these datasets are useful for estimating the number of species present in this genus, this compilation does not necessarily aid with the identification process, as no physical description of the snails is provided. However, research by Goodrich and van der

Schalie (1937), Morelet (1849), Emery (1988, 1989), do provide a detailed description of the two most common species present in the archaeological record. Through a cross 22

comparison of these early reports, archaeologists working in the Maya subarea, and more specifically Belize, have been able to identify the physical characteristics of two particular species of Pachychilus. This includes: Pachychilus indiorum and Pachychilus glaphyrus (Emery 1988, 1989; Halperin et al. 2003; Healy et al. 1990; Stanchly and

Iannone 1997). Together, these appear to be the most commonly exploited of the

Pachychilus genus by the ancient Maya (Healy et al. 1990; Stanchly and Iannone 1997;

Figure 5). The main distinction between P. indiorum and P. glaphyrus is the presence or absence of sculpturing on the surface of the shell (Emery 1988; Goodrich and Van Der

Schalie 1937; Healy et al. 1990; Morelet 1849). Pachychilus indiorum is smooth-shelled, while P. glaphyrus appears to have small, dorsal outgrowths which ring the shell near the lip'StCUr©, BMC sOOLC iLiiCs siu.ixu G&.Cli'lvu UR/I.;.-S ^AiXdUy yi aa. •i»\>._ £ i, i iif. AJJ'V ,v»u a.._&~..s also differ in size, with mature P. glaphyrus snails attaining greater length. Based on the physical description of Pachychilus glaphyrus, and Pachychilus indiorum provided by

Goodrich and van der Schalie (1937), Morelet (1849), and Emery (1988, 1989), I have decided to adopt this system of classification to identify the two species of Pachychilus present at Minanha. The small percentage of shells that did not conform to either one of these categories was simply classified as P. species, due to the absence of information regarding the physical characteristics of other Pachychilus species.

Figure 5. Pachychilus indiorum and Pachychilus glaphyrus (Reproduced with Permission of Kitty Emery; Appendix F). 23

ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF PACHYCHILUS

Ethnographic research among contemporary Maya communities has proven to be a useful source of information regarding the availability and use of the Pachychilus snail.

This species is present throughout the Maya subarea, and its use has been documented by a number of scholars working in this region (Emery 1988, Healy 1990, Nations 1979).

According to contemporary Maya groups from the San Antonio Village in the Cayo

District of Belize, the best period for harvesting freshwater molluscs is anywhere between

April and September (Powis 2004:132). Although these shellfish are available year round, the men of San Antonio agree that this is the best time for collection, since the low water levels allow for greater visibility of the shells. Additional studies on modern Pachychilus populations from this same region reveal that the availability of this species ranges from anywhere between four million snails during the dry season (April to September) to more than fourteen million snails during the wet season (Emery 1988, 1989; Healy et al. 1990).

Such studies demonstrate that even though the ancient Maya may have collected these shells during specific times of the year, as do contemporary groups, it is reasonable also to suggest that freshwater molluscs were collected on a year round, opportunistic basis. It is likely that these snails were collected after unsuccessful hunting expeditions or during periods of food shortages; an event that could have occurred at any point throughout the year (Healy et al. 1990:178).

The most extensive analysis of the use of Pachychilus by the modern Maya is that of James D. Nations (1979, 2006), who conducted research with the Lacandon Maya of

Chiapas, Mexico. The Lacandon Maya attach medicinal properties to the Pachychilus 24

species, referred to as t 'unu', and believe that this particular snail can cure a number of illnesses, including eye irritations and cataracts (Nations 2006:83). This society has also been known to use the calcium in the shell of this species, in combination with "Virgin water" from caves and isolated springs, as a cure for infant colic (Nations 2006:64).

Additional medicinal properties have been attached to the Pachychilus species by several other contemporary Maya groups, including the Tzeltal Maya of Chiapas. This society believes that the Pachychilus snail can cure cases of male impotence, since the long conical shape of the shell resembles the male reproductive organ (Hunn 1977:119). The use of Pachychilus snails for this purpose is significant due to its association with fertility; a central theme in Maya rituals.

The association between freshwater molluscs and ritual activities has been observed in both the archaeological record and in ethnographic studies. Ethnographic accounts from Q 'eqchi' speaking groups in the Peten region of Guatemala have provided a source of information regarding the symbolism attached to Pachychilus snails by modern Maya groups (Halperin et al. 2003:214). The following account from an elderly

Q 'eqchi' informant illustrates the importance of this snail as a sacred object:

".. Jute live in water, and in springs there are always Jute. This water comes out

of caves, and it is Mother Earth's sacred water. Therefore, Jute live in sacred

water, water that will never go dry. Mother Earth gives us water for our rivers, and

all Jute that live there are given to us by Mother Earth. Our ancestors used to eat

them and, as Jute live in sacred water our ancestors ate sacred food. When our

ancestors ate Jute, they would save the shells, and later they would take all those 25

shells to the caves to give them back to Mother Earth and to thank her for the

sacred food. Jute are sacred food given by Mother Earth, and both men and

women can eat them and still eat them. But only men can take the shells to the

caves. Nowadays, when people eat Jute, they cut off a little bit of the Jute's shell,

the tail, to get the meat out and then they cook it in water. At times, people do not

cut off the Jute shells, and they just cook them whole in water. People then drink

the water, which is now sacred water. Our ancestors sometimes buried their dead

with Jute because they were sacred food that they could take with them on their

journey" ([recorded and translated by Sergio Garza] Halperin et al. 2003: 214-

215).

This account clearly demonstrates the importance of Pachychilus snails in ritual activities among the modern Maya. Similar practices have been observed for other contemporary Maya groups, such as the Chorti Maya of southeastern Guatemala

(Halperin et al. 2003:214). The modern Chorti hang strings of snail and marine shells over altars during ritual celebrations for the rain god. In this case, the shells represent a close association with rain and fertility, a theme that surely dates back to the ancient

Maya. Additionally, the Lacandon Maya also associate the Pachychilus with the supernatural realm and consume this species during ritual seclusions which take place in caves (Halperin et al. 2003:215). However, the Lacandon also use this species on an everyday basis as well.

In domestic settings, the Lacandon use Pachychilus shells to produce powdered lime for cooking corn tortillas (Nations 1979, 2006). For societies whose diet is 26

dependent on corn products as a major dietary staple, the practice of mixing lime in the boiling water to cook corn is important. Lime not only helps to loosen the outer shell of corn kernels, but also enhances the grain's nutritional value by maximizing the production of essential amino acids (Nations 2006:83). Lime from the Pachychilus shell was also commonly used by the Jicaque Maya of Honduras to mix with tobacco for chewing. This practice was observed during the 18th Century, but may have roots dating as far back as the Classic period. The crushed, ground shell of the Pachychilus species can also be used as temper during pottery manufacturing (Healy et. al. 1990:171). This practice has been observed among contemporary Maya groups living in the Toledo

District of Belize, and dates back as early as the Late Classic Period, based on ceramic paste analysis from the Belize Valley (Healy et. al. 1990; Gifford 1976).

In addition, Pachychilus snails are also frequently consumed by modern Maya groups, although the process of removing the meat differs depending on the area (Healy et. al. 1990; Nations 2006; Powis 2004). Ethnographic research by Healy in the modern

Maya village of San Antonio, in the Cayo District of Central Belize has provided a detailed account of the process required to prepare Pachychilus snails for consumption

(Healy et at. 1990:178). This long process begins by cleaning any sandy particles from the riverbed from the snails. This procedure is done by keeping the snails alive in a container of water for a period of anywhere between one to three days, and feeding them corn tortillas or the leaves of a plant known as "cow's foot" {Bauhinia divaricata L.) or obel in Yucatec (Figure 6). Once the snails are clean of sand, the uppermost apex is cut off with a sharp tool in order to facilitate the removal of the meat (Healy et at. 1990:179).

The snails (shells and all) are then boiled into a soup with a variety of spices, and are then 27

consumed (Figure 7). Alternatively, some modern Maya groups prefer to puncture the surface of the shell as a means of removing the meat. This practice has also been observed in various archaeological assemblages from the lowland Maya region (Keller

2008:4-5).

Figure 6. Preparing jute for Figure 7. Jute Soup (Courtesy of Kitty Emery; Consumption (Courtesy of Kitty Appendix E). Emery; Appendix F).

ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF PACHYCHILUS

Previous archaeological studies from Southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize have recovered Pachychilus shells from a variety of different contexts (Emery 1988;

Halperin et al. 2003; Healy et al. 1990). This includes shells found in structures and middens from both elite and non-elite contexts, as well as large collections of shells from non-domestic deposits associated with ritual offerings (Emery 1988; Halperin et al. 2003;

Healy et al. 1990; Stanchly and Iannone 1997). Over the years, there has been much 28

debate over the role of Pachychilus snails in ancient Maya subsistence and ideological patterns. These shells were easily accessible in shallow, swift waters and appear to have been collected for a number of different functions in ancient Maya society (Emery 1988;

Halperin 2003; Healy et al.1990; Keller 2008; Stanchly and Iannone 1997). Using

Brobowski's criteria for assessing molluscan assemblages in the archaeological record, I will now proceed to discuss the four major explanations to account for the presence of the

Pachychilus species in ancient Maya settings. This includes: 1) the use ofPachychilus as a food source; 2) the natural occurrence ofthe Pachychilus species in archaeological settings; 3) the accidental introduction of the, Pachychilus species to ancient Maya sites; and, 4) the cultural importance of the Pachychilus species for ancient Maya groups.

1. Pachychilus as a Food Source

The majority of Pachychilus specimens from residential contexts have been interpreted to function as a supplementary source of protein, especially in the Preclassic period (Healy et. al. 1990:175). Comparative studies of the nutritional value of a variety of species exploited by the ancient Maya indicate that freshwater molluscs were not likely a significant part of the daily dietary intake of this society (Emery 1988, 1989; Healy et at. 1990; Table 1). When compared to other freshwater molluscs, Pachychilus snails are high in calories, fat and carbohydrates, but low in protein (Emery 1988, 1989; Healy et at.

1990). The caloric yield ofPachychilus (4.3 calories/snail) appears to be closest to that of rabbit and turtle, but all together, this species is most comparable to the raw oyster (ostrea lurida) or clam (saxidomus nutalli) (Emery 1988, 1989; Healy et at. 1990). According to the World Health Organization, humans need about 30 to 40 grams of protein in order to meet daily requirements (Emery 1988, 1989; Healy et at. 1990). Although ancient Maya 29

individuals with access to riverine resources could have easily collected enough

Pachychilus shells to meet this requirement, one must still consider the time and energy required to collect these snails. According to Emery, the time required to collect enough

Pachychilus snails to feed a family of five averages 22 minutes (Emery 1989:6). If we compare this average with the average calories lost during this activity (74 calories), the caloric intake from a single meal (770 calories) outweighs the energy spent during collection (Emery 1989:6). Furthermore, ethnographic analyses suggest that jute were likely collected as part of the daily collection of water, or during hunting expeditions, consequently becoming a part of these activities (Emery 1988; 1989).

TAXA/COMMON NAME KILOCALORIES PROTEIN (g) FAT (g) CARBOHYDRATES

Mollusks Pachychilus indiorum (freshwater snail, raw) 84 6.3 1.2 12 Helix Pomacea (land snail, raw) 75 15 0.8 2 Proptera alata (freshwater mussel, raw) 77 9.5 0.8 7.8 Ostrea lurida (oyster, raw) 82 9.6 2.5 5.4 Saxidomus nuttalli (clam, raw) 79 13 1.2 4.1 Amphibians (species name not available) (turtle, roasted) 89 19.8 0.5 0 Mammals Sylvilagus sp. (rabbit, raw) 73 21 5 0 Odocoileussp. (deer, raw) 126 21 4 0 Table 1. Nutritional Composition of Selected Foods per 100 g Portions (Modified from Healyetal. 1990:178).

Although the ethnographic record highlights the position of Pachychilus snails as a source of food, the faunal assemblages from numerous ancient Maya sites attest to the importance of exploiting a variety of species. Thus, considering the wide variety of protein resources available, it seems highly unlikely that the ancient Maya would have focused on the exploitation of only one species to provide the necessary caloric input 30

(Emery 1988, 1989). Furthermore, isotopic analysis from lowland Maya sites demonstrate that the ancient Maya diet consisted of a broad mix of plants, terrestrial vertebrates, and freshwater fish, including molluscan species (Powis et al. 1999; Powis 2004). Therefore, even though freshwater molluscs have been found in immense quantities at ancient Maya sites, ethnographic and archaeological studies demonstrate that these species likely served as a supplementary food source, primarily during periods of food shortages.

In addition to the Pachychilus snail, several other freshwater mollucs have also been recovered from within the same undisturbed domestic deposits. These deposits suggest that freshwater molluscs such as the Pachychilus sp., the Nephronaias sp. and the

Pomacea sp., were likely collected and consumed at the same time, given that all three of these species inhabit the same rivers and streams. This pattern has been observed in middens and structures from various lowland Maya sites including Cahal Pech, Pacbitun, and Blackman Eddy (Healy et at. 1990:175). At the site of Cahal Pech, 605 Pachychilus shells were recovered from a late Middle Preclassic midden in the Tolok Group. These shells were discarded along with 2,143 Nephronaias and 159 Pomacea shells, with both the Pachychilus and the Pomacea shells exhibiting signs of modification from activities related to consumption. At Pacbitun, more than 230,000 Pachychilus shells were recovered in association with an estimated 1,500 Nephronaias clams from various Middle

Preclassic middens (Healy et al. 1990:175). The majority of Pachychilus shells from this site were recovered from domestic deposits associated with consumption, with a large proportion recovered from a single midden below Plaza B within the site core, and dating from the Middle to the Late Preclassic Period. In addition, recent excavations at Pacbitun have revealed a significant amount of Pachychilus remains (200,000+ shells). The 31

function of these deposits have yet to be determined (Terry Powis, personal

communication 2009).

Archaeological research in coastal Maya sites indicates that Pachychilus snails were also being consumed by coastal dwellers, even when the closest freshwater source was located at a distance from the site (McKillop 2004). Such occurrences demonstrate the importance of this species for ancient Maya groups, since it appears that individuals

made significant efforts to acquire these snails. At Frenchman's Caye, for example,

Pachychilus shells have been collected from a number of middens dating to the Late

Classic period (McKillop 2004). Located along the southern coast of Belize, Frenchman's

Caye was a small coastal community that was heavily reliant on marine resources for

subsistence purposes (McKillop 2004:57). This factor is apparent in the high distribution

of marine resources present at the site, with high frequencies of large conch shells,

including Strombuspugilis and Strombusgigas (McKillop 2004:57). The occurrence of two distinct species of Pachychilus shells (P. polygonatus and P. pyramidalis) at this site

indicates that this community went through great efforts to acquire these shells, as these

species do not appear naturally in this region (McKillop 2004:71). Furthermore, this

occurrence highlights the importance of Pachychilus snails during the Late Classic

period, with individuals possibly traveling considerable distances to obtain these shells

(McKillop 2004:67). Considering the diverse array of marine resources available to the

inhabitants of Frenchman's Caye, it seems odd to find Pachychilus shells in undisturbed

archaeological deposits at this site. Perhaps these shells were part of the items traded

between inland and coastal dwellers? A similar pattern has been observed at the site of

Uaxactun, in the Peten region of Guatemala. At this site, Pachychilus shells, a non-local 32

species, greatly outnumber the local Pomacea species (Healy et. al. 1990; Moholy-Nahy

1978). This occurrence further demonstrates the possibility that Pachychilus snails were being traded by the ancient Maya for subsistence purposes.

2. The Natural Occurrence of the Pachychilus species

Faunal species which appear in the archaeological record either represent the remains of natural populations that once inhabited the area, or the remains of species which were culturally introduced into the site (Brobowski 1984:82). It Pachychilus snails had occurred naturally in the same area as an ancient Maya centre, then the pattern of shell distribution would be quite discrete. Such an occurrence would result in the accumulation of shells in a particular section of the site, where an ancient creek might have existed.

Given the restricted distribution of these shells within specific architectural features, it seems highly unlikely that these deposits at ancient Maya sites were the result of natural accumulations. In addition, the majority of Pachychilus remains that have been found in association with ancient Maya archaeological remains have been recovered from undisturbed deposits. These sealed contexts further demonstrate the likelihood that these deposits of shells are the result of human activity.

3. The Accidental Introduction of the Pachychilus species

Accidental deposits of this snail may be the result of two separate, but related, cultural practices by the ancient Maya. The first scenario for an "accidental" deposit of

Pachychilus snails is based on archaeological observations of the construction practices of ancient North American societies (Morrison 1942:366). Working in the Tennessee

River Valley, Morrison (1942) noticed that the introduction of shells to archaeological settings was partially due to the transportation of mud (and all living/dead organisms 33

associated with this soil) from nearby waters for use as construction fill for building foundations. Thus, the ancient Maya may have employed a similar method for the construction of building platforms. The second process which may have resulted in the

"accidental" deposit of Pachychilus shells in construction fill is due to the reuse of refuse material (Stanchly 2004:40). This material would have been collected from midden deposits consisting of broken ceramics, lithics, and faunal remains (including Pachychilus shells), which were then re-deposited as part of the construction-fill for a new structure

(Stanchly 2004:43).

4. The Cultural Significance of the Pachychilus species

In addition to their function in ancient Maya domestic settings, Pachychilus shells have also been recovered from a number of non-domestic deposits associated with ritual offerings (Halperin et al. 2003; Healy et al. 1990). In these contexts, the shells do not necessarily exhibit signs of intentional breakage for the purpose of consumption, but are presented instead in both modified and unmodified forms (Halperin et al. 2003; Healy et al. 1990). In the lowland Maya region, for example, a Middle Preclassic ritual deposit from Structure Bl at Blackman Eddy demonstrates the importance of Pachychilus shells in ritual activities (Powis 2004:138). This structure contained several layers of freshwater shells, including Pachychilus, Pomacea and Nephronaias. Together these shells were recovered from a "basin-shaped depression," comprised of small Pachychilus shells at the bottom, followed by Nephronaias shells in the middle layer, and large Pachychilus and

Pomacea shells at the top. This deposit has been interpreted as a symbol of water, representing the "Primordial Sea" under the floors of Maya buildings (Powis 2004:134). 34

At Pacbitun, whole Pachychilus shells were also recovered from the Epicentre and associated with ritual offerings (Healy et at. 1990:177). Cache 2-3, dating to the Late

Classic period, was found within Structure 2 in the site Core Zone. Inside this cache was a pair of red ware dishes placed lip-to-lip, and containing 43 complete Pachychilus indiorum shells, as well as one complete marine bivalve {Lucina pectin), the complete shell of a land crab (cardisoma guanhumi), and two small jade chips. A similar, elaborate offering dating to the Early Classic was later recovered beneath a plastered floor associated with Plaza E, and adjacent to Structure 15, one of the ballcourt mounds at

Pacbitun. This offering (cache 15-1) also contained a set of bowls placed lip-to-lip and filled with various ritual objects, including unaltered Pachychilus indiorum shells, a

Colha stemmed point, a green obsidian bipoint, carved jade, bone, slate, and other shell artifacts. Such offerings demonstrate that Pachychilus shells were important not only for consumption purposes, but also as part of ritual ceremonies (Healy 1992).

Cave Deposits. Offerings of Pachychilus shells have also been recovered from various cave deposits associated with ancient Maya ritual activities (Halperin et. al. 2003;

Healy et at. 1990; Table 2). The importance of caves for the ancient Maya is apparent not only from archaeological investigations, but also from ethnographic accounts of the ritual activities of contemporary Maya groups (Brady 1989; Halperin et al. 2003; Hammond

1975, 1983; Healy et al. 1990; MacLeod and Puleston 1978; Prufer 2002). To the ancient

Maya, caves were symbolic due to their association with the supernatural realm (Brady

1989; Brady and Prufer 2005; Halperin et al. 2003; MacLeod and Puleston 1978; Prufer and Brady 2005). This society believed that caves were inhabited by some of the most important deities, including those gods associated with the agricultural cycle, fertility, and 35

rain. Ethnographic studies attest to the importance of caves as symbolically charged spheres used for the worshipping of different gods. Among the Kekchi of Belize, the earth deity, Tzultacaj, controls all natural activities, including rain (Brady 1989:38). A similar god, known as Chac, is worshipped by the Tzotzil Maya, since this individual has power over all water sources, including rain (Brady 1989; MacLeod and Puleston 1978;

Thompson 1970). These deities are said to live in caves where they have complete control of the rain and wind (Brady 1989; MacLeod and Puleston 1978; Thompson 1970). This tradition dates back as early as the Preclassic period, as represented by the bas-relief of

"the king" at Chalcatzingo (Evans 2004:167; Figure 8). Although this petroglyph has been associated with the Olmec culture, it serves to demonstrate the importance of caves in the process of rain-making and ritual activity for early Mesoamerican societies. As part of a ceremony to celebrate the beginning of spring, the Tzotzil Maya visit nearby caves to bring offerings and pray to the god Chac in order to receive plenty of rain and a good harvest (Thompson 1970:268). According to Thompson (1970), a similar religious practice has also been observed for the Tojolabal Maya who often travel to nearby caves to pray for rain.

Figure 8. Bas-relief of "The King" in a cave setting from Chalcatzingo (Reproduced with Permission of Thames and Hudson; Appendix F). 36

Abrigo Camcum D 4,338 Kg spire-lopped Actun Balam D 1,000+ spire-lopped Actun Chechem Ha D 24 n/a Actun NakBeh D 1,339 spire-lopped (89%) Actun Tunichil Muknal U 457 spire-topped (majority) Actun Uayazba Kab D 4000+ spire-lopped (majority) Actun Yaxteel Ahau U 1848 spire-lopped (92%) Balam Na Cave 1 D 7 spire-lopped (43%) Balam Na Cave 4 D 28 spire-lopped (78%) Candelaria Cave U many n/a Caves Branch Rochshelter D 1,000+ spire-lopped (majority) Cueva de el Duende D 1 not spire-lopped Cueva de las Aranas D few spire-lopped Cueva de los Huesos D 240 spire-lopped EduardoQuiroz D 1 n/a Footprint Cave U 219 spire-lopped (100%) HokebHa D 2 spire-lopped (100%) Indian Creek {Cave) D 100+ n/a Joija* Cave D 100+ spire-lopped (50%+) MayahakCabPek D 10,000+ spire-lopped (50%+) Mojibal Kanchi D 1,000+ spire-lopped (50%+) Naj Tunich D 522 spire-lopped (90%) Petroglyph Cave D 1,000,000+ spire-lopped Suki Tzul D 1,000+ spire-lopped (50%+) San Pable Cave D 248 spire-lopped (many) *U = presence of underground river or stream, D = dry cave, may or may not have drip water activity.

Table 2. Distribution of Jute from Cave Contexts (Modified from Halperin et al. 2003:210).

In a recent publication entitled "Caves and Ancient Maya Ritual Use of Jute,"

Halperin and colleagues (2003) compiled an extensive list of cave investigations in the

Maya lowlands, where Pachychihis shells have been recovered in association with ritual

activities (Table 2). This publication demonstrates the importance oiPachychilus shells in

ceremonial activities and their association with the supernatural world. One of the earliest

documentations of cave deposits containing Pachychihis shells was recorded by David 37

Pendergast (1969) during excavations at Actun Balam in the late 1960s. This cave deposit consisted of several thousand "hutes," as well as ceramics, chipped and ground stone objects, and other faunal remains (Pendergast 1969:58). The Pachychilus shells described by Pendergast (1969) did not exhibit signs of modification for consumption, and thus were interpreted as "ritual offerings" (Halperin et al. 2003; Pendergast 1969). Large concentrations of Pachychilus shells have also been recovered from numerous other cave deposits in the lowland Maya region, further demonstrating their likely significant role in ritual activities. At Petroglyph Cave, for example, over one million Pachychilus shells were placed near the entrance of the cave, outlining a path to an underground river

(Halperin et. al. 2003:209). Such a large offering is rare, and could have been deposited during the flooding of the river nearby. However, if this was an intentional deposit, it demonstrates the symbolic importance of this species, and its association with water

sources.

The recovery of over 4,000 kg of Pachychilus shells from inside the Abrigo

Camcum Cave in Chiapas, Mexico, is another significant find, since a number of the

detached distal ends of the shell were also recovered inside the cave (Halperin et al.

2003:209). Although one can easily assume from this finding that the shells were being

prepared for cooking inside the cave, ethnographic accounts of cave activities would

suggest otherwise. According to the informant interviewed by Garza during investigation

in the Peten region, Pachychilus shells from cave deposits could indicate a secondary

deposit which was brought to the cave to be returned to "Mother Earth" (Halperin et al.

2003:214). This secondary deposit could be said to represent a reciprocal relationship that

existed between humans and the supernatural world. The ritual figurines and incensarios 38

recovered from this cave, as well as the Late Postclassic "cantaros" containing the cremated remains of humans, illustrate the importance of this site for ritual activities. The

Pachychilus shells served as an offering that was either consumed at the site, or transported to the cave after consumption for final disposition (Halperin 2003:215).

The Western Belize Regional Cave Project (WBRCP) has also recovered numerous concentrations of Pachychilus shells from cave deposits associated with ritual activity (Halperin et al. 2003:210). At Actun Nak Beh, for example, 1,339 Pachychilus shells were recovered from various levels near the entrance of the cave. A similar offering was found in Cueva de los Huesos, a small cave located near the entrance to Naj Tunich

(Halperin et al. 2003:210). These deposits have been interpreted as offerings placed at the mouth of the cave, or the entrance to the underworld. The WBRCP has also recovered

Pachychilus shells from caches placed inside caves. At the site of Actun Tunichil

Muknal, for example, a cache was recovered from a chamber in the upper entrance area of this cave, an area several meters above an underground stream (Halperin et al.

2003:211). The cache contained 457 Pachychilus indiorum shells, as well as several pottery sherds, and other faunal remains. A similar cache was recovered from Actun

Chechem Ha, also located in the Cayo District (Halperin et al. 2003:211). In this cave,

Pachychilus shells were recovered alongside other shell species, including the

Nephronaias, and a marine shell of the Olivella species. All were found in a small depression created by the drip water of a stalactite. The combination of marine and freshwater mollucs in watery deposits further suggests a symbolic relationship between shells and water as a source of life. 39

In addition to cave offerings and caches, Halperin et al. (2003) also documented instances where Pachychilus shells were deposited in direct association with human burials inside caves. In Actun Uayazba Kab in the Roaring Creek Valley of Belize, 4,000

Pachychilus indiorum shells were recovered, along with other freshwater shell offerings, in association with an interment that contained 11 individuals (Halperin et al. 2003:211).

The molluscs were found in direct association with the deceased individuals, as well as within the fill material used for the burial. A similar pattern has been observed at the

Caves Branch Rockshelter in Central Belize, where thousands of Pachychilus shells, mainly P. indiorum, as well as some P. glaphyrus, were recovered in association with the skeletal remains of several individuals (Halperin et al. 2003:211-212). The shells at this site were found alongside other freshwater shells, including Nephronaias ortomanni and

Pomaceaflagellata, and were placed under the head and pelvis of several different burials

(Halperin et al. 2003:212). A number of other burial deposits containing tens of thousands of Pachychilus shells were also uncovered by the Maya Mountains Ritual Caves Project at sites such as Mayahak Cab Pek, Mohibal Kanchi, and Saki Tzul (Prufer 2002:400-411,

429-431). These rockshelters are associated with a small regional centre in the Maya

Mountains of Belize and included numerous burial deposits. The Pachychilus shells from these rockshelters were placed primarily beneath and around the bodies of the deceased individuals, with the quantities of shell being so high that they comprised about 50 percent of the matrix in these burials (Prufer 2002:400-411). The Pachychilus shells from these burials exhibit signs of human modification, and a large proportion of the shells were spire-lopped (Prufer 2002:388). This practice could be representative of a food 40

offering placed for the deceased individuals in their journey into the afterlife, or perhaps they were part of a graveside meal to commemorate the deceased?

A final example of Pachychilus shells from cave deposits is the single recovery of a modified Pachychilus shell artifact (Brady 1989:281). Although several worked artifacts made from the Nephronaias clam have been recovered, the Pachychilus species does not appear to have been used as a raw material for artifact production. The only known occurrences for the modification of the Pachychilus snail for aesthetic purposes were found in the pilgrimage site of Naj Tunich, and the site of Uaxactun, both of which are located in the Peten District of Guatemala (Brady 1989; Kidder 1947). Inside the Naj

Tunich cave, a large Pachychilus shell was recovered which had been longitudinally cut,

1 .,„,:„,, ^„s„,.r„,„.^ .™^ „<„:))„„* A„ „j^ /,,-,-„, i„^t^„ -rr„rr, „..-,„,,,,„„,•_,„ n>«r.^v. ifXJC-TR • T?;,-,,-,,,,, CA\ A

similar artifact finding was recovered from Uaxactun, where a worked Pachychilus shell was recovered during excavations in the 1940s (Kidder 1947; Figure 9B). Although the recovery of these artifacts is significant, further evidence is required in order to

demonstrate the use of Pachychilus shells as a raw material for artifact production.

Moreover, the "absence" of worked Pachychilus shells from the archaeological record

may be due to careless observations during analysis.

SUSPENSI HOLES

B Figure 9. Modified Pachychilus shells from Naj Tunich (A) and Uaxactun (B) (Figure A Modified from Brady 1989; Figure B Reproduced with Permission of Carnegie Institute of Washington; Appendix F). 41

Ballcourt Deposits. In addition to caves, Pachychilus shells have been recovered from caches associated with ballcourt structures (Halperin et. al. 2003; Healy et. al.

1990). Like caves, ballcourts in the Maya area are typically associated with the entrance to the underworld, a liminal place where humans and gods met (Halperin et. al. 2003; Fox et al. 1996). Thus, the presence of Pachychilus shells in these contexts also demonstrates the symbolic relationship that existed between shells and the supernatural realm. In the

Belize Valley, a number of caches containing Pachychilus shells have been recovered in association with ballcourt structures. At Xunantunich, for example, Pachychilus shells were recovered during excavations in the centre of the ballcourt, from a cache associated with a burial (Jamison and Wolff 1994:31-32). At the site of Cahal Pech, a cache containing Pachychilus shells and various other objects, such as chert flakes, obsidian eccentrics, marine shell artifacts (including Area zebra and Spondylus sp.), was recovered alongside the bodies of two children. This deposit was found in the alley of the eastern ballcourt, and dates to the Late Classic period (Stanchly and Iannone 1997:7). In addition, numerous deposits of Pachychilus shells have been recovered from four different caches associated with the ballcourt at the site of Lubaantun (Halperin et al. 2003; Hammond

1975). The majority of these shells exhibit signs of intentional breakage, and could be representative of feasting activities at this site (Hammond 1983:157).

Permanent architectural facilities such as ballcourts were not only an essential component of the ideological practices of the ancient Maya, but also served as political arenas, providing individuals with a means of expanding their influence both locally and regionally (Fox et al. 1996). Thus, ballcourt activities created new opportunities for 42

competitive interaction through the coordination and sequencing of ballgames, feasts, and ritual activities.

Feasting Contexts. Modified Pachychilus remains from the site of Cahal Pech,

Zubin, and Chan have been associated with possible evidence for competitive and ritual feasting activities, thus highlighting the importance of this molluscan species in socio­ economic and socio-political realms (Stanchly and Iannone 1997:6). Within the epicenters of Cahal Pech, and the nearby minor centre of Zubin, Pachychilus shells have been recovered in association with public, non-residential structures dating to the Middle

Preclassic period. The shells from these deposits have been interpreted as part of feasting activities related to the emergence of socio-political complexity at Cahal Pech. Within these structures, the presence of well-made ceramic serving dishes, combined with the faunal remains of selective parts of a variety of animals, demonstrate the possibility that feasting activities were being carried out at this site, as a means of enhancing the prestige of the ruling class (Stanchly and Iannone 1997:11). At Zubin, a small shrine (Structure

C9) dating to the Late Preclassic period appears to have been constructed by the ruling group at Cahal Pech as a means of extending their power over a greater region (Stanchly and Iannone 1997:12). Within this structure large concentrations of Pachychilus shells were recovered (Stanchly and Iannone 1997:13). This shell deposit has been interpreted as part of the feasting activity carried out by individuals from Zubin and Cahal Pech in celebration of the construction of this building. Moreover, a primary midden associated with Structure A4 at Zubin, which dates to the Late Classic, also contained a large proportion of Pachychilus shells, in addition to other prestigious foods such as marine fish, white-tail deer, rabbit, agouti and/or paca, and river turtle. Structure A4 has been 43

interpreted as a primary residential building. Based on the remains recovered from the midden that was located beneath this structure, it was reasonable to suggest that this midden resulted from a large feasting celebration that took place at this structure

(Stanchly and Iannone 1997:14).

Angela H. Keller's (2008) research at the ancient Maya farming community of

Chan, also in the Cayo District of Belize, further demonstrates the importance of

Pachychilus shells in feasting activities. At this site, a deposit of more than 100,000

Pachychilus shells was recovered from a single test unit (Suboperation 3B) located along the western side of a family residence (C-003) in Chan's Central Group (Keller 2008:4).

This midden appears to date to the Late Classic period, as suggested by the ceramics found mixed within the midden. Additionally, according to the density and size of the midden, it has been estimated that over 2.7 million Pachychilus shells were deposited by the ancient inhabitants of residence C-003, a loucs interpreted to belong to a family of higher status. The majority of the shells from this midden were not spired-lopped, but this does not necessarily indicate that they were not consumed. According to Keller, the shells appear to have been punctured as an alternative means of removing the meat. She has interpreted this midden as part of feasting activities. This practice is indicated by the large quantity of shells deposited, suggesting consumption on a grand scale, far beyond the capacity of even the largest of extended families (Keller 2008:5). Through communal feastings involving the consumption of Pachychilus snails, Keller believes that the people at Chan were able to construct and negotiate a shared community identity, although perhaps the inhabitants of Structure C-003 sponsored these gatherings as a means of 44

expanding their influence locally, and marking their prestige and status within society

(Keller 2008:2, 10).

SUMMARY

In contrast to the research on marine shell exploitation in the Maya subarea, only a limited number of reports have been published on ancient utilization of available freshwater molluscan resources. Nevertheless, these molluscs have been observed frequently in a wide range of archaeological contexts throughout the Maya subarea. Thus, it is crucial to examine the significance of these species in ancient Maya cultural practices. As a thick-shell gastropod, the Pachychilus snail has a tendency to preserve well in the archaeological record, enhancing our opportunity to explore patterns of cultural use and distribution. Ethnographic and archaeological research clearly demonstrate the multifunctional role of this freshwater species. This snail evidently played an active role in the subsistence and ideological practices of the ancient Maya, and its archaeological distribution suggests it was exploited for a variety of purposes. With this in mind, the next chapter proceeds to discuss the ancient Maya centre of Minanha; a site which has yielded a large number of Pachychilus shells, and provides the basis for this analysis. 45

CHAPTER 3: MINANHA

This chapter provides an introduction to the ancient Maya centre of Minanha. I begin by briefly describing the setting, in terms of geographical location. This is followed by a section summarizing the history of Minanha and previous archaeological investigations at the site. Finally, the majority of the chapter is dedicated to providing an overview of the ongoing research at Minanha by the Social Archaeological Research

Program (SARP) of Trent University. This includes a review of the research objectives, a description of Phase I and Phase II of the project, and a brief summary of the excavations and subsequent findings from the various studies at the site.

INTRODUCTION

Minanha is a medium-sized ancient Maya centre, located on the North Vaca

Plateau of West Central Belize (Iannone 2001b: 125; Figure 10). This geographical region is characterized by a rugged limestone plateau with a tropical rain forest environment, and little surface water (Iannone 2005:29). In terms of archaeological research, this area is one of the least explored parts of the Maya lowlands. In contrast to the research in the

Upper Belize River region, to the north, and the site of Caracol, to the south, Minanha is the only site in the North Vaca Plateau that has undergone intensive archaeological investigations (Iannone 1999:6). During the Classic Maya period, Minanha held an important role as part of a regional network of centres that controlled a significant proportion of the region. The geographical location of Minanha placed this centre at equal 46

distances from two major Classic Maya centres: Caracol and Naranjo (Iannone 2003:12;

Figure 11). This location gave the inhabitants of Minanha the opportunity to establish alliances with both of these large centres, thus providing Minanha's ruling elite with an advantage during times of political upheaval (Iannone 1999:14). From a research perspective, Minanha's location in a boundary zone between two powerful centres provides an opportunity to explore patterns of socio-political interaction on a multi- regional scale.

Figure 10. Map showing the location of Minanha (Courtesy of Gyles Iannone). 47

Figure 11. Map of Naranjo and Caracot in relation to Minanha (lannone 1999:15).

HISTORY OF MINANHA

The first reported exploration of Minanha was in 1922, by a Belizean chiclero (a person who taps the sapodilla tree to produce chewing gum) named Eglesias (lannone

2001b: 125). While searching for sapodilla trees, Eglesias stumbled across a vaulted burial chamber which contained human remains, as well as several complete polychrome vessels (Gann 1927:142; lannone 2001b: 125). In light of this discovery, Eglesias returned to the nearby town of Benque Viejo to share his finds with a Jesuit priest, Reverend

Arthur Versaval (lannone 1999:6). Together, these two individuals, along with a medical officer from the nearby Cayo District, paid a second visit to the site and discovered the main plaza at Minanha (lannone 2001b: 126). It was during this visit that Father Versaval 48

decided to name the site Mucnal Yok Tunich, which translates to "grave upon a stone" in

Yucatec Maya (Iannone 2001b: 126; Versaval 1922). This name was later changed by the

British Museum expeditions. They decided to rename the site Minanha, or "place without water", due to the lack of water in this region (Iannone 2001b: 126).

The expeditions conduted by the British Museum took place in March 1927, under the direction of T. A. Joyce, and Thomas Gann (Gann 1927:137; Iannone 2001b: 126;

Joyce et al. 1927:319). Some difficulties were encountered during this expedition due to the rugged terrain and remote location of the site (Iannone 2001b: 126). However, the

British expedition did manage to survey and map sections of Minanha's main acropolis

(Iannone 2001b: 126; Joyce et al. 1927:320; Figure 12). Due to the lack of water sources, the expedition was forced to abandon the site after only one week (Iannone 2001b: 126).

Although the reports from this early expedition clearly demonstrated the size and importance of this site, investigations at the centre ceased for 70 years.

In 1997, we once again hear of Minanha, when the government of Belize asked

Trent University's Social Archaeological Research Program (SARP) to relocate and commense investigations at Minanha (Iannone 2001b: 127). Under the direction of Dr.

Gyles Iannone, SARP relocated the centre, using the maps generated by the British

Museum expeditions. Due to problems with the British maps, it took quite an effort to relocate the centre, which was found to be about 3.4 km from its original location on the government map. Preliminary observations by the SARP team discovered over 44 structures in the epicentre, many of which had not been mapped by the British expeditions. This included a ballcourt, an E-group complex, range structures, causeways, and a residential complex, all of which are part of the 9.50 hectares that make up the 49

site's epicentre (Iannone 2004:1). Although Minanha had experienced a great deal of

looting, these initial observations served to demonstrate the importance of this centre in

ancient times, and the need for a long term archaeological project in this region.

Figure 12. The 1927 Map of Minanha (Modified from Iannone 1999:10).

SARP RESEARCH GOALS

Although ceramic analysis suggests that Minanha was occupied as early as the late

Middle Preclassic (ca. 600-300 B.C.), it was not until the Late Classic period that 50

Minanha achieved its peak in size and complexity (Iannone 2005:29). For the past 12 years, the SARP team has focused on excavations within the epicentre, site core, and peripheral areas, in order to understand the nature of ancient Maya states, as well as socio-environmental dynamics within this society. Based on the relatively brief florescence of Minanha's royal court, during the Late Classic, this centre also provides an ideal setting for studies of the ancient Maya "collapse". Research at Minanha has not only provided information regarding the internal factors that led to the abandonment of this site, but has also provided a glimpse of the events that took place on a multi-regional scale.

The main objective of the Social Archaeological Research Program at Minanha is to understand the process of integration within ancient Maya socio-political systems

(Iannone 1999; Marcus 1993). Over the years, several models have been proposed to characterize this process. This includes a decentralization model of political interaction, as well as one of centralized political units (Iannone 1999:1, 2). Recent research on this subject supports the idea of a "dynamic model" of socio-political organization (Iannone

2002; Marcus 1993). This model states that the process of centralization and decentralization functioned in various forms on a temporal and spatial scale (Iannone

1999:5; 2002; Marcus 1993). This model provides a more realistic approach for understanding the fluctuating patterns of socio-political and socio-economic integration within the Maya subarea. In the end, the long term research project at Minanha has provided SARP with the opportunity to investigate this topic in greater detail, thus contributing to the growing body of data on ancient Maya socio-political affiliations and alliances. 51

In terms of research goals, four main questions have been proposed by the SARP team in order to assess the importance of Minanha during the Classic Maya period

(Iannone 1999:13). These questions include:

1) How does Minanha's affiliation and alliance network change over time?

2) Can periods of expansion and contraction in Minanha's administrative

component be recognized?

3) What does Minanha's developmental sequence tell us about regional state

formation, transformation, and dissolution?

4) Are there recognizable periods of tension between kinship and kingship at

Minanha?

Through a detailed analysis of the material culture from Minanha, the ultimate goal of SARP is to generate a database which explores patterns of growth and interaction on the micro-and macro-regional scales (Iannone 1999:14). In addition, this dataset can then be used, in conjunction with the data from other lowland sites, to create a model that explains the various factors that led to the collapse of the Classic Maya.

In order to provide a more holistic approach to this study, SARP has employed two main phases of investigation. These phases were adopted as a means to understand ancient Maya sociopolitical organization from the perspective of all individuals, regardless of social status (Iannone 2006:1). This "archaeology of community" approach includes excavations within the epicentre, site core, and peripheral areas of Minanha

(Iannone 2007:1).

Phase I was initiated in 1999, and focused on excavations within Minanha's royal court complex. This area is comprised of approximately 9.5 hectares, and consists of at 52

least 53 structures. This complex consists of a raised elite residential/ritual acropolis to the north, as well as a slightly lowered section to the south, which contains administrative, ritual and residential structures (Iannone 2004:1; Figure 13). The Phase I investigations have significantly contributed to our understanding of the Maya "collapse" from the perspective of Minanha's ruling class, and the social factors that triggered this event. These investigations demonstrate that a small population was present in this region as early as the late Middle Preclassic (ca. 600-400 B.C.; Iannone 2005:29). Within the epicentre, Terminal Preclassic (100-250 A.D.) occupation is indicated by the presence of tamped earth floors, and a series of ritual caches (Iannone et al. 2006:116; Schwake 1999,

2000). These ritual offerings appear to have been deposited as part of a ceremony associated with the founding of the Minanha community (Iannone et al. 2006:118).

However, occupation in this region remained relatively modest, with little status differentiation until the Middle Classic and into the Late Classic (Iannone et al.

2006:118).

The Middle Classic to Late Classic represents a period of increased growth in population, as well as a shift in the socio-political, and soci-economic organization of the

Minanha community. This shift is subsequently followed by the florescence of Minanha's royal court (Iannone et al. 2006:118). It is during this period that the majority of structures within the Minanha epicentre are erected, making Minanha one of the most powerful centres within the North Vaca Plateau. This rise to prominence spanned nearly a century, before the royal court suffered a rapid collapse sometime near the beginning of the 9th century A.D. At this time, all major building programs at Minanha came to a halt, and important stelae were destroyed (Iannone 2005:37). The only sections of some stelae 53

that survived were the butts, which remained in situ. The rest of the pieces were broken off and scattered in unknown locations. In addition to the destruction of these monuments, the royal residential courtyard was buried intact, prior to the complete abandonment of the site by the ruling elite. Although a second construction program was initiated after the infilling of the royal residential complex, these later structures were made of perishable material and appear to have been relatively modest in nature.

Although this terminal phase represents continued occupation at Minanha, the occupants at this time appear to have been of a lesser status than those that proceeded them.

o

IN o"^0 lST'Tk) 200m Survcjcd by G. [iiniioiU'C: Agww,A MttootariJea; Phillips MINANHA', CAYO DISTRICT, BELIZE (2007^

Figure 13. Isometric plan of the Minanha site core (Iannone 2007:30). 54

SUMMARY OF THE INVESTIGATIONS IN MINANHA'S ROYAL COURT COMPLEX (PHASE I)

The Ballcourt: Structure 1A and 2A

The ballcourt at Minanha is located on the eastern section of the epicentre, and consists of two separate structures: 1A and 2 A. Structure 1A forms the western extent of the ballcourt, while Structure 2A forms the eastern side (Seibert 1999:30). In ancient

Mesoamerica, ballcourts were vital to the social and ritual activities of the community.

These structures held symbolic importance, as they played a crucial role in creation myths and were considered to be portals into the underworld (Scarborough 1991). While the architectural styles of ancient Maya ballcourts vary in size and complexity, the ballcourt at Minanha is considered to be relatively modest, consisting of the typical I-shape style

(Seibert 1999:30). Both Structure 1A and 2A appear to have been heavily disturbed not only by looters, but also by the excavations conducted by the British Museum in the

1920s (Seibert 1999:30). Nevertheless, the SARP excavations in these two structures have revealed a significant amount of information regarding the role of this structure within the Minanha epicentre. This structure appears to have been built during a single construction phase sometime in the Late Classic period during the rise of the royal court

(Seibert 1999:38). Although a ballcourt marker was recovered during excavations, it does not appear to have decorated (Seibert 1999:38). Below this architectural feature, one of the most interesting finds was the large concentration of Pachychilus shells. Although it was originally believed that this deposit was placed during a single event sometime in the

Late Classic, it is now evident that this concentration of shells dates to the Terminal 55

Preclassic, or Early Classic, before the construction of the ballcourt (Iannone, personal communication 2010; Seibert 1999).

The Eastern Shrine Complex: Structure 3A, 4A, 5A, and 9A

The eastern shrine, or E-Group complex, of Minanha was excavated by the SARP team between 1999 and 2001. The construction style of this group can be categorized as part of the Cenote variant type (Schwake 1999:41). This type varies significantly from other E-group construction styles, as it does not appear to conform to a specific configuration (Schwake 1999:41). Although the purpose of the E-group complex has yet to be determined, it appears that this group likely served a ritual function. Other possible uses for this group include its use as an astronomical observatory, or as a structure related to agricultural rituals, and inter-regional trade (Aimers and Rice 2006; Rupert 1940;

Schwake 1999:43).

At Minanha, the main architectural feature of the E-group is Structure 3 A, which is a central pyramidal structure measuring 6.05 m in height and between 9.04 and 9.42 m wide (Schwake 1999:44). To the sides, Structure 3A is surrounded by two smaller platforms, Structure 4A to the north and Structure 5 A to the south (Schwake 1999:44).

Structure 3 A is believed to have served as public ritual space. This assumption is based on the numerous ritual caches that were uncovered in almost exact vertical alignment in front of this structure (Schwake 1999:54, 2000:25). The different caches date from the

Terminal Preclassic to the Late Classic period, and appear to be indicative of a "long term cultural recollection process" (Schwake 1999, 2000). In addition to the caches, a vaulted shrine room was also discovered within the penultimate phase of Structure 3 A (Schwake

1999:44). This shrine room was later replaced by a staircase, during the last construction 56

phase of the E-group (Schwake 1999:44). During the same time period, three stelae were erected (Schwake 1999:44). Two of these were placed to the side of the staircase, and one along the primary access of the temple. These monuments were later destroyed by the inhabitants of Minanha, most likely during the fall of the royal court in the Terminal

Classic period (Iannone 2005:37; Schwake 1999:44).

Structure 9A appears to represent the western structure in an E-group complex

(MacDougall and Gray 1999:57). This structure is believed to have functioned as a possible observatory for ancient astronomers observing the movements of the sun

(MacDougall and Gray 1999:57). During the 1999 excavations, it was discovered that

Structure 9A-lst was oriented towards Plaza C (MacDougall and Gray 1999:66).

Although the function of this structure within Plaza C is still unclear, two stelae were uncovered at the top of this structure, revealing information on the significance of this building (MacDougall and Gray 1999:66). Stelae have been recovered on the western structures of other lowland Maya sites, such as Caracol (MacDougall and Gray 1999:66).

Therefore, it is believed that the stelae recovered from Structure 9A may have served to imitate the activities taking place at larger centres within the region (MacDougall and

Gray 1999:66). Overall, it remains a mystery whether Structure 9A represented the northern structure of Plaza C, or whether it constituted of the western structure of

Minanha's E-group complex.

The Unfinished Pyramidal Structure: Structure 7A

Structure 7A is a large pyramidal building which measures 11 m in height, and is located in the southern section of Plaza A (Groves et al. 2000:26). Although it was originally assumed that this structure faced Plaza A, the 1999 excavations revealed that in 57

actuality this structure faced Plaza C (Groves et al. 2000:26). For this reason, it is believed that Structure 7A represents an E-group complex in Plaza C (Groves et al.

2000:26). If this is correct, than Structure 7 A indicates a shift in the ceremonial focus of

Minanha, from Plaza A to Plaza C (Groves et al. 2000:26). Structure 7A appears to have been constructed during one major phase in the Late Classic period (Groves et al.

2000:34). Within the northwest corner of this structure a ramp-like feature was discovered, extending from the plaza floor to the first terrace of the platform (Groves et al. 2000:26). This feature has been interpreted as a construction ramp, enabling construction material to be transported to the top of the pyramidal portion of the structure

(Iannone 2005:37). Two different hypotheses have been proposed to explain the significance of this ramp for the construction of Structure 7 A. The first hypothesis suggests that the construction of Structure 7A took place at a later time in Minanha's history (Groves et al. 2000:26, 33). Therefore, a large labour force was required to raise this structure within a relatively short period of time. The second hypothesis suggests that

Structure 7 A was being modified at the time of abandonment, which is the reason that the ramp is still in place (Iannone 2005; Groves et al. 2000:33). Unfortunately, due to severe looting, much of the information regarding the ritual use of Structure 7 A has been lost, preventing a better understanding of the importance of this structure.

The Administrative Range Structure: Structure 12A

This structure measures 6.47 m in height, and is located on the western side of

Plaza A (Seibert 2002:7). This structure was a long, multi-roomed building with a large stairway, and a central passageway which connected Plaza A and Courtyard F (Seibert

2002:7). The central staircase appears to have provided access between the public space 58

of Plaza A, and the private space of Courtyard F (Seibert 2002:26). This staircase contained dual facing benches on its summit, providing a degree of control in terms of the traffic that flowed between the adjacent public and private areas (Seibert 2002:26). The excavations of Structure 12A were conducted between 2000 and 2002. These revealed an extensive construction sequence that took place during the Late Classic period, and consisted of a series of vaulted rooms, with benches on both sides of the building. Based on architectural style and size (approximately 40 m long and 20 m wide), Structure 12A appears to have served as an administrative building used for the gathering of Minanha's ruling elite (Seibert 2002:7).

The Royal Residential Courtyard: Group J

This group is located on the southern edge of Minanha's elite residential complex

(Iannone et al. 2003:23). Group J was excavated between 2001 and 2005, and consists of a Terminal Classic courtyard which contains a single pyramidal structure (3 8J-1st) and five low building platforms that rise about 22 m above Plaza A (Iannone 2003:4; Dell

2009). Beneath this courtyard is a buried royal residential complex. This complex consists of a large (8.50 m high) pyramidal structure (38J-2nd), a formal, vaulted entrance (3 5 J), a throne room (37J-2nd), and a ceremonial platform (39J-2nd; Iannone et al. 2001, 2002,

2003, 2004). These buildings appear to have been constructed during the height of

Minanha in the Late Classic period. However, this group was later abandoned after only about a century of prosperity. Although a second construction phase took place after the infilling of the royal residential complex, these later structures appear to have been made of perishable material and display no signs of vaulting (Iannone 2003). This construction 59

style is indicative of a decrease in labour investiture, which coincides with the end of royal rule at Minanha.

The Servant's Quarters and Kitchens: Group K

This group is located in Minanha's north acropolis, adjacent to Group J (Slim

2003:48). Two structures were found in association with this group. These include

Structure 4 IK and Structure 42K, which were excavated during the 2002 and 2003 field season (Slim 2003:48). Structure 4IK and 42K appear to have been constructed during the Late Classic period, as part of the numerous construction projects in Minanha's royal court (Slim 2003:48). The two structures consist of low building platforms, with small rooms, and perishable superstructures (Slim 2003:49). These two structures were located on the western sides of the plaza, towards the back of Group J (Slim 2003:49). This location is indicative of a conscious effort to conceal these buildings from public view.

Based on these findings, as well as the poor construction style of these structures, it seems likely that Group K function as the residence for the servants and attendants of Minanha's ruling group (Slim 2003:50). This hypothesis is supported further by a domestic artifact assemblage, and an abundance of serving vessels. Although there appears to be an attempt to incorporate Group K's plaza with that of Group J through architectural styles, this integration does not appear to be an important component during the fall of the royal court. This is evident by the fact that no attempt was made to preserve or destroy Group

K, as was done with Group J, during the abandonment of the site by the ruling elite (Slim

2003:55). This factor further serves to demonstrate the difference in status between Group

K and Group J. 60

The Popol Nah (Community House): Group L

Directly behind Group J and Group K is Group L, a courtyard with restricted access. Three different multi-roomed structures comprise this group: Structure 43L,

Structure 44L, and Structure 45L (Paauw 2005:72). These buildings were constructed during the Late Classic period, and are arranged in a U-shape form around the courtyard.

A number of theories have been proposed to explain the function of this group based on architectural style, location, and artifact recovery. This includes the use of this group as a men's ritual house, its use as a boy's premarriage house and training school, as well as its possible use as a community house (Paauw 2007:228). All three of these hypotheses demonstrate the importance of this group as some type of communal space for Minanha's royal court. Excavations of this group also revealed that these structures were abandoned during the collapse of the royal court at Minanha, sometime in the Late Classic/Terminal

Classic period.

The North Acropolis Residential Compound: Group M

This group is located in the northernmost end of the north acropolis at Minanha

(Gonzales and Iannone 2005:25). This group consists of a courtyard, with three low lying building platforms (Structure 46M, 47M and 121M), as well as a large building platform to the west (48M), and a small shrine to the north (49M; Gonzales and Iannone 2005:25).

Based on architectural styles, and artifacts of both "lower class" and "middle class", it appears that Group M was a residential group of upper-lower status, with ties to

Minanha's royal court, possibly through craft specialization (Gonzales and Iannone

2005:45). Analysis of the artifacts date this group to the Late Classic period, although the ceramic assemblage and radiocarbon dates do suggest that the group was first occupied in 61

the Early Classic Period (Gonzales and Iannone 2005:44). There are also some indications that this group continued to function into the Terminal Classic (Gonzales and

Iannone 2005:44). While Structures 46M, 47M, and 48M likely functioned as dwellings,

Structure 49M and 121M appear to have served a different purpose, although this exact function has yet to be determined (Gonzales and Iannone 2005:45). Structure 49M is believed to have served as a shrine room, while Structure 121M possibly functioned as a kitchen for the entire group (Gonzales and Iannone 2005:45).

The Reservoir: Operation 100

During the 1999 field season, Reservoir 1 was excavated in an attempt to understand water sources and management at Minanha (Primrose 2001:107). This reservoir is located on the north acropolis near Group M, and consists of a round

depression which measures about 54 square metres. Based on its location next to the

restricted, elite, north acropolis, Reservoir 1 appears to have functioned as the main water

source for the royal court at Minanha.

The Causeway Terminus Structure: Structure 53

This structure is one of the few buildings at Minanha that has not been impacted

by looters (Zehrt and Iannone 2005:64). This structure consists of a ceremonial shrine

building that is located at the end of Minanha's causeway. This causeway originates near

the middle of the epicentre (around Plaza A) and continues for about 200 m to Structure

53. Structure 53 consists of a small platform with a large shrine structure on top. This

structure had two major periods of construction. The first took place during the Early

Classic period, when Structure 53-2nd was erected (Zehrt and Iannone 2005:69). At the

base of this structure a partial cist burial was uncovered, which may or may not represent 62

a sacrificial victim placed as a dedicatory offering. During the Late Classic period

Structure 53 was enlarged in order to create a 4 m high platform (53-lst), which included a possible stela placed at the front of the structure (Stela 8). Given the location of this shrine platform at the end of the causeway, it is thought that this structure functioned as a locus for a series of ritual processions, which started in Plaza A, traveled along the causeway, and terminated at Structure 53.

SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS IN MINANHA'S

SUPPORTING POPULATION (PHASE II)

The settlement study, or Phase II of the project, was initiated in 2006, and was completed in 2009. This study was conducted in the 1 km square Site Core Survey Zone surrounding Minanha's epicentre (Zone 1), as well as in the 1 km Contreras Valley

Survey Zone (Zone 2), located 1.5 km southeast of the Minanha epicentre (Iannone

2006:16; Figure 14). The various units that were found within these zones were organized into several different types according to the Xunantunich Archaeological Project method of classification (Ashmore et al. 1994; Ehret et al. 1995; Iannone 2006a). This method of classification organizes groups into separate types according to number of structures present, height of structures, and formal arrangement. Once these types were established, a stratified random sample was generated as a means of determining which groups would be excavated (20% in the site core zone, and 15% in the Contreras zone; Iannone

2006a:2). Phase II of the study had three main objectives: 1) to compare the settlement patterns of two settlement zones that are of comparable distance to Minanha's royal 63

complex; 2) to obtain a stratified sample from both of these settlement zones, and proceed

with excavations; and, 3) to investigate the terrace agricultural system that is associated

with one of these ancient settlement areas (Iannone 2006b: 15). This settlement study was

intended to complement and expand on the Phase I investigations, by examining

Minanha's supporting population, and providing a glimpse of the collapse from the

perspective of this group (Iannone 2006a: 1).

Figure 14. Map of the SARP permit area showing the location of Zone 1 and Zone 2 of the study (Iannone 2006a: 11).

Excavations in the Site Core Survey Zone

Excavations in the site core survey zone proved to be invaluable in providing a

great deal of data regarding the daily activities of lower class individuals immediately 64

surrounding the Minanha epicentre. These excavations were conducted during the 2006,

2007, and 2009 field seasons, as part of the 1 km square study area surrounding

Minanha's royal court complex.

Group S is located approximately 350 m southeast of the Minanha epicentre, and is one of the largest non-elite residential platforms in the site core zone (Zehrt 2006:27).

This group was first excavated in 2002, and continued to be excavated from 2006 to

2007. In total, 13 low-lying platforms were uncovered within this group, as well as a pyramidal-shaped eastern structure. This pyramidal structure (77S) is located on the eastern side of the group and is the tallest of the structures here. The function of this structure appears to have been as an ancestor shrine for the interment of ancestors and their veneration, as well as the ritual focus of the group (Zehrt 2006:45). Based on architectural style, size, and the presence of an eastern shrine structure containing numerous burials, Group S appears to be of greater status (Zehrt 2006:27).

Group S experienced two different construction phases during the Middle Classic and Late Classic to Terminal Classic period (Zehrt 2007:70). During the Middle Classic, a raised platform was constructed on the eastern end of the group, alongside the ritually important buildings. The rest of the buildings from this period appear to have consisted of low-lying platforms with perishable supra-structures. In addition, there appears to have been a pathway located between Structure 81S and 82 S which provided an entrance to the group. Besides a few minor retouches on Structures 76S and 78S, no major construction activities took place after the initial construction of this group. It is only when the penultimate courtyard floor was worn down that another major construction phase took place. This event occurred during the Late Classic to Terminal Classic period, a time 65

when all of the structures in Group S were enlarged, and the courtyard was raised to match the height of the Structure 77S building platform. During this time, the courtyard was also re-plastered and additional structures, such as 83 S, were erected with stone foundations and platforms. Overall, Group S appears to have been a well-established group with some form of higher social status. This assumption is demonstrated further by the termination ritual that occurred when Group S was abandoned. This consisted of a feasting ceremony with the remains scattered over various buildings in this group.

Group AC is a Type II, informally arranged residential group, located adjacent to the causeway (Seibert 2007:31). This group does not appear to follow a particular spatial arrangement and, instead, consists of two structures with a small raised platform in the middle (Seibert 2007:31). Structure 126AC was excavated in 2007, while structure

127AC was excavated during the 2009 field season. Ceramic analysis indicates that both structures date to the Late Classic period, and likely served a domestic function

(Longstaffe 2009:51).

Group AQ is a small patio group located approximately 275 m to the northeast of

Minanha's epicentre. This group consists of three small mounds informally arranged around a central patio (Mosher and Seibert 2006:70). During the 2006 excavations it was discovered that the building structures only seemed to border the east side of the patio

(172AQ), as well as the north side (101 AQ) (Mosher and Seibert 2006:70). This patio group also appears to have been supported by an artificial platform, constructed to compensate for the naturally undulating bedrock in this area (Mosher and Seibert

2006:70). The artifact assemblage from this group demonstrates a domestic function. In addition, three separate internments were discovered in the floor below Structure 173AQ 66

and at a juncture between Structure 172AQ. These burials appear to represent small-scale veneration rituals occurring at the household level (Longstaffe 2009:60). This practice also appears to have been taking place in Group U during the Early Classic period. The group was subsequently modified in the Terminal Classic.

Group t/is a patio group located approximately 400 m northeast of Group J in the epicentre. This group consists of four large mounds arranged around a small central mound (Mosher and Seibert 2006:81). Structures 96U, 97U and 99U are all low-lying platforms (

This interpretation is further supported by the absence of domestic remains from this time period. In addition, this group appears to have been repurposed for domestic purposes during the Late Classic period (Longstaffe 2009:61; Mosher and Seibert 2006:81).

Group V is a Type III plazuela group, situated about 100 m to the northeast of

Group J at Minanha (Mosher and Seibert 2006:58). This group consists of three small mounds (<3 m in height) arranged around a central patio (Mosher and Seibert 2006:58).

Structure 103V is located to the west, while 104V is to the north, and 105V, the smallest of the mounds, is to the eastern side (Mosher and Seibert 2006:58). This group was excavated during the 2006 field season, and dates to the Late Classic and Terminal

Classic period. In addition, Group V consists of a significantly large number of ground stone implements, as well as worked faunal material. These remains demonstrate the 67

possibility that the individuals from this group were involved in small-scale craft production (Longstaffe 2009:63).

Group X is a small patio group which is partially enclosed by two structures, and oriented to the north and west of Group U (Seibert 2007:26). This group was excavated during the 2007 field season, and consists of Structure 109X, located on the eastern side of the group, and Structure 110X, a Late Classic building located to the north (Seibert

2007:26, 29). Structure 109X appears to have served as a small ancillary structure. This structure was associated with a single individual burial, dating to Early Postclassic period

(Longstaffe 2009:59).

Structure 134 and Structure 137. Structure 134 is a Type I single mound, located approximately 220 metres north of Structure 53 (Minanha's causeway termini shrine;

Longstaffe 2009:54). Excavated in 2009, Structure 134 is the smallest structure excavated in the Site Core settlement. This structure is located in an area surrounded by bedrock outcrops to its south and to its east. Structure 137 is another Type I single mound located near the bottom of a steep hill, approximately 200 metres northwest of Structure 53

(Minanha's causeway termini shrine; Longstaffe 2009:53). This structure was constructed in an area that is characterized by rough and undulating bedrock outcrops with thin and eroded soils. Although such conditions are not very conducive for agriculture, several terraces were present in the area. Together, Structures 134 and 137 represent the most basic form of ancient Maya architecture (Longstaffe 2009:59). Thus, it is possible that these two structures served as the homes of new members to the region. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the lack of material remains, and the isolated location, suggest 68

that these two structures served as field buildings or storage areas during the Late Classic period (Longstaffe 2009:59).

Summary. In sum, it seems likely that Groups AC, AQ, S, U, V and X functioned as domestic plazuela groups (Mosher and Seibert 2006; Seibert 2007). These structures likely served as the homes of commoner families, as the architectural style consisted of masonry or cobble sub-structural platforms with perishable superstructures (Seibert

2007:33). The artifacts recovered from these structures attest further to a use for domestic purposes. Artifacts consisted primarily of manos, metates, pounding stones, and numerous fragments of chipped stone obsidian blades (Mosher and Seibert 2006:88).

However, some of these groups contained material remains which demonstrate a distinctive function. This includes structures which served a ritual purpose, as well as structures which were used for small-scale craft production. Alternatively, Structures 134 and 137 may have served as storage areas or field-buildings for the inhabitants of this region (Longstaffe 2009; Seibert 2007).

Related Excavations in the Site Core Survey Zone

Group R is located approximately 250 m east of Minanha's epicentre, in a location which has been designated as a "second terrace settlement zone" (Prince and Jamotte

2001:56). This settlement zone is positioned at a lower elevation from the royal court, and surrounds the epicentre in a circular manner (Prince and Jamotte 2001:56). Three distinct structures have been found within Group R. These include: Structure 71R, Structure 92R, and Structure 93R. All three of these structures date to the Late Classic period, and appear to have functioned as a secondary administrative locale for Minanha's ruling elite. This assumption is based on the location of this group near a natural transportation route 69

leading through the subregion (Prince and Jamotte 2001:63). Such a location would have been ideal for a settlement group whose main role was to monitor and regulate the movement of people and goods in and out of Minanha (Prince and Jamotte 2001:63).

Group 7 is located approximately 250 m east of the epicentre, within the second terrace settlement zone. This patio group consists of three structures (115T, 116T, and

117T). While Structures 116T and 117T appear to have served a residential function,

Structure 115T, alternatively, appears to have functioned as a kitchen or storage area

(Peuramaki-Brown 2002:108). Based on architectural styles and artifact assemblage, it seems likely that Group T was inhabited by a lower status family during the Late Classic period (Peuramaki-Brown 2002:97).

Excavations in the Contreras Valley Survey Zone

The Contreras valley is situated approximately one kilometre southeast of

Minanha's epicentre (McCormick 2007:74). Excavations in this region were first conducted in 2003 by Sonja Schwake and continued once again from 2006 to 2009

(McCormick 2007:74). These excavations revealed an area that was densely terraced by its ancient inhabitants (Macrae 2010; Pollock 2006). As of 2008, 98 distinct settlement groups have been mapped within this valley (McCormick 2008:16). Using the

Xunantunich Archaeological Project's classification scheme, these 98 groups were organized into seven different types (McCormick 2008:16). These types are based on number of structures, height of structures, and formal arrangement. Once these types were established, a 15% stratified random sample was generated as a means of determining which groups would be excavated (McCormick 2008:16). The final sample that was

selected for excavation was determined based on accurate reflections of the frequencies of 70

the different settlement types. In total, 15 randomly selected settlement units were excavated during the 2007, 2008 and 2009 field seasons, with the hopes of better understanding Minanha's supporting population (Figure 15).

.J? r19 16 ""•PrS? *5i 3 ?«* *f» 58* *

6f A •

^3 "/ * r< 13 48 ,"' 101 101 ?0 + A+ A 58 ' 101055 ' 1' * ;

; 88 MA £ A A

4- iS • * A 4 A A V»*. at-'" + VSBi •-••i *_ A* f *> • ,--W-5 as> • .23 si "S5;

J_SS *

76 eg • 39 • • n

[SJ f %«? * Clsulhav Contreras Survey Zone: Excavations <\ * T*?-5 + ^s J # Type 4 "" OataSotfcC/5r3?ecKy:'3cDttr SociaA l ATOtiasato^lcalReseareMaefa* n Program > . , ; gssavatisn* L>: sa I.VJ isi) .-.a as ji • Type 2 fc • Type 1

Figure 15. Settlement Units and Excavations, Contreras Valley (Courtesy of Scott

Macrae). 71

The Contreras Valley appears to have been settled as early as the Terminal

Preclassic period (Iannone et. al. 2007:154). During the Late Classic period, settlement in this valley was almost evenly distributed (Iannone et. al. 2007:154). Although there appear to be some differences in settlement patterns, the majority of the settlements are located on the terraced hillsides surrounding the valley (Iannone et. al. 2007:154). The majority of settlements in Contreras consist of Type I (one single isolated mound, less than 2 m high), and Type II (2-4 mounds, less than 2 m high) settlements which were informally arranged into small groups (McCormick 2007:95). The more established groups of Contreras (Type III-formally arranged groups, and MRS4, a large residential courtyard), as well as some solitary structures, were the main occupants of the agriculturally rich region of the valley floor. These larger formal groups may represent the well-established families of this region, while the isolated mounds may be indicative of special function buildings, such as field structures (Iannone et al. 2006, 2007;

McCormick 2007).

MRS2 is Type III settlement group consisting of three orthogonally arranged settlement units (McCormick 2007:83). This group is oriented west-north, and is located on the edge of a ridge about halfway up the Contreras hillside. MRS2-M1 is the largest and easternmost mound of this group, while MRS2-M2 is the northernmost mound, and

MRS2-M3 the southernmost structure (McCormick 2007:85). Due to the difficulties of finding any real alignment in the compact limestone stones of MRS2-M3, it was suggested that the stones for this structure were removed and reused for the construction of the other structures within this group. All three of these structures consisted of one single construction phase. 72

MRS4 is one of the most significant groups within the Contreras valley. This well established group is located in the north central section of the Contreras valley, near an active spring (Iannone et al. 2007:156). Altogether there are seven different structures located within this group. In 2003, Schwake excavated the eastern ancestor shrine structure (MRS4-M3; Schwake 2003:73). The presence of this structure demonstrates the importance of this group, as it is usually those groups with a greater status that are able to construct and maintain such a ritually important structure. In addition to this structure,

Schwake also uncovered a slate capstone in Burial MRS4-M3-B/1 (Schwake 2003:75).

The presence of slate within the Contreras valley, and more particularly this group, provides a linkage between the inhabitants of this group and the residents of Minanha, who were known for their use of slate (Iannone et al. 2007:156).

MRS 11 is a Type I settlement group consisting of a single mound (McCormick

2008:18). Excavated in 2008, this small structure is oriented east-north, facing towards

Minanha. MRS11-M1 consisted of a single construction phase. This structure likely served a domestic function and dates to the Late Classic period.

MRS 15 is a Type V settlement group located in the north of the Contreras valley, on a hillside which overlooks the valley (McCormick et al. 2009:15). This group is oriented towards MRS4, one of the largest groups within the valley. In total, MRS 15 consists of six mounds, divided into two orthogonally arranged patio groups, each of which contain a large eastern structure and two smaller north and south structures.

MRS15-M1 reresents the northernmost mound on the eastern terrace platform, while

MRS15-M2 represents the eastern structure, and MRS15-M3 the southernmost structure

(McCormick et al. 2009:26). Alternatively, MRS15-M4 represents the northernmost 73

mound on the western terrace platform, while MRS15-M5 represents the eastern structure, and MRS15-M6 the southernmost structure (McCormick et al. 2009:29). The two patio groups are divided by a small terrace, which dates to the Terminal Preclassic period. However, the structures within the two patio groups date to the Late and Terminal

Classic period.

MRS22 is a Type III settlement group consisting of two orthogonally arranged mounds (McCormick 2008:28). This group is located on a hilltop, and is oriented north- south. Structure MRS22-M1 is the northern mound of this group, and faces north.

MRS22-M2, alternatively, is the southernmost mound also facing north. Both of these structures were excavated during the 2008 field season and consisted of two construction phases. However, ceramic analysis has yet to be performed for chronological assessment.

MRS36 is a Type I settlement group, consisting of one small mound (McCormick

2008:20). This group is located in the southernmost region of Contreras, on top of a large bedrock outcrop, and surrounded by terraces. MRS36-M1 is oriented north, facing towards Minanha. The 2008 excavations revealed that this structure consisted of only one construction phase. This structure served a domestic function, although ceramic analyses have yet to be performed for chronological assessment.

MRS43 is a Type I settlement group which consists of one solitary structure

(McCormick 2007:80). Unlike groups MRS57 and MRS61, the alignment of stones used for the construction of MRS43 were well defined. This structure also consisted of large amounts of artifacts, which suggest a domestic function. The 2007 excavations revealed only one construction phase for this group. 74

MRS57 is a Type I settlement group which consists of a single solitary structure

(McCormick 2007:77). During the 2007 excavations it became difficult to determine whether this mound was actually a structure. This debate stemmed from the fact that there were no indications of an alignment of stones for this structure. After close analysis it was determined that MRS57 was, indeed, a structure located between two terraces. This structure consisted of only one construction phase and appears to have served a domestic function.

MRS61 is a Type I settlement group which consists of a single solitary structure

(McCormick 2007:79). This is located approximately 100 metres southeast of MRS57, and was excavated during the 2007 field season. The structure consists of compact limestone stones which were roughly aligned. Like MRS57, this structure consisted of a single construction phase, dating to the Late Classic period. Few artifacts were recovered from this structure.

MRS63 is a Type III settlement group, consisting of four structures (McCormick et al. 2009:38). This group is located only a few metres away from the northern extent of the Contreras Survey Area. The four structures are positioned in a formal arrangement, facing one another. These structures include MRS63-M1 (the northernmost mound),

MRS63-M2 (the easternmost mound), MRS63-M3 (the southernmost mound), and

MRS64-M4 (the westernmost mound). Preliminary ceramic analyses indicate that all four of these mounds date to the Terminal Classic period, and served a domestic function.

MRS78 is a Type II settlement group which consists of two mounds (McCormick

2008:17). This informally arranged group is surrounded by terraces, and is located in an elevated region at the base of the hill. The group is oriented west-north, facing away from 75

Minanha. The two structures that comprise this group include MRS78-M1, which is the southernmost mound, and MRS78-M2, the northernmost mound. Both structures were excavated during the 2008 field season, at which time it was determined that MRS78-M1 consisted of a single construction phase, while MRS78-M2 was composed of two distinct construction phases. Ceramic analysis has yet to be performed for these two domestic structures.

MRS85 is a Type III settlement group consisting of two structures (McCormick

2008:24). This group is located in the southernmost region of the Contreras valley, on a hillside near its summit, and facing Minanha. MRS85-M1 represents the southernmost mound of this group, while MRS85-M2 represents the westernmost mound. During the

2008 excavations it was determined that both of these structures consisted of a single construction phase. While ceramic analyses have yet to be performed for MRS85-M1, ceramic analysis from MRS85-M2 indicates that this structure dates to the Late Classic period.

MRS86 is a Type I settlement group consisting of a single, small structure

(MRS86-M1; McCormick et al. 2009:36). This group is located in the south-western region of Contreras, in one of the highest elevated areas. MRS86-M1 is oriented north, towards Minanha. This domestic structure consists of a single construction phase, as was evident during the 2009 excavations. Preliminary ceramic analyses date this structure to the Late to Terminal Classic period.

MRS89 is a Type III settlement group which consists of four orthogonally arranged settlement units (McCormick 2007:89). This group is oriented towards Minanha, on the western ridgeline of the hill in Contreras. This group is also one of the most 76

elevated groups in the valley and appears to be associated with MRS 17, another Type III group that is oriented towards Minanha. MRS89-M1 represents the southernmost mound in this group (McCormick 2007:89). This small structure consists of a bench, room floor, and building platform. Two features were discovered within this structure, one on top of the room floor, and the other on top of the bedrock. MRS89-M2 is the southernmost structure of MRS89, and is perpendicular to MRS89-M1 (McCormick 2007:93). Within this structure there appears to have been an "alleyway", which was shared with Structure

MRS89-M3. It is possible that this alleyway served to overlook the valley, or as a means for tossing refuse down the hill. MRS89-M3 is the north-easternmost mound of this group, while MRS89-M4 is the westernmost mound (McCormick 2008). This group was excavated between 2007 and 2008 and served a domestic function.

MRS96 is a Type II settlement group located about halway up a hillside on the eastern side of the Contreras Valley (McCormick et al. 2009:34). This group is comprised of two structures MRS96-M1 which represents the easternmost structure of this group, and MRS96-M2 which is the westernmost mound.The two settlement units face each other east-west, looking away from Minanha. Preliminary ceramic analyses indicate that

MRS96-M1 was occupied during the Terminal Preclassic into the Early Classic and

Middle Classic period. MRS96-M2 has not been dated, but appears to consist of two construction phases, while MRS96-M1 comprised only one construction phase.

Summary. The excavations at Contreras have revealed a significant amount of information regarding the role of Minanha's supporting population. The majority of structures in this area date to the Late Classic/Terminal Classic period, and demonstrate only one phase of construction. These structures consist primarily of masonry building 77

platforms made of uncut, compact, limestone blocks with perishable super-structures

(McCormick 2007:96). Such construction materials are typically indicative of a "lower class group". This assumption is supported further by the numerous domestic artifacts found in most structures, indicating their function as dwellings for the common agricultural workers of the Contreras Valley (McCormick 2007:96).

SUMMARY

Detailed analyses of the artifacts recovered from Minanha, as well as studies on the construction and function of architectural buildings, demonstrate that this region was occupied from the Terminal Preclassic (perhaps even before) to the Early Postclassic period. Given that Minanha is the only centre that has been investigated within the North

Vaca Plateau, research at this site significantly contributes to studies on lowland Maya socio-political and socio-economic organization for this region. In addition, the relatively short florescence of Minanha's royal court provides the opportunity to explore the various natural and cultural factors that led to the simultaneous collapse of numerous Maya centres during the 8th century. The long-term investigations by the SARP team have provided a great deal of information about the relationships that existed between individuals from different social backgrounds during the occupation of this region. The information available from the Phase I and Phase II investigations provide an ideal dataset for analysis on the significance of the Pachychilus species for the ancient Maya.

The following chapter will provide a detailed description of the methodology that has been adopted for this study. 78

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

This chapter provides a detailed account of the methodology that I employed in the analysis of the Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha. The chapter has been divided into five different sections which reflect the continuum of transformational processes that could have affected the assemblage before and after it entered the archaeological record. I also include a discussion of the different biases that could have modified or transformed the sample. This discussion is necessary in order to evaluate the integrity of the assemblage, and the agents of deposition.

INTRODUCTION

One of the first steps required for undertaking an archaeological study is to outline clearly the procedure that will be employed by the researcher during analysis. This is a fundamental component of archaeological research, as it provides a detailed account of methods which is both useful for comparative analysis, and to replicate the study. Given that zooarchaeological research is relatively new to Mesoamerican studies, many of the analytical techniques used by this subfield have been borrowed from studies conducted outside of the Maya world (Emery 2004:16). While some setbacks may arise from the adoption of these techniques, it is more important to consider the potential contribution of this research to studies of the ancient Maya. According to Emery (1994), like other subfields in archaeology, zooarchaeologists have managed to convert methods that have been borrowed from the natural sciences, and applied them to their study as a means of 79

overcoming some of the most basic problems encountered during research in tropical environments. As a consequence, it is vital that each zooarchaeological report provide a detailed and comprehensive account of the methods and procedures that have been employed for the recovery and analysis of faunal remains.

The purpose of explaining my methodology is twofold. First, as I have already mentioned, this component is important for the purpose of comparison, and for replication. Secondly, this assessment provides me with the opportunity to review and discuss the different biases that may have affected the assemblage, and subsequent interpretations. While it is important to acknowledge that every archaeological site is unique in its own manner, we must consider at all times the many biases that plague the field of archaeology, regardless of setting. These include: biases with the assemblage

(before and after discard); biases during excavation; biases during analysis; and, biases in our interpretations. Therefore, in addition to providing a detailed description of the analytical procedures used in this study, I will also review the different taphonomic processes that may have affected the Minanha Pachychilus assemblage.

My analysis of the different biases affecting the Pachychilus shell assemblage from Minanha is loosely based on Andrews and Cook's (1985) taphonomic model, which outlines six natural and/or cultural processes which may have affected a particular faunal assemblage. These transformational processes can include: 1) modifications to the living organism; 2) modifications to the assemblage shortly after death (by humans/animals/trampling); 3) modifications to the assemblage after deposition; 4) modifications to the assemblage once it has been fossilized; 5) modifications to the assemblage during excavation and recovery; and, 6) modifications to the assemblage 80

during storage and analysis. Although this model is useful for providing a step-by-step account of the different taphonomical processes at work, the Minanha Pachychilus assemblage does not seem to have been affected by all of these processes and, thus, only those processes which are relevant to this particular assemblage will be discussed.

One final point before I begin my discussion. For the purpose of providing a comparative framework that is both clear and reproducible, I have made every attempt to incorporate terminology which is mutually understood within the zooarchaeology community. In addition, whenever necessary, I will also provide a discussion of the reasoning behind the use of certain terms which may not be as clear or familiar to other researchers.

THE LIFE ASSEMBLAGE

There are various factors which could have affected populations of Pachychilus snails in their natural habitat. This can include changes in the speed of water, due to storms and floods, which ultimately led to damage of the shell from bashing against rocks. In addition, one of the most commonly observed activities associated with the modification of freshwater snails in their natural habitat is due to natural predation by birds and mammals. Carnivore activity modifies the surface of the shell in a number of different ways, as the predator attempts to reach the live snail. Several biological studies of predatory behavior on freshwater gastropods have observed the occasional chewing and gnawing on the spire of snails by carnivores and rodents (Atkins 1966; Biggs 1960).

Such activities should be acknowledged as natural behaviours that could have modified 81

the shell of the Pachychilus snail prior to collection by human populations. In Guatemala and Belize, for example, natural predators such as the Snail Kite, the Limpkin, freshwater crabs, and the Coati are a few of the animals that have been observed trying to get at the live snail of freshwater gastropods (Covich 1983; Nations 2006). In most instances, the

Snail Kite and the Limpkin will use their bills to puncture the surface of the shell in order to reach the snail (Nations 2006:84). One can only speculate that this behaviour is partially accountable for the puncturing observed in the Pachychilus sample from

Minanha and, thus, should be considered as a possible contributor to the transformation of some of these shells.

THE DEATH ASSEMBLAGE

In order to understand the significance of the Pachychilus species to the inhabitants of Minanha, I have to examine the various cultural factors that led to the collection and use of this species. Since I have already established in Chapter 2 that the

Pachychilus sp. was introduced into the site by human agents, the next step is to attempt to understand the various activities which led to the transportation of these snails to

Minanha. The three most conceivable reasons for the introduction of this species to the site are: for dietary purposes; for symbolic reasons; or, as part of the collection of river clays used for the construction of floors (Iannone, personal communication 2008). Each of these collection modes has some implications in terms of which population group (age, size, species) was collected, and how much of it was brought back to the site. In addition, 82

these different collection modes delineate where and how these shells were discarded for final deposition.

THE FOSSILIZED ASSEMBLAGE

Once the Pachychilus shells were discarded in their final place of deposition, several different destructive forces could have modified the sample prior to collection by the archaeologist. As a thick-shell gastropod, the Pachychilus species has a tendency to preserve well in the archaeological record. However, the shell does contain several structurally weak points which easily could be modified by natural forces (Claassen

1998:56). Breakage from natural disturbances include trampling and/or rodent activity, which can significantly fracture or destroy the weakest sections of the shell. These fragile points include the aperture of the shell and the distal end or apex of the shell (Claassen

1998:56). While rodent activity is more likely accountable for the transportation and disturbance of the shells from their original location of discard, this disturbance should still be considered as a possible contributor to the transformation or destruction of a shell.

In addition, those shells which are significantly fragmented are likely the result of trampling after discard, and/or damage during excavation and curation.

EXCAVATION AND RECOVERY

The final processes that can significantly affect Pachychilus remains prior to analysis include excavation and recovery techniques. At times, the research objectives of 83

a project can significantly affect the recovery techniques used to collect a given specimen, as well as mandate the percentage of a sample that will be collected for assemblages exhibiting high frequencies of a given specimen. Fortunately, the research objectives of the SARP project at Minanha were proposed as a means of understanding the entire occupational sequence of this ancient Maya centre and related activities. With this in mind, all Pachychilus shells uncovered from the earliest years of excavations and onwards were considered significant for research at the site and, thus, were brought back to the laboratory for further analysis.

The methods of recovery employed at Minanha are based on horizontal and vertical excavations, which allow for a greater chronological and spatial understanding of all activities related to the site (Iannone 2001:7). Excavation units at Minanha were positioned within the various ceremonial, domestic, administrative, and ritual structures found in the epicentre, site core, and peripheral areas of the centre. In most cases, excavation units were placed in particular areas of a structure, in order to capture specific architectural features such as benches, or stairways. In addition, the location of these units was based on optimal artifact retrieval, as a means of obtaining samples that would be representative of the activities which took place within these structures. For the most part, units of varying sizes were used to expose roughly half of each excavated structure. In the majority of instances, smaller sub-units of various sizes were also utilized in order to expose earlier architectural features, to recover artifacts for chronological assessment, and explore ritual behaviour (Iannone 2008:3-5). In all cases, Vi" mesh screens were used to screen and recover artifacts. These were then separated and categorized in the field, according to raw material (Appendix B). Finally, it is important to note that the different 84

levels of occupation that have been assigned by SARP are based on construction phases and changes in the matrix.

POST-EXCAVATION

After excavation, all recovered Pachychilus shells were transported from the field to the project field laboratory at the Martinez Farm, where they were processed and stored. In the laboratory, the shells were processed by washing them with water to remove all dirt, and toothbrushes and wooden sticks to carefully remove dirt from inside the aperture and around the shell. After initial cleaning, the next step was to count the shells and to make sure that the associated artifact record form was complete, including shell counts. The shells were then stored in bags (ziplocks) based on unit-level collections, and a complete Artifact Card was enclosed containing all of the key contextual data.

The Modern Comparative Sample

The Pachychilus assemblage for this study has been collected from both archaeological deposits and modern populations. The modern sample was collected by the author during the 2008 and 2009 field seasons, and was used for comparative purposes.

Having a modern sample of Pachychilus snails was important for my research, as this provided me with the opportunity to make analytical comparisons. The comparison of zooarchaeological assemblages with living collections of the same species allows us to generate insights into morphological, environmental, and cultural changes which may have influenced the archaeological specimen. At times, this can be a difficult task. Over time, environmental changes could have affected the different animal species inhabiting a 85

particular region, and influence their existence. As I have already mentioned, the

Pachychilus genus is comprised of a large number of species. This variation makes the task of identifying species solely on physical characteristics extremely difficult. To complicate matters even more, there appears to be a lack of information regarding the ecology of this genus, in terms of species available, natural habitats, behavioural practices, and population densities. This gap has created much confusion during the process of identification, and has led to the incorrect naming of different species. As a result, there is always the possibility that some of the specimens recovered from archaeological deposits cannot be correctly assigned to a particular species within the

Pachychilus genus. Luckily, the Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha appears to be quite similar to the modern day populations of this species inhabiting areas closest to the site, thus minimizing errors during the identification process.

Since the region around Minanha is limited in terms of sources of available surface water, my collection of living specimens for comparison was restricted to the creek located in our base camp at the Martinez Farm. This creek is located at a distance of roughly 5.8 km from Minanha (Iannone, personal communication 2009). The sample from the creek was collected from several different locations in and around the creek.

This was performed by walking along the creek and picking up the various shells that were visible to the naked eye. This procedure included a collection of shells from the edge of the creek, away from the water, as well as a sample from the water, in a calm area where the water speed was reduced. Those samples that were recovered from the edge of the creek were collected using a shovel, and a wet screen was used to loosen the compacted soil. In addition, I also collected a second sample of Pachychilus shells from 86

the Macal River, which is the largest body of water closest to Minanha, at a distance of around 4.5 km from the site (Iannone, personal communication 2009). The sample from this location was collected near the edge of the river, from the water, and around the riverbank. This location was much more limiting in terms of availability of areas for collection. This limitation was due to the fact that the speed of water in this river is significantly faster than in the creek at the Martinez farm, making the collection of these shells a dangerous activity. Although a total of 400 Pachychilus shells were collected from the modern populations, only 238 of these shells could be used for analysis. This reduced number was due to a buildup of calcium on the surface of the shell; a modification which was not noticeable until analysis begun. Unfortunately, this build up of calcium meant that many of the shells could not be accurately described or measured.

Due to time limitations, I was unable to continue gathering modern Pachychilus samples from water sources near the site. While this collection could have proven useful in providing a distinct species for comparison, I have the aid of previous archaeological publications for help in this process. Although there is still some debate among researchers in terms of species classification, the majority of scholars agree that the ancient Maya mainly exploited two species of Pachychilus: P. indiorum, and P. glaphyrus (Tigure 5; Emery 1988; Healy 1990; Stanchly 1997). Within the Minanha assemblage there also appears to be a handful of specimens which do not necessarily match the physical description of the aforementioned species. These shells, for the most part, were either severely fragmented or eroded, and morphological features were not recognizable. Since these shells could not be identified with confidence as either P. glaphyrus or P. indiorum, I decided to group them under the category of P. species. This 87

category also includes shells with a combination of features. These features include lengths similar to P. glaphyrus, but instead of calcified thorns around the aperture, linear bands circle the aperture. Based on my observations of modern samples, as well as the physical descriptions provided by previous researchers, I feel quite confident that my classification system was the most appropriate method for classifying the Minanha

Pachychilus assemblage.

The Minanha Pachychilus Assemblage

The Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha consists of a total of 11,141 shells which have been collected since the earliest years of excavation at the site (1999-2009).

As previously mentioned, this assemblage is comprised of shells which have been collected from all levels of occupation within the Minanha epicentre, site core and peripheral areas. The shells from those structures in the site core, peripheral areas, and most of the epicentre, have been quantified and analyzed. However, due to time constraints, I employed a random sampling technique in order to obtain a smaller representative sample for the two epicentre ceremonial structures which exhibited high numbers of Pachychilus shells.

Sampling in archaeology is a difficult task, which can bring many biases to a study. In addition, statistical levels of confidence cannot be standardized for application on a universal scale (Claassen 1998:100). Instead, each individual researcher is left with the task of determining an appropriate level of confidence which will accurately represent the population being sampled. In an attempt to minimize these sampling errors, my goal was to find a statistically significant level of confidence which would provide a representative sample of the Pachychilus population from Structures 2 A, Level 3 (the 88

Ballcourt), and Structure 3 A, Level 6 (Eastern Shrine). Since these two contexts alone comprise a total of 9,837 shells, or roughly 88% of the entire Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha, I employed a random sampling technique to obtain a 20% sample of shells from each of these contexts. The procedure that I used to obtain this sample consists of two steps:

1) The shells were gently mixed within the bags used for storage. This step was

important in order to combine the different sizes of shells, in case the smaller

shells had dropped to the bottom of the bag through time. This step is unlikely

to have significantly damaged the shells, as they are quite tough and cannot be

fractured easily.

2) The second step was to select the shells that would be analyzed. In order to

avoid any personal biases, I had an assistant perform this step. This was done

by carefully reaching into each bag and removing a handful of shells, until

1,100 shells (20%) were removed from Level 6 of Structure 3 A (Eastern

Shrine), and 868 (20%) shells from Level 3 of Structure 2A (Ballcourt).

Once the sample was selected, the next step was to examine each individual shell and record: the species, measurements of the shell, and any additional observations, including taphonomic characteristics, such as burning, puncturing, and other modifications to the shell (this was also done for the entire Minanha assemblage which did not require sampling). In total, 2,253 shells from the epicentre were examined, as well as all of the shells from the site core (442), and Contreras Valley (577). 89

Quantifying the Minanha Pachychilus Assemblage

Quantification of faunal specimens by species, size, and element portion is important for addressing questions related to the intensity of exploitation and the importance of certain species in cultural practices. In terms of the numerical data collected for this study, I focused on recording the following measurements: shell length, shell width, and aperture width (all three measured with calipers; Figure 16, 18).

Determining the element portion of a specimen is a more subjective task, and thus requires further discussion in order to avoid any ambiguities. During my analysis, I adopted three standard anatomical terms to describe the portion of the shell that was present. These include: 1) the proximal end (P), which refers to the proximal end of the shell which consists of the aperture, and at times the first whorl of the shell (Figure 19);

2) the medial section (M), which refers to the mid-section of the shell (Figure 19); and, 3) the distal end (D), which refers to the section furthest from the aperture, which typically consists of the apex of the shell with the oldest and smallest whorls (Figure 19).

Additional terms which I have incorporated into my study include a combination of the aforementioned terms. This can include terms such as proximal/medial (P/M), which typically represents three swirls on the shell, including the aperture, or terms like medial/distal (M/D), which consists of the majority of the shell minus the aperture. The specimens that have been classified as nearly complete (NC) include those shells which consist of the aperture and more than three swirls, minus the apex which was either removed or eroded away. 90

Figure 16. Shell Length and Shell Width.

Figure 17. Spire Lopping.

Figure 18. Aperture.

Proximal end (P)

Medial section (M) Distal end (D)

Figure 19. Proximal, Medial, Distal. 91

Age and Size

For this study, I was unable to record the different age groups present in the assemblage, due to the absence of information regarding the life cycle of the Pachychilus genus. Molluscs continuously grow throughout life; thus, the process of identifying growth patterns within these species cannot be determined by simply observing morphological features (Emery 2004:21). Instead, this process requires greater knowledge from the perspective of a biologist. Moreover, the growth of molluscan species is greatly influenced by environmental factors, such as water temperature, availability of sediments, water flow, and frequency of disturbances (Claassen 1998; Emery 2004). Given the objectives of this study, the limitations in time, and access to modern populations, observations on the patterns of growth of modern Pachychilus simply could not be conducted. Instead, I focused on metric measurements, and not the age of a specimen, for assessment of the changing intensity of exploitation (as seen in changes in shell size on a temporal scale).

Shell Counts

Shell counts for each level within a structure are provided as a NISP (number of identifiable specimens) count. The NISP measuring system counts each shell or fragment as representative of one identifiable unit, and thus provides an estimate of the number of individuals present within a particular deposit (Grayson 1978; Ringrose 1993; White

1953). This measuring technique, like many others, comes with its own inherent problems. The counting method is problematic in that it can overestimate the actual number of individuals present at a site (Emery 2004; Grayson 1978). However, this problem is primarily an issue for highly fragmented assemblages. Given the excellent 92

preservation of the Minanha Pachychilus assemblage, I consider this to be a good measure of quantification. Alternatively, many zooarchaeologists prefer to use the minimum number of individuals (MNI) measurement. This technique measures the least possible number of animals present in an assemblage based on counts of unique skeletal elements (Grayson 1984; Ringrose 1993). This method cannot necessarily be applied to measurements of gastropods, unless one refers to each section of the shell as a separate unit. In addition, this quantification technique is quite strenuous, time consuming, and would not necessarily skew the numbers for individuals present, since studies by Grayson

(1984:51-62) have demonstrated that NISP generally follows a similar pattern as MNI in a linear or curvilinear relationship.

Additional Observations

Additional observations which I felt were important to record during my analysis include natural and/or cultural modifications to the surface of the shell. These modifications can be observed by looking at puncturing on the surface of the shell, or by examining the breakage of the apex, if it has been broken (Figures 20, 21). Cultural modifications can be difficult to distinguish from natural occurrences. Puncturing on the surface of the shell has been documented for modern day Maya communities, as a mechanism for removing the meat prior to cooking (Keller 2008:4-5). However, natural occurrences of puncturing have also been documented as a technique used by Snail Kites

(Rostrhamus sociabilis), and the Limpkin (Aramus guarauna) to reach the snail. Both of these species are predators who are equipped with long bills that can be used to drill a hole in the shell of freshwater snails (Nations 2006:84). Thus, I choose to define

"puncturing" as any breakage on the surface of the shell that is circular in shape. This 93

definition does not necessarily imply that the puncturing was cultural, as it could have occurred through natural disturbances such as trampling, or predatory behaviour.

Figure 20. Shell Puncturing.

Figure 21. Broken Apex.

Breakage at the apex of the shell is also difficult to characterize as either natural

or cultural. Ethnographic research throughout the Maya subarea has demonstrated the

importance of removing the distal tip of the shell for culinary purposes (Healy et al. 1990; 94

Nations 2006; Powis 2004). This procedure, referred to as "spire-lopping", is typically accomplished by using a sharp tool to remove the smallest whorls of the shell, or the medial/distal end of the shell (where the muscle is attached) (Figure 17; Emery, personal communication 2010). As a result, during initial analysis, I refrained from using the term

"spire-lopped" to refer to the absence of the apex, since I feel that this term is closely associated with the practice of removing the tip for dietary purposes alone. During observations of modern Pachychilus populations, I noticed that the spire of the shell can be lost also through natural processes (Figure 34-39). Moreover, while the degree of breakage on the shell is important for issues concerning the dietary importance of this species, the snails could have been cooked without lopping or piercing the shell (Emery, personal communication 2010). Thus, I opted to record the exact portion which was missing from the end of the shell, without any further assumptions as to how this section was removed. Final interpretations of cultural and natural modifications will be discussed in the results chapter of this thesis.

SUMMARY

Many challenges arise during the analysis of archaeological remains. As is clear from the discussion above, it is not only important to consider the biases introduced by the researcher following initial recovery, but also those which were introduced before and shortly after initial discard. Before one can begin to examine an archaeological assemblage, it is important to recognize the taphonomic history of the site under investigation. This step is crucial to our research, as it can guide our understanding of the 95

different processes that may have affected our assemblage before excavation.

Taphonomic processes can severelly modify or transform an assemblage, resulting in greater difficulties during analysis and interpretations. For this reason, I felt that it was important to explore the different sources of bias which could have affected the

Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha. Moreover, this analytical step was important in order to evaluate the integrity of the assemblage, and to establish a comparative framework. To provide such a framework, I felt that it was essential to include a step-by- step account of the various techniques which I adopted for the analysis of the Pachychilus collection from Minanha. This information was provided for the purpose of creating a reference collection. Such a task can only be accomplished by clearly defining our terminology, subsequently leading us to reduce confusion in the interpretations. The chapter which follows presents a detailed description of the trends that appeared during the analysis of the Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha. 96

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF THE MINANHA

PACHYCHILUS ASSEMBLAGE

This chapter presents a detailed description of the Pachychilus shell assemblage from Minanha. The chapter is divided spatially, temporally, and contextually in order to provide a comprehensive summary of some of the trends that appeared during the analysis of this collection. The chapter begins with a discussion of the modern

Pachychilus assemblage which was collected for the purpose of comparison. This is followed by a summary of the spatial and temporal distribution of the entire assemblage.

This includes an analysis of the assemblage based on species, and context. I also include a section which provides a summary of the artifacts which were found in association with the Pachychilus remains. This section is followed by a detailed analysis of those shells which display signs of human modification. In addition, I also provide a detailed analysis of the fragmentation of the sample, followed by a summary of the average shell measurements. The final section provides a description of additional modifications which were observed on the Pachychilus collection, including puncturing and burning.

THE MODERN PACHYCHILUS SAMPLE

The modern sample of Pachychilus shells was collected in order to understand the morphological, environmental, and cultural changes that may exist between the archaeological specimens and the modern population of this species. Such comparisons enable us to understand how human exploitation may have affected the size and available 97

populations of this particular genus. In addition, this comparison also provides the opportunity to assess the possible location(s) for the collection of these snails, since different species of Pachychilus inhabit different bodies of water.

In order to understand the differences between the modern and the archaeological specimens of Pachychilus, I collected a sample of shells from two distinct bodies of water: the Macal River (located about 4.5 km from Minanha), and the small creek at the

Martinez Farm (a distance of approximately 5.8 km from Minanha). The sample from the

Macal River consists of 138 Pachychilus shells. As stated in Chapter 4, these shells were collected from the edge of the river, inside the water, and from the ground near the edge of the river. The sample from the Martinez farm was collected from two distinct sections of the creek. This includes Sample 1, which was collected from the water, in a calm area where the water speed is reduced, and Sample 2, collected near the edge of the creek, about 2 metres away from the water (these were likely deposited during floods, when the water is known to flow through the creek with significantly greater force). In total, 262

Pachychilus shells were collected from the Martinez Farm creek. However, only 50 shells were analyzed from each of these two locations in the creek (see below).

The majority of the Pachychilus shells collected from the Macal River and the

Martinez Farm creek were covered by a brown-black coating, which is typical of live specimens, and those that have recently died. A smaller proportion of this sample was covered by a white-beige coating, indicating that these snails had been dead for quite some time, and thus the shell lost its brown-black coating. In addition, some of the shells recovered from the Martinez Farm creek were covered by calcite, and thus could not be 98

analyzed. This factor is the main cause for the reduced sample of shells available from the

Martinez creek (100 in total).

Element Portions in Modern Sample

Table 3 displays the various element portions present in the modern sample of

Pachychilus shells. The majority of shells from the Macal River consist of nearly complete specimens (116 in total, about 50 of these were live snails). Most of these shells were either missing the last whorl of the shell or were missing their tip. Only eleven complete shells were found in total from this sample, and only between three and five shells consisted of proximal and medial fragments. Alternatively, Sample 1 from the

Martinez Farm creek (in the water) primarily consisted of complete shells (34 in total), and oniy 10 neany complete shells, and six mediai/distai fragments. Sample 2 from the

Martinez Farm creek (away from the water) appears to be more similar to the Macal

River sample, in that it primarily contained nearly complete shells (35 in total) and 15 complete shells. This similarity was likely caused by the deposition of the Sample 2 shells in a high energy environment, when the creek was flooding.

A " -:.r,4w<*1s;^i3wya**Si^"S'iJ'.': ••V Macal river Proximal 5 3.60% Medial 3 2.18% Medial/Distal 3 2.18% Nearly Complete 116 84.06% Complete 11 7.98% Sample #1 Proximal 0 0% Medial 0 0% : Medial/Distal :,- .6: 12% Nearly Complete 10 20% Complete ."•'; •;••;;'r-34 68% Sample #2 Proximal 0 0% Medial 0 0% Medial/Distal 0 0% Nearly Complete Kf: ::;/:;i:::: "•-• 35 70% Complete 15 30% Table 3. Element Distribution in Modern Sample. 99

Size of Modern Sample

The average length of the Pachychihis shells from the Macal River and the

Martinez Farm creek is presented in Table 4. In this table I included both the average length from complete shells, as well as the average length for nearly complete shells, since these comprise a large portion of the sample. The average length for complete shells is very similar in both the Macal River sample and those from the Martinez Farm creek.

While the average length of the Macal River specimens is 2.7 cm (standard deviation of

0.6), the average length of Sample 2 from the Martinez Farm creek is 2.6 cm (standard deviation of 1.2 cm). This average is slightly lower in Sample 1 from the Martinez creek, with an average of 2.3 cm (standard deviation Of 0.8 cm). For the nearly complete specimens the average is similar between shells from the river and those from Sample 1 from the creek, at an average of 2.8 cm (standard deviation is 0.5 cm and 1 cm respectively). This average increases for the nearly complete shells from Sample 2 (from the Martinez creek) to an average length of 3.4 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm.

In sum, the average length for complete shells from the entire modern assemblage is 2.4 cm, while the average for nearly complete specimens is 3 cm.

Sample #1- G 2.3 ;; 0.8 15

• NC •'•;• 2.8 : ;1\ V T • 35 Sample#2 C 2.6 1.2 34 : NC '• 3.4 M; ID- Table 4. Average Length (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample.

Table 5 shows the similarities in the average width of the Pachychilus shells from the Macal River and the Martinez Farm creek. The average width of the shells from the Macal River is 1.2 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is very similar in both samples from the creek, with only a 1 cm difference, and a standard deviation of

0.3 cm. In sum, the average width of the modern Pachychilus shells is 1.2 cm.

Macal river • ,>! 1.2 0 2. J3fi Sample #1 50 -. . >•-;•.;,! "ft- ,i:'fivi ,.. SO Table 5. Average Width (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample.

The average aperture width of the Pachychilus shells from the modern sample is similar regardless of location (Table 6). The average aperture width of the sample from the Macal River is 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is the same for Sample 2 from the creek, and only changes by 0.1 cm in Sample 1 (the 0.3 cm standard deviation is the same in both cases). As a whole, the average aperture width for the modern sample is 1 cm.

AVERAGE APERTl RE STANDAR ATION WIDTH (CM) DEVIATIO" Macal river 1.1 0.2 .121 Sample #1 0.9 0.3 41 Sample #2 1.1 0.3 ?56 Table 6. Average Aperture Width (cm) of Modern Pachychilus Sample.

THE MINANHA ASSEMBLAGE

General Spatial Patterning. The total number (NTSP) of Pachychilus shells recovered at the ancient Maya centre ofMinanha is 11,141. As discussed in the last chapter, given the limitations in time, this population was sampled in order to generate a reduced number of shells for physical analysis, while still maintaining a representative 101

understanding of the entire collection (i.e., although all of the specimens from most contexts were fully analyzed, the large population from the ballcourt [Structure 2A] and the estern shrine [Structure 3A], were analyzed using a 20% sample). In the end, 3, 272

Pachychilus shells were selected for analysis (see Chapter 4 for description of sampling process). This sample is representative of all structures within the Minanha epicentre, site core, and nearby Contreras Valley (Table 11).

Before I proceed to describe the data, it is important to discuss a minor discrepancy that occurred during the 1999 excavations of Structure 2A in Minanha's ballcourt. During excavations in the ballcourt (Structure 2A), an earlier tamped earth floor was not originally recognized. Instead, this level was thought to be part of the Level 3 floor fill of the ballcourt, and was designated as a floor fill, ceremonial (secondary) context, dating to the early facet of the Late Classic (Seibert 1999:37). The following year, while excavating the adjacent Structure 3 A shrine, Schwake (2000:17) discovered the same tamped earth floor, which she designated Level 6 (Figure 22). Taking into account the differences in surface elevation between the ballcourt and adjacent shrine, it was soon realized that this tamped earth floor corresponded to the unrecognized tamped earth floor in Level 3 of Structure 2A. Both of these floors contained large concentrations of Pachychilus snail shells, as well as some freshwater crab claws, and date to the

Terminal Preclassic period (Figure 23; Schwake 2000:17; Seibert 1999:34). A similar

Terminal Preclassic, tamped earth floor, also containing high concentration of

Pachychilus was discovered in Level 4 of Group MRS4, in the Contreras Valley. Based on this information, Iannone (Principal Investigator) decided to assign a new level designation (Level 4) to the tamped earth floor from Structure 2A, on the basis that this floor was dated to an earlier construction phase associated with the Terminal Preclassic.

This new level does not appear to be associated with the Late Classic, ceremonial

(secondary) level (Level 3) which was constructed directly above (i.e., the actual ballcourt feature). In sum, the dense concentration of Pachychilus shells from Structure

2A (totaling 4,340) has now been recognized as part of a Terminal Preclassic tamped earth floor (Level 4; non-domestic in nature).

m&mm liRIIiil^HwM^w;viifewi-l 1' Pit 'i:\TRE \ 2-V»-\.4A,9\,12\ c 7.V 9,\ r 40.T

K 41K

\I 4fiM.47M,48M, 121M oprRvnoN OPIOO, on or., OPI 12. OPI n \ \ 51

SIll'.CORF. AC I2C\C

AQ 101 AQ, l?2\y. 17.1\0

p 84P

s 75R. 7f.S. 77S. 7«S SOS, 8IS, SIS. 177S

V 9fir.97r.98f.991'

V ion- 104V, lo^v

X 109\ 11 OX

CO\IRFR\S MRS2 MRS2A11

MR84-M1, MRS4-M2 MRS4AH, MRS4-M4. MRS4 MRS 1-M5, MRS4A16, MRS4-M7

MRS15-M1, MRS15AT2. MRSHAH. MRS1*- MRS 15 MS

MRS22 MRS22-MI.MRS22-M2

MRS 11 MRS4VMI

MRSrtl MRV.VM1

MRSRf, MRSK6-M1

MRS89 MRSS9-M1, MRSROAn, MRSS9AI4

Table 7. List of Structures with Pachychilus Remains Based on Site Locus. UniiSA-!

,vvcl 4b

Level 4a (refloating) Feature 3A-F/.S ^

l-eature 3A-F2

restore lA-!-,'3

.--1 !;«mr? 3A-I-/4

'Leva! 6

0 2!) 60 cm

Figure 22. Profile of Units 3 A-l, Showing the Level 6 Tamped Earth Floor (Schwake

2000:17). 104

Figure 23. Profile of Unit 2A-1, showing concentration of Pachychilus shells in tamped earth floor (Level 4); note - the "retaining wall" was determined to be the facing stones for a Level 4 platform during the recent 2010 excavations in the ballcourt (Seibert

2000:34).

Figure 24 documents the distribution of Pachychilus throughout Minanha. From this graph it is clear that the majority of Pachychilus at Minanha were recovered from the epicentre, with a total of 10,122, or about 90% of the entire assemblage (Table 8). The remainder of the assemblage appears to be almost evenly distributed between the site core and Contreras Valley survey zones, with 442 shells or 4% recovered from the Site Core, and 577 or 5% collected from the Contreras Valley (Table 5 and 6).

100.00% 90.80% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 4.00^ S.20% O.O0% Epicentre Site Core Cantreras

• %OFPACHYCt-«LUS

Figure 24. Distribution of Shells at Minanha.

(;|«>U' I STlildl KK ; S1IK11>

A 2A 4342 A 3A : 56§5": A 4A 14 A 9A A 12A ' ' ,";2;; C 7A C 9A

J

K 41K I M 46M 2 M 47M 7 M 48M 1 n 121M 4 :OP'::-r.' OPIOOi; 3 OP OP106 1

: : OP OP112 ;: :":32;>

OP 0P113 3 iN/A 53 ?"/. 6 TOTAL 10,122 Table 8. Total Shells in Epicentre. TOT.U c;uoi i' s'LRi'cn'KK suii.is - Ait}. ••^Mn^:::::W3&ik£t

AQ 101AQ I

AQ 173AQ 2

S 75S I

S 77S 2

S 80$ 1

S 83S 2 U 96V 108 /i 1 'mmm^tmmmimU 98U 5

V 1<53V " $

V 105V 21

x nox I ,TOTAjyjSt •, 4> MSI jr.;: •? jiisfi 442 Table 9. Total Shells in Site Core.

OROCT STUFOTTTRE TOYALSHEUS MRR2 MRS2-MI 1 MRS4 MRS4-M1 183

MRS4 MRS4-M3 52

MRS4 MRS4-M5 "" 59

MRS4 MRS4-M7 - 9

MRS15 MRS15-M2 2

MRS15 MRS15-M5 2

MRS22 MRS22-M2 2 flffiSTf !pSifff ^ fl^iTi!* MRS63 MRS63-M1 2 jR^^^p^^^ri^ii^rf MRS89 MRS89-MI " 1

MRS89 MRS89-M4 - I

Table 10. Total Shells in Contreras. 107

The Pachychilus shells from Minanha reveal one single period of significant use during the span of occupation (Figure 25). The use of Pachychilus snails appears to have been most popular during the Terminal Preclassic period with a total of 10,101 (91% of entire assemblage) shells dating to this time period. During the Early and Middle Classic period, the presence of Pachychilus shells declines, with only 329 (3% of entire assemblage) shells recovered from Early Classic contexts, and virtually no shells during the Middle Classic (Figure 25). This trend continues into the Late Classic, with only 134 shells (1% of entire assemblage) recovered from this time period. The transition from the

Late Classic to the Terminal Classic also sees this decrease in the use of the Pachychilus snail, with only 183 (2% of shells) recovered from this time period. The trend is the same in the Early Postclassic, with only 139 shells (1.3% of entire assemblage) recovered from

Postclassic deposits (Figure 25).

The spatial distribution of the Pachychilus snail at Minanha also varies according to time period. Minanha's epicentre contained the highest percentage of this snail during its peak in use in the Terminal Preclassic period (TPC; Table 11). During the Terminal

Preclassic, only about 2% of Pachychilus were recovered outside of the epicentre (Table

11). Into the Early Classic (EC), there is only a small percentage of shells (3% of entire assemblage) recovered from Minanha, and the majority of these are found in the site core

(300 shells from Structure 96U, or 91% of shells from the Early Classic). In the Late

Classic (LC), there is only about 1% of Pachychilus shells recovered from the entire site, and the majority of these also come from the site core (102 shells, or 76% of shells from this time period). By the end of the Late Classic and into the Early Postclassic (EPC),

Pachychilus shells are relatively rare in the epicentre and site core area (Table 11). A few shells do appear in various contexts in the Contreras Valley, but the numbers are very low, ranging between 118-183 shells (Table 11).

12,000 10,101 10,000 TPC=Teiminal Preclassic EC=Early Classic 8,000 Et/MO Early classic/Middle Classic Mt= Middle Classic MOlC* Middle Classic/late Classic 6,000 LC= Late Classic IC/TC= Late Classk/Termiriai Classic 4,000 TC=Terminal Classic EPC= Early Posidas sic 2,000 329 15 134 133 196 139 29 13 0

*/- * *#* • 4r

I TOTAL PACHYCH1LUS

Figure 25. Temporal Distribution of the Pachychilus Species.

I % OF TOTAL PERIOD EPICENTRE SITE CORE CONTRERAS| ASSEMBLAGE Terminal Preclassic 9,992 0 109 91% Early Classic 6 316 7 2.9% Early Classic/Middle Classic 0 0 0 0%

Middle Classic 0 1 1 ::0.02% Middle Ciassic/Laio Classic A 15 0.10%

Late Classic 28 102 4 '•:•• 1% I,ate Classic/Terminal Classic 0 0 183 1.6% Terminal Classic 56 22 118 ^.7% Early Postclassic o 1 138 1.3% Mixed 29 . 0 0 0.28% N/A 11 o 2 0.10% TOTAL 10yl22 442 577 100% Table 11. Temporal and Spatial Distribution of the Pachychilus Species. 109

DISTRIBUTION BY SPECIES

The majority of Pachychilus shells from Minanha are of the Pachychilus indiroum species (Figure 26). Based on the selected sample, this species makes up about 98% of the assemblage. The remaining 2% of the assemblage is distributed between the

Pachychilus glaphyrus species and unidentified specimens. From this analysis, it is clear that Pachychilus glaphyrus is a rare species at Minanha, with only 10 shells present, or about 0.31% of entire assemblage. These shells were recovered from several different locations at Minanha. Five of these were recovered from the epicentre, in Structures 3 A,

Level 5 and 6, both of which are ceremonial (secondary) contexts. Two shells were found during excavations in OP112, Level 2, a domestic (secondary) context. One shell was recovered from Group C, Structure 9 A, Level 2, ceremonial (secondary). Outside of the epicentre we find four Pachychilus glaphyrus shells. One of these was found in Group S within the site core, in Structure 77S, Level 3 A, a ceremonial (secondary) context. The remaining four Pachychilus glaphyrus shells were recovered from the Contreras Valley.

One shell was found during excavations in Group MRS4 in Structure MRS4-M2, Level 1, a domestic (secondary) context. Two shells came from Group MRS 15, in Structure

MRS15-M3, Level 3 A, domestic (secondary). The last of'the Pachychilus glaphyrus shell was recovered from Group MRS 22, in Structure MRS22-M1, Level 2, a domestic

(secondary) context. TOTAL PACHYCHILUS SPECIES SAMPLED

mTOTAL

10 6 64

P. indiorum P. glaphyrus P. species N/A

Figure 26. Pachychilus Species Present at Minanha.

The few Pachychilus glaphyrus shells that were recovered from Minanha were found in levels dating to various time periods, which represent the entire occupational sequence of the region (Figure 27). Given the small quantities of Pachychilus glaphyrus at Minanha, it does not seem relevant to expand on a discussion of the temporal distribution of this species, as Figure 27 serves as a good indicator of its relative insignificance.

Distribution of Pachychilus glaohyrus by period TPC= Terminal 2.5 Preclassic MC/LC= Middle Classic/Late Classic 2 LC= Late Classic TC= Terminal Classic EPC= Early 1.5 Postclassic

1 mTOTAL

0.5 | 0 TC MC/LC. LC TC. EPC Mixed

Figure 27. Temporal Distribution of Pachychilus glaphyrus. Ill

CONTEXT

The Pachychilus shell collection from Minanha was recovered from several different contexts. These contexts include: 1) habitation debris; 2) construction fill with rubble; 3) construction fill without rubble; 4) floor fill; and, 6) grave. The designation of these contexts was based on the associated artifacts and features. Although the definition of these contexts is self-explanatory, the definition of the term "grave" may need further explanation. The term grave refers to the various types of holes, pits, and excavations which have been created to inter the deceased (Welsh 1988:16). This category is divided according to the type of grave that was prepared (Coe 1959:120). It is important to keep in mind that grave is not the same as a burial. A burial differs from a grave in that it refers to all materials which are associated with an interment (Coe 1959:120).

Within the Minanha shell assemblage there were some cases where the association of the shell deposits with different features was unclear. Thus, the contextual designation of these deposits was based on the matrix or provenience. This second group of context designations include: 1) surface; 2) humus; 3) fall; and, 4) slump. These terms are commonly used throughout the Maya subarea. Therefore, it is not necessary to include definitions (Garber 1986:117-118). In addition, there are also two distinct context types used by Mayanists to further organize the various artifacts that have been recovered.

These include: primary deposits, and secondary deposits. Primary contexts can be defined as deposits that included materials that were discarded in the same area where they were used (Schiffer 1972:160-161). Alternatively, secondary contexts are defined as deposits 112

containing material that were discarded away from the area of use or manufacture

(Schiffer 1972:160-161).

The Pachychilus shells from Minanha were recovered from most levels of occupation and were deposited in various contexts. Table 16 displays the number of shells which were recovered from different contexts at Minanha, including the overall percentage of shells in these contexts. The majority of Pachychilus shells were collected from floor fill deposits. In total, these deposits contained 10,697 shells, or 96% of the entire assemblage. Besides floor fill contexts, the two other contexts that contained a

"relatively" high percentage of Pachychilus remains were the humus levels, with 161 or

1.5% of shells, and the slump levels, with 147 shells, or 1.3% of the entire assemblage

(Table 16). When compared to the total number of shells found in floor fill contexts, the total recovered from humus and slump contexts is quite low. However, these two contexts contain more shells when compared to the remaining contexts (colluvium, construction fill with/without rubble, habitation debris, paleosol, and graves). These contexts contained a nearly equal distribution of Pachychilus, ranging between 2 (0.04% of entire assemblage) and 44 (0.40% of entire assemblage) shells.

Temporal Distribution by Context

Table 13 displays the percentage of shells in different contexts by time period.

These percentages suggest an abundance of Pachychilus snails in floor fill deposits during one particular time period in Minanha's history. During the Terminal Preclasssic, a total of 10,100 shells, or 90.6% of the entire Pachychilus assemblage, were found within floor fill deposits. During the Early Classic period, there is a decrease in the presence of

Pachychilus shells in floor fill deposits, with only about 3% of shells present. This 113

decrease continues through the Middle Classic/Late Classic transition, with only 9 shells

(0.08% of entire assemblage) found in floor fill deposits from this time period. The Late

Classic period exhibits similar numbers, with 14 shells, or 0.12% of the entire sample recovered from floor fill deposits. During the Late Classic and into the Terminal Classic the presence of Pachychilus in floor fill deposits is still very low, with only about 1.2 to

1.9 percent of shells found in these contexts. It is important to note that this decline reflects diminishing amounts of Pachychilus shells in floor fill deposits, not a decline in the significance of the context in terms of deposition. The temporal distribution of

Pachychilus shells in all other contexts is relatively insignificant, since all other contexts appear to have a very limited distribution of shells ranging from anywhere between 0.01 to 0.6 percent through the entire occupational sequence (Table 13).

% FROM % FROM % FROM % OF TOTAL EPICENTRE EPICENTRE SITE CCORC CONTRERAS CONTRERAS ASSEMBLAGE , Colluvium 0.05% 0 0% 0% 0.05% Construction1 0% 2 0-45f&:{ •'":': o%; 0.02% Construction fill with rubble 26 : 0.26% 4 6:90% 14 2.43% 0.40% Construction fill without rubble ;8: :p:o8% :; 3 •wo%; ; 0; 0% 0.10% Floor fill 9997 98.76% 320 72.40% 380 65.86% 96% : ;; Grave -3/ ^b.03%j wi iii 2;49%H ; 6:: 1.04% 0.18% Habitation debris 0.04% 18 0 0% 0.20% 4.07%; Humus •v;';ii 0.10%. 79 71 12.31% 1.45% Humus and slump 0% 0.17% 0,01% o% Looters back dirt ;2 ^02%; : 0% 0 0% 0.02% Paleosol o 0% 0.22% 1 0.17% 0.02% ; Roof spall 26 0.26% 6% 0 0% 0.23% Slump 40 0.40% 0.90% 103 17.85% 1.31% terrace planting 1 surface 0 0% : 0 ••.•; o% 1 0.17% 0.01% TOTAL 10,122 100% 442 100% 577 100% 100% Table 12. Spatial Distribution by Context. 114

Terminal Preclassic Floor fill 10,100 90.60% 99.99% Terrace planting surface 1 0.01% 0.01% Early Classic Floor fill 312 2.80% 94.83% Construction fill with rubble '•TM ••$ 6.&7% 1.82%: Grave n 0.10% 3.35% Early Classic/Middled Classic N/A . '•• .o 0% 0% Middle Classic Floor fill .,,^, 0.02% iob%" Middle Classic/Late :\ Classic.:. ^ Hurrius !!i! 0.01% 6.67% :; Slump r:;'W-& 0.05% :33i33&:: a!; floor® . :,::•;'-;::: '•..., ^:Z:M9- 0.0S% ;/:,;•; em,. IJjafe Classic:;::

: y^Hurhus ". ;y .:;•••';'.: 69 0.60% Sl:49%i: ; '•'1. J^Siump;::. v W^M§:ii 0.02% aV :1^9^:: ^.. ...„, : r Humus arid Slump 0.01% " a75%^ : :: : 0.12% ::1D.45%:; :.S::t-H•;' y^i 61 0.60%. 48.20% :'::::-- iGrave : • yik#KNe:ipS !!!;:;3!6p%!!! Mixed : V; i^oters:ba£k dirt;:'' : 2 0:02%'' 6:90%* ItOofspall. '; •M 0.20% ;89.65%': : : 'iAS^.. .. ••: ::'(jfave: : ,.?.||:T:1 ! :0;01%::i N/A i: : : : : : :'' Hvirnus' ':..-'' J.:-' ;'. ;: k"Mp.:i? .;.:i 6:03% • 23.07%! Colluvium •5' 0.05% 38.46% Habitation debris :;: :3 :0,03%', 23.07% Paleosol i 0.01% 7.70% Grave . o.oi% 7,70% TOTAL 11,141 100% Table 13. Temporal Distribution by Context. 115

ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS

The artifacts associated with Pachychilus deposits consist of a large variety of objects, ranging from complete specimens to fragmented pieces (Table 14; Appendix B).

The majority of these objects are utilitarian in nature, and include items such as: manos, metates, obsidian blades, and projectile points. There are also several pieces which would not necessarily be categorized as utilitarian, but are still found in domestic contexts.

These include objects such as quartz, raw slate, and hematite pieces. To a lesser extent we also find Oliva shell tinklers, speleothems, and spindle whorls associated with

Pachychilus shells from domestic (secondary) contexts. In addition, some ceremonial and burial contexts with Pachychilus remains also contained less common objects, such as jade beads, ceramic vessels, shell adornos, and hematite mosaic pieces (Appendix B).

Analysis of the temporal distribution of the artifacts associated with Pachychilus remains do not seem to reflect any major trends in terms of quality or quantity of objects deposited. For the most part, it appears that the types of objects that were deposited were very much the same from the earliest period of occupation (Terminal Preclassic) to the last (Early Postclassic). The few exceptions include a handful of deposits which contained relatively higher amount of the aforementioned objects (i.e., quartz, slate, hematite, spindle whorls, shell adornos, jade) in association with Pachychilus remains.

Table 15 provides a description of those objects that were found associated with the Pachychilus remains from the various tamped earth floors dating to the Terminal

Preclassic. As previously mentioned, these floor fill deposits contained the majority of

Pachychilus remains at Minanha. As evidenced by Table 15, very few artifacts were found in association with the Pachychilus remains from these contexts. In Structure 2A

(ballcourt), only one freshwater crab claw was found in association with the Pachychilus remains. This pattern is also observed in Structure 3 A, where one pair of freshwater crab claws was also recovered. However, this level also contained a small handful of artifacts, including one mano fragment, one quartz crystal, and one worked potsherd. The tamped earth floors from the Contreras Valley also exhibit a similar pattern in terms of artifacts found with the Pachychilus remains (Table 15). In addition to 57 Pachychilus shells, the floor fill contexts from Structure MRS4-M2 only contained bulk ceramics and lithics. The floor fill context from Structure MRS4-M3 did not contain any other type of artifact besides 15 Pachychilus shells. Finally, the tamped earth floor from Structure MRS4-M5 contained a few more artifacts than the other tamped earth floors from Minanha.

However, this deposit of artifacts is still relatively limited, consisting of bulk ceramics, lithics, and fauna (36 Pachychilus shells found mixed in the matrix), as well as one raw piece of slate, one chipped stone blade, and one quartz crystal.

From Appendix B it is also evident that there were two isolated cases with contexts that appear to contain only Pachychilus shells. Both of these contexts were located in Structure MRS4-M3. Level 3a from this structure contained a total of 16 shells dating to the Late Classic/Terminal Classic transition. The second deposit that included only Pachychilus remains was found in Level 4, which I have already discussed. quartz massive, quartz crystal- metate fragments, mano fragments, obsidian blades, worked potsherds raw slate pieces, raw granite obsidian shatter. speleothems, Ceramics, lithics, fragments, grooved spheres, rubbing bifaces, blade ceramic vessels, EPICENTRE faunal stone, jade beads, hematite pieces. fragment. spindle whorls ..; :prpjectii4 points, -.,/ . quartz massive,: .obsidian blades, quartz, crystal, metate fragments, mano fragments; obsidian shatter. worked potsherds raw slate pieces; i raw granite. .: bifaces, blade::: spindle whorls, ."' Ceramics^ Hthics, fragments, grooved spheres, rubbing fragment; chipped worked bone, _:. srracoRE fauna! sstone, jade beads, hematite pieces.: stone flakes, speleothems. projectile points, obsidian blades, obsidian shatter, metate fragments, mano fragments, bifaces, blade quartz crystals, ; Ceramics, lithics, raw slate pieces, raw granite •'=••/•• fragment; chipped quartz massive. •/CONHIERAS '• faunal fragments, pounding stones, scrapers. stone flakes. spindle whorls Table 14. List of Artifacts Found in Association with Pachychilus remains.

2A Floor fill 1 crab claw 1 pair of crab claws, 1 mano fragment, Floor fill 1 quartz crystal. 1 worked potsherd.

MASS*.- Atx»Ji"ft'i.-j :?m«? a;. cityJUL*5. bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, 1 raw slate piece^ 1 chipped stone blade, 1 HRS4 : MRS4-M5 Floor fill J quartz crystal. Table 15. List of Artifacts Found in Association with Pachychilus remains from Tamped Earth Floor Fill Deposits.

MODIFIED SHELLS

The Pachychilus shell assemblage from Minanha primarily consisted of specimens that were collected as part of faunal bulk lots. Once in the lab, a closer inspection of the sample selected for analysis revealed that at least two of the shells from the assemblage were culturally modified, and perhaps a third (Figures 28-34). Figure 29 illustrates the first shell that was found to have been culturally modified. This shell was recovered from Group S, in Structure 75S, Level 4A (Cat. # 27/187-002:5631). This particular shell is of the Pachychilus indiorum species, and was modified using a drill to 118

puncture a hole on the proximal end of the shell, near the aperture. The tip (distal end) of the shell was apparently removed during this process.

The second shell that appears to have been modified for cultural reasons was recovered from the Contreras Valley, in Group MRS 15, Structure MRS15-M5, Level 3C

(Cat. # 27/187-002:7106; Figures 30, 31, 32). Species identification is difficult for this shell specimen due to weathering and fragmentation. At first glance, the modifications on this shell appeared to be due to weathering. Closer observations by Norbert Stanchly

(faunal analyst for SARP) and the author revealed that the modifications consist of a pattern around the surface of the shell. This pattern is made up of small punctations around the entire medial section of the shell to create small, incised "dots". In addition, there are also two grooved lines that surround the entire shell, enclosing the dots. Overall, this worked shell consists of a line-dot-line pattern.

Finally, a third shell from the sample was observed with possible cultural modifications. This shell was recovered from Group S, Structure 80S, Level 1 (Cat. #

27/187-002:5807; Figures 33 and 34). This shell, ofthe Pachychilus indiorum species, appears to have been intentionally punctured near the distal end of the shell. This puncturing consists of two holes that appear to have been strategically placed across from one another, so that one can see through the shell if one were to look into one of the holes from the side (possibly for suspension). The tip (distal end) of the shell was also removed, although it cannot be determined if this was done culturally or naturally.

The two shells that definitely appear to be culturally modified were recovered from floor fill, domestic (secondary) contexts. The third shell that was possibly modified was discovered in the humus layer from a domestic (secondary) context. Given the small 119

percentage of modified Pachychilus shells at Minanha, it is clear that this species was not a common material for artifact production.

The temporal and spatial distribution of the three modified shells is as follows:

The first shell (Figure 29) that was found to have been drilled near the aperture was found in the Minanha site core (Group S), in an Early Classic deposit. The shell that appears to have been intentionally punctured on opposite ends near the tip also came from Group S, and dates to the Terminal Classic (Figures 33, 34). The other modified specimen was collected during excavations in the Contreras Valley, in Group MRS 15, and dates to the

Terminal Classic period (Figures 30, 31, 32). No culturally modified Pachychilus shells were recovered from the Minanha epicentre (Table 16).

TOTAL SHELLS

6,000 H— - • - - _ | •TOTAL SHELLS

2,000 [— — _____ I 2 1 0 L— — —• • —

bulk lot modified undetermined

Figure 28. Artifact Type. Figure 29. Drilled Shell from Group S, Structure 75S, Level 4A (Cat. # 27/187-

002:5631).

I j I*}/ , * - Sb£r j^s, 3,^ * F" 11 f+ipstitiis f ™f^^^w^^^w^ t

Figure 30. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15, Structure MRS15-M5, Level 3C (Cat. # 27/187-002:7106).

*" 4i*

Figure 31. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15, Structure MRS 15-M5, Level 3C (Cat. #27/187-002:7106). Figure 32. Worked Shell from Group MRS 15, Structure MRS15-M5, Level 3C (Cat. # 27/187-002:7106).

Figure 33. Worked Shell from Group S, in Structure 80S, Level 1 (Cat. # 27/187- 002:5807).

Figure 34. Worked Shell from Group S, in Structure 80S, Level 1 (Cat. # 27/187- 002:5807). 122

TOTAL SITE LOCUS I ARTIFACT TYPE SHELLS EPICENTRE .^'lulicjdl 10 1"

modified 0

WiMMMMSM bulk lot 440

undetermined 1 modified 1 ^* ft Wi^'3^0»e?m1ne1'T¥€Pf*' V fl Table 16. Distribution of Artifact Type by Site Locus.

ELEMENT PORTION

The majority of Pachychilus shells from the analyzed sample consist of

proximal/medial fragments (61.6% of analyzed sample; Table 17). The next most

common element portion found in the sample are proximal ends, with a total of 13% of

the entire assemblage. Nearly complete shells make up about 9% of the sample, while

complete shells make up only 8%. In addition, medial fragments represent 3.6% of the

entire sampled assemblage, while the remaining percentage is made up of distal sections

and fragmented pieces (Table 17).

TOTAL % ELEMENT % FROM % FROM SITE % FROM FROM PORTION tppsfwr EPICENTRE CORE CONTRERAS CONTRERAS SAMPLE prox,mal *#\mF$W. Wl&e&PWmWfmtB1 C Proximal/medial 1516 67.29% 234 52.94% 45.75% 61.60% ,x Jibffediai ' ^V!#*t# :''"^;| 264 Medial/distal 9 0.40% « 1.80% 2.43% 0.90% 14 Nearly complete 175 777% 65 14,71% 12.83% 9.60% , f ""compfef^j*-' igS6£ .vfi$'"^$$'^k "' 74 fragment 5 0.22% 5 - 1.13% 1.90% 0.60% , cya • * i** » i < - ^.J V 4/ ,4?, < 11 p^c"P§c:Vr«-;2C TOTAL 22S3 100% 442 .. 100% 100% 100% Table 17. Percentage of Element Portion for Analyzed Sampl $77 e. 123

Element Distribution by Context

Table 18 demonstrates the percentages of different element portions in the sample from various contexts. From this table it is clear that the portions present depend on the context in which they are found at Minanha. As previously noted, floor fill contexts comprise the highest percentage of shells from the sample. In these contexts, over 54% of the shells are proximal/medial fragments, with the majority of these recovered from the epicentre. The next most common portion of the shell found in floor fill deposits is the proximal end with 404 shells, or roughly 12% of the entire sample. Medial sections of the

Pachychilus shell make up just over 3% of the sample from floor fill contexts, while nearly complete shells make up over 6% of the sample, and complete shells 7%.

In humus contexts, the most common portion of the shell present is also the proximal/medial section, with 99 shells or 3% of the entire sample. Within this context, the next most common element is nearly complete shells with just over 1% of the entire sample. In slump contexts, the majority of shells consist of proximal/medial fragments, with 66 shells or 2% of the sample. Within this context, the next most common portion of the shell present is nearly complete fragments, which make up about 1% of the sample.

Very few shells were recovered from other contexts. Given the relative insignificance of those contexts, in terms of the presence of Pachychilus, I do not feel it is necessary to describe the element distribution of those contexts. Instead, the percentage of these elements is presented in Table 18. Colluvium Proximal/Medial (PM) 2 o : 0 2 P.P6% Nearly Complete. (NC) 3 yy pyy o ... 3 P.P9% Construction KM : Proximal y: I.=!!l! I-.! 1 :"y :'.: 2 .'''..y:' y ^t^* : i -Proximal/Medial (PM) A.j , . i y ::'..& L.y-^. 5 ;;' P.J5% :;; ;pediai/Eiistal (MD) . • Shiliy^.V:: Uilyiyfc'^l-iiy:;. •Hlly^Jfey'.:?'. @;.y\y 2 ..-yy ••y2i?lB?4^ 2 ;: ;Nearly Complete Mty : i':, y.'Vl::;R; p £• ' ap6% : : : Floor fill Proximal (P) : 332; ' .'•:::;| ::SB :yi|:;' i: :yy;y.;;i6:- K::.: 404 ...-. . ..:.;•:;•' itifcilSt- j|jp^bx^ffla|*^ial|p{yl)'. 1,465.;, . yi^Syyy^..y;y-..yl52 y •.•',; .1796 ; yy 54.889fr x : v l : : : Meciiai{K ':y|::yy 7:61^: : ::;; Fragment:.;: ;' -5?y ;.{|p^V;;. 6 ; ';"?:C.w yf •;'"•• P.42% N/A : 2 :•" o : y 31 33 196 Gjrave y Proximal (P) o.--. 3y.P 0 3 O.P9% ?.'u.-i;;:!a;.A^u;a'.v'?K; £ 4 c 5 u.ISv'o Medial (.VI) 0 I 0 I 0.03% Nearly Compile (NC) G I 0 i O.P3% Complete (C) 1 2 1 4 0.12% N/A 0 : 0 '•'...'• ;5 :.:':'-5..y'- . . P.15% Habitation debris Proximal (P) 0 .... ^..., 0 .. 3 •'. P,P9% : ; : : :; • ;.• :Hwn^ali**diaii(PM); y. 3;' -'' >?-:::7''' '' :S.y' r:': •=! _ s ::!;•::;: Kyyyiby .::: :' y o.3P% : '•'•'„Nearly Complete (NC) 0 •4 '."ft" 4 P,12% 1 : : : :: : ; Complete (C.) J : 1 yy4 .; :" ; p;i2% '.: ' ' ••y;;:: .'j ;3.jy::;''V ' .yvr-'O-i' : •FragCribnt: 0 •:b 1 P.03% .,' .?•.. ? : H(jrfius :!• Kpximal(P) y :.•:<>:': :••:•• :.';:y.;o\:.;;;:y:y:: yy:::y :y:3;: y-l y:3 " / P.P9*

:H JSp»mat/Medial (PM): •" s Vy. 41,yy" : SQ 99 3:02% : :2j :; :;. Medial(M) . •/• , y ;:;ft:i!:::.:- ::#;.;: :;ai|||y':iJ:: • y\yy3vjyy. :.°-P?^ : ; : 1 H; MedlaiSist^l (foffi)):: ''•• ¥-V ^"Sy^Viyyy '"' ' . :... "•' ''""-3 /••" 0.09% ; : : L "J NeMy:CbmpletS:(:tiC) y; 2: !••••;. /: :J3 'y :::'y ;:.-: .yy-:S:.•;•:•..il :•>£• f* y'; :•:•••,: .1:34%

•;: CompleteCC) ,. : :0.15% ;•$' ;-y .?,-:U..^ •y.:.:::.y^ ?.';;?.-'. ;; .j, i...,^:^,.^,. ;,,.:.,- :: Fragment ::: 1 ^;-.S--. 0^P9% yTfeyy 'yl?.!!;.-' '•••••. ,...:..,.,, :.,^. ,,,...... ± 0 0 i 0.03% : : Humus and slump pP^m^(/Mediat:(PM) ,:;' 'by.' •i'^'y-o'2 yy;;:; . yy-.:'X.;::i. yy yy-•; :'y:.: yiy :y:!.: .. :'": PP3%

:U3oters back dirt • Proximal (P) '' i: • •"•0 ;''.' 0 "''••:' i -.; 0.03% : : : : :: : •; ; :^i|iif>ai/^^iaI(PM) : ;)iy ••!•:!y:' ! : yO:.: ;..••;•:;•;:; r :y ';.:y p:: y yy:i-:"' :: b:03% ;

Paleosol :.. Medial(M) 0 J 0.03% : :'''!•.:! ; -...:.2. ''' 3 .'• 0.P9% \ Proximal/Medial (PM) •'• ' 6 .'••••.,'v.0''.':.y. 6P .66 2.01% Medial (M) S o .3 8 0.24%

.•;•:,!•: x • ;.yy : : WtediaKDistal (MD) : 5 . yi- 7 ..•:'••• 0;2i%: Distat(D) 6 p p 6 . y °i8% : : Nearly Complete (NC) u y ypy:; •'•27 • '::' 38 i.16% Complete:(C ) 5 3 7 15 0.45% Fiagrnent 0 p " .1 •' ••,:• l 0.03% N/A 1 p P 1 0.03% : Terrace planting surface Complete (C ) 0 p ..:i'' .1 ... P.03% TOTAL 2253 442 577 3272 100% Table 18. Percentage of Different Element Portions Based on Context. 125

Temporal Distribution of Elements

Table 19 asseses the level of completeness of the Pachychilus shell by time period. During the Terminal Preclassic, 46% of the sample (1505 shells from the analyzed sample) consists of proximal and medial fragments. This percentage represents the majority of shells from this time period. The rest of the sample from the Terminal

Preclassic consists of 344 proximal fragments (10.51% of sample), 149 (4.6% of sample) nearly complete shells, and 110 (3.4%) complete specimens (Table 19). In the Early

Classic, the majority of the assemblage consists of proximal/medial fragments, which make up 5.7% of the entire sample. The rest of the shells from this time period make up a small percentage of the entire sample and consist of proximal fragments (59 shells or

1.8% of the sample), nearly complete shells (26 shells or 0.8% of sample), and 42 complete shells (1.3% of sample). In the Middle Classic, and during the Middle

Classic/Late Classic transition, the amount of Pachychilus shells is limited, thus the percentage of elements present from this time period totals only 0.53% of the entire assemblage. The low percentage from this time period is distributed between various elements, such as proximal/medial fragments (0.2% of sample), nearly complete shells

(0.1%) of sample), and complete shells (0.21% of sample). In terms of the Late Classic, there are 62 shells, or about 1.9% of the entire sample that are proximal/medial fragments. The next most common element during this time period is nearly complete shells, which make up 1.2% of the sample. The remaining number of shells from this time period equal less than 1% of the analyzed sample, and consist of various elements which are demonstrated in Table 19. During the Late Classic/Terminal Classic transition the majority of shells are made up of proximal/medial fragments (3.5% of sample). This 126

percentage is different in the Terminal Classic, where the percentage of proximal/medial

fragments decreases to about 20 shells (0.60% of sample). In the Terminal Classic we

also find 103 complete shells (3.15% of sample), a percentage very similar to that of the

Terminal Preclassic. Lastly, during the Early Postclassic the number of Pachychillis is

significantly reduced, consisting primarily of proximal/medial fragments (2.8%).

:K; l w ; r * - J||:S| ^-- :il-- JT^" lie fe»»i Terhitnal Preclassic (P) 12 344 10.51% (pvn : '.:"\"-.-.-y-"4t \ ••• 1J05 - ;.. ::'45.99% •ygy : .•93 ." :\y zs4%: CM) -;- rW. \' y ..16' r'--S"Wv. ::: : •y.y •••': : i: : : : : (MD) : -3 -no; :2 ;;!!: -;S::;v:i::.'--^-:' : ^::.;-';';;:;;:,:'::'.';.;::;:.:-: ;ta2%. :.: • • :: 0.15%, :« 1 .'."' ". i '": -/;;::;;; .0.04%; 7 0.03% : : ; ;. :(NCJ::;: ::: -,•:,-,: My :::i »:;:• .;:..;-. .a -.; x^-W:\k® .:••}•*•: ;V:.:::::::.:,:VJ::S:::::F:V6,68% :;.:.::.: .'.•'f•'•<:, AMi% II I ••-,.:, yy-rii&» ...... - .-i- ; JJO ,,,,,, w, ; •:• sHvAGr -i yyyyy&m:: .'•::'r::. =•:'•: -?:-:: 1 :

. - o c^-i* . ;.j© : : .:.: Early.Classic:-.::;:;:;; :?::::::M=::;:j::;::- l;j|:i» .:iK|;t:ffiJ-;ftt : s;;;:fts#-i|Mj:::i:;;:!; . myiW.^MffsitxW>^ly : : V::::::(PM):;::::V::::':;:" ; : 187- ••••• ; . :5;7o% ••[•i'.iri.f *;.W y .:'..•"• .\;;T-:^::vi:;:::f;:Q'-; i.;.:::;;:;-;.;8i:i: ;:.:.-t::; =?: :--s:.' yy:\lyitmi'y' "-::•:-:'. 0:30% .; :":.;cMCEci= yy'dMm : •• 0.06% _•.•: .^ ; 7 s::d«?);- : 23::: Af< "is-: ••::'•; ; s:7;9o%-:: :o^d% .(C)- • * 42 12.17% 1.30% : ;••••••:•• 4 ' : •:FRAG:- :: •'..: i:2i%- 0.10% :• 4- Middle Clasm- ;c; !; liKi S.2.*. Middlc Classic/Late Classic (?K) B 6 37.5&yc 0.20% (NC) 1 4 25% 0.10% CO o-- 6 37:50% 0.20% 5'' Late Classic (P) 7 : 5.2o% . 0.21% r :::.:M-51;;-:. •.: *)..:. : : :(PM): ir.-'; ••:v^ * : ' '• -«2;.; -: : • ..,;mS%y . .•:-. .1,89%. • 2 2 . • . •• 1-50% y . •:.. W) : :: : (MD) :[/*•• ::wv: - '« ' ' 2 :: '."".,'.."• '1-50%]:::: '40. : '3o.!o%,

yQtB) -•• ••"36' H i .•,:Hci - :- :;0 . ! :.-/•:: -.6= • 0 ' 0: lix'-'i-;::'.: A5fl%=, V. 0,20% ; FRAG: •; • i n "1" ."tt^Sw"' 0.03% : : :: : : 7 , > ,'N/A" ; :'-:-::\;i3:" • rm o 13; . -. ::i:i %. •,v i 0.40% LatePassic/TerniiiihJ ^ : : ,;'.;:.. :fl- : i:Ciasslc. j: J:X':;^:: . y'-'(Ph • . -A. 9-1 : 4 ; -.'.'. •, 2.i« 0.10% 1 ; ; : .3.50% ;,, tCPMj.;: : ••-&•-& : i™:;v62:84% ;; ::. :-;^:kA:fS-: :V; ;.iii:l :;:;-: ns ';" •:• (Mb) :i'v. -0 1 ". ' '• v; 0:55% .: v. ^(Nm?:/: •Xii;:);:;,??;: A"'.:.*:',. ••-^: S-5A :(C> •-..-;. . • s' • ass : :: : : 2-73>6. ; WA ;:-' .:.,;;.''i ' :'P": '•" 29 . 29V ' --.:- 111 1 ; 15,84% - Terminal Classic (p)'. •:• I 1 • - .3. •:. 0.09% ; : (PM) :•: :•:•: •:.;.- 4s:: .20 • : :riip:2<^V; ;:;: • :::::P^0% •CM) '•'. • : i' 9 '"''"""4\i«4" 0.30% ;Ig - : :(MD) '••••:• . •'.:•-. ••*'•• :.-.^ . . *18%i .-• • o;55% (0) v Q:. 3.0o% 0.20% : v ; : : : :y(NC):;:;:;• :: . - B i •v-: 5- •:- -;-JS.-:-:' '•' ":: ::n.86%V-.: - :::,:.::. O 0% ••• y- : : co \ 87 I© 52,55% 3.15% •••' N/A • . '. :.2 i ::-" 1:03% -0.06% ':•'.-. •<>: Early Postclassic'r'. (p) 0 ."•*•• 2.90% 0.10% 93 ;. (PM) •:.. 0 : 93-: 67.39% - 2.80%. (¥) 0 4 2.90% 0:10% (MD).: i 0 V 2 (NC):; 1 20 21 11 s (C). . .:• 0 5 11 1 . FRAG. o 4 2.90% 0.10% : 5 V' N/A' :-':/.•:;. :".•*: :.- 0 •:• $ v: i\ *62% : . : ;:o.2o% Mixed b 2 6,67% 0.06%

(PM) ".'••'•• .18 0 18 .60% . 0.55% • (NC)-: :. • 0 8 26.66% (C) 0 2 6:67% : N/A (PM) 0 8 57.14% -• (NC). 0 3 21.43%

. (C) 0 i 1 7.14% i f li l ; FRAG. 0 '2 2 14.29% 0.06% TOTAL -— 2253 4« 577 2253 -— 100% Table 19. Temporal Distribution of the Various Elements of the Pachychi his 127

SIZE MEASUREMENTS

The average length of the Pachychilus shell from different contexts at Minanha is based on the percentage of the sampled shells that were complete (281 shells or 8.6% of entire sample). At Minanha, the average length for all complete shells from the sampled collection is 2.3 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm. This average varies depending on the different contexts within the site (Table 20). Only those contexts which exhibit a high frequency of Pachychilus remains (i.e., floor fill, humus, and slump) will be described in detail (the average length for contexts with relatively low percentages of

Pachychilus remains are presented in Table 20). In floor fill contexts the average length of complete shells is 2.4 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm. This average varies slightly based on the different sections of the site. While the average length of shells from the epicentre is 2 cm, the average for the Site Core and Contreras Valley is 2.6 cm and 2.7 cm respectively. In humus contexts, the average length of complete shells is 2.8 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm. The average length for humus contexts cannot be determined for the epicentre, but varies slightly, by 0.4 cm, between the Site Core and the

Contreras Valley. In addition, the average length of complete Pachychilus shells from slump contexts is 2.8 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm. This length varies by a few millimetres between the various sections of the site, with the highest length in the epicentre (3.1 cm), then the Site Core (2.8 cm), and finally in Contreras (2.5 cm).

The average shell length from the three zones of the site varies to some extent depending on the context in which these shells were found. The average length for 128

complete shells from floor fill contexts is 2.4 cm. This average is slightly lower than the average length of shells in humus and slump deposits, with a 0.4 cm decrease (Table 20).

mmzm (3f*^^^5 iilliiiiilllii^ MmMmm Colluvium N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A aN/As N/A Construction fill :.'r N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A ;; 'N/A-- Construction fill with rubble 2 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A 2 : 0:2 Construction fill without rubble N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A ;: ::::::iN/A:: Floor fill 2 105 2.6 45 2.7 99 2.4 0.6: : : Grave 1.9 1 1.3 2 2 1 ;i.7'"".'. -: ••: := OS? Habitation debris 2.5 1 3 3 N/A N/A 2.8 1: : Humus N/A N/A 2.6 2 3 3 • •?•?•' :'f -;:;'•: ii;.::0i$ Humus and slump N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Looters back dirt N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A .? ?;: "N/A^ Paleosol N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A " :^ N/A.; Roof spall 2.8 1 N/A N/A N/A N/A :2.8 ; :rv^:N/A: Slump 3.1 5 2.8 3 2.5 7 2.8 0.6 Terrace planting surface N/A N/A N/A N/A 3.2 3.2 N/A Table 20. Mean Length (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Contexts.

Width

The average shell width for the analyzed sample of Pachychilus shells is 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm (Table 21). In floor fill contexts the average width is

1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This width changes very little between the epicentre and the site core, with only a 0.1 cm increase in the width of shells from the Site

Core. Alternatively, the average length of shells from floor fill deposits in the Contreras

Valley is slightly higher, with a 0.3 cm increase from those in the epicentre, and a 0.2 cm increase from those shells in the site core. In humus contexts the average width is 1.3 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average changes slightly between different sections of the site. In the epicentre, the average shell width from humus contexts is 1.4 cm, decreasing by 0.1 cm in the epicentre, and by 0.2 cm in Contreras (Table 21). In 129

slump contexts the average width is 1.3 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is the same for shells from the epicentre, and remains close for shells from

Contreras (1.4 cm), only to decrease by 0.2 cm in the site core.

There do not appear to be any significant differences in the average width of shells from the three major contexts at Minanha (Table 21). The average width for humus and slump deposits is 1.3 cm, only decreasing slightly in floor fill deposits, to 1.1 cm (Table

21).

'.'•<". ~-

v "". *' * ,t'/r-3v :: v 1 . " * Colluvium 1.3 N/A N/A 5 1.3 0.3

Construction fill N/A 1.2 N/A 2 1.2 0.4

Construction fill with rubble 1.1 1.1 0.9 20 1 0.2

1.2 5,3 N/A 13 0.2

h'icorfill 1 1.1 1.3 2,782 1.1 0.2 Grave 1 1.1 1 15 1 0.2

Habitation debris 1.1 1.1 N/A 21 1.1 0.2

Humus 1.4 1.3 1.2 159 1.3 0.2

Humus and slump N/A N/A 1.6 1 1.6 N/A

Looters back dirt 1.2 N/A N/A 2 1.2 0.1

Paleosol N/A 0.9 N/A 1 0.9 N/A

Roof spall 1.1 N/A N/A 24 1.1 0.2

Slump 1.4 1.2 1.4 139 1.3 0.2

Terrace planting surface N/A N/A 1.3 1 1.3 N/A Table 21. Mean Width (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Contexts.

Aperture Width

The average aperture width for the entire sample is 0.9 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.4 cm (Table 22). In floor fill contexts, this average equals 0.9 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.4 cm. The average for this context is nearly identical in all sections of the site, with only a 0.1 cm increase in the Contreras Valley (Table 22). The average aperture width for shells from humus deposits is 1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is very similar in all sections of the site, varying between 1.1 cm in the epicentre, to 0.9 cm in the Site Core, and finally 1 cm in Contreras. In slump deposits the average aperture width is 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is the same in all sections of the site.

In terms of variation in average aperture width between contexts, there do not appear to be any major differences. The average aperture width for floor fill deposits is

0.9 cm. In humus contexts this average increases by 0.1 cm, and in slump contexts by 0.2 cm (Table 22).

Colluvium 0.8 N/A N/A 3 0.8 0.3

Construction fill N/A 0.9 N/A 2 0.9 0.1 Construction fill with rubble 0.8 0.8 N/A 13 0.8 0.1 Construction fill without rubble 0.8 1.1 N/A 6 1 0.2

Floor fill 0.9 0.9 .1 2,465 0.9 0.4

Grave 0.9 0.8 0.7 9 0.8 0.2

U-*k»iH—i+i/Sn Hahric 0.8 1 N/A 19 0.9 0.2

Humus 1.1 0.9 1 129 1 0.2

Humus and slump N/A N/A 1.2 1 1.2 N/A

Looters back dirt 1 N/A N/A 2 1 0.1

Paleosol N/A N/A N/A 0 N/A N/A

Roof spall 08 N/A N/A 12 0.8 0.2

Slump 1.1 1.1 1.1 120 1.1 0.2

Terrace planting surface N/A N/A 1.2 1 1.2 N/A Table 22. Mean Aperture Width (cm) of Pachychilus Shells from Various Contexts. 131

Comparisons of the average measurements of shells from the ancient Minanha assemblage, with modern shells from the Martinez Farm creek and the Macal River, demonstrate a few differences in terms of shell size. Although the average length for the modern sample is 2.4 cm (2.3 cm for Minanha), the standard deviation is 0.9 cm. Such a high standard deviation indicates that the length of shells for modern populations is quite variable, and higher than the average length from Minanha (Table 4). The average width, however, appears to remain the same between the modern sample and the archaeological sample. This average equals 1.2 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.3 cm, for modern

Pachychilus populations (1.1 cm for Minanha with a 0.2 cm standard deviation).

Additionally, the average aperture width for the modern sample is 1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This average is slightly higher than that of the archaeological sample

(0.9 cm for Minanha, with a standard deviation of 0.4 cm), although the standard deviation indicates that the archaeological sample is more variable.

Temporal Variation in Average Size

After close analysis of the various Pachychilus shell measurements from Minanha it is clear that there are some notable differences in the average size from different time periods (Table 23, 24, 25). It is important to remember that the average length was determined by measuring only those shells that were complete, which was a very small portion of the analyzed sample (8.6%). The number of shells used to generate this average is given in Table 23. From this table it appears that the average length of Pachychilus shells during the Terminal Preclassic is 2.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm. This pattern is demonstrated further by the frequency histogram in Appendix E (Appendix E, 1). This graph suggests that the majority of shells measure between 1.9 and 2.2 cm in length. During the Middle Classic the average shell length increases to 3.3 cm, only to decrease slightly to 2.9 cm during the Middle Classic to Late Classic transition, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm (Table 23). By the Late Classic, the average shell length decreased to 2.5 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.8 cm. This average remains the same into the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic, only changing slightly during the Late

Classic/Terminal Classic transition to 3.5 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm (Table

27). Based on the relatively higher percentage of complete shells from the Terminal

Classic, a frequency histogram was generated. This graph demonstrates that the majority of shells measure between 2.5 and 3.3 cm in length during this period of time (Appendix

E,6).

The average width of Pachychilus shells only appears to change between 0.1-0.4 cm over the span of occupation at Minanha (Table 24). During the Terminal Preclassic, the average width is 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This is demonstrated further by the frequency histogram for this time period, with the majority of shells measuring between 1.1 and 1.3 cm in width (Appendix E, 1). This average increases slightly during the Middle Classic period to 1.3 cm (standard deviation of 0.2 cm), returning to an average of 1.2 cm (standard deviation of 0.3 cm) during the Late Classic.

However, it is important to keep in mind that the number of shells used to generate this average is relatively low. During the Late Classic/Terminal Classic transition, this average increases, once again to 1.4 cm (standard deviation of 0.2 cm), but returns to an average of 1.2 cm in the Terminal Classic, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. This pattern is demonstrated further by the frequency histogram for this time period (Appendix 133

E, 5). During the Late Classic Period, the majority of shells measure between 1.1 and 1.4 cm in width. This increase continues during the Late Classic/Terminal Classic transition with the majority of shells measuring between 1.1 and 1.6 cm in length (Appendix E, 5).

The Early Postclassic experiences another increase in average shell width to 1.4 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm.

The average aperture width during the Terminal Preclassic is 0.9 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.4 cm (Table 25). This average remains the same in the Early

Classic, although the standard deviation changes to 0.2 cm. During the Middle Classic the average aperture width increases to 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm, only to decrease again to 0.9 cm in the Late Classic with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm

(Appendix E, 3-4). During the Late Classic/Terminal Classic transition the average aperture width increases to a 1.2 cm, and only decreases by 0.1 cm into the Early

Postclassic (Appendix E, 5-7).

Temporal Variation in the Size of Pachychilus glaphyrus

When compared to the measurements of P. indiorum on a temporal scale, the average measurements for the 10 Pachychilus glaphyrus species in the assemblage vary to some degree (Table 26). However, given the small number of nearly complete and complete P. glaphyrus shells used to generate these averages, the standard deviation could not be determined. During the Terminal Preclassic, the average length of a nearly complete Pachychilus glaphyrus shell is 4.5 cm. This average increases during the Late

Classic period to 5.6 cm, only to decrease during the Terminal Classic period to 3.1 cm

(nearly complete shells). In terms of width, the average off. glaphyrus during the Terminal Preclassic is 1.8 cm. This average increases towards the Late Classic period to 2 cm, only to decrease during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic period by 0.5-0.6 cm (Table 26). The average aperture width for P. glaphyrus during the Terminal

Preclassic is 1.3 cm. This average decreases only slight during the Middle Classic/Late

Classic to 1.1 cm, but increase again during the Late Classic to 1.4 cm. During the

Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic the average aperture width for P.glaphyrus is between 0.9-1 cm (Table 26).

By comparing Tables 23 to 26, it is clear that there are some differences in the average measurements between the two species of Pachychilus present at Minanha.

However, given the small proportion of P. glayphyrus shells present at Minanha (10 shells in total from sample), an accurate comparison of size cannot be generated. Instead

Table 26 has been created to demonstrate the likelihood that there is a significant difference in size between P. indiorum and P. glaphyrus.

AVERAGE STANDARD # OF SHELLS USED FOR PERIOD; LENGTH DEVIATION MEASUREMENTS Terminal Preclassic .,,, .JsfBli.: W&^'i *>&••. H:--k£:^: ?#•••..7 77^9 : : : Farly Classic H-::!^ .: ^: -:M?;.:0;4":: Z:-^^W' M '^-:''42 Eaiiy Classic/Middle Classic f N/A N/A N/A Middle Classic l^::imM^§MtX^v$Mi. WM^::ffMl Middle Classic/Late Classic 2.9 0.2 6 Late Classic 2.5 0.8 6 Late Classic/Terminal Classic 3.5 0.6 5 Terminal Classic 2.7 0.5 103 Early Postclassic 2.6 0.7 5 Mixed 2.7 0.2 2 N/A 2 N/A 1 Table 23. Mean Length (cm) of Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period. 135

STANDARD it OF SHELLS USED FOR Hffii'&g%4 AVERAGE WIDTH DEVIATION MEASUREMENTS Kminul Pn.'i.li-Mi. Early Classic 1 0.2 329 ' YariyaassTc/Middle cfissfe' ^y mMW%W€ W^-¥ U&W& F"1Z ll'^f^' /*/*' Middle Classic 1.3 0.1 = 2 Mi'd^eerassic/Uteclassic%r^^Sti?aCi-CM! t<^!. 'M"'^-13-If ;?:-' •,: &'.» "f

Late Classic 1.2 0.3 = 119

Terminal Classic 1.2 0.2 " 194

Mixed 1.1 0.2 " ; 7 30 Table 24. Mean Width (cm) Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period.

AVERAGE APERTURE STANDARD » OF SHELLS USED FOR WIDTH DEVIATIONS MEASUREMENTS

Early Classic " 0.9 "0.2 ~j, 258

Middle Classic 1.1 0.2 2 : «iecM*7&^s& ^s^^ .\-> w. Late Classic 0.9 0.2 ' -_ 8$ -iLiteqfcc^ermta^^ Terminal Classic - 1 0.2 £ 164 Mixed " " ' 0.8 0.2 J 17

Table 25. Mean Aperture Width (cm) Pachychilus indiorum per Time Period.

AVKR.UiF. AVFRAOF AVKR.WiF. \rF.RTI"Ri: SHELLS raritor>: LFACTTT WIDTH w luxri MEASURED Tmnm.,1 ftcO.**.- 4 5 jIS ' ^ifOT jt n 3 MiddK-CLissic L-iie - Classic >i/A 2 5 1.1 I -Lateciassic i:n -mmPM%^-mtm^mm:-f^:m:^k^K<#B$£f tl;^--i;i4f:?!f,r^ Terminal Classic " 3.1 1.4" " = 1 t .'garly^classCcj \ JI &$$?&'& I '^1 StfMf *' J^!^ WM^&'fcl ^ .Sf ifel!1f Mixed 3.2 W -i 1.1 - 2 Table 26. Average Measurements (cm) for Nearly Complete P. glaphyrus Shells per Time Period. PUNCTURING AND BURNING

Additional observations that were recorded on the Minanha Pachychilus

assemblage include puncturing and burning of the shell. Puncturing is typically done by

using some kind of tool to create a hole on the surface of the shell. This can be done for cultural purposes or as part of natural modifications. At Minanha puncturing occurred on

354 of the shells from the sample (Table 27). This total represents over 10% of the sample; the majority of the shells (87%) do not exhibit signs of puncturing. In order to assess whether puncturing occurred in specific contexts Table 28 and 25 were formulated.

Although Table 28 indicates that a significant proportion of punctured shells came from floor fill deposits (275 shells or 77.7% of total puctured shells), when we compare the frequency of punctured shells in each individual context, there do not appear to be any significant patterns (Table 25). In most contexts, the frequency of punctured shells is between 10 and 20 percent. The only two contexts that exhibit higher frequencies of punctured shells are colluviums and grave contexts. These, however, contained a relatively low number of shells to begin with, thus the high frequency of punctured shells is irrelevant.

Although I initially thought that the Pachychilus shells from Minanha might exhibit signs of burning, after close analysis of the collection it appears that this is not the case. It appears that only a handful of shells showed signs of burning. For the most part the burn marks on the shell were mild, more likely reflecting colour change from natural taphonomic process, rather than from cultural processes.

PUNCTURED EPICENTRE SITE CORE CONTRERAS TOTAL FROM SAMPLE NO 2019 344 486 2,849 : YES: •:--;¥^-.;-r2J9.-- 98 V:,':^:-; .';37 354 N/A 15 0 54 69 TOTAL 2253 442 577 3,272

Table 27. Total Shells in the Sample with Puncturing. 137

! : = '' "•<

Colluvium Y 2 0 0 0.40% 0.06% N 3 0 0 0.60% 0.09% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Construction fill Y 0 0 0 0% 0% N 0 2 0 100% 0.06% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Construction fill w th rubble Y 1 0 0 2.22% 0.03% N 14 4 2 44.45% 0.60% N/A 11 0 13 53.33% 0.73% Construction fill w thout rubbl e Y 1 0 0 9.09% 0.03% N 7 3 0 90.91% 0.30% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Floor fill Y 203 72 17 10.32% 8.92% N 1918 248 329 88.20% 76.25% N/A 7 0 35 1.48% 1.28% Grave Y 2 6 0 40% 0.24% N 1 5 1 35% 0.20% N/A 0 0 5 25% 0.15% Habitation debris Y 1 4 0 22.73% 0.15% N 3 13 0 72.73% 0.48% N/A 0 1 0 4.S4% 0.03% '•tar'.cjs V 2 13 -11 1739% 0.85% N 8 64 so Si.9S% 4.06% N/A 1 0 0 0.62% 0.03% Humus and slump Y 0 0 0 0% 0% N 0 0 1 100% 0.03% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Looters back dirt Y 0 0 0 0% 0% N 2 0 0 100% 0.06% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Paleosol Y 0 0 0 0% 0% N 0 1 0 50% 0.03% N/A 0 0 1 50% 0.03%

•ft ft 1 ->0/ i r ooo/ U. J.Z./U nOCiSpan I *+ V 1J.JU/U N 22 0 0 84.62% 0.67% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% Slump Y 3 1 9 8.97% 0.40% N 36 3 92 90.34% 4% N/A 1 0 0 0.69% 0.03% Terrace plantings jrface Y 0 0 0 0% 0% N 0 0 1 100% 0.03% N/A 0 0 0 0% 0% TOTAL 2253 442 577 100% rable 28. Puncturing by Context for the Analyzed Sample. 138

Colluvium 5 2 40% Construction fill 2 \'C • o 0% Construction fill with rubble 45 1 2.2% Construction fill without rubble 11 1 9.1% Floor fill 2,829 292 10.3% Grave 20 8 40% Habitation debris 22 5 22.7% Humus 161 28 17.4% Humus and slump 1 0 0 Looters back dirt 2 0 0 Paleosol 2 0 0 Roof spall 26 4 15.4% Slump 145 13 8.9% Terrace planting surface 1 0 0 Table 29. Frequency of Puncturing per Context.

SUMMARY

From this analysis, it is clear that the Pachychilus shell assemblage from Minanha was unevenly distributed throughout the site, and over time. These shells are present, to a varying degree, in a variety of contexts within the site's epicentre, site core, and periphery areas. Such deposits indicate that human intervention was responsible for the uneven distribution of these shells. Since larger quantities of shells were deposited in specific contexts (i.e., floor fill), and during specific periods of time (i.e., Terminal Preclassic period). The next chapter will explore some of the possible reasons for the collection and use of these freshwater snails by the inhabitants of Minanha; a practice that took place during the entire occupational span of the site. 139

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION OF THE PACHYCHILUS

REMAINS FROM MINANHA

This chapter presents the results of the analysis of the Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha. The first section provides a brief discussion of Structures 2A and

Structure 3 A. Together, these two structures contained the majority of Pachychilus remains from the site. As a result, the significance of these structures for the Minanha community has a considerable impact on our interpretations of the Pachychilus remains.

Following this summary, I proceed to discuss the tamped earth floors discovered within

Structure 2 A and 3 A. This includes a discussion of the temporal, as well as the contextual, distribution of the Pachychilus remains from these two tamped earth floors.

In addition, I also include a section describing the tamped earth floors found in the

Contreras Valley, as well as a comparison between these floors and those from the epicentre. This is followed by a discussion of the element portion and size of the

Pachychilus remains from Minanha. Here I discuss the various interpretations that can be derived concerning the use of these shells by examining these physical features. The final section of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of the Pachychilus assemblage from the

2010 field season.

The analysis of the 11,141 Pachychilus remains from Minanha demonstrate several patterns which reflect the use of this molluscan species in ancient times. Although individual observations were performed on a reduced sample of 3,272 shells (this includes observations of all of the shells except the large quantities from Structure 2A and 140

3 A, which were reduced to a 20% sample), this percentage still allowed me to answer the specific research questions of this thesis.

STRUCTURE 2A AND 3A

The majority of Pachychilus shells recovered from Minanha were collected from the site's epicentre. Within this area, a total of 10,122 shells, or about 90% of the entire assemblage, were recovered from two major deposits. The first of these was found in

Level 4 of Structure 2 A, and consisted of a total of 4,340 shells. The second concentration of Pachychilus remains was recovered from Level 6 of Structure 3 A, and consisted of

5,497 shells. Overall, the total of shells from these two structures is 9,837 or about 88% of the entire assemblage. The high frequency of shells from these two deposits is reflective of their significance in these two contexts, and requires further discussion.

The concentration of Pachychilus shells recovered from Structure 2A was found beneath a "retaining wall" in what was originally thought to be part of Level 3 (Seibert

1999:38). This layer of shells has now been recognized as being part of a tamped earth floor below Level 3, and has been redesignated as part of Level 4 (see Chapter 5). The deposit of shells appears to have been placed during a single event sometime in the

Terminal Preclassic, before the construction of the ballcourt (Seibert 1999:38).

The large concentration of Pachychilus shells from Structure 3 A was recovered from Level 6. This level, which was encountered at about 160 cm below unit datum, was designated as a floor fill, ceremonial (secondary) context, and consisted of a tamped earth floor (Schwake 2000:19) (Figure 22). The matrix of this dirt floor was made up of about 141

70% dirt, 20% pebbles, and 10% cobbles (Schwake 2000:19). This tamped earth floor appears to be one of the earliest phases of construction in this area, dating to the Terminal

Preclassic.

As previously stated, a recent re-evaluation has indicated that the tamped earth floor in Structure 2A is contemporaneous with the tamped earth floor from Structure 3A.

Both of these floors appear to have been built during the Terminal Preclassic period (100-

250 A.D.), before the emergence of the royal court at Minanha (i.e., the measured depth of these two contexts implies that they are, indeed, part of the same floor). Due to the limited number of excavations in Preclassic structures in Minanha's epicentre, it is difficult to make any assessments about the lifeways of the individuals that occupied the site during this early period (Iannone et al. 2006:118). However, the large deposits of

Pachychilus remains from Structures 2A and 3 A provide us with the opportunity to understand the significance of this particular species during the Terminal Preclassic period.

Temporal Distribution

The Pachychilus collection from Minanha demonstrates one major period of use

(Figure 25). There is a total of 10,101 Pachychilus shells (91% of entire assemblage) dating to the Terminal Preclassic, most of which were recovered from the tamped earth floors associated with Structure 2A and 3 A. The number of shells recovered from other periods of occupation at Minanha is relatively limited. The next most significant period is the Early Classic, with a total of 329 shells, or about 3% of the entire assemblage. During the Late Classic and into the Early Postclassic there is a very limited number of 142

Pachychilus shells present at the site, with each of these deposits representing less than

2% of the entire assemblage (Figure 25).

Contextual Analysis

The large quantities of Pachychilus shells dating to the Terminal Preclassic were recovered from floor fill contexts (Table 12 and 13). In total, these deposits consisted of

10,697 Pachychilus remains, or about 96% of the entire assemblage. No other context at

Minanha contained as many shells as floor fill contexts. The next highest percentage of shells is 1.5% which comes from humus deposits. Since Structure 2A and 3 A contained the majority of shells from these floor fill contexts, the major part of this discussion will focus on understanding these two structures.

The large concentration of Pachychilus shells from Level 4 in Structure 2A, and from Level 6 in Structure 3 A, were collected as part of the floor fill of the tamped earth floors of these structures. Preliminary interpretations by the excavators present two possible theories to explain such large deposits of freshwater snail shells. The first theory suggests that these deposits represent votive caches, placed as offerings during the construction of these structures (Seibert 1999; Schwake 2000). Based on the close association that Pachychilus share with marine shells, these caches were interpreted as symbolic representations of the primordial sea. The second theory that was proposed to explain the large concentration of Pachychilus suggests that these shells represent the remains of a ritual feasting activity that took place in these two locations (Seibert 1999;

Stanchly and Iannone 1997). Both of these theories attach ritual simportance to the

Pachychilus species, and suggest that these "caches" were deposited as part of a ritual ceremony associated with the founding of the Minanha royal court (Iannone et al.

2006:18).

Structure 2 A and Structure 3 A clearly served ritual functions during the Late

Classic. As a result, the majority oiPachychilus remains at Minanha would appear, at first, to have been deposited in ceremonial (secondary) contexts (about 90% of the entire assemblage), and thus, the two theories listed above would serve as reasonable explanations to account for these large deposits. However, in stratigraphic and temporal terms, these tamped earth floors were clearly not associated with the building phases of the Late Classic (Figure 22 and 23). Instead, the tamped earth floors from Level 4 of

Structure 2A and Level 6 of Structure 3A, appear to be non-domestic in origin, and part of the Terminal Preclassic architecture that existed at Minanha before the establishment of the royal court (Iannone, personal communication 2009).

If we assume that the tamped earth floors of Structure 2 A and Structure 3 A were not ritual in nature, then two alternative theories can be formulated to explain the presence oiPachychilus remains in these contexts. The first theory suggests that the ancient Maya were using refuse material as part of the construction fill for building foundations (Healy et al. 1990; Stanchly 2004). This material would have been collected from midden deposits consisting of broken ceramics, lithics, and faunal remains

(including Pachychilus shells), and re-deposited as part of the construction-fill of a structure (Healy et al. 1990; Stanchly 2004). If this indeed was the case, then we would expect to find the remains of broken ceramic and lithic artifacts, as well as faunal remains from consumption activities, mixed in the floor fill contexts of Structure 2A and 3 A.

However, when I examined the artifacts that were recovered from within these two contexts (Table 15), it seemed highly unlikely that these deposits contained refuse material. In Structure 2A, only a single claw from a freshwater crab was found in association with the Pachychilus concentration in the floor fill. Although Structure 3 A contained a handful of artifacts in association with the Pachychilus remains, the amount of artifacts recovered was small, and limited to one mano fragment, one quartz crystal, one worked potsherd, and a pair of freshwater crab claws. Based on the low frequency of artifacts, it seems unlikely that refuse material (which may have included Pachychilus remains from consumption activities) was being used as construction fill.

Alternatively, there is a different interpretation that serves as a more suitable explanation to account for the large concentrations of Pachychilus shells in the floor fill of Structure 2A and 3 A. The Preclassic Maya might have collected the clay from various bodies of water, such as rivers and creeks, and using this material as floor fill for the construction of building platforms and associated patios/courtyards (Iannone, personal communication 2008). This construction practice has been observed in ancient North

American societies by the archaeologist J. P. E Morrison (Morrison 1942:366). Working in the Tennessee River Valley, Morrison (1942) noticed that the introduction of shells to archaeological settings was partly due to the transportation of mud (and all living/dead

organisms associated with this soil) from nearby waters, for use as construction fill for building foundations. Considering that virtually no artifacts were found mixed within the floor fill of the two tamped earth floors of Structure 2 A and 3 A (besides the numerous

Pachychilus remains), this construction practice seems to be a suitable explanation to

account for the large concentration of shells. In addition, the three crab claws that were found in association with the Pachychilus remains further attest to the possibility that river clays were being collected for construction purposes, as no other context at Minanha contained crab claws in association with Pachychilus remains. Careful observations of these claws have determined that they belonged to a freshwater crab. This crab likely inhabited the same water as Pachychilus, and consequently was collected as part of the living/dead organisms associated with the soil used by the ancient Maya.

THE TAMPED EARTH FLOORS FROM THE CONTRERAS VALLEY

As previously mentioned, tamped earth floors were also found in the Contreras

Valley, which, after close examination, appear to be contemporaneous with floors from

Group A in the epicentre. The tamped earth floors at Contreras were found in three separate structures within Group MRS4. This Group appears to have been well established in the Contreras Valley, and consisted of a large, formally arranged, residential courtyard, which contained an eastern ancestor shrine (McCormick, 2007;

2008). The tamped earth floors found within this group appear to demonstrate some similarities with tamped floors from the epicentre, as these also exhibited a low frequency of artifacts in association with the Pachychilus remains (Table 15). In Structure MRS4-

M2, a few bulk ceramics, and lithics, were the only artifacts recovered in addition to the

Pachychilus. Structure MRS4-M3 is somewhat similar, except that the floor fill in this structure only contained Pachychilus remains. The pattern is slightly different for the floor fill context of Structure MRS4-M5. In this structure, bulk ceramics, and lithics, as well as one raw piece of slate, one chipped stone blade, and one quartz crystal was found in association with the Pachychilus remains. Considering the low frequency of artifacts recovered from these floor fill deposits, it is probable that similar construction methods were being employed in the Contreras Valley, as in Group A in the epicentre (i.e., clays from rivers and creeks were used to build hard-packed tamped earth floors). The artifacts recovered from MRS4-M5, in association with the Pachychilus remains, may appear to demonstrate the possibility that perhaps, in some cases, refuse material was also being used for the construction of tamped earth floors. However, these artifacts are still quite limited in number, and do not appear to represent the full extent of a midden deposit.

ELEMENT PORTION

At Minanha, the majority of Pachychilus remains consist of proximal/medial fragments (61.6% of entire sample; Table 17). While some scholars have argued that the absence of the uppermost apex of the shell is indicative of their use by human groups for consumption purposes, comparisons between the archaeological and the modern sample of Pachychilus that I examined appear to suggest otherwise. From the 238 Pachychilus shells that I collected from the Macal River, and the Martinez Farm creek, only 60 (25% of entire sample) of these shells were complete (Table 26). The rest of the shells were either missing the last whorl of the shell or were missing the tip. Although the modern sample is small in size when compared to the archaeological sample from Minanha, it demonstrates that natural process can also alter Pachychilus shells in ways that are nearly identical to the patterns created by cultural activities. Natural forces, such as changes in the speed of water from storms and floods, and rodent activity, can severely damage the shell of Pachychilus snails at structurally weak points, such as the apex. I have personally 147

observed such breakage on the shells of snails that were still alive while I collected my modern sample, as well as in those that were dead. Figures 35-40 represent a sample of some of the shells from the Macal River which contained live snails. If we compare these images with some of the shells from Group A at Minanha (Figures 41-44), the tips of the shells appear to have been removed in a nearly identical manner. My objective here is not to rule out the possibility that some of the shells from Minanha were altered for the purpose of consumption. However, since the majority of the assemblage from Minanha was collected from two specific contexts within the floor fill of the tamped earth floors in

Group A, I feel that it is important to demonstrate that the degree of damage on the shells from Minanha could have just as likely been caused by natural processes, as cultural practices. For this reason, I believe that breakage, or "spire-lopping" is not necessarily always indicative of cultural practices for the purpose of consumption.

Figure 35. Live Pachychilus. Figure 36. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River. 148

Figure 37. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River (some of which were still alive). M^Mmti^M

Figure 38. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River (some of which were still alive).

Figure 39. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River. 149

Figure 40. Broken Pachychilus from the Macal River.

Figure 41. Broken Pachychilus from Figure 42. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha. Minanha.

Figure 43. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha Figure 44. Broken Pachychilus from Minanha

SIZE

Out of the sample of 3,272 Pachychilus snails analyzed from Minanha, a total of

281 of these shells (8.6% of entire sample) consisted of complete specimens. Although this frequency is relatively low, the average length of complete shells could still be estimated. This average was determined to be 2.3 cm with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm

(Figure 45 :b). The standard deviation indicates that the greatest length of a shell could be about 2.9 cm (Figure 45:c), or it can be as low as 1.7 cm (Figure 45:a). Determining the average width and the average aperture width of the Pachychilus remains was an easier task, since most of the shells in the sample produced these measurements, Tn total, the average width of the analyzed sample was 1.1 cm with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm

(Figure 45:b). Based on the standard deviation, the average width can be as high as 1.3 cm (Figure 45:c) or as low as 0.9 cm (Figure 45:a). In addition, the average aperture width for the entire sample is 0.9 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.4 cm.

Out of the 281 complete shells recovered, 249 of these came from floor fill contexts. In these contexts, the average length is 2.4 cm (with a standard deviation of 0.6 cm), therefore only increasing by 0.1 cm when compared to the average of the entire site. 151

In terms of width, the average for floor fill contexts remains the same as the average from the entire site, at 1.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.2 cm. The average aperture width for shells from floor fill contexts also remains unchanged when compared to the average of shells from the entire site.

Assessing the changes in measurements over time is difficult considering the low frequency of complete shells that could be used for measuring length. Since the majority of Pachychilus shells date to the Terminal Preclassic, I used the 110 complete shells from this time period to estimate the average length. This average equaled to 2.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm (Table 27). This pattern is demonstrated by the frequency histogram in Appendix E. This graph demonstrates that the majority of shells from the

Terminal Preclassic measure between 1.9 and 2.2 cm in length. The only other time period which contained a relatively high frequency of complete shells for length measurements was the Terminal Classic (103 complete shells in total). During this time period the average length of Pachychilus is 2.7 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm

(also evident in the frequency histogram [Appendix E]). This average indicates that the length of Pachychilus shells increased by a few millimetres between the Terminal

Preclassic and the Terminal Classic.

Although the average width of Pachychilus shells remains relatively the same over time, there are some periods where this average peaks (Appendix E). While the average width is 1.1 cm (0.2 cm standard deviation) during the Terminal Preclassic, this average increases to 1.4 cm during the Middle Classic/Late Classic transition. The same average continues into the Late Classic/Terminal Classic, as well as into the Early

Postclassic (Table 28, Appendix E). A similar pattern is indicated in changes in the 152

average aperture width over time. While the average aperture width is 0.9 cm (0.4 cm standard deviation) during the Terminal Preclassic, this average increases during the exact same time periods as the average width (Table 25, Appendix E). During these periods the average aperture width increases between 0.2 and 0.3 cm (0.2 cm standard deviation)

(Table 25). The only interpretation which can be deduced from this change in size is that there was a lower degree of exploitation of Pachychilus in later time periods, which resulted in availability oflarger Pachychilus snails. Unfortunately, a larger sample of shells from all other time periods, besides those from the Terminal Preclassic, is necessary before any real conclusions can be made about changes in size over time.

Size as Indicative of Use

Ethnographic studies of contemporary Maya communities have demonstrated that individuals prefer to collect larger Pachychilus shells, since these are assumed to contain a "fattier" snail. This practice has been observed by James Nations (2006:82, 227) while working with the Lacandon Maya of Chiapas, as he noticed that the average size of

Pachychilus collected for consumption was "7 cm long (3-inch)" (Figure 47). This practice was also apparent when examining the images of the Pachychilus glaphyrus shells that were on sale at a market in Guatemala (Figure 6 and 7). These figures attest to the practice of collecting large shells, as the P. glaphyrus species is significantly larger than the P. indiorum species and, thus, would be more suitable for consumption according to modern groups.

Based on these modern analogies, one would assume that the larger the shell, the better it would be for the purpose of consumption. However, careful observations of 153

living Pachychilus populations has led researchers like Kitty Emery to conclude that shell size and snail size do not necessarily correlate (Emery, personal communication 2010).

According to Emery, the shell adapts to external pressures and water chemistry in order to protect the living organism inside. However, the morphology of the snail remains relatively unchanged. In reality, the only part of the organism that changes in size is the intestine, which fluctuates based on the amount of water/excrement held in the body.

Such morphological characteristics have led Emery to conclude that the size of the shell is not an accurate representation of the amount of meat available inside but, instead, is more indicative of the particular habitat of different Pachychilus populations.

This theory appears to hold some truth if we compare the average size of

Pachychilus from the Martinez Farm creek/Macal River, with the average size of shells from Minanha, as well as those observed by Nations. The average length for the modern sample of shells from the Martinez Farm creek/Macal River is 2.4 cm. This is similar to the average length from Minanha (2.3 cm), but with a standard deviation of 0.9 cm

(Figure 46: a, b, c). Such a high standard deviation indicates that the length of shells from this modern population is quite variable, and significantly higher (in length) than the average length from Minanha (Figure 45: a, b, c, Appendix E). However, neither the greatest length from the Minanha sample, nor the greatest length from the Martinez Farm creek/Macal River can compare to the great length (7 cm) achieved by the Pachychilus populations exploited by the Lacandon (Figure 47). On the other hand, I know from personal accounts that the Pachychilus from the Martinez Farm creek and the Macal

River are occasionally collected by modern populations for consumption purposes. This information serves to demonstrate that shells of various sizes are collected for dietary 154

purposes, and that the size of the shell is reflective of the environment in which it was collected. By taking all of this information into account, I feel that it would be misleading to draw any conclusions about the cultural use of this species at Minanha based on measurements of the shell alone.

In addition, general observations of the entire Pachychilus assemblage from

Minanha by the author, and Dr. Gyles Iannone, have raised some questions regarding the large quantities of "really small" shells from the tamped earth floors, and the amount of meat that would have been provided by these shells. Since the majority of the shells from the analyzed sample consist of proximal/medial fragments it is difficult to estimate the average length for the entire assemblage. Using the average length of the complete and nearly complete shells it was determined that the average length of the entire sample is

2.5 cm with a 0.6 cm standard deviation. Compared to the large Pachychilus shells consumed by the Lacandon (7 cm), how much meat could possibly be removed from such a small shell? Given this question, I feel that more information on the morphology of the

Pachychilus genus is required before we can assess whether size differences are indicative of human exploitation (especially for consumption purposes), or simply reflective of environmental differences.

a. b. c.

Figure 45. Mean Length/Width of Pachychilus from Minanha (b) with Standard Deviation (a, c). a.

Figure 46. Mean Length/Width of Pachychilus from Modern Assemblage (b) with Standard Deviation (a, c).

Figure 47. Mean Length of Pachychilus Exploited by the Lacandon Maya.

THE 2010 PACHYCHILUS ASSEMBLAGE

The 2010 field season was officially designated as the year of the jute, as this was the year when the largest sum of Pachychilus shells were recovered from Minanha. For

2010, the goal of SARP was to revisit Minanha's epicentre, in order to investigate 156

Preclassic occupation in this area of the site. The excavations took place in four different areas. This included excavations in Plaza A (Units: AP-1, AP-2), as well as in the Group J staircase, and in the playing alley of the ballcourt (Units: 2A-2, 2A-3). Based on the results of the present study, it came as no surprise, then, that large quantities of

Pachychilus shells (83, 907 or 26.5% of the total of shells from 2010) were recovered during excavations in Late Preclassic and Terminal Preclassic architecture from this area of the site (63,357 or 33.7% if we include the shells from Plaza AP-2 excavations, which dates to the Terminal Preclassic/Early Classic). Table 30 serves to demonstrate, once again, the importance of Pachychilus during the Late and Terminal Preclassic period. The findings from this past field season also demonstrate the possibility that the use of

Pachychilus continued to be popular into the Early Classic period, as is evident from the high frequency of shells from the Group A Plaza (Table 30). Of course, it is important to remember that the dates provided in Table 30 are preliminary in nature. As a result, some of the shells dating to the Early Classic period may in fact belong to the Terminal

Preclassic architecture. Nevertheless, the data from this past field season is in accordance with the results from this present study. The majority of the shells that date from the

Late/Terminal Preclassic, and the Early Classic, were recovered from floor fill contexts

(including tamped earth floors), thus it is likely that these shells were also being incorporated as part of the fill for the construction of platforms (Units AP-1, AP-2, 2A-2, and 2A-3 all contained deposits of Pachychilus as part of the floor fill). Further analysis of the associated artifacts from these levels would help to confirm this interpretation. 157

Late/Terminal Preclassic AP-2 49,907 JS-1 34 Terminal Preclassic Terminal Preclassic/Early Classic AP-2 i3;416 Early Classic 2A-2 68,743 2A-3 35,877 JS-1 61 Early Classic/Middle Classic Middle Classic Middle Classic/Late Classic Late Classic AP-2 954 2A-2 60 2A-3 150 JS-1 173 Late Classic/Terminal Classic 2A-2 2 2A-3 20 Terminal Classic AP-1 630 JS-1 26 Early Postclassic Mixed AP-1 17,167 Table 30. Shell Count per Time Period (2010 Excavations)

SUMMARY

This chapter provided a discussion of the results of the analysis of the Pachychilus

assemblage from Minanha. This included a discussion of the importance of the tamped

earth floors from the epicentre and Contreras Valley for our understanding of the use of

Pachychilus at the site of Minanha. In addition, a preliminary discussion of the

significance ofthe Pachychilus assemblage from this past field season (2010) was also

incorporated into this chapter. Due to time constraints, I was unable to examine the

Pachychilus remains from this past field season in great detail. Therefore, the final

discussion, provided in the next chapter, is based solely on the patterns that appeared

from the Pachychilus assemblage that I was able to examine in detail. CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS

The intent of this zooarchaeological study is to highlight the importance of molluscan species in ancient Maya cultural practices. Specifically, the focus of this analysis is to emphasize the multifunctional role of the Pachychilus freshwater molluscan species. Although large quantities of Pachychilus shells were reported by some of the earliest investigators working in the Maya region, these individuals neglected to record the counts and contexts of these shells, or identify the species present (Longyear 1952;

Thompson 1939). Such inadequate methods of recovery were validated by the belief that these shells were not the result of human activity (Longyear 1952; Thompson 1939). It was not until the 1960s that scholars began to recognize the importance of the

Pachychilus snail as a species that was widely utilized by the ancient Maya (Willey et al.

1965). Although significant, these early accounts focused primarily on the importance of this species as a dietary food source. This view ignored the diverse role of the

Pachychilus species in other areas of ancient Maya society. Thus, an in-depth account of the multifunctional role of this species was deemed necessary for our understanding of ancient Maya socio-cultural practices. Moreover, the analysis of this species contributes to the growing body of data on the importance of molluscan species for the ancient Maya.

In Chapter One of this study eight questions were posed to help guide the focus of this analysis. These questions are addressed below. THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1) From Where and How Did People at Minanha Obtain Jute?

The Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha appears to have been transported to the

site from the Macal River and various creeks located some distance from the centre (ca. 5

km). This interpretation is based on the fact that there are very few sources of groundwater present anywhere near Minanha (i.e., only slow moving springs). To

reiterate, this is one of the reasons that this ancient centre was renamed from "Mucnal

Yok Tunich" (grave upon a stone) to Minanha, or "place without water". The numerous water reservoirs that have been discovered at the site suggest that groundwater was

limited and, thus, alternative methods of water collection had to be adopted. While these

springs or artificial reservoirs would have provided a source of water for the inhabitants

of Minanha, Pachychilus snails could not have thrived in these pools, since this species

needs swiftly flowing water in order to survive. In sum, it appears that the inhabitants of

Minanha would have travelled considerable distances to places like the Macal River,

which in modern times is the largest source of water near Minanha, as well as to several

other creeks, to collect the snails and/or clays from these sources.

2) What Types of Jute Were Obtained?

The majority of Pachychilus remains (98% of sample) that were analyzed were

representative of the Pachychilus indiorum species. While the Pachychilus glaphyrus

species is also represented at Minanha, this variety is rare, with only 10 of these shells

recovered from the total analyzed sample of 3,272 shells. In contrast to P. indiorum, the

distribution of P. glaphyrus does not demonstrate any significant patterns that would 160

indicate differential use of this species through time or space. Instead, the variation in the ratio of these two species is more likely due to environmental differences. Since the

Pachychilus glaphyrus species appears to prefer larger bodies of flowing water, it is likely that the individuals which collected this particular species had access to different sources of water.

3) Is the Presence of Jute Indicative of Their Use as Food?

The large quantities of Pachychilus remains from Minanha do not appear to indicate their use for dietary purposes. This interpretation is based on the fact that the majority of

Pachychilus remains (96% of entire assemblage) were recovered from floor fill contexts.

This large concentration of shells was primarily collected from two particular floor fill contexts in Structure 2A and Structure 3 A (88% of entire assemblage). While some scholars would interpret these large deposits as part of a feasting celebration to commemorate the construction of these buildings, no other remains were recovered in association with these deposits to suggest a feasting ceremony. Feasting activities in the past have been typically recognized by the presence of specific traits which suggest that a feasting celebration took place (Dietler and Hayden 2001:40-41). These traits include: 1) the presence of large quantities of faunal remains, including rare, or exotic species; 2) the presence of bone derived from prime cuts of meat; 3) indication of burning or charring on the bones from cooking practices; and, 4) the presence of large quantities of ceramic

serving vessels. The deposits from Structure 2A and Structure 3 A do not contain exotic fauna, such as exotic marine fish, nor do these deposits contain bones from important animals, such as the white-tail deer, a species that was frequently consumed during

special celebrations. There is also no evidence for the presence of serving vessels in association with the Pachychilus deposits. Overall, the only significant remains that were recovered from these deposits in addition to the Pachychilus were the freshwater crab claws, which would have been found in the same natural habitat as the Pachychilus snails.

These, do not therefore, provide evidence to suggest a feasting ceremony.

Another argument that can be made in support of the consumption theory is based on the fact that a significant portion of the Pachychilus shells have their uppermost apex missing. Some scholars would perceive this breakage as indicative of preparation practices for the purpose of cooking (spire-lopping) (Healy et al. 1990). However, comparisons between the archaeological assemblage and the modern sample of

Pachychilus that I examined demonstrate that natural process, such as changes in the speed of water from storms/floods, as well as rodent activity, can alter Pachychilus shells in ways that are nearly identical to the patterns created by cultural activities (Figures 35-

44). Although the modern sample that I examined is relatively small in number, when compared to the archaeological sample from Minanha, it serves to demonstrate that broken spires are not necessarily indicative of human alteration. In addition, several ethnographic studies have revealed that even when these snails are collected for food, the shells do not necessarily have to be "lopped" or punctured to obtain the meat (Emery, personal communication 2010; Nations 2006). Instead, the meat of these snails could have been removed by simply dropping the snails in hot water and cooking over an extended period of time. This method of preparation would not have left a physical mark on the shell for ascertaining the purpose of the snail.

Based on the aforementioned evidence, the Pachychilus assemblage from Structures

2A and 3 A do not appear to have served a dietary function. Aside from the tamped earth 162

floors in Structures 2A and 3 A, and those in the Contreras Valley, there is an additional

886 shells or 7% of the entire assemblage that was recovered from domestic (secondary) contexts. Out of these 886 shells, 752 of them were also recovered from floor fill contexts. Based on artifact associations (Appendix B), these floor fill deposits could have been collected from midden contexts and redeposited as construction fill. This interpretation would suggest that a small percentage of the shells from Minanha could have served a dietary purpose. This assumption is based on context and associated artifacts alone, it does not consider wear patterns from preparation, as it is still unclear whether these methods would have left identifiable marks on the surface of the shell (see end of preceding paragraph).

4) How Else Were the Snails Used?

The majority o£ Pachychilus remains from Minanha appear to have been deposited as part of the construction fill of various structures (96% of entire assemblage). This practice is especially evident during the construction of the tamped earth floors in Structure 2A and 3 A. Combined, these two contexts contained a total of 9,837 shells, or about 88% of the entire assemblage. During the Terminal Preclassic period, it appears that the inhabitants of Minanha were collecting clays from various water sources, such as rivers and creeks, and transporting this material for use as fill in the construction of building platforms (Iannone, personal communication 2008). This assumption is supported by the discovery of three crab claws in association with the Pachychilus remains from Structure

2A and 3 A. These claws were identified as the remains of a freshwater crab that likely inhabits the same waters as the Pachychilus species. As a result, both of these species were likely collected as part of the living/dead organisms found in the clays that were 163

being used by the ancient Maya for construction purposes. In addition, the 2010

Pachychilus assemblage from floor fill contexts further demonstrates that river clays may have been collected for construction purposes. During the washing procedure, it was observed that the clays that covered the shells were darker in colour, finer in texture, and contained a number of organic inclusions such as pebbles of various sizes (different from soils in other contexts, which tend to be a light brown colour, coarse, and somewhat brittle). When combined with the shells, these clays form a very hard mass, similar to cement. This hard mass could have served as an ideal material for the construction of platforms, as it tends to be more compact, and requires less maintenance over other floor construction materials (i.e., plaster, which tends to wear away at a faster rate). In addition, while it may seem that 4-5 km is a significant distance to travel to obtain river clays for the construction of floors, one must consider the alternative method. In order to construct plaster floors, the ancient Maya had to first cut down and burn a number of trees to produce the lime required for this construction method. This procedure requires a significant amount of time, and energy, which either rivals or exceeds that required to obtain river clays. Thus, the distance traveled to the nearby rivers may have been, in actuality, the most efficient option for the ancient inhabitants of Minanha.

To a much lesser extent, the Pachychilus remains from Minanha also suggest the use of this species as offerings for the deceased. Although the frequency of these deposits

(0.18% of entire assemblage) is relatively low when compared to floor fill deposits, this small percentage suggests an additional use for this species. The shells from funerary contexts were recovered from various types of burials. These include: one shell from a chultun burial, seven shells from an uncapped cist burial, three shells from a partial cist 164

burial, and nine shells from a simple crypt burial. These burial deposits were found distributed throughout the site, and date from the Early Classic, to the Late Classic,

Terminal Classic, and into the Early Postclassic. Interestingly, no shells from the

Terminal Preclassic were recovered from burial contexts, indicating that these shells were not associated with ritual contexts during this early period of time. This corroborates the view that they mainly reached the site as part of clays that were being used to construct tamped earth floors, since these shell-filled clays served as particularly durable fill for structure floors.

5) Was There Differential Access to Jute?

The majority of Pachychilus remains from Minanha were recovered from the site's epicentre, in structures dating to the Terminal Preclassic. This may, at first, indicate that individuals in the epicentre had greater access to this species. However, the high frequency of shells in this area may instead be indicative of differences in the time period that each section of the site was occupied, and/or where earlier occupations have been encountered during excavation.

The large concentrations of Pachychilus from Group A appear to have been deposited during the Terminal Preclassic, before the emergence of the royal court at Minanha.

Although very little information is available for this period of Minanha's history, it seems reasonable to suggest that the individuals constructing Structures 2A and 3 A did not necessarily hold a superior position, but were instead one of the earliest families (possibly the founders) to inhabit this region. While there are several groups at Contreras dating to the Terminal Preclassic, there are no known groups in the Site Core survey zone that date to this time period. Therefore, the high frequency of shells from the epicentre is not 165

necessarily indicative of greater access over other sections of the site, but instead indicates that this area was one of the first to be inhabited during the Preclassic, and that the large deposits of Pachychilus reflect the specific construction practices of the time.

6) Did the Use of Jute Change Through Time?

The Pachychilus collection from Minanha suggests that the use of this snail was common during the Terminal Preclassic (Figure 25). In total, there are 10,101

Pachychilus shells (91% of entire assemblage) dating to this time period. Most of the shells from this period were recovered from floor fill deposits, with the majority of these collected from Structure 2A and 3 A. While this high frequency indicates an importance in the presence of this species during the Terminal Preclassic, this factor does not necessarily indicate that the shells themselves were popular during this period of time.

Instead, the practice of constructing tamped earth floors with shell-filled clays collected from riverbeds appears to be the reason for the presence of these shells during this period of time. In later periods, the presence of Pachychilus shells is significantly reduced, especially in the epicentre. The next most popular period is the Early Classic, with a total of 329 shells, or about 3% of the entire assemblage. During the Late Classic and into the

Early Postclassic there is a very limited number of Pachychilus shells present at the site, with each of these deposits representing less than 2% of the entire assemblage (Figure

25). In these later phases, the majority of Pachychilus shells were primarily found in domestic, floor fill deposits, in close association with a high frequency of utilitarian artifacts. This combination of artifacts indicates that these shells were likely collected from refuse areas (after consumption) and re-deposited as part of the floor fill of various structures. 166

7) Do Size Differences Exist and, If So, Do They Indicate Overexploitation of the

Snail?

The Pachychilus collection from Minanha does appear to demonstrate some variation in size over time. The average length of shells dating to the Terminal Preclassic is 2.1 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm (Appendix E, 1). By the Terminal Classic the average length increased to 2.7 cm, with a standard deviation of 0.5 cm. This average indicates that the length of Pachychilus shells, on average, increased by a few millimetres between the Terminal Preclassic and the Terminal Classic (Appendix E, 6). The same pattern is present when we compare the average width, as well as the aperture width of the

Pachychilus from various periods. While the average width is 1.1 cm (0.2 cm standard deviation) during the Terminal Preclassic, this average increases to 1.4 cm during the

Middle Classic/Late Classic transition, as well as during the Late Classic/Terminal

Classic, and into the Early Postclassic (Table 28, Appendix E). A similar pattern is indicated by changes in the average aperture width. While the average aperture width is

0.9 cm (0.4 cm standard deviation) during the Terminal Preclassic, this average increases during later time periods to 1.1 cm and 1.2 cm (0.2 cm standard deviation) (Table 25,

Appendix E). The differences in size noted, over time, can be attributed to pressures from gathering by humans during the Preclassic period. The collection of clay from riverbeds would have removed a large portion of the Pachychilus population, subsequently impacting the number of snails available for reproduction. The declining popularity of these shells in later phases at Minanha indicates a period of restoration for the natural

populations of this species, subsequently leading to an increase in shell size. In addition, there are a number of alternative factors that can also lead to variation in shell size. One such factor is environmental differences, which leads to morphological differences between Pachychilus populations from different sources of water. Seasonality can also lead to variation in shell size, indicating that the shells were collected at different times throughout the year. This hypothesis appears to hold some truth if we compare the frequency tables of the archaeological and the modern sample (Appendix E). Overall, the collection from Minanha appears to represent a full "death assemblage", consisting of the selection of everything. This pattern is visible in Appendix E, as the shells appear to

"lump" around certain size groups, indicative of mass mortality.

8) Did the Snails Enter the Archaeological Record in Different Ways?

The Pachychilus assemblage from Minanha suggests that this species entered the archaeological record through a diverse array of processes. The first of these processes is the incidental introduction of these snails to the site as part of the riverbed soils which were used as construction fill. This is not meant to indicate that the ancient Maya were not aware of the presence of these shells in the clays. Instead, the inclusion of these shells as part of the floor fill may be indicative of the ritual association of these shells with supernatural forces. Alternatively, the inclusion of these shells in the tamped earth floors may be due to their function as a temper to hold together the clay (this possibility became evident during the washing procedure, when dried, clay and jute in the bottom of buckets tended to form a very hard mass). This procedure is similar to the inclusion of shells and/or other organic remains for pottery manufacturing.

In addition to the use of Pachychilus for construction purposes, there is some indication that a smaller proportion of the assemblage from Minanha was transported to the site for dietary purposes. After consumption, the shells of this snail would have been 168

discarded in garbage pits and then were re-deposited as part of the floor fill, again serving as a form of temper. To a lesser extent, Pachychilus shells were also important as funerary offerings. While this practice does not appear to be very common at Minanha, it nonetheless demonstrates another cultural process which led to the introduction of this species to the site.

CLOSING COMMENTS

The Pachychilus collection from Minanha presented me with the opportunity to contribute to our understanding of this species, and to explore its significance to the ancient Maya. These shells have been collected since the earliest years of excavation at the site, resulting in a sizable sample for an in-depth analysis of this species. While this analysis has provided an alternative explanation to complement the existing body of data on the ancient utilization of this molluscan species, many gaps are still present in the study, which need to be addressed by future research. I feel that this study would have benefitted greatly from a better understanding of the ecology of the Pachychilus genus. For example, in order for us to understand the correlation between shell size and cultural use, research on the morphological and environmental differences of this species is necessary. This data would provide the information required for us to assess whether these snails were selected for consumption based on the size of the shell. In addition, ecological data on the seasonality of Pachychilus snails could provide valuable information regarding the construction practices of the ancient Maya. More specifically, by employing models of age and seasonality for this particular species we should be able to pin point the exact 169

time of the year that the majority of the specimens were collected, and included as fill

material. In return, this data could potentially indicate the precise season for the

construction of building platforms by the ancient Maya.

Another potential setback to the present study includes some of the same problems

that continue to plague the field of zooarchaeology. Since this field is relatively new in

Mesoamerican studies, researchers are still working towards developing a methodology that enables archaeologists working in this region to compare and replicate studies. For this reason, I have made every attempt to clearly define the steps that I have taken during the analysis of the Pachychilus collection from Minanha. It is my hope that the data

presented here will enable other researchers to compare datasets, in order to generate a

more comprehensive understanding of the importance of the Pachychilus species on a

macro-regional scale. Furthermore, I hope that this study demonstrates to other Maya

researchers the vast amount of information which can be derived from the study of

freshwater molluscan species for the purpose of understanding ancient Maya cultural

practices. REFERENCES CITED

Aizpurua, I.I.I, and Patricia A. McAnany 1999 Adornment and Identity: Shell Ornaments from Formative K'axob. Ancient Mesoamerica, Vol. 10:117-127.

Andrews, Anthony P., E. Wyllys Andrews, and Fernando Robles Castellanos 2003 The Northern Maya Collapse and its Aftermath. Ancient Mesoamerica 14:151- 156.

Andrews, Edward Wyllys, IV 1969 The Archaeological Use and Distribution ofMollusca in the Maya Lowlands. Tulane University, Middle American Research Institute Publication 34. New Orleans.

Andrews, Peter and Jill Cook 1985 Natural Modifications to Bones in a Temperate Setting. Man 20:675-691.

Ashmore, Wendy, Samuel V. Connell, Jennifer J. Ehret, Chad H. Gifford, L. Ted Neff, and John C. Vandenbosch 1994 The Xunantunich Settlement Survey. In Xunantunich Archaeological Project: 1994 Field Season, edited by Richard Leventhal, pp. 248-288. Xunantunich Archaeological Project, Belmopan and Los Angeles.

Atkins, C.G. 1966 Factors Affecting the Structure and Distribution of Terrestrial Pulmonata. Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Science 73:408-416.

Beach, T, N. Dunning, S. Luzzadder-Beach, D. E. Cook and J. Lohse 2006 Impacts of the Ancient Maya on Soils and Soil Erosion in the Central Maya Lowlands. Catena 65(2): 166-178.

Biggs, H. E. J. 1960 Mollusca from Prehistoric Jericho. Journal ofConchology 24(11):379-387.

Bobrowsky, Peter T. 1984 The History and Science of Gastropods in Archaeology. American Antiquity 49(1): 77-93.

Brady, James E. 1989 An Investigation of Maya Ritual Cave Use with Special Reference to Naj Tunich, Peten, Guatemala. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Claassen, Cheryl 1998 Shells. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Coe, Michael D. 1995 The Maya, Fifth Edition. Thames and Hudson, New York.

Coe, William R. 1959 Piedras Negras Archaeology: Artifacts, Caches, and Burials. University of Pennsylvania, The University Museum, Philadelphia.

Covich, Alan P. 1983 Mollusca: A Contrast in Species Diversity from Aquatic and Terrestrial Habitats. In Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, edited by B.L. Turner II and Peter D. Harrison, pp.121-139. University of Texas Press, Austin.

Dell, Rachel C. 2009 The Rise and Fall of a Royal Court: A Ceramic Analysis of Group J at the Ancient Maya Centre of Minanha, Belize. Unpublished Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Trent University.

Dietler, Michael and Brian Hayden (eds.) 2001 Feasts: Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food, Politics, and Power, pp. 40-41. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Ehret, Jennifer, L. Ted Neff, and Samuel V. Connell 1995 Social Organization and Human Ecology: Perspectives from the Xunantunich Hinterlands. Paper Presented at the First Conference of Belizean Archaeology, San Ignacio, Belize.

Emery, Kitty F. 1988 Jute (Pachychilus sp.): A Discussion of the Physical Characteristics, Habitat Preferences, and Available Population. Ms. On file, Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto.

1989 The Use of Two Freshwater Gastropods (Pomacea flagellata and Pachychilus sp.) at Lamanai and Pacbitun, Belize. Paper Presented at the 12th Annual Midwestern Conference on Mesoamerican Archaeology and Ethnology, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

2004 In Search of Assemblage Comparability: Methods in Maya Zooarchaeology. In Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory, edited by Kitty F. Emery, pp. 15-34. Monograph 51, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Emery, Kitty F., Lori E. Wright and Henry Schwarcz 172

2000 Isotopic Analysis of Ancient Deer Bone: Biotic Stability in Collapse Period Maya Land-use. Journal of Archaeological Science 27:537-550.

Erlandson, John M. 1988 The Role of Shellfish in Prehistoric Economies: A Protein Perspective. American Antiquity 53:102-109.

Evans, Susan Toby 2004 Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History. 1st Ed. Thames and Hudson, London.

Fox, John G. 1996 Playing with Power: Ballcourts and Political Ritual in Southern Mesoamerica. In Current Anthropology 37(3): 483-509.

Gann, Thomas 1927 Maya Cities: A Record of Exploration and Adventure in Middle America. Duckworth, London.

Garber, James F. 1986 The Artifacts. In Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I, an Interim Report, edited by David A. Freidel, pp. 117-127. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.

Gifford, James C. 1976 Prehistoric Pottery Analysis and the Ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Memoirs 18. Cambridge.

Gonzales, Troy, and Gyles Iannone 2005 The 2005 Excavations at Group M, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Seventh (2005) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, pp. 24-47. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Goodrich, C. and H. Van Der Schalie 1937 Mollusca ofPeten and North Aha Verapaz, Guatemala. University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology, Miscellaneous Publications 34. Ann Arbor.

Grayson, D.K. 1978 Minimum Numbers and Sample Size in Vertebrae Faunal Analysis. American Antiquity 43:53-65.

Halperin, Christina T. and Antonia E. Foias 2010 Pottery Politics: Late Classic Maya Palace Production at Motul de San Jose, Peten, Guatemala. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29:392-411. 173

Halperin, Christina T., Sergio Garza, Keith M. Prufer and James E. Brady 2003 Caves and Ancient Maya Ritual Use of Jute. Latin American Antiquity 14(2):207- 219.

Hammond, Norman L. 1975 Lubaantun: A Classic Maya Realm. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Monograph 2. Cambridge. 1983 Ancient Maya Civilization. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey.

Healy, Paul F., Kitty Emery and Lori E. Wright 1990 Ancient and Modern Maya Exploitation of the Jute Snail (Pachychilus). Latin American Antiquity 1(2): 170-183.

Hunn, Eugene S. 1977 Tzetzal Folk Zoology: The Classification of Discontinuities in Nature. Academic Press, New York.

Iannone, Gyles 1999 Archaeological Investigations at Minanha, Belize: A Research Proposal. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the First (1999) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Nadine Gray, pp. 1-28. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2001a Archaeological Investigations at Minanha, Belize: The 2001 Research Proposal. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Third (2001) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Ryan Primrose, Adam Menzies, and Lisa McParland, pp. 1-14. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2001b Rediscovery of the Ancient Maya Centre of Minanha, Belize. Background, Description, and Future Prospects. Mexicon 23:125-129.

2002 Annates History and the Ancient Maya State: Some Observations on the "Dynamic Model". American Anthropologist 104(l):68-78.

2003 Contextualizing Minanha. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Fifth (2003) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and James E. Herbert, pp. 11-22. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2005 The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Maya Petty Royal Court. Latin American Antiquity 16(l):26-44. 174

2006a Archaeological Research at Minanha: Summary of the 2006 Investigations. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Jason Seguin, pp. 1-11. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2006b Detailed Description of the Proposed Phase II Research. In. Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Jason Seguin, pp. 12-28. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough. 2007 Archaeological Research at Minanha: Summary of the 2007 Investigations. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Ninth (2007) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Scott Macrae, pp. 1-17. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Iannone, Gyles, Jesse Phillips and Carmen McCormick 2006 Community Archaeology at Minanha: Some Preliminary Musings On the 2006 Field Season. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Jason Seguin, pp.115-127. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Iannone, Gyles, Claudia Zehrt, Carmen McCormick, Jeffrey Seibert, Matthew Mosher, Scott Macrae, and James Conolly. 2007 The Phase II Settlement Study at Minanha: New Data, New Insights. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Ninth (2007) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone and Scott A. Macrae, pp. 150-162. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Iannone, Gyles, Jason Yaeger, and David Hodell 2009 The Great Maya Droughts: A Critical Introduction. Paper Presented at the 74th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Atlanta.

Inomata, Takeshi and Stephen D. Houston (ed.) 2001 Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya, Volume I: Theory, Comparison, and Synthesis. Westview Press, Boulder.

Jamison, Thomas R. and Gregory A. Wolff 1994 Excavations in and around Plaza A-I and A-II. In Xunantunich Archaeological Project: 1994 Field Season, edited by Richard M. Leventhal, pp.25-47. University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles.

Johnston, Kevin J. 2006 Preclassic Maya Occupation of the Itzan Escarpment, Lower Rio de la Pasion, Peten, Guatemala. AncientMesoamerica 17:177-201.

Joyce, T. A., J. C. Clark, and J. E. S. Thompson 1927 Report on the British Museum Expedition to British Honduras. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 57:295-323.

Keller, Angela H. 2008 Chan Shell Collection: Creating Identity with Shell. Paper Presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Kidder, A.V. 1947 The Artifacts of Uaxactun Guatemala. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 576. Washington, D.C.

Kirchhoff, Paul 1952 Mesoamerica: Its Geographic Limits, Ethnic Composition and Cultural Characteristics. In Heritage of Conquest: the Ethnology of Middle America, edited by Sol Tax, pp. 17-30. Free Press Publishers, Glencoe, Illinois.

Kohl, Martin 2010 Freshwater Molluscan Shells. Electronic document, http://mkohll.net/Pleuroceridae.html, accessed October 20, 2010.

Lange, Frederick W. 1971 A Viable Subsistence Alternative for the Prehistoric Lowland Maya. American Anthropologist 73(3):619-639.

Longstaffe, Matthew 2009 "Over the Hills and Far Away": The Concluding Phase II Settlement Operations (2009) in Minanha's Site Core Zone. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eleventh (2009) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Matt Longstaffe, and Scott Macrae pp. 50-70. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

T .nnavpnr T 1VT 1952 Copan Ceramics: A Study of Southeastern Maya Pottery. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 597. Washington, DC.

MacDougall, Paige J. and Nadine Gray 1999 Investigations of Structure 9 A at Minanha. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the First (1999) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Nadine Gray, pp. 57-71. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

MacLeod, Barbara, and Dennis E. Puleston 1978 Pathways into Darkness: The Search for the Road to Xibalba. In TerceraMesa Redonda de Palenque Vol. 4, edited by Merle Greene Robertson and Donnan Call Jeffers, pp. 71-77. Herald Printers, Monterey. Macrae, Scott 2010 A Comparative Approach to the Socio-Political and Socio-Economic Organization of the Intensive Terrace Farming at the Ancient Maya Centre ofMinanha, Belize. Unpublished Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Trent University.

Marcus, Joyce 1993 Ancient Maya Political Organization. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eight Century A.D., edited by Jeremy Sabloff, and John S. Henderson, pp. 111-183. Dumbarton, Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.

Martin, Simon and Nikolai Grube 2008 Chronicles of the Maya Kings and Queens. Thames and Hudson Ltd, London.

Maudslay, Alfred P. 1889-1902 Archaeology. In Biologia Centrali-Americana 4:80-81. Milpatron Pub. Corp., New York.

McCane, Carmen, Kendall Hills, Andrew Snetsinger, and Matthew Longstaffe 2009 The Last Year of Trying to Figure out "What Was Going on Over Yonder?: the 2009 Peripheral Investigations in Contreras, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eleventh (2009) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Matt Longstaffe and Scott Macrae, pp. 13-49. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

McCormick, Carmen 2007 What Was Going on Over Yonder?: The Peripheral Investigations in Contreras, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Ninth (2007) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Scott Macrae, pp. 74-98. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2008 A Continuation of the Investigations Into What Was Going on Over Yonder?: The 2008 Peripheral Investigations in Contreras, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Tenth (2008) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Scott Macrae, pp. 14-75. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

McKillop, Heather 2004 The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives. W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. New York.

McKillop, Heather and Terance Winemiller 2004 Ancient Maya Environment, Settlement, and Diet: Quantitative and GIS Spatial Analysis of Shell from Frenchman's Cay, Belize. In Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory, edited by Kitty Emery, pp. 57-80. Monograph 51, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. 177

Moholy-Nagy, Hattula 1978 The Utilization of Pomacea Snails at Tikal, Guatemala. American Antiquity 43(l):65-73.

Morelet, Arthur 1849 Testacea novissima insulae Cubae et Americae Centralis, part 1:1-31. J. B. Bailliere, Paris. 1851 Testacea novissima insulae Cubae et Americae Centralis, part: 2:1-30. J. B. Bailliere, Paris.

Morrison, J. P. E. 1942 Preliminary Report on Mollusks Found in the Shell Mounds of the Pickwick Landing Basin in the Tennessee River Valley. In An Archaeological Survey of Pickwick Basin in the Adjacent Portions of the State of Alabama, Mississippi and Tennessee, by W.S. Webb and D.L. DeJarnette, pp. 337-392. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 129. Washington, DC.

Mosher, Matthew and Jeffrey Seibert 2006 Small Group Excavations: Exploring the Ancient Minanha Community. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Jeffrey Seibert, and Jason Seguin pp. 58-91. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Nations, James D. 1979 Snail Shells and Maize Preparations: A Lacandon Maya Analogy. American Antiquity 44(3):568-571.

2006 The Maya Tropical Forest: People, Parks, and Ancient Cities. University of Texas Press, Austin.

Paauw, Derek 2005 Digging in the Backyard of the Lord: the 2005 Excavations in Group L. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Seventh (2005) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, pp. 72-83. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Parmalee, Paul W. and Walter E. Klippel 1974 Freshwater Mussels as a Prehistoric Food Source. American Antiquity 39 (3):421- 434.

Palka, Joel 1995 Classic Maya Social Inequality and the Collapse at Dos Pilas, Peten, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University.

Paynter, Robert 1989 The Archaeology of Equality and Inequality. Annual Review of Anthropology 18:369-399.

Peacock, Evan 2000 Assessing Bias in Archaeological Assemblages. Journal of Field Archaeology, 27(2): 183-196.

Pendergast, David M. 1969 The Prehistory ofActun Balam, British Honduras. Art and Archaeology Occasional Papers No. 16. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.

Peuramaki-Brown, Meaghan 2002 Excavations at Group T, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Fourth (2002) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Joelle Chartrand, Rachel Dell, Adam Menzies, Adam Pollock, and Barbara Slim, pp. 97-114. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Pilsbry, Henry A. 1892 Notes on a Collection of Shells from the State of Tabasco, Mexico. Proceedings of the Academic of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 44:338-341.

Pollock, Adam 2006 Investigating the Socio-Economic and Socio-Political Organization of Agricultural Production at Minanha, Belize: A Reconsideration of the Results of the 2003 and 2004 Field Season. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeff Seibert, and Jason Seguin, pp. 104-114. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Powis, Terry G. 2004 Ancient Lowland Maya Utilization of Freshwater Pearly Mussels (Nephronaias spp.). In Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory, edited by Kitty Emery, pp. 125-140. Monograph 51, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Powis, Terry G., Norbert Stanchly, Christine D. White, Paul F. Healy, Jaime J. Awe, and Fred Longstaffe 1999 A Reconstruction of Middle Preclassic Maya Subsistence Economy at Cahal Pech, Belize. Antiquity 73:364-376.

Primrose, Ryan 2001 A Preliminary Assessment of Minanha's Water Management System. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Third (2001) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Ryan Primrose, Adam Menzies, and Lisa McParland, pp. 99-108. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough. Prince, Peter V. and Nick Jamotte 2001 The Second Terrace Operation: Investigations at Group R, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Third (2001) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Ryan Primrose, Adam Menzies, and Lisa McParland, pp. 56-63. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Prufer, Keith M. 2002 Communities, Caves, and Ritual Specialists: A Study of Sacred Space in the Maya Mountains of Southern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Rice, Prudence M. 2009 On Classic Maya Political Economies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28:70-84.

Richards, Horace G. and H.J. Boekelman 1937 Shells from Maya Excavations in British Honduras. American Antiquity 3(2): 166- 169.

Ringrose, T.J. 1993 Bone Counts and Statistics: A Critique. Journal of Archaeological Science 20:121-157.

Scarborough, Vernon L. and D.R. Wilcox (editors) 1991 The Mesoamerican Ballgame. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Schiffer, Michael B. 1972 Archaeological Context and Systemic Context. American Antiquity 37:156-165.

Schwake Sonja 1999 Public Architecture, Elite Power: Preliminary Investigations of an E-Group at Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the First (1999) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert andNadine Gray, pp. 41-56. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2000 The Second Year of Investigations at Structure 3 A, Minanha, Belize. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Second (2000) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Lisa McParland, Adam Menzies, and Ryan Primrose, pp. 13-25. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2001 Investigations within Structure 3A and 4A at Minanha, Belize: The 2001 Research. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Pj'ogress Report of the Third (2001) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Ryan Primrose, Adam Menzies, and Lisa McParland, pp. 15-28. Department of Aa^ology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Seibert, Jeffrey 1999 Excavations in the Ballcourt at Minanha, Belize. InMaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report ofthefi&{1999) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Jeffrey Seibert and Nadine Gray,§§B-40. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2002 2002 Excavations in Structure 12A, Minanha, Belv&kArchaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progressist of the Fourth (2002) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, Joelle Chartrand, RsMDell, Adam Menzies, Adam Pollock, and Barbara Slim, pp. 7-30. Department of l&opology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2007 2007 Small Group Operations. In Archaeological locations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Ninth (2007) FieldSmon, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Scott Macrae pp. 18-36. Department of Anthiapagy, Trent University, Peterborough.

Slim, Barbara 2003 2003 Investigations in Group K, Minanha, Belize. faMiaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: ProgressJ^artofthe Fifth (2003) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and James E. Herba^. 48-59. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

Sharer, Robert J. 1994 The Ancient Maya: Fifth Edition. Stanford Universijtass, Stanford.

Stanchly, Norbert 2004 Picks and Stones May Break My Bones: Taphonon^d Maya Zoarchaeology. In Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and JJwss. edited by Kitty Emery, pp. 35-44. Monograph 51, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,liversity of California, Los Angeles.

Stanchly, Norbert and Gyles Iannone 1997 A Royal Appetizer? The Use of the Freshwater JuteH (Pachychilus sp.) in Maya Ritual Feasting. Paper Presented at the 62nd Annual Mtiag of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville, Tennessee.

Thompson, Fred G. 2008 An Annotated Checklist and Bibliography of the Lafed Freshwater Snails of Mexico and Central America. 903 p. Available: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/malacology/mexico-central_aineaBaiail_checklist/ [Online: 16 June 2008]. 181

Thompson, J. Eric S. 1939 Excavations at San Jose, British Honduras. Carnegie Institution of Washington. Publication 506. Washington DC.

1970 Maya History and Religion. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Tozzer, Alfred M. and Glover M. Allen 1910 Animal Figures in the Maya Codices. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Paper 4 (3). Cambridge.

Versaval, Arthur 1922 Discovery of Maya City. Clarion. May 11.

Welsh, W.B.M. 1988 An Analysis of Classic Lowland Maya Burials. BAR International Series, No. 409, Oxford.

White, Theodore E. 1953 A Method of Calculating the Dietary Percentage of Various Food Animals Utilized by Aboriginal Peoples. American Antiquity 18(4):396-398.

Willey, Gordon R., William R. Bullard, Jr., John B. Glass, and James C. Gifford 1965 Prehistoric Maya Settlements in the Belize Valley. Harvard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Paper 54. Cambridge.

Zehrt, Caludia 2006 Excavations in Group S, the 2006 Season. In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Eight (2006) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Jeffrey Seibert, and Jason Seguin pp. 27-57. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.

2007 Changing Fates: Life at the Presidential Group S in Minanha's Site Core Zone (Field Season 2007). In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Ninth (2007) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, and Scott Macrae pp. 37-73. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough.Zehrt, Claudia and Gyles Iannone

2005 The 2005 Excavations in Minanha's Royal Residential Courtyard (Group J). In Archaeological Investigations in the North Vaca Plateau, Belize: Progress Report of the Seventh (2005) Field Season, edited by Gyles Iannone, pp. 12-23. Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough. 182

APPENDIX A Pachychilus Genus Geographical Distribution (Goodrich and van der Schalie 1937; Morelet 1849; Thompson 2008).

Pachychilus apis Mexico: Vera Cruz, in marshy places. Mexico: Chiapas.Tabasco, Oaxaca; El Salvador: Rio Pachychilus chrysalis Sueio. Pachychilus corvinus Guatemala: Verapaz, Rio Motagua. Pachychilus explicatus Guatemala: Rio Machaquila, Depl. Pctcn. Mexico: Oaxaca, Chiapas. Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Pachychilus indiorum Veracruz. Pachychilus liebmanni Mexico: Vera Cruz. Pachychilus liebmanni Mexico: Rio Teotalcingo, Oaxaca, Pachychilus orstedi Honduras: valley of the Ulua River; Guatemala. Pachychilus pottsianus Guatemala: Izabal. Pachychilus schumoi Guatemala: Alta Verapaz. Pachychilus turati Mexico: Vera Cruz. Pachychilus dalli Mexico: Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. Guatemala: Petcn. Rio Usumacinta. Alta Venpaz: Pachychilus glaphyrus Mexico: Tabasco. Pachychilus glaphyrus Honduras: Santa Barbara, Coban; Guatemala: Dept. polygonotus Alta Verapaz. Pachychilus glaphyrus pyramidalis Mexico: Small streams of the interior of Tabasco. Pachychilus glaphyrus lacustris Guatemala: Izabal. Pachychilus largillierti Guatemala: Izabal. Pachychilus obeliscus Honduras Pachychilus polomarchus Mexico: Tabasco. Pachychilus apheles Mexico: San Luis Potosi. Pachychilus atratus Mexico: San Luis Potosi. Pachychilus corpulentus Mexico: Tamaulipas. Pachychilus graphium Guatemala: Alta Verapaz, Lago de Peten. Pachychilus sargi Guatemala: Alta Verapaz. Pachychilus pilsbryi Mexico: Tabasco, Usumacinta River, San Luis Potosi. Pachychilus yMssehsis Mexico; San Luis Potosi. 184

APPENDIX B 185

SARP PROJECT ARTIFA CT DESIGN A TION GUIDE

CATEGORY ARTIFACT TYPE CATEGORY ARTIFACT TYPE CERAMIC - bulk lot UTHIC condt - chipped stone - projectile point - figurine - chipped stone - celt - figurine whistle - chipped stone - thin biface - musical instrument - chipped stone - thick biface - vessel - chipped stone - knife - partial vessel - chipped stone - scraper - unperforated potsherd disk - chipped stone - burin - perforated potsherd disk - chipped stone - notched flake - perforated potsherd - chipped stone - pounding stone - worked potsherd - chipped stone - flake (obsidian only) - spindle whorl (manufactured) - chipped stone - drill - pendant - chipped stone - awl - bead - chipped stone - adze - ear ornament - chipped stone - utilized flake - flat stamp - chipped stone - core (obsidian only) - cylinder seal - chipped stone - eccentric - mask - chipped stone - blade - unclassified - chipped stone - perforator UTHIC - bulk lot - chipped stone - shatter - groundstone - metate (whole) - chipped stone - hammerstone - groundstone - metate (fragment) - chipped stone - unclassified - groundstone - metate (preform) - speleothem - groundstone - mano (whole) - quartz crystal - groundstone - mano (fragment) - quartz massive - groundstone - mortar FAUNAL - groundstone - barkbeater - shell pendant - groundstone - rubbing stone - shell tinkler - groundstone - pounding stone - shell bead - groundstone - pestle - shell pin - groundstone - adze - shell adorno - groundstone - celt - shell ear ornament - groundstone - spindle whorl - shell ear ornament pin - groundstone - awl - cut shell - groundstone - awl (perform) - drilled shell - groundstone - anchor - worked shell - groundstone - capstone - shell spindle whorl - groundstone - ring-stone - stingray spine - groundstone - mirror - worked bone - groundstone - bead - bone awl - groundstone - adorno - bone punch - groundstone - pendant - bone fishhook - groundstone - ear ornament - bone spindle whorl - groundstone - incised stone - bone tube - groundstone - mosaic piece - bone pin - groundstone - wrench - bone spatula - groundstone - raw mica schist - bone bead - groundstone - raw j adeite - bone adorno - groundstone - raw slate - bone effigy carving - groundstone - raw hematite - bone flute - groundstone - raw granite - worked deer antler - grounstone - raw limonite - groundstone - raw basalt - crab claws - groundstone - raw serpentine - coral - unmodified - groundstone - raw andesite - unclassified - groundstone - raw syenite HUMAN - groundstone - raw diorite - carved human bone - groundstone - worked slate - painted human bone - groundstone - painted slate - inlayed teeth - groundstone - portable sculpture - carved tooth - groundstone - grooved sphere - unclassified - groundstone - perforated facing stone OTHER - groundstone - incised stone - matting - groundstone — slingstone - wood - groundstone — limestone bar - briquette - groundstone - unclassified - plant remains - chipped stone - adorno - plaster artifact - chipped stone - macroblade - painted plaster - chipped stone - chopper - stucco artifact - glass bottle 186

APPENDIX C Catalogue of the Various Contexts (TPC= Terminal Preclassic , EC= Early Classic, MC= Middle Classic, MC/LC= Middle Classic/Late Classic, LC= Late Classic, TC= Terminal Classic, EPC= Early Postclassic)

CATALOGUE STR. UNIT LEVEL CONTEXT CONTEXT CERAMIC ARTIFACT TOTAL SITE NUMBER TYPE PERIOD TYPE COUNTS LOCUS 27/187-002:126 2A 2A-1A 2 Slump ceremonial (secondary) LC bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:428 2A 2A-1A 4 Floor fill domestic (secondary) TPC bulk lot 4340/868 epicentre 27/187-002:88 3A 3A-1 IB Humus ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:136 3A 3A-1 2 Slump ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 9 epicentre 27/187-002:843 3A 3A-1A 5 Floor fill ceremonial (secondary) TPC bulk lot 155 epicentre 27/187-002:956 3A 3A-1A 6 Floor fill ceremonial (secondary) TPC bulk lot 5497/1100 epicentre 27/187-002:1190 3A 3A-2 4C Floor fill ceremonial (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:739 3A N/A Looters Looters back dirt ceremonial Mixed (TC) bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:1336 4A 4A-1 1 Humus ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 3 epicentre 27/187-002:1837 4A 4A-1 3 Construction fill with rubble ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 10 epicentre 27/187-002:1923 4A 4A-1 5 Construction fill with rubble ceremonial (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:175 9A 9A-1 2 Slump ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 25 epicentre 27/187-002:962 12A 12A-1A 3 Floor fill non-domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:461 9A 9A-2 IB Humus ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:588 9A 9A-2 2 Slump ceremonial (secondary) TC bulk lot 3 epicentre Construction fill without 27/187-002:840 7A 7A-2 3 rubble ceremonial (secondary) LC bulk lot 8 epicentre 27/187-002:2885 40J 40 J-1 1A Humus domestic (secondary) TC bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:2448 41K 41K-1 1 Humus domestic (secondary) TC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:3736 46M 46M-1 2A Slump domestic (secondary) TC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:3979 46M 46M-2A 3D Floor fill domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:3945 47M 47M-1 3B Construction fill with rubble domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:4142 47M 47M-1A 3C Construction fill with rubble domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 6 epicentre 27/187-002:3870 121M 47M-2A 3B Construction fill with rubble domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:3997 121M 47M-2A 3C Construction fill with rubble domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 2 epicentre 27/187-002:4080 48M 48M-2C 4A Floor fill domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:35 OP 100 OP100-1 1A Humus domestic (secondary) Mixed bulk lot 3 epicentre 27/187-002:2367 OP 106 106-1 2 Habitation debris domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:3934 OP112 112-1 1A Colluvium domestic (secondary) N/A bulk lot 5 epicentre 27/187-002:4049 OP112 112-1 2 Roof spall domestic (secondary) Mixed bulk lot 26 epicentre 27/187-002:4048 OP112 112-1 Burial 112-B/l Grave chultun Mixed bulk lot 1 epicentre 27/187-002:4084 OP113 OP113-1 5 Habitation debris ceremonial (secondary) N/A bulk lot 3 epicentre 27/187-002:3919 53 53-1 4 Construction fill with rubble ceremonial (secondary) EC bulk lot 4 epicentre 27/187-002:3970 53 53-B/2 N/A Grave cist/partial EC bulk lot 2 epicentre

27/187-002:6150 126 AC 126AC-1 1 Humus domestic (secondary) LC bulk lot 69 site core to to to to to wwwt o ^ to wwwwtotototototototototototototototototototowH ~-4 -J -J -^J —J ^ 5 ^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 00 00 00 00 00 So" 2 So" oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo -J --J -J -0 <1 4 r" era "r o o o o o oooooooooooooooooooooooooo o L3 © o o o o oooooooooooooooop, to to to to J tO p tO tOt o s. to to to totototototototototototototototo^ OS OS OS OS <-* r *. ifc. 4^ 4^ jl os <-* ji. Lrt <-rt V/i <»/i OS l/i Ui Ui Vi l/i tO tO 4^ 4^ 4^ Ui >- yi ^ ui 4^ u 4^ W W U M OJ L. 4i 4*- -O. ^- tO IO OO -O 00 OO OS K) M ^D U\ W OS O O 00 O VO o i- 4i \D ^ W JUi * W O VO Z L* U 00 0O >sj OS H- V0 © 00 4^ O O tv» W 4i OS M 0O -v) W H- -J O U> O O 4^ OJ OS O t— •o o -o W W W >J M +. W s] 00 C\ 00 W <-rt OS tO i—' OS 4a. ^ 00 tO H- -J • oo vo o to o

2 2 S S S , -O -J. -O. -O. O ps 70 pa ft fi IM OOOOOOOO \o vo vo vo vo vo OOOOOOOOSINJVJ^JNJSI-SJ-SJ vi vi m x/i m BO VO'-«<~'i<-«Lrt4^4^W WHMOOOM>J^O\OVOVyi w w to to i—• •fc -fc t -t w VO 00 -J OS OS OS kkkkk c a a a a a 5 > > > > > SJ H- I— •— P— O/O/OO/O 22S \rj VO VD J i OO ?= ?c ?d a^- ^ O O O "T • H tO tO H- CO CO CO i.^ Z_i -J —• — ^ IXo S ^ ^ ^ ,9 -2^1^^:^X < < < ^ S r r -i> > > > > > > > > >

-U U» U> H- ^. K> I- + >— 4i w W u u to *• -^ ^1 03 „ s « - - > a tfl > a o > tfl tfl o > j -3« O os d

o o o

Cp j X ES O

itati o itati o I T

Floo r Floo r o stru c Hu n Hu n Hu n Slu i VI^ 1 I ffisS3s- a a rav e to I III fil l fill fill HI 3 a.1 sr a = §_ g « $ 2 2

o r» n o rem o rem o rem o CL O.E r^ Q- CL n O. Q. G- >i re ro re ro om e a. om e Cl- om e o. o. o. a. a- a- o. a. a. a. a. em o a- a- o- a. u. o o O o o o o o o o o o o O o p! 3 3 3° 1P 3 R 3 3 =5 EJ 3 3 3 3 B 3 o 3 3 3 3 3 fl> 1 ft m rip>( fn rt> fl> CO a> ru ri) c fl) rt- rt re 9111 0 9U1 0 OUI9 J R yp t ti c yp t £• <^ p-t is. s-*. fD 3 & Cl' n' o" o O o o ci ci I o n C5 c o a o O o o o to ^n . d 3 C) c o BU I BU I BU I S' w en VI VI fl n r\> r\> o n n ci i o r; o o o o n o c o O rt o T1 n o n< ro re a n =i f> n O o o O O o o o o o o o O O O o o O o ro o o o o o -n O o 3 K 3 3 3 3 re 3 3 o o^ s os . O. D. o. a. a. o. G. a- a- 3 a. a Vslt ^? 9 U 3 a. a. a. —a . a E2 to ts 1 J» Si w to ta P u a a> a. ex a. o. to ••< » &= ^ ••< to & ^ ^ ^ ^<^ F ^ ^ *< v: ^< ^ v; ^ *< ^< •< ^ *-< ^< ^ ^ ^ ^ *< '-<

W S W W „SrrrHrnr ^d ^> ^0 *^ 0000000 ooQooooooooooooooooooooooo o d o o Oo

- - - o-o-o-o-cro-cro- a a o cr cc_ccc_cc_c_c_ ffffTtr ?T fT 7? 7T ""IIIIIII - a" e &" a" w^ \^ w^ w^ ^< \v ^^ ^< '^"O'Q'Q'P'Q'Q'Q'Q'O'O*^^ ^< ^i ^< ^< ^< ^< ^< ^< ^^ ^^ ^j*. o*o'o"o"o"o*o"ro S'o'o'a'ss*

J!> g 00 >-• W I W N) 1-* M h-* W rONJUlMO-J.-^MWhJ.-hONJ^^N.^^^^M^M^,-.

VJVJVlVlViVlViViVi V1VIV)V1V!V!V1V!V)VIV1V1V1V1V1 > > > > > > > > > s 2 50 fa 4^ U> U> w w — •*. — w IO »- 5? 1- ^ — to *- ui ^. > > > > CD O Cd > S a O >

CO

H 3 a io n T1 •n T1 CO >n 00 2 o" _ -a 3

"2. 3 3 3 0 O 0 O rav e

fill \ £ W O

rfi l rfi l rfi l ^ Orfi l S S

H) n> aaaaaaa §- g. g- g. g. §- g. g- g- g- g. g- §- g. g. g. 11 1 g- 00000000000003 0000000 3 3 3 3 3 3 g 3 3 3 n 3 U I 3 33535333333331 3 3 3 3 3 3 -C-i 0 ri> fi> ru m ne>n S3. w S3. S3. S3- 23- t/j r/j V) r/i S2.S3.S3-SQ-S3^SS.S2-S3-S3.S2.S3-S3-S3-"i ft o s a '/) '/> 52. 2. 2. 2. c 0 0 0 0 0 0 O o" o' o' o' o" c" o' o' o" ^ 0' o' o' o' o" o' c' o' o' o' c' o' n" S" S' S" 0 0 0 0 0 n n /—y ^-v ^^v ^~N /—N ^—v S-- /^ ^^. "13 C/3 CO Cfi en to en en en enent/iWJWcoiyicnenS vi en en w tfienweflinenenen en en en tn en t/5 0 O) CD 0 CO CD ft(P(l(PCi(lO(li en fO f& fD fD fD 0c 0 O 0n> O O OOOOCJOOO C ft) O O O fl 0re O 0re 0 0c 0 O aO O O O 000000000 0000000000008 80 8 S JO Ci O O O O O O O s 3 13 =3 13 3 3 o o o p g 3 5 3 p 3 O —O O 3 3 3 3 3 Cu Q* O- Q. O- Q. 3 3 O. »a- &a3- &5 as 5 as a a a. P a a fi as as BaS as as £S as as 8? < e t -n » llllllll lllllllllllll •< <^%-v;'-<'^ <:'^;^< ^ *<^ •< Q *<*<

B S r s s s s s W H H H O 0 0 0 0 0 0 H ^3 13 2- 3 S O O 0r O 0r •d -a o o •0 r H r r r r t- no^oo^^oo^o^ o O O O O B 0 O 0 0 0 0 0

o"0"o"a-a-a*a-a-o-a-a-a'a-a* llllllllll llllllllllllll,^ ?r X ?r ?r aaaaaaaasasaassas OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQOQOPOOQOQ

HHPHrOCJlpM H» ^ l-» 1-^ l-» roi-»i-*i->i-»h-*^Lni-»cnJiJhJi-* a 1-

noooDfsorsOO 0 0 O 0 O O n O O 0 c 0 C 0 0 O O O OOOOOOOOOOO O O O 0 O O O O O O 0 O O 0 0 O O O OOOOOOOOOO 33333333333 =3 £ £ •-i CfDfDfDfDfDfDfDfDfDCtJfefDftiOJfDfefDfDO) re fD fD 2 fD fD fD fD fD re fD fD n> ft fD o> fD fD asasasasaspasasasasasasasas pppppppp P P P as P P P P P P P P p P P rjivivivirfsvirfivi e»5 en VI en tn en en en 3 cn en en VJ eficotncnenenwenwcnwfJy!^ » « « 00 U3 190

APPENDIX D Catalogue of Associations and Average Measurements

AVERAGE AV. APERTURE CATALOGUE ASSOCIATED AVG. HEIGHT WIDTH WIDTH NUMBER STR. UNIT LEVEL ARTIFACTS (CM) (CM) (CM) >ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, groundstone: 2 netate fragments, 4 mano fragments; chipped itone: 2 projectile points, 1 obsidian blade; 2 27/187-002:126 2A 2A-1A 2 quartz massive, 2 quartz crystal. N/A 1.6 1.2

27/187-002:428 2A 2A-1A 4 1 crab claw N/A 1 0.8 bulk: ceramics, faunal; groundstone: 1 mano iagment, many raw slate fragments; chipped stone: 6 obsidian blade fragments, 1 thin 27/187-002:88 3A 3A-1 IB biface; 1 Olive shell tinkler. N/A 1.4 1.1

bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal (bird bone, 3 burnt mammal bones, 1 shell tinkler); roundstone: 9 raw slate pieces, 1 basalt mano fragment; chipped stone: 1 thin biface, 4 27/187-002:136 3A 3A-1 2 obsidian blades. 3.2 1.4 1.1 tulk: lithics, faunal; groundstone: 16 raw slate ieces, 2 metate fragments, 3 mano fragments; :hipped stone: 2 thin bifaces,l obsidian blade 27/187-002:843 3A 3A-1A 5 fragment; 1 quartz massive. 1.9 1 0.9

1 pair of crab claws, 1 mano fragment, 1 27/187-002:956 3A 3A-1A 6 quartz crystal, 1 worked potsherd. 2.1 1.1 1 faunal: 1 pair of crab claws; groundstone: 1 mano fragment; 1 quartz crystal, 1 worked 27/187-002:1190 3A 3A-2 4C potsherd. N/A 1.4 1 bulk: ceramics, lithics; groundstone: 10 raw slate pieces; chipped stone: 1 chert blade, 1 fragmented jade bead (from burial 3A-B/1 27/187-002:739 3A N/A Looters above?). N/A 1.2 1 tulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 5 raw slate pieces, 1 mano fragment; 1 quartz 27/187-002:1336 4A 4A-1 1 crystal. N/A 1.4 1.1 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 75 raw slate pieces, 12mano fragments, 2 granite grooved sphere fragments, 3 raw granite fragments, 5 metate fragments; ihipped stone: 1 chert thick biface, 8 obsidian •lade fragments; 1 quartzite pounding stone, 1 quartz massive, 1 quartz crystal, 1 worked 27/187-002:1837 4A 4A-1 3 ceramic potsherd. 2 1.1 0.9

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 27/187-002:1923 4A 4A-1 5 raw granite piece, 2 raw slate pieces. N/A 1.2 0.9 192

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 metate fragment, 2 mano fragments, 1 27/187-002:175 9A 9A-1 2 grooved sphere. 3 1.3 1

27/187-002:962 12A 12A-1A 3 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal. N/A 0.7 0.8 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 6 raw slate pieces, 3 mano fragments, 2 raw granite fragments, 3 metate fragments, 1 raw hematite; chipped stone: 1 obsidian blade; 3 27/187-002:461 9A 9A-2 IB quartz massive. N/A 1.5 1.2

)ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, groundstone: 5 27/187-002:588 9A 9A-2 2 slate fragments. N/A 1.3 1 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 slate pieces, 2 metate fragments, 1 rubbing stone, 1 mosaic piece, 1 jade bead; chipped :tone: 4 blades, 2 chippedstone flakes, 1 thick 27/187-002:840 7A 7A-2 3 biface; 2 quartz crystals. N/A 1.2 0.8 nrlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 mano fragment, 4 raw slate pieces, 1 basalt rubbing stone; 1 oliva shell tinkler, 3 quartz 27/187-002:2885 40J 40J-1 1A crystal, 1 speleothem. N/A 1.2 0.9

bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, human; rroundstone: 1 slate piece, 1 hematite mosaic 27/187-002:2448 41K 41K-1 1 piece, 40 jade beads; 6 ceramic vessels. N/A N/A N/A bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, human; 1 ceramic vessel, 1 quartz crystal, 4 carved 27/187-002:3736 46M 46M-1 2A teeth. N/A N/A N/A

27/187-002:3979 46M 46M-2A 3D bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal. N/A N/A N/A mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 9 aw slate pieces, 1 raw granite piece; chipped stone: 3 obsidian blades; 1 speleothem, 1 27/187-002:3945 47M 47M-1 3B quartz massive, 1 quartz crystal. N/A N/A N/A

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 piece of raw granite, 1 mano fragment, 1 metate fragment; 1 quartz massive, 1 quartz 27/187-002:4142 47M 47M-1A 3C crystal. N/A N/A N/A )ulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 sark beater, 2 raw granite fragments, 2 metate ragments, 3 raw basalt pieces, 2 slate pieces; chipped stone: 2 obsidian blades, 3 chert 27/187-002:3870 121M 47M-2A 3B flakes, 1 obsidian flake, 1 obsidian biface. N/A N/A N/A

27/187-002:3997 121M 47M-2A 3C N/A N/A N/A }ulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 raw slate piece; chipped stone: worked chert 27/187-002:4080 48M 48M-2C 4A flakes; 1 quartz crystal. N/A N/A N/A

ulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; chipped stone: 2 27/187-002:35 OP 100 OP100-1 1A chippedstone flakes. N/A 1.4 1.1 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; 1 quartz 27/187-002:2367 OP106 106-1 2 massive. 2.5 1.1 0.7 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 pounding stone; chipped stone: 1 obsidian •lade, 1 chipped stone flake, 1 biface; 1 quartz 27/187-002:3934 OP112 112-1 1A crystal. N/A 1.3 0.8 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 nano fragments, 48 raw slate pieces; chipped stone: 43 obsidian blades, 2 utilized flakes; 27 quartz crystal, 1 piece of coral, 1 ceramic 27/187-002:4049 OP112 112-1 2 figurine, 1 shell adorno, 1 spindle whorl. 2.8 1.1 0.8

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; chipped stone: 1 obsidian blade; 1 quartz crystal, 1 quartz 27/187-002:4048 OPU2 112-1 Burial 112-B/l flake. N/A 1 N/A

mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, groundstone: 1 27/187-002:4084 OP113 0P113-1 5 slate piece; 5 quartz crystals. N/A 1 0.8 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, human; groundstone: slate capstone, 3 slate pieces, 4 jade beads; chipped stone: 2 obsidian blades; 27/187-002:3919 53 53-1 4 3 quartz crystals. N/A 1 0.7 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; chipped stone: 27/187-002:3970 53 53-B/2 N/A 5 obsidian blades. 19 1 0.9

mlk: ceramics, faunal; groundstone: 3 metate 27/187-002:6150 126AC 126AC-1 1 fragments, chipped stone: 1 thin biface. N/A 1.2 0.8 bulk: lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 slate 27/187-002: 5071 101AQ 101AQ-1A 3A piece. N/A 1.2 N/A imlk: ceramics, hthics,faunal; groundstone: 2 metate fragments; chipped stone: 2 blade 27/187-002:4902 172AQ 172AQ-1A 3 pieces; 1 incised stone piece, burial. N/A 0.8 N/A

)ulk: human; groundstone: 1 mano fragment; 27/187-002:5038 172AQ 172AQ-1A Burial 172AQ-B/1 1 ceramic vessel, 1 partial ceramic vessel. N/A 1 0.8 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 3 mano fragments, 1 grooved sphere piece, 7 ate pieces, 1 pounding stone piece, 1 rubbing tone piece, 1 metate fragment; chipped stone: 27/187-002:4805 173AQ 173AQ-1 1 2 blade pieces; 1 quartz massive. N/A 1.2 1 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal, human; groundstone: 1 mano fragment, 1 raw granite piece, 1 slate piece, 1 raw basalt piece, 2 rubbing stone pieces, 2 syenite pieces, 1 metate fragment; chipped stone: 1 projectile )oint piece, 4 blade pieces, 1 quartz crystal, 1 27/187-002:5074 173AQ 173AQ-1A 3A quartz massive. N/A 1.1 0.8 iulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; chipped stone: 1 )bsidian blade, 2 pieces of obsidian shatter; 1 27/187-002:1016 84P 84P-1 Burial 84P-B/1 quartz crystal. N/A 1 0.7 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 slate piece, 1 raw granite piece; 1 worked 27/187-002:5631 75S 75S-1A 4A bone piece, 1 quartz crystal. N/A 1.4 1 bulk: (high frequency of bulk ceramics) itliics, faunal; groundstone: 12 slate pieces, 4 metate fragments, 2 mano fragments, 2 rubbing stones, 1 pounding stone, 1 spindle 27/187-002:4372 76S 76S-1 1 whorl; chipped stone: 6 obsidian blade N/A 1.1 1 194

fragments, 2 thin bifaces, 1 thick biface, 4 quartz crystals, 1 quartz massive.

)ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal (ljute shell and 1 unidentified shell); groundstone: 1 slate piece, 2 rubbing stones; chipped stone: 3 obsidian blade fragments; 3 quartz crystals, 1 27/187-002:4686 76S 76S-1A 3B piece of worked bone. N/A 1 N/A

tulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 slate piece; chipped stone: 1 thin biface; 1 27/187-002:4915 76S 76S-1A 4D quartz crystal. N/A 1.1 0.9 >ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 mano fragments, 1 metate fragment, 1 slate piece, chipped stone: 1 burin, 4 utilized chert flakes, 1 thin biface, 2 obsidian blade 27/187-002:2163 77S 77S-1 3A fragments; 2 speleothems. N/A 1.3 N/A

bulk: oeramics, lithics, faunal (jute and intrusive rat); groundstone: slate capstone, 9 late pieces-likely part of capstone, jade bead; chipped stone: 1 obsidian blade fragment, 2 utilized chert flakes; drilled conch shell 27/187-002:2248 77S 77S-2 Burial 77S-B/1 pendant. N/A 1.3 1.1 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 metate fragments, 1 mano fragment, 1 basalt pounding stone, 1 pestle, 4 slate pieces; chipped stone: 4 obsidian blade fragments, 5 27/187-002:5636 78S 78S-1A 4A thin bifaces, 1 thick biface; 1 quartz crystal. 2 0.9 0.8

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal, human; rroundstone: 4 slate pieces, 3 rubbing stones; shipped stone: 1 thin biface; 1 piece of quartz 27/187-002:5858 78S 78S-1A 4C crystal. 2.8 1.1 1 iulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 slate pieces, 2 metate fragments, 1 grooved sphere, 1 stone scraper, chipped stone: 1 thin biface, 3 obsidian blade fragments; 1 quartz 27/187-002:5807 80S 80S-1 1 massive. N/A 1.4 1.1

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 tetate fragments, 1 slate piece, chipped stone: 27/187-002:5705 81S 81S-1 2B 1 obsidian blade fragment. 3.5 1.4 1.3 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 slate pieces, 4 raw granite pieces, 3 metate ragments, 1 mano fragment; chipped stone: 1 obsidian blade fragment; 2 quartz crystals, 1 27/187-002:5844 81S 81S-1 3B quartz massive, 1 small worked bone. 3.7 1.4 1.2 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 11 slate pieces, 1 pounding stone, 2 raw Tanite pieces; chipped stone: 5 obsidian blade fragments, 2 thin bifaces, 1 thick biface, 1 27/187-002:6281 83S 83S-1A 3A quartz crystal. 2.9 1 0.9 195

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 3 slate pieces, 8 metate fragments, 1 mano fragment, 1 complete mano, 1 adze, 1 pounding stone, 1 raw granite piece; chipped stone: 2 obsidian blade fragments; 1 27/187-002:5207 177S 177S-1 1 speleothem piece, 4 quartz crystals. N/A 1.2 N/A bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 mano fragments, 1 hematite piece, 1 mosaic piece, 1 slate piece; chipped stone: several 27/187-002:5193 96U 96U-1 1 blades. 2.5 1.2 0.7

27/187-002:5713 96U 96U-1A Burial 96U-B/1 bulk: ceramics,faunal (mainly jute). 1.3 0.9 0.6 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal (mainly jute), scattered human remains; groundstone: everal metate fragments, 7 mano fragments, 1 adze, 1 pounding stone, 1 grooved sphere, 7 raw granite pieces, 9 slate pieces; chipped stone: 12 blades; 4 quartz crystals, 1 shell 27/187-002:5463 96U 96U-1A 3C tinkler. 1.8 1 0.9

)ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 4 rubbing stone pieces, 2 metate fragments, 2 slate pieces, 1 pounding stone piece; chipped stone: 4 thin biface pieces, 4 blade pieces; 3 27/187-002:4670 97U 97U-1 1 quartz crystals, 1 quartz massive, 2.6 1.1 0.9

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 4 27/187-002:5082 98U 98U-1A 3B slate pieces. N/A 1 0.9 )ulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 4 slate fragments, 4 mano fragments, 1 metate iagment, 1 pounding stone; chipped stone: 3 27/187-002:6780 99U 99U-1 1 blades. N/A 1.4 1 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 4 netate fragments, 1 unclassified groundstone piece, 2 raw granite pieces, 10 mano iagments, 1 pounding stone; chipped stone: 8 late pieces, 1 blade piece; 2 quartz massive, 3 27/187-002:4559 103V 103V-1 2 speleothem pieces. 2 0.9 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 9 metate fragments, 1 mano, 8 raw granite pieces, 10 mano fragments, 4 slate pieces, 1 hematite piece, 2 pounding stone pieces, 2 rubbing stone pieces; chipped stone: 3 blade 27/187-002:4707 103V 103V-1 3 pieces. N/A 1.3 1.1 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 9 metate fragments, 1 raw granite piece, 10 mano fragments, 1 slate piece, 1 grooved sphere piece, 1 pounding stone piece, 1 27/187-002:4551 104 V 104V-1A 3 rubbing stone piece; 1 quartz crystal. N/A 0.8 N/A

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 27/187-002:4578 104V 104V-1A 4 slate pieces, chipped stone: 1 blade piece. N/A 0.9 N/A mlk: ceramics, lithicss, faunal; groundstone: 5 mano fragments, 1 raw granite piece, 7 slate pieces, 2 pounding stone pieces, 2 rubbing stone pieces, 2 unclassified groundstone Wrong Cat. No. 105V 105V-1 1 pieces, 1 groundstone mirror, 1 hematite N/A 1.6 0.9 196

piece, 2 groundstone mosaic pieces; chipped stone: 1 chipped stone flake, 1 blade piece, 1 projectile point piece; 1 quartz massive, 1 shell tinkler. bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 raw granite piece, 4 slate pieces, 1 pounding stone piece, 1 rubbing stone piece; cliipped stone: 6 blade pieces; 7 quartz crystals, 1 27/187-002:3977 105V 105V-1A 3C speleothem piece, 1 shell tinkler. N/A 1 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 mano fragments, 1 raw granite piece, 2 slate pieces, 1 chipped stone chatter piece, 1 jounding stone piece, 5 rubbing stone pieces, 1 grooved sphere piece, 1 metate fragment; chipped stone: 4 blade pieces, 1 projectile point piece; 2 quartz crystals, 1 worked bone 27/187-002:4507 105V 105V-1A 3D piece, 2 worked shell pieces. 2 1.1 0.9

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 nano fragment, 1 slate piece, 1 chipped stone ;hatter piece, chipped stone: 3 blade pieces; 1 27/187-002:4652 105V 105V-1A 4A worked bone piece, 1 shell tinkler. 3.9 1.1 1

bulk: ceramics,faunal; groundstone: 2 mano fragments, 1 hematite piece, 1 slate piece; No cat. U 109X 109X-1 2 chippedstone: 1 thick biface, 1 thinbiface. N/A 1.1 0.9

27/187-002:5955 110X 110X-1A 3 N/A 1.2 0.9 .w 4^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^!^l^^ ^mmm *)ulkt : ceramics*'*MmG#4mmmmmmMMmmmmMMMmmmmm, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 slate pieces, 3 basalt pieces, 3 mano ragments, 1 pounding stone, 1 spindle whorl; 27/187-002:5831 MRS2-M1 MRS2-M1-1 1+2 chipped stone: 3 blades; 1 quartz crystal. N/A 1.6 1.2

mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 hematite piece; chipped stone: 2 blades; 3 27/187-002:6390 MRS4-M1 MRS4-M1-1 1 quartz crystals. 3.4 1.4 1.1 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 hematite pieces, 2 slate pieces, 2 metate fragments, 1 bark beater; chippedstone: 1 flake, 2 blades, 1 projectile point, 2 27/187-002:6396 MRS4-M1 MRS4-M1-1 2 speleothems, 1 quartz crystal. N/A 1.4 1.1 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, groundstone: 2 metate fragments, 1 mano fragment, 3 raw granite pieces, 1 slate piece, 2 scrapers, 2 rubbing stones, 1 pounding stone, chipped 27/187-002:6543 MRS4-M1 MRS4-M1-1A 3A stone: 1 blade, 2 flakes. 3.7 1.5 1.2

mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; 13 slate pieces, 3 mano fragments, 1 blade, 1 quartz massive, 27/187-002:6414 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1 1 1 rubbing stone. 3.2 1.2 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 nano fragments, 1 metate fragment, 1 rubbing stone, I pounding stone, 1 slate; chipped 27/187-002:6455 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1 2 ;tone: 2 blades; 1 shell tinkler, 1 worked shell 2.7 1.2 1 197

piece.

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 4 mano fragments, 3 slate pieces, 1 polishing 27/187-002:6522 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1A 3A stone, chipped stone: 2 blades, 1 scraper. N/A 1.3 1

27/187-002:6678 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1A 3C bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal. N/A 0.8 0.6 27/187-002:6681 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1A 4 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal. 1.6 1.1 0.8 27/187-002:6767 MRS4-M2 MRS4-M2-1A 5 only 1 jute, likely from level 4. N/A N/A N/A small ceramic figurine head, 1 speleothem, 3 perforated potsherd disks, incensario fragments (some decorated with the jaguar 27/187-002:2854 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3 1 pelt motif). N/A 1.2 1

27/187-002:2923 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3 2 incensario fragments. N/A 1.8 1.2 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: several slate pieces; chipped stone: several 27/187-002:3092 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3 3B obsidian blade fragments. N/A N/A N/A 27/187-002:3220 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3A 4 only jute. N/A N/A N/A 2 individuals, 2 conch shell adomos (in proximity to skull); chipped stone: 1 obsidian 27/187-002:3025 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3 MRS4-M3-B/1 blade fragment; 1 quartz. N/A N/A N/A

27/187-002:3010 MRS4-M3 MRS4-M3-3 3A only jute. N/A N/A N/A

)ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 slate pieces; chipped stone: 2 thin bifaces, 1 27/187-002:6688 MRS4-M4 MRS4-M4-1 1+2 blade, 1 thick biface. 1.8 1 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 late pieces, 1 rubbing stone; chipped stone: 2 27/187-002:6403 MRS4-M5 MRS4-M5-1 1 scrapers, 2 blades. N/A 1.4 1.2 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 groundstone bead, 1 rubbing stone, 1 raw granite piece, 1 slate piece, 1 sling stone; shipped stone: 3 blades, 1 thick biface; 1 shell 27/187-002:6428 MRS4-M5 MRS4-M5-1 2 tinkler. N/A 1.4 1.1

bulk: ceramics, faunal; groundstone: 1 27/187-002:6658 MRS4-M5 MRS4-M5-1A 3B hematite piece, 1 mano fragment, 1 scraper. N/A 0.9 N/A

bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; 5 quartz 27/187-002:6661 MRS4-M5 MRS4-M5-1A 3C crystals. N/A 1 N/A bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal (small, broken jute included in the matrix), groundstone: 1 slate piece; chipped stone: 1 blade; 1 quartz 27/187-002:6669 MRS4-M5 MRS4-M5-1A 4 crystal. 2 1.2 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 sounding stones, 2 metate fragments; chipped ;tone: 2 macro blades, 2 blades, 1 unclassfied hipped stone, 1 projectile point, 1 thin biface; 1 shell tinkler, 1 quartz crystal, 1 mosaic 27/187-002:6649 MRS4-M6 MRS4-M6-1 1+2 piece. N/A 1.2 1 198

mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 5 netate fragments, 1 pounding stone; chipped 27/187-002:6711 MRS4-M6 MRS4-M6-1 3A stone: 3 blades. 2.5 1.3 1

mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 27/187-002:6682 MRS4-M7 MRS4-M7-1 1+2 nortar; chipped stone: 5 blades, 1 thin biface. 2 1.5 1.3 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 slate piece, 1 rubbing stone, 1 raw granite )iece; chipped stone: 2 blades; 1 worked bone 27/187-002:6768 MRS4-M7 MRS4-M7-1 3B piece. 3.6 1.3 0.9 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 nibbing stones, 1 mano fragment; chipped 27/187-002:7001 MRS15-M1 MRS15-M1-1 3A stone: 1 thin biface. 2.7 1.2 1 bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 1 mano fragment; chipped stone: 1 obsidian 27/187-002:7046 MRS15-M1 MRS15-M1-1A 4A blade. N/A 1.1 1 >ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 raw basalt piece, 2 raw slate pieces; chipped 27/187-002:7324 MRS15-M1 MRS15-M1-1A 5 stone: obsidian blade. 3.2 1.3 1.2 lulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal, chipped stone: 1 obsidian blade, 3 obsidian flakes; 4 quartz 27/187-002:7380 MRS15-M2 MRS15-M2-1A MRS15-M2-B/1 crystals. 2 1 0.7

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; chipped stone: 27/187-002:7150 MRS15-M2 MRS15-M2-3 1 1 obsidian blade. N/A 1 N/A mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 27/187-002:7356 MRS15-M3 MRS15-M3-1 3A basalt rubbing stone. N/A 2 1.4 julk: ceramics, lithics.faunal; groundstone: 1 andesite adze, 1 spindle whorl, 1 serpentine idze, 1 celt, 1 raw slate piece, chipped stone: 1 chert macroblade, 2 obsidian blades; 1 27/187-002:6974 MRS15-M5 MRS15-M5-1 1 quartz crystal. 2.3 1.1 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groivndstone: 1 mano fragment, 1 raw andesite piece, 4 raw granite pieces, 3 raw slate pieces, 1 worked 27/187-002:7106 MRS15-M5 MRS15-M5-1A 3C slate piece, 1 rubbing stone. N/A 2 1.4

mlk ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 27/187-002:6926 MRS22-M1 MRS22-M1-1 1 metate fragment. N/A 1.2 0.9 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 6 slate fragments, 4 metate fragments, 1 raw granite piece, 1 mano fragment, 2 pounding tones; chipped stone: 2 blades, 1 thick biface; 27/187-002:6899 MRS22-M1 MRS22-M1-1 2 1 quartz crystal. 2.9 1.4 1

milk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 8 27/187-002:6896 MRS22-M1 MRS22-M1-1A 3A slate pieces, 1 rubbing stone. N/A 1.6 1.2 3ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 metate fragment, 1 rubbing stone; chipped 27/187-002:6881 MRS22-M2 MRS22-M2-1 1+2 stone: 4 blades. 3 1.3 1 27/187-002:6880 MRS22-M2 MRS22-M2-1A 3A bulk: ceramics, faunal. 3.2 1.4 1 bulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 19 raw granite pieces, 5 mano fragments, 1 basalt piece, 1 rubbing stone, 3 metate 27/187-002:5620 MRS43-M1 MRS43-M1-1 1+2 fragments, 2 pounding stones, 4 slate pieces; N/A 1.4 1.2 199

chipped stone: 3 blades, 2 quartz crystals. mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 2 rietate fragments, 1 adze, 2 rubbing stones, 1 mano fragment, 2 raw granite pieces, 4 slate >ieces; chipped stone: 2 blades, 1 thick biface, 27/187-002:5684 MRS43-M1 MRS43-M1-1 3A 1 projectile point. 2.6 1.4 1.2

bulk: ceramics, lithics,faunal; groundstone: 2 nano fragments, 2 rubbing stones, 1 raw slate piece, 1 raw granite piece, 1 pounding stone; 27/187-002:7091 MRS63-M1 MRS63-M1-1 3 chipped stone: 2 obsidian blades. 1.7 0.9 0.8

27/187-002:7283 MRS86-M1 MRS86-M1-1 1 bulk: ceramics, faunal. N/A 1.2 1 Dulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 3 slate pieces, 1 worked slate piece, 1 mano fragment; chipped stone: 1 thin biface, 2 27/187-002:6203 MRS89-M1 MRS89-M1-1A 3A blades; 1 quartz crystal, 2 quartz massive. N/A 1.2 0.9

>ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; chipped stone: 27/187-002:6331 MRS89-M3 MRS89-M3-1 1 1 thin biface. N/A 1.4 1.1 )ulk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; groundstone: 1 mano fragment, 1 metate fragment, 1 slate 27/187-002:6433 MRS89-M3 MRS89-M3-1 3A piece; 1 quartz massive. 3.3 1.4 1.2 mlk: ceramics, lithics, faunal; grounsdstone: 1 thick biface, chipped stone: 1 basalt piece, 1 raw granite piece, 13 slate pieces; 5 quartz 27/187-002:6353 MRS89-M4 MRS89-M4-1A 3A crystals. N/A 1.7 1.3 200

APPENDIX E 1. Frequency Histogram: Terminal Preclassic

TERMINAL PRECLASSIC

5U

40 -• • ~ >• u J • '•' C 30 [ 01 !••••} 3 ; i 20 (•;• 1

io ••; n r. \ 0 -;-!- L-^J... 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.4 3-7 Shell Length

Terminal Preclassic A' ,100 1000 800 \ 600 ; 400 r Frequenc y 200 -; o : 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1,5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 Shelf Width

Terminal Preclassic

2r 5*0 I 400

*** 2'>. 10»

1 l.i 1.1 1.3? 1.4 1.5 1.6 Aperture Width 1. Frequency Histogram: Early Classic

Early Classic

20 <= 15 at XJ 3 5" io

U ' 13 1.7 2.1 2,5 2.9 33 3.7

She!) Length

Early Classic

IbQ u ! C a> i 3 100 -

i U. SO

| 0 =->.-..<• i ; ; i . '—•• ..-^..-.,

f 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1 | Shell Width i

Early Classic 150

c 100 3 U 9 50

0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 Aperture Width 2. Frequency Histogram: Middle Classic/Late Classic

Middle Classic/Late Classic

g ^ i f 2 n 4" 1,1 u 13 14 15 1.6 Shell Width

IVltelciie Class ic/Late Classic

p?

i 1 2 1 '•••' i !. •'! :'"1 n '-•-•-—'••• ->• ~. -.-'h-^ —.•*•*——• • •- ~^-Y" -• .- • :*+-!-;^ —t". • E c' .,.„.-.,--_. \ O.i'f 1 1,2 13 14 Aperture Width 204

3. Frequency Histogram: Late Classic

Late Classic so -,

S 40 -; - i

i 20 i • :j

0 4^._-™-J=sa_i™:--X-^-: ^ZU,., , ..,..._ 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2 2.3 2.6

Shell Width

Late Classic

Aperture Width 4. Frequency Histogram: Late Classic/Terminal Classic

Late Classic/Terminal Classic 50 40 c 30 20 10 0 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 13 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Shell Width

Late Classic/Terminal Classic

40 30 2$ ie 5

0.7 0.5 0.5 1 1.1 1.2 1,5 1.4 15 1.6 i.I" Aperture Width 206

5. Frequency Histogram: Terminal Classic

Terminal Classic

60 40 ! 20

1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 33 3.7 4.1

Shell length

Terminal Classic

100

GO I 40 20

0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 Shell Width

Terminal Classic 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Aperture Width 6. Frequency Histogram: Early Postclassic

Early Postclassic

50 : >. 40 -. 5 30 ; . „ ; | 20 > \ i "- 10 -? 1

n -'• J [.. —-""•***-- \j 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 Shell Width

Early Postclassic

at 30 tr 20 0) 10 0 0.7 0.9 1.1 1,3 1.5 1.7 1.8 Aperture Width 7. Frequency Histogram: Macal River

Ma caf River

r

o n ! Frequenc y ! 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.7 4.1 Shell Height 3.3

Macal River 60

; w 20 • : r— ; it

: J f L 0 •-•—" — —-'"-~-~ ~- - —- ™ —••• - - —'--' — 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 I Shell Width

Macal River

30 •-,

<>j • r; ;n ••'• dJ 3 CT 10 J V* U- 0 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1,5 209

8. Frequency Histogram: Martz Farm Sample 1.

Martz Farm Sample 1 15 g W 3 « 5

1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 Shell Height

Martz Farm Sample I

zu 2>: 10

£ 0 ).6 0. 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1..8 Shell Width

Martz Farm Sample 1

15 10

£ 0 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 Shell Aperture Width 9. Frequency Histogram: Martz Farm Sample 2.

Martz Farm Sample 2

20 § 10 er £ 0 1,2 1.6 2 2.4 2,8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 Shed Height

Martz Farm Sample 2 |

n —• I

0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 13 1.5 1.7 ;•

Shell Width

Martz Farm Sample 2 40 I 20 £ 10 0 3.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5

Shell Aperture width 211

APPENDIX F PERMISSION FOR IMAGE REPRODUCTION (electronic authorization)

1. Figure 3. Nephronaias sp. Image Replicated from: Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory, edited by Kitty Emery, pp. 125-140. Monograph 51, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles. From: Charles Stanish To: [email protected] Cc: [email protected] Date: 02/08/10 12:00 pm Subject: Re: permission to use image in master's thesis Dear Wendy, Indeed feel free to use the image. Charles Stanish Professor, Department of Anthropology Director, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology 310-206-8934 or cell: 310-600-4607

2. Figure 5. Pachychilus indiorum and Pachychilus glaphyrus Image Replicated from: Jute (Pachychilus sp.,): A Discussion of the Physical Characteristics, Habitat Preferences, and Available Population. Ms. On file, Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto. From: Kitty Emery To: [email protected] Date: 02/09/10 05:31pm Subject: Re: jute research Hi Wendy, Yes, of course you may use my photos -just cite me as the photographer and cite the original source in the case of the ones from the ms. Kitty F. Emery, Ph.D. Assoc. Curator of Environmental Archaeology Florida Museum of Natural History, Dickinson Hall, Museum Road University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611-7800 352-273-1919 [email protected]

3. Figure 6 (Preparing jute for Consumption) and Figure 7 {Jute Soup). Image Courtesy of Kitty Emery From: Kitty Emery To: [email protected] Date: 02/09/10 05:31pm Subject: Re: jute research Hi Wendy, Yes, of course you may use my photos -just cite me as the photographer and cite the original source in the case of the ones from the ms. Kitty F. Emery, Ph.D. Assoc. Curator of Environmental Archaeology Florida Museum of Natural History, Dickinson Hall, Museum Road University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611-7800 352-273-1919 [email protected]

4. Figure 8. Bas-relief of "The King" in a cave setting from Chalcatzingo Image Replicated from: Ancient Mexico and Central America: Archaeology and Culture History by Susan Toby Evans. 1st Ed. Thames and Hudson, London. From: Naomi Pritchard To: [email protected] Date: 02/08/10 11:48 am Subject: Fwd: permission to reprint image Dear Wendy Solis Thank you for your email. As far as we are concerned we are pleased for you to include this line drawing in your thesis, provided you acknowledge our book, the author and ourselves as the publisher, as is customary. With best wishes for your thesis, Naomi Pritchard Permissions Dept. Thames & Hudson 181AHighHolborn London WC1V7QX UK 5. Figure 9. Modified Pachychilus shells from Uaxactun (B) Image Replicated from: The Artifacts of Uaxactun Guatemala by A. V. Kiddder. Carnegie Institution of Washington, publication 576. Washington, D.C. From: [email protected] To: wendy soli s@trentu. ca Cc: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Date: 02/08/10 09:27 am Subject: Re: permission to use image in master's thesis publication Greetings Carnegie has no objection to your use of the material as stated. Good luck with your thesis.