Abdulkadir Ali Hassan Zubeir

Germination Percentage and Rates of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Seeds Planted on Different Mixtures of Ant and Termite Nest-Mud

By Abdulkadir Ali Hassan Zubeir

B.Sc. in Microbiology, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science

International University of Africa, Khartoum, Sudan. (2013)

Postgraduate Diploma in Biosciences and Biotechnology, Center of

Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering and

Technology, University of Gezira, Sudan. (2014)

A Dissertation

Submitted to the University of Gezira in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of sciences

in Biosciences and Biotechnology (Biotechnology)

Center of Biosciences and Biotechnology

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Aug, 2017

Germination Percentage and Rates of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)

and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Seeds Planted on Different

Concentrations of Ant and Termite Nest-Mud

Abdulkadir Ali Hassan Zubeir

Supervision Committee

Name Position Signature

Dr. Mutaman Ali Abdalgadir Kehail Main Supervisor

……………….

Dr. Elnour Elamin Abdelrahman Co-Supervisor

………………..

Date of Examination: 2 - Aug - 2017

Germination Percentage and Rates of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Seeds Planted on Different Concentrations of Ant and Termite Nest-Mud

Abdulkadir Ali Hassan Zubeir

Examination Committee

Name Position Signature

Dr. Mutaman Ali Abdalgadir Kehail Chairperson

………………..

Prof. Elamin Mohamed Elamin External Examiner

………………..

Dr. Haroun Ismail Mahmoud Internal Examiner

………………..

Date of Examination: 2 - Aug - 2017

DEDICATION

I dedicate my humble effort this

To my dear father, the great tent to which I grew up under the years and taught

me patience and diligence .

To my dear mother is pure heart and sincere love contain kindness and illuminated

my life and taught me how to learn.

All brothers and sisters

All lecturers and all friends

My wife and my family

Who have supported this study especially.

I also dedicated this thesis to my family who has supported me all the way

since the beginning of my studies especially:

Hamida Ali, Deqa Omar, Janay Mohamed and Abdulrahim Mohamed.

I pray to God to prolong all their lives.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks to Allah who gave me the health and ability to achieve this humble study and with his will this achievement was properly completed. I would like to extend thanks to the many people, who so generously contributed to the work presented in this thesis. Special mention goes to my enthusiastic supervisor, Dr. Mutaman Ali Abdalgadir Kehail has been an amazing experience and he suggested this topic and I thank Dr.Mutaman whole-heartedly, not only for his tremendous academic support, but also for giving me so many wonderful opportunities and for his guided encouragement and advised throughout my research period.

I would also like to thank my co-supervisor Dr. Elnour Elamin Abdelrahman I also thank all my lecturers and all my friends and colleagues for their encouragement at the Center of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad-Medani, Sudan. My grateful thanks are due to all technicians, who allowed me to use their experimental facilities at Basic Sciences Laboratory, University of Gezira, Wad- Madani, Sudan. Finally I express my special thanks to Sudan government and Sudanese people especially in the University of Gezira, Wad-Madani, Sudan.

Germination Percentage and Rates of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Seeds Planted on Different Mixtures of Ant and Termite Nest-Mud Abdulkadir Ali Hassan Zubeir M.Sc. in Biosciences and biotechnology (Biotechnology), Aug, 2017 Abstract It was observed that, plants of any kind did not germinate on ant nest-mud or termite mud, in spite that, they composed mainly of normal soils glued with secretions of these insects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the germination percentage and rates of Eggplant and Okra seeds planted on different mixtures of ant and termite nest-mud. This study was conducted at the University of Gezira during autumn of 2016, where the weather was rainy and all conditions were very suitable for most plants to germinate and flourish well. Ant and termites nest-mud samples were brought from Elnishishiba area. Normal soil was also collected from the Experimental farm, University of Gezira. 250g of Okra (Khartimia) and Eggplant (Black Beauty) seeds were brought from the local market of Wad Medani City, and were used to test their germination percentages and rates on different mixtures of soil-mud mixtures. Each soil-mud mixture was put in aluminum-foil dish. A pure soil was taken as a control. In each dish, 40 seeds of each of okra and eggplant were added. From the second to the 9th day, the germination percentage and rates were calculated. The results of this study showed that: the best mixtures for Okra were 200 g ant-mud: 300 g normal soil, whereas, the best mixtures for Eggplant were 50:450, 250:250 and 300:00. The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.07 and 2.98 plants/day within the mixture of 200:300 and 250:250, respectively, while those of Eggplant were 3.68 and 3.57 plants/day within the mixtures of 250:250 and 300:00, respectively. The best mixtures for Okra were 50:450, 150:350, 300:00 and 100:400 termite-mud: normal soil, while that for Eggplant was 100:400. The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.05 and 2.70 plants/day within the termite mixture of 150:350 and 50:450, respectively (it was 2.63 in control), while that of Eggplant was 3.60 plants/day within the mixture of 100:400 (it was 3.32 in control). according to the available information , it can be concluded that, no relation was found yet between germination of any kind of plants on any termite-mud or ant-mud and their physical or

6 chemical compositions. the study recommended to use ant-mud and termite-mud to enhance germination in some plant seeds after making some intensive studies to handling the desired mixtures.

معدالت ونسبة إنبات بذور الباذنجان والبامية المزروعة على خلطات مختلفة من طين أعشاش النمل وال ره

عبدالقادر علي حسن زبير

ماجستير العلوم في العلوم والتقنية البيولوجية )تقنية بيولوجية( أغسطس، 7102

مخلص الدراسة

لىحظ أى الًتاداخ نٌ أي يىع لا دًتر غلى طٌٌ أغشاش الًهل أو الأزضه ، غلى السغو نٌ أيها دذمىى أساسا نٌ الذسةح الػادًح الذٍ ًذو لصقها ةإفساشاخ هرٍ الحشراخ. الهدف نٌ هرٍ الدزاسح هى دقٌٌو يستح ونػدلاخ إيتاخ ةروز التاذيخاى والتانٌح الهصزوغح غلى يسث نخذلفح نٌ طٌٌ أغشاش الًهل والأزضه. أحسًر هرٍ الدزاسح فٍ حانػح الخصًسج خلال خسًف غام 2016، حٌث الطقس نهطس وحهؼٌ الظسوف نًاستح حدا لهػظو الًتاداخ لذًتر ودصدهس ةشمل حٌد. دو حلث غًٌاخ أغشاش الًهل والأزضه الطًٌٌح نٌ نًطقح الًٌشٌشٌتح. لها دو حهؼ الذسةح الطتػٌٌح نٌ الهصزغح الذخسًتٌح، حانػح الخصًسج. دو حلث ةروز التانٌح )خسطىنٌه( والتاذيخاى )ةلاك ةٌىدٍ( نٌ السىق الهحلٍ لهدًًح ود نديٍ، واسذخدنر لاخذتاز يسث إيتادها ونػدلادها غلى يسث نخذلفح نٌ خلٌط الذسةح والطٌٌ. دو وضؼ لل خلٌط نٌ طٌٌ الذسةح فٍ طتق زكائق الألىنًٌىم. أخرخ دسةح يقٌح ةاغذتازها لشاهد. فٍ لل طتق، دو وضؼ 40 ةرزج نٌ التانٌح والتاذيخاى. دو حساب يستح الإيتاخ ونػدلاده نٌ الٌىم الثايٍ إلى الٌىم الذاسؼ. أظهسخ يذائد هرٍ الدزاسح نا ًلٍ: لاير أفضل الخلطاخ للتانٌح 200 حسام نٌ طٌٌ الًهل: 300 حسام نٌ الذسةح الطتػٌٌح، ولاير أفضل نخالٌط التاذيخاى هٍ 50: 450، 250: 250 و 300: 00. ولاير أفضل نػدلاخ الإيتاخ فٍ التانٌح: 3.07 و 2.98 يتاخ/ًىم فٍ خلٌط 200: 300 و 250: 250، غلى الذىالٍ، فٍ حٌٌ أى التاذيخاى لاى 3.68 و 3.57 يتاخ/ًىم ضهٌ الخلائط نٌ 250: 250 و 300: 00، غلى الذىالٍ. ولاير أفضل الخلطاخ للتانٌح 50: 450، 150: 350، 300: 00 و 100: 400 نٌ دسةح الأزضه: الذسةح الػادًح، فٍ حٌٌ أى التاذيخاى لاى 100: 400. ولاير أفضل نػدلاخ الإيتاخ فٍ التانٌح: 3.05 و 2.70 يتاخ/ًىم ضهٌ خلٌط دسةح الأزضه نٌ 150: 350 و 50: 450، غلى الذىالٍ )لاى 2.63 فٍ الشاهد(، فٍ حٌٌ أى التاذيخاى لاى 3.60 يتاخ/ًىم فٍ خلٌط نٌ 100: 400 )لاى 3.32 فٍ الشاهد(. ةًاء غلٍ الهػلىناخ الهذىفسج حذٍ الأى أيه، ًهمٌ الاسذًذاج أيه لا دىحد غلاكح ةٌٌ

ايتاخ أي يىع نٌ الهحصىلٌٌ غلى أي نٌ طٌٌ الًهل أو الأزضه ونمىيادها الفٌصًائٌح أو المٌهٌائٌح. أوصر الدزاسح ةاسذخدام طٌٌ الًهل والأزضه لذػصًص الإيتاخ فٍ ةػض ةروز الًتاداخ ةػد إحساء ةػض الدزاساخ الهمثفح للىصىل الخلطاخ الهطلىةح.

List of Contents

Subject Page Dedication Iii Acknowledgment Iv English Abstract V Arabic Abstract vi List of Contents vii List of Tables x List of Figures xi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Objective 2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Ants 3 2.1.1 Distribution and diversity 3 2.1.2 Development and reproduction 4 2.1.3 Behaviour and ecology 5 2.1.4 Nest construction 7 2.1.5 Locomotion 9 2.1.6 Cooperation and competition 9 2.1.7 Relationship with humans 13 2.1.8 As pests 14 2.1.9 In science and technology 15 2.2 Termites 15 2.2.1 Nests 16 2.2.2 Mounds 17

2.2.3 In agriculture 18 2.2.4 In architecture 19 2.3 Physical and chemical properties of anti-mud and termite-mud 20 2.4 Factors affecting seed germination 20 2.5 Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) 23 2.5.1 Scientific classification 23 2.5.2 Chemical composition 24 2.5.3 Medicinal uses 24

2.5.4 Other uses 25 2.5.5 Production and international trade 26 2.5.6 Yield 26 2.6 Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) 26 2.6.1 Scientific Classification 27 2.6.2 Chemical Composition 27 2.6.3 Uses 28 2.6.4 Origin 28 2.6.5 General Botany 28 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 MATERIALS 30 3.1.1 Study samples 30 3.2 Methods 30 3.2.1 Preparation of different mixture of soil-mud mixtures 30 3.2.2 Germination tests 30 3.3 Statistical analysis 31

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results 32 Discussion 32 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions 41 5.2 Recommendations 42 References 43

List of Tables

Table Title Page No. 4.1 Germination rates of Okra and Egg plant seeds in soil mixed with ant mud 33 4.2 Germination rates of Okra and Egg plant seeds in soil mixed with termite mud 36

List of Figures

Figure Title Page No. 1 Seeds of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) ( khartomia originally from Sudan) 33

2 Seeds of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) ( Black beauty originally from USA) 33 3 Germination Okra and Eggplant Seeds Planted on Ant-Mud 34 4 Germination Okra and Eggplant Seeds Planted on Termite-Mud 38

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than 12,500 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified (Agosti and Johnson, 2003). Ants have colonized almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass (Flannery, 2011). Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organization and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships (Schultz, 1999). Ant societies have division of labor, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents (Dicke et al., 2004). Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans; however, as they can damage crops and invades buildings. Termites are a group of eusocial insects that were classified at the taxonomic rank order Isoptera, but are now accepted as the infraorder Isoptera, of the cockroach order Blattodea (Beccaloni and Eggleton, 2013). While termites are commonly known, especially in Australia, as "white ants," they are not closely related to the ants. As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. Termites communicate during a variety of behavioral activities with signals. Colonies use decentralized, self-organized systems of activity guided by swarm intelligence which exploit food sources and environments unavailable to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi mature young),

14 workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both sexes, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens (Thompson, 2007). Objective The aim of this work was to study the germination percentage rates of Eggplant and Okra planted on different mixtures of ant and termite nest-mud.

CHAPTER TWO LITRERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Ants They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists. Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organized colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. Larger colonies consist mostly of sterile, wingless females forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or other specialized groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens". The colonies are described as super-organisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony (Flannery, 2011). Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), are regarded as invasive species, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). 2.1.1 Distribution and diversity Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species. Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches, and are able to exploit a wide range of food resources either as direct or indirect herbivores, predators, and scavengers. Most species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance may be measured by their biomass and estimates in different environments suggest that they contribute 15–20% (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of the total terrestrial animal biomass, which exceeds that of the vertebrates (Shattuck, 1999). Ants range in size from 0.75 to 52 mm in the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum, the queen of which was 6 cm (2.4 in) long with a wing span of 15 cm. Ants vary in colour; most ants are red or black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic luster. More than 12,000 species are currently

16 known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000), with the greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematic of ants. Online databases of ant species, including Ant Base and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species. The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies (Schaal, 2006). 2.1.2. Development and reproduction The life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilized, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers. Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the "social stomach". Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers. The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage. The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa. The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers (when they exist), is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain. Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment is complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research (Anderson et al., 2008). Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often, are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony. A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then digging another nests work, and later to defending the nest and foraging. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes. An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes (Traniello, 1989).

Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens. Workers with the ability to reproduce are called "gamer gates" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamer gate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right. The winged male ants, called drones, emerge from pupae along with the breeding females (although some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate. Most ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year. During the species-specific breeding period, new reproductive, females and winged males leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight. Typically, the males take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Females of some species mate with just one male, but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females stores the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilize future eggs. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most ant species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009), a process akin to swarming in honeybees. 2.1.3 Behaviour and ecology Ants communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch (Jackson and Ratnieks, 2006). The use of pheromones as chemical signals is more developed in ants, such as the red harvester ant, than in other hymenopteran' groups. Like other insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin, and mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the

18 trail when they head back with food to the colony. When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates. This behavior helps ants deal with changes in their environment. For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes. If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return. Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path. Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails. A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away. Several ant species even use "propaganda pheromones" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves (D'Ettorre and Heinze, 2001). Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia. Pheromones also are exchanged, mixed with food, and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony (Detrain et al., 1999). This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to. In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony. Some ants produce sounds by stridulating, using the gaster segments and their mandibles. Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species (Hickling and Brown, 2000). Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals, such as formic acid in the case of formicine ants, alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants, and a variety of protein components in other ants. Bullet ants (Paraponera), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index. The sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal and anti-venom has been developed for it (Brown et al., 2005). Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a poison sac containing piperidine alkaloids. Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people (Stafford, 1996).

Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom (Patek et al., 2006). One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and 230 km/h (78–143 mph), with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average. The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat. Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap- jaws also are seen in the following genera: Anochetus, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys, plus some members of the Dacetini tribe (Gronenberg, 1996) which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution. Suicidal defense by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant, Forelius pusillus, where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening (Tofilski et al., 2008). In addition to defense against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens. Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory, the disposal of dead nest-mates (Julian and Cahan, 1999). Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behavior in Atta Mexicana. Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture (Tschinkel, 2004). Workers of Cataulacus muticus, an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside. Camponotus anderseni, which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration (Nielsen and Christian, 2007). 2.1.4 Nest construction Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees. These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns. The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter,

21 and ants carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats. The army ants of South America, such as the Eciton burchellii species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). Weaver ant (Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis (Robson and Kohout, 2005). Formica polyctena, among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae. The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials." Some ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures (Friedrich and Philpott, 2009). Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores. But a few have evolved specialized ways of obtaining nutrition. It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivore rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rain forest canopies (Anderson et al., 2012). Leafcutter ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Workers specialize in related tasks according to their sizes. The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognize the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect

21 it. The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called gongylidia. Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi (Schultz, 1999). 2.1.5 Locomotion The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies. Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking. Some species are capable of leaping. For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (Harpegnathos saltator) is able to jump by synchronizing the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs. There are several species of gliding ant including Cephalotes atratus; this may be a common trait among most arboreal ants. Ants with this ability are able to control the direction of their descent while falling (Yanoviak et al., 2005). Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation. Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods. These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonize islands (Morrison, 1998). Polyrhachis sokolova, a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests. Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe (Clay and Andersen, 1996). 2.1.6. Cooperation and competition Meat-eater ants feeding on a cicada, social ants cooperate and collectively gather food. Not all ants have the same kind of societies. The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants. Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behavior is poorly developed compared to other species. Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey (Crozier and Jefferson, 1988). Some species (such as Tetramorium caespitum) attack and take over neighboring ant colonies. Others are fewer expansionists, but just as aggressive; they invade colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers or slaves. Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive. Captured workers of the enslaved species Temnothorax have evolved a counter strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making Protomognathus americanus, but sparing the males who don't take part in slave-raiding as adults (Achenbach and Foitzik, 2009).

The spider Myrmarachne plataleoides (female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators. Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi. They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi. Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators. These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants. The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation. Others show Tasmanian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines Aphids and other hemipteran insects secrete sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap. The sugars in honeydew are a high- energy food source, which many ant species collect (Styrsky and Eubanks, 2007). In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae. The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another. When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew. Ants also tend mealy bugs to harvest their honeydew. Mealy bugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealy bugs from their natural enemies (Jahn and Beardsley, 1996). Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them. Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants (DeVries, 1992). Other caterpillars have evolved from ant- loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae. The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae. Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the Leucoagaricus or Leucocoprinus genera of the Agaricaceae family. In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival. The ant Allomerus decemarticulatus has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, Hirtella physophora (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect

23 prey. Ants may obtain nectar from flowers such as the dandelion but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers. Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees (Duroia hirsuta). This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the Duroia trees. Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare. Some plants have special nectar exuding structures, extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects. Species such as the bullhorn acacia (Acacia cornigera) in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines. Isotopic labeling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants (Fischer et al., 2003). In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies. Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the Macaranga tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of Crematogaster ants. Many tropical tree species have seeds that are dispersed by ants. Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations (Hughes and Westoby, 1992). Some plants in fire-prone grassland systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground. Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes that are sought after by ants as food. A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects. They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch (Hughes and Westoby, 1992). Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialize in preying on termites (Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. Some termites, including Nasutitermes corniger, form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species (Quinet et al., 2005). The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other wasps such as A. multipicta defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts

24 of wing buzzing (Jeanne, 1995). Stingless bees (Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defenses against ants. Certain species of ants have the power to drive certain wasps, such as Polybia occidentalis to extinction if they attack more than once and the wasps cannot keep up with rebuilding their nest. Fungi in the genera Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps infect ants. Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue. The fungus kills the ants, grows on their remains, and produces a fruiting body. It appears that the fungus alters the behavior of the ant to help disperse its spores. in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates (Wojcik, 1989). A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) that infects canopy ants (Cephalotes atratus) causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red. The parasite also alters the behavior of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high. The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as Hyeronima alchorneoides, and eaten. The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode (Poinar and Yanoviak, 2008). South American poison dart frogs in the genus Dendrobates feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants (Caldwell, 1996). Army ants forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape. In Central and South America, Eciton burchellii is the swarming ant most commonly attended by "ant-following" birds such as ant-birds and wood-creepers (Willis and Oniki, 1978). Birds indulge in a peculiar behavior called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood. Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds. Anteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants. These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) have been found to feed on ants. About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their fecal volume in spring, summer, and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants (Swenson et al., 1999).

2.1.7. Relationship with humans Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China. Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil. The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control (Hölldobler and Wilson, 2009). On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings, or cause economic losses. In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures. The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it. The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place. The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound. Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance. The species include Paraponera clavata (tocandira) and Dinoponera spp. (false tocandiras) of South America (Haddad et al., 2005). In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest rooibos (Aspalathus linearis), which are small seeds used to make a herbal tea. The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult. Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them en masse. Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap. Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered. These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species. Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (Aneuretus simoni) and Adetomyrma venatrix of Madagascar (Chapman and Bourke, 2001). It has been estimated by E.O. Wilson that the total number of individual ants alive in the world at any one time is between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e. between 1015 and 1016). According to this estimate, the total biomass of all the ants in the world is approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race (Holldobler and Wilson, 2009). Ants and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world. The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican escamoles. They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$40 per pound ($90/kg) because they are seasonal and hard to find. Atta laevigata are toasted alive and eaten (DeFoliart, 1999).

In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry. Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, yam, in a dish called yam khai mot daeng or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand. Saville-Kent, in the Naturalist in Australia wrote "Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species". Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, "these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates. In his First Summer in the Sierra, John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. The Mexican Indians eat the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (Bequaert, 1921). 2.1.8 As pests The tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper. Some ant species are considered as pests. The presence of ants can be undesirable in places meant to be sterile. They can also come in the way of humans by their habit of raiding stored food, damaging indoor structures, causing damage to agricultural crops either directly or by aiding sucking pests or because of their stings and bite. The adaptive nature of ant colonies makes it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions. Some of the ants classified as pests include the pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, sugar ants, the Pharaoh ant, carpenter ants, Argentine ant, odorous house ants, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant. Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological and physical methods. Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis. Management is based on the species and techniques can vary according to the location and circumstance (Sapolsky, 2001).

2.1.9 In science and technology Observed by humans since the dawn of history, the behavior of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another. Those using scientific methods, myrmecologists, study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions. Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms. Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881 (Lubbock, 1881). Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies. Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in formicaria, specially constructed glass framed enclosures (Kennedy, 1951). The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms (Dicke et al., 2004). Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort. They also are mentioned in religious texts (Deen, 1990). In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities. Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. The sting of some species of Pseudomyrmex is claimed to give fever relief (Balee, 2000). Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance. Ant society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously. Mark Twain wrote about ants in his book (Twain, 1880). 2.2. Termites: Termites are a group of eusocial insects that were classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera, but are now accepted as the infraorder Isoptera, of the cockroach order Blattodea. While termites are commonly known, especially in Australia, as "white ants," they are not closely related to the ants. Like ants, and some bees and wasps all of which are placed in the separate order. Termites divide labor among castes, produce overlapping

28 generations and take care of young collectively. Termites mostly feed on dead plant material, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung, and about 10% of the estimated 4,000 species (about 3,106 taxonomically known) are economically significant as pests that can cause serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests. Termites are major detritivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and other plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. Termites communicate during a variety of behavioral activities with signals. Colonies use decentralized, self- organized systems of activity guided by swarm intelligence which exploit food sources and environments unavailable to any single insect acting alone. A typical colony contains nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both sexes, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens (Beccaloni and Eggleton, 2013). 2.2.1. Nests Termite workers build and maintain nests which house the colony. These are elaborate structures made using a combination of soil, mud, chewed wood/cellulose, saliva, and feces. A nest has many functions such as providing a protected living space and water conservation (through controlled condensation). There are nursery chambers deep within the nest where eggs and first instar larvae are tended. Some species maintain fungal gardens that are fed on collected plant matter, providing a nutritious mycelium on which the colony then feeds. Nests are punctuated by a maze of tunnel-like galleries that provide air conditioning and control the CO2/O2 balance, as well as allow the termites to move through the nest. Nests are commonly built underground, in large pieces of timber, inside fallen trees, or atop living trees. Some species build nests above ground, and they can develop into mounds. Homeowners need to be careful of tree stumps that have not been dug up. These are prime candidates for termite nests and being close to homes, termites usually end up destroying the siding and sometimes even wooden beams. Some species build complex nests called polycalic nests. This habitat of forming polycalic nests is called polycalism. Polycalic species of termites form multiple nests, or calies, connected by subterranean chambers. All four subfamilies of the Termitidae are known to have polycalic species. This habit can make control difficult because when one nest is

29 eliminated, re-infestation can easily occur via the underground connections to other nests. Polycalic nests appear to be less frequent in mound building species, although polycalic arboreal nests have been observed in a few species of the Microcerotermes and several species of Nasutitermes (Thompson, 2007). 2.2.2. Mounds Mounds, also known as "termitaria occur when an aboveground nest grows beyond its initially concealing surface. They are commonly called “ant hills” in Africa and Australia, despite the technical incorrectness of that name. In tropical savannas, the mounds may be very large, with an extreme of 9 m (29.5 ft) high in the case of large conical mounds constructed by some Macrotermes species in well-wooded areas in Africa (Two to three meters, however, would be typical for the largest mounds in most savannas. The shape ranges from somewhat amorphous domes or cones usually covered in grass and/or woody shrubs, to sculptured hard-earth mounds, or a mixture of the two. Despite the irregular mound shapes, the different species in an area can usually be identified by simply looking at the mounds (Costa-Leonardo and Haifig, 2014). The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms, such as those of the compass termite (Amitermes meridionalis and A. laurensis) which build tall, wedge-shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north–south, which gives them their common name. This orientation has been experimentally shown to assist thermoregulation. The thin end of the nest faces towards the sun at its peak intensity, hence taking up the least possible heat, and allows these termites to stay above ground where other species are forced to move into deeper below ground areas. This also allows the compass termites to live in poorly drained areas where other species would be caught between a choice of baking or drowning. The column of hot air rising in the aboveground mounds helps drive air circulation currents inside the subterranean network. The structure of these mounds can be quite complex. The temperature control is essential for those species that cultivate fungal gardens and even for those that do not; much effort and energy is spent maintaining the brood within a narrow temperature range, often only plus or minus 1° Celsius over a day. In some parts of the African savanna, a high density of aboveground mounds dominates the landscape. For instance, in some parts of the Busanga Plain area of Zambia, small mounds of about 1 m diameter with a density of

31 about 100 per hectare can be seen on grassland between larger tree- and bush-covered mounds about 25 m in diameter with a density around 1 per hectare, and both show up well on high-resolution satellite images taken in the wet season (Weesner, 1960). These flying ants come out of their nests in the ground during the early days of the rainy season. The alates have been an important component in the diet of native African populations. Different communities had different methods of collecting or even cultivating the insects, but most of them favored the alates, though some also collected the soldiers of some species. Queens are harder to acquire, but are widely regarded as a delicacy when available. The insects are nutritious, having a good store of fat and protein, and are palatable in most species, with a nutty flavour when cooked. They are easily gathered at the beginning of the rainy season in West, Central and Southern Africa when they swarm, as they are attracted to lights and can be gathered up when they land on nets put up around a lamp. The wings are shed and can be removed by a technique similar to winnowing. They are best gently roasted on a hot plate or lightly fried until slightly crisp; oil is not usually needed since their bodies are naturally high in oil. Traditionally, they make a welcome treat at the beginning of the rainy season when livestock is lean, new crops have not yet produced food, and stored produce from the previous growing season is running low. On other continents, termites also are eaten, though generally more locally or tribally in parts of Asia and the Americas than in Africa. In Australia, the aboriginal peoples knew of termites as being edible, but apparently they did not relish them greatly, even in hard times. It is unclear from most sources whether the lack of interest extended to the alates, as well as the workers and soldiers (Engel and Krishna, 2004). 2.2.3. In agriculture Termites can be major agricultural pests, particularly in East Africa and North Asia, where crop losses can be severe. Counterbalancing this is the greatly improved water infiltration where termite tunnels in the soil allow rainwater to soak in deeply and help reduce runoff and consequent soil erosion through bioturbation (Costa-Leonardo and Haifig, 2014).

2.2.4. In architecture The East gate Center, Harare, is a shopping centre and office block in central Harare, Zimbabwe, whose architect, Mick Pearce, used passive cooling inspired by that being used by the local termites. Termite mounds include flues that vent through the top and sides, and the mound itself is designed to catch the breeze. As the wind blows, hot air from the main chambers below ground is drawn out of the structure, helped by termites opening or blocking tunnels to control air flow. Their wings often have micro-structures like micrasters, microsetae or rods that repel water. Ecologically, termites are important in nutrient recycling, habitat creation, soil formation and quality and, particularly the winged reproductive, as food for countless predators. The role of termites in hollowing timbers and thus providing shelter and increased wood surface areas for other creatures is critical for the survival of a large number of timber-inhabiting species. Larger termite mounds play a role in providing a habitat for plants and animals, especially on plains in Africa that are seasonally inundated by a rainy season, providing a retreat above the water for smaller animals and birds, and a growing medium for woody shrubs with root systems that cannot withstand inundation for several weeks. In addition, scorpions, lizards, snakes, small mammals, and birds live in abandoned or weathered mounds, and aardvarks dig substantial caves and burrows in them, which may then become homes for animals such as hyenas and mongooses. As detritivores, termites clear away leaf and woody litter and so reduce the severity of the annual bush fires in African savannas, which are not as destructive as those in Australia and the U.S.A. Their role in bioturbation on the Khorat Plateau is under investigation. Globally, termites are found roughly between 50 degrees north and south, with the greatest biomass in the tropics and the greatest diversity in tropical forests and Mediterranean shrub lands. Termites are also considered to be a major source (11%) of atmospheric methane, one of the prime greenhouse gases. Termites have been common since at least the Cretaceous period. Termites also eat bone and other parts of carcasses, and their traces have been found on dinosaur bones from the middle Jurassic in China (Machida and Matsumoto, 2001).

2.3. Physical and chemical properties of ant-mud and termite-mud: In similar research, some physical and chemical characteristics of ant-mud and termite-mud obtained from Alnishashiba area were run by (Ismaeel (2016). The results of that study showed that, the bulk density (g/cm3) was relatively similar (1.41) in ant and (1.46) in termite nest-mud. Porosity (%) approximately were 47 in ant and 45 in termite nest-mud. The moisture content (%) was relatively similar in termite (37.7%), and in ant nest-mud (39.3%). The pH ant-mud was 7.2, while it was 7.6 in termite mud. The organic carbon (OC %) was higher in ant nest-mud (2,184) compared to that of termite (0.62) nest-mud. The available phosphorus (AVP) was relatively high in ant-mud (26.4 mg/Kg soil), in ant nest-mud and 7.4 mg/Kg soil, in termite-mud. The electrical conductivity (EC in ds/m) was relatively high (6.1) in ant-mud compared to termite-mud (2.6) (Ismaeel, 2016). Insects has many behaviors depended mainly on chemical compounds. Ant defends themselves by injecting or spraying chemicals such as formic acid, alkaloid piperine (Brown, 2005). Dead ants release oleic acid (Tschinkel, 2004). Symbiotic bacteria, on the surface of ant produced antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi, for ants that eat fungi that grow in its colony (Schultz, 1999). 2.4. Factors affecting seed germination Germination and emergence are the two most important stages in the life cycle of plants that determine the efficient use of the nutrients and water resources available to plants (Gan, 1996). Environmental factors such as temperature, light, pH, and soil moisture are known to affect seed germination (Rizzardi, 2009). Temperature plays a major role in determining the periodicity of seed germination and the distribution of species (Guan, 2009). In the germination process, the seed’s role is that of a reproductive unit; it is the thread of life that assures survival of all plant species. Furthermore, because of its role in stand establishment, seed germination remains a key to modern agriculture. Thus, especially in a world acutely aware of the delicate balance between food production and world population, a fundamental understanding of germination is essential to crop production.

Requirements for germination as a seed hydrothermal curve the highest seed yield in agriculture achieved in normal condition of nutrition and environmental conditions (Shaban, 2013; Beyranvand et al, 2013 and Kiani et al, 2013). Water is a basic requirement for germination. It is essential for enzyme activation, breakdown, translocation, and use of reserve storage material. In their resting state, seeds are characteristically low in moisture and relatively inactive metabolically. That is, they are in a state of quiescence. Thus, quiescent seeds are able to maintain a minimum level of metabolic activity that assures their long-term survival in the soil and during storage. Moisture availability is described in various ways. Field capacity moisture is about optimum for germination in soil; however, germination varies among species and may occur at soil moistures near the permanent wilting point. Most seeds have critical moisture content for germination to occur. For example, this value in corn is 30%, wheat 40% and soybeans 50%. Once that critical seed moisture content is attained in the seed, sufficient water is present to initiate germination and the seed is committed to that event and cannot turn back. If the internal moisture content decreases below the critical moisture content, seeds will essentially decay in the soil. Seed germination is a complex process involving many individual reactions and phases, each of which is affected by temperature. The effect on germination can be expressed in terms of cardinal temperature: that is minimum, optimum, and maximum temperatures at which germination will occur. The minimum temperature is sometimes difficult to define since germination may actually be proceeding but at such a slow rate that determination of germination is often made before actual germination is completed. The optimum temperature may be defined as the temperature giving the greatest percentage of germination in the shortest time. The maximum temperature is governed by the temperature at which denaturation of proteins essential for germination occurs. The optimum temperature for most seeds is between 15 and 30oC. The maximum temperature for most species is between 30 and 40oC. Not only does germination have cardinal temperatures, but each stage has its own cardinal temperature; therefore, the temperature response may change throughout the germination period because of the complexity of the germination process. The response to temperature depends on a number of factors, including the species, variety, growing region, quality of the seed, and

34 duration of time from harvest. As a general rule, temperate-regions seeds require lower temperatures than do tropical region seeds, and wild species have lower temperature requirements than do domesticated plants. High-quality seeds are able to germinate under wider temperature ranges than low-quality seeds. Young and Evans (1982) found that maximum germination percentages could be obtained under constant temperatures for most of the perennial grasses they studied. Hylton and Bement (2004) also found greatest germination of Festuca octoflora Walt under constant 20°C than under various alternating temperature regimes. Terenti (2002) showed that the best germination (80%) in D. eriantha occurred at 30 and 35°C. Water potential effects Moisture availability imposed severe limitations on seed germination of D. eriantha, which has similar germination requirements that many mesophytic crops (Bonvisutto and Busso, 2007). The lower the water potential, the lower the germination percentage and the velocity of germination in this species. The lower coefficients of velocity at lower water potentials are an indication of greater germination times (Scott et al., 1984). Plants possessing seeds with exacting requirements for germination can establish more successfully than those with few restrictions (Hegarty, 1978). However, in an environment with changing moisture conditions the opportunities for germination may be reduced for seeds with specific moisture requirements. If moisture stress is low, seeds of D. eriantha can germinate over a wide range of temperatures; however, the more severe the water stress, the greater the reduction in germination percentage. This response presumably reflects an adaptive strategy because D. eriantha is generally restricted to habitats with moister conditions than those of the Phytogeographical Province of the Monte (Cano, 1994). Storage time Maintenance of seed quality in storage from the time of production until the seed is planted is imperative to assure its planting value. There was a marked decrease in seed viability with storage time in various seeds. This might have been partially the result of the storage conditions. The best alternative to avoid risks associated with storing seeds is to avoid storing seeds. For example, the grass seed industries in Oregon ship the seeds within a few months after harvesting. Another example include

Bolivia where the wheat seed harvested in the Highlands in April is being planted in May in the Lowlands, or Colombia where rice can be produced twice a year, which decreases the storage period. However, there are times when seed growers and dealers carry over seed lots from one year to the next due to weak market, to insure an adequate supply the following year, and/or because the production system does not provide choices. Under such circumstances, the question is how to manage the seeds to maintain a high viability. If dry weather prevails during grass seed maturation and harvest, it should be allowed to harvest seeds not only with low moisture but also with high initial viability. This should be followed up by placing the seeds in cool and dry warehouses to lower the risks in storage (Copeland and McDonald, 1995) 2.5. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is the only vegetable crop of significance in the Malvaceae family and is very popular in the Indo-Pak subcontinent. In India, it ranks number one in its consumption but its original home is Ethiopia and Sudan, the north- eastern African countries. It is one of the oldest cultivated crops and presently grown in many countries and is widely distributed from Africa to Asia, southern Europe and America. It is a tropical to subtropical crop and is sensitive to frost; low temperature, water logging and drought conditions, and the cultivation from different countries have certain adapted distinguishing characteristics specific to the country to which they belong. It is an oligo purpose crop, but it is usually consumed for its green tender fruits as a vegetable in a variety of ways. These fruits are rich in vitamins, calcium, potassium and other mineral matters. The mature okra seed is a good source of oil and protein has been known to have superior nutritional quality. Okra seed oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, which is essential for human nutrition. Its mature fruit and stems contain crude fibre, which is used in the paper industry (Kochlar, 1986). 2.5.1. Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Malvales

Genus: Abelmoschus Species: esculentus Other Names: Kacang Bendi, qiu kui, Okra, okura, Okro, Quiabos, Ochro, Quiabo, Gumbo, Quimgombo, Bamieh, Bamya, Quingumbo, Bamia, Ladies Fingers, Bendi, Bhindi, Kopi Arab (Nilesh, 2012). 2.5.2. Chemical composition Okra bast, a multicellular fiber was analyzed and the estimated average chemical compositions of OBF (Abelmoschus esculentus variety) are 67.5 % a-cellulose, 15.4 % hemicelluloses, 7.1 % lignin, 3.4 % pectic matter, 3.9 % fatty and waxy matter and 2.7 % aqueous extract. It is clear that the main constituents of OBF are a-cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin and the rest are very minor in proportion, so render a little influence to the structure of OBF. Therefore, the structure of a-cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin and the mode of combinations that exist in between themselves are dominating the structure of OBF (Franklin, 1982). Okra is a popular health food due to its high fiber, vitamin C, and folate content. Okra is also known for being high in antioxidants. Okra is also a good source of calcium and potassium. Parts used: fruit, leave seed, root (Franklin, 1982). 2.5.3. Medicinal uses Plants for a future cannot take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally. Antispasmodic; Demulcent; Diaphoretic; Diuretic; Emollient; Stimulant; Vulnerary. The roots are very rich in mucilage, having a strongly demulcent action. They are said by some to be better than marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis). This mucilage can be used as a plasma replacement. An infusion of the roots is used in the treatment of syphilis. The juice of the roots is used externally in Nepal to treat cuts, wounds and boils. The leaves furnish an emollient poultice. A decoction of the immature capsules is demulcent, diuretic and emollient. It is used in the treatment of catarrhal infections, dysuria and gonorrhoea. The seeds are antispasmodic, cordial and stimulant. An infusion of the roasted seeds has sudorific properties (Franklin, 1982).

2.5.4. Other Uses A fiber obtained from the stems is used as a substitute for jute. It is also used in making paper and textiles. The fibers are about 2.4 mm long. When used for paper the stems are harvested in late summer or autumn after the edible seedpods have been harvested, the leaves are removed and the stems are steamed until the fibers can be stripped off. The fibers are cooked for 2 hours with lye and then put in a ball mill for 3 hours. Okra contains special fiber which takes sugar levels in blood under control, providing sugar quantity, acceptable for the bowels. Mucilage, found in okra, is responsible for washing away toxic substances and bad cholesterol, which loads the liver. Purgative properties of okra are beneficial for bowel purification. Due to okra fiber content, sufficient water levels in faces are ensured. Consequently, no discomfort and constipation bothers the patient. Wheat bran, applied for this purpose, can impose certain irritation on the bowels, while okra makes it smooth and all convenient and safe for the user. Mucilage provides soft effect on the bowels. Stimulating bile movement, okra washes excess cholesterol and harmful substances from the body. This benefits the organism in general, as the toxins and bad cholesterol can induce various health conditions. Okra poses no threat to the organism, causes no addiction; it is completely safe and Reliable. Moreover, it contains a bunch of useful nutrients and is cheaper than chemical alternatives. Fibers of okra contain a valuable nutrient for intestine microorganisms. This ensures proper intestine functionality. Okra ensures recovery from psychological and mental conditions, like, depression and general weakness. Okra is an effective remedy for ulcers and joint healthiness. It is used counteract the acids, Due to its alkaline origin, it also guards the mucous membranes of the digestive system, by covering them with additional layer. Okra is additionally applied for pulmonary inflammations, bowel irritations, and sore throat. According to Indian researches, okra is a complex replacement for human blood plasma. In order to keep the valuable substances safe, it's necessary to cook okra as shortly as possible, processing it either with steam, or on low heat (Chopra et al., 1986).

2.5.5. Production and international trade World production of okra (both species) as fresh fruit-vegetable is estimated at 6 million t/year. Common okra makes up 95% of this amount. It is only in West and Central Africa (accounting for about 10% of world production) that common okra and West African okra are both used. They share the market roughly fifty-fifty (Torkpo et al., 2009). 2.5.7. Yield A vegetable yield of 10 t/ha can be considered a good harvest, but yields of over 40 t/ha can be realized under optimal conditions. Yields are usually low (2–4 t/ha) as a result of non-intensive growing methods. Seed yields are in the range of 500–1000 kg/ha (Torkpo et al., 2008). 2.6. Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) In Georgia, Solanaceae is a botanical family that has several important vegetable crops. Eggplant ranked nineteenth in total acreage in 2000 (Nunome et al., 1998). There was an estimated 1,259 acres of eggplant grown primarily in the southern part of the state. Approximately 823 acres of the 1,259 are plastic mulch culture and the remaining 436 acres are bare ground culture (Sunseri et al., 2003). Sixty five percent of eggplant was produced from plastic mulch while thirty five percent came from bare ground. Most of the eggplant (59%) was grown in the spring, but forty one percent came from a fall crop and whether bare ground or plastic mulch, more than ninety percent of those were irrigated. These two production practices combined provided an estimated 1900 cartons per acre, resulting in more than $12,000,000 gross value to Georgia growers (Sunseri et al., 2003). Eggplant, Solanum melongena L., is a common and popular vegetable crop grown in the subtropics and tropics. It is called brinjal in India, and in Europe aubergine. Eggplant is a perennial but grown commercially as an annual crop (Fukuoka et al., 2012). The name eggplant derives from the shape of the fruit of some varieties, which are white and shaped very similarly to chicken eggs (Nunome et al., 2003). Eggplant is essentially a warm weather crop which is grown extensively in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Japan, and the Philippines. It is also popular in Egypt, France, Italy, and the United States. According to the 1994 FAO Production Yearbook, the world eggplant production

39 areas were 556,000 ha, and the total production was 8,979,00 metric tons. Asia has the largest eggplant production which comprises more than 90% of the world production area and 87% of the world production. (The data did not include India and Bangladesh). Gill and Tomar (1991) reported 299,770 ha of eggplant production area in India, and 29,150 ha in Bangladesh in 1992-93, bringing the Asian total close to 830,000 ha. Eggplant can be grown in almost all parts of India all the year round except in higher altitudes. Its actual area under cultivation in India in not available due to its seasonal nature of cultivation (Nunome et al., 1998). 2.6.1. Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Anthophyta Class: Dicotyledoneae Order: Solanales Genus: Solanum Species: melongena Other Names: eggplant, aubergine, guinea squash or brinjal (Arpaia et al., 2008). 2.6.2. Chemical composition Eggplant has been a common vegetable on our diet since the ancient time. It was reported that on an average, the oblong-fruited eggplant cultivars are rich in total soluble sugars, whereas the long-fruited cultivars contain a higher content of free reducing sugars, anthocyanin, phenols, glycoalkaloids (such as solasodine), dry matter, and amide proteins (Barchi et al., 2010). A high anthocyanin content and a low glycoalkaloid content are considered essential, regardless of how the fruit is to be used. For processing purposes, the fruit should have a high dry matter content and a low level of phenolics (Fukuoka et al., 2012). Bitterness in eggplant is due to the presence of glycoalkaloids which are of wide occurrence in plants of Solanaceae family. The glycoalkaloid contents in the Indian commercial cultivars vary from 0.37 mg/100 g fresh weight to 4.83 mg. Generally, the high content of glycol alkaloids 20 mg/100 g fresh weight) produce a bitter taste and off flavor. The discoloration in eggplant fruit is attributed to high polyphenol oxidase activity. The cultivars which are least susceptible to discoloration are considered suitable for processing purposes (Barchi et al., 2010).

2.6.3. Uses The unripe fruit of eggplant is primarily used as a cooking vegetable for the various dishes in different regions of the world. It has much potential as raw material in pickle making and dehydration industries (Nunome et al., 2003). It may contain certain medicinal properties. For example, white eggplant is good for diabetic patients. It can cure toothache if fried eggplant fruit in till oil is taken. It has also been recommended as an excellent remedy for those suffering from liver complaints (Barchi et al., 2010). 2.6.4. Origin Eggplant is probably a native of India and has been in cultivation for a long time. A wild type with many small fruits, sometimes called as S. melongena var. insanum, is found on the Bengal plains of India. Various forms, colors and shapes of eggplant are found throughout Southeast Asia, suggesting that this area is an important center of variation and possibly of origin (Nunome et al., 2003). Its center of origin was in the Indo-Burma region. It originated in India but has a secondary center of variation in China. In China, eggplant has been known for the last 1,500 years (Fukuoka et al., 2012). 2.6.5. General Botany Eggplant belongs to the Solanaceae family (Nightshade family), and has chromosomes 2n=24. There are three main botanical varieties under the species melongena. The round or egg-shaped cultivars are grouped under var. esculentum, common eggplant (Nunome et al., 1998). The long, slender types are included under var. serpentinum, snake eggplant, and the small and straggling plants are put under var. depressum, dwarf eggplant. Solanum is one of the largest genera of vascular plants, having more than 1,500 described species. There are some relationships between the different solanum species (Nunome et al., 2003). Studies on interspecific relation and hybridization are of great importance because sometimes inter specific hybridization may be necessary to incorporate desirable genes to cultivated species. The eggplant is a species presenting wide variability in its morphological characters (color and shape of fruits, growth habit and plant vigor, and prickliness, etc), physiological attributes (earliness of flowering, water absorption, and transpiration, etc) and biochemical features (bitterness of fruit, etc.) (Nunome et al., 2001). The resistance to most eggplant pests or pathogens has been found to be partially but often at rather low levels. Obviously, there is

41 a great need for total or very high resistance to the main pests and diseases, and wild genetic resources deserve fuller investigation in this respect. Among the related wild species, S. sisymbriifolium and S. torvum are particularly interesting on account of their resistance to three of the most serious eggplant diseases (bacterial wilt, Verticillium wilt and nematodes). Unfortunately these two species do not give fertile progenies when crossed with S. melongena (Nunome et al., 2003). Eggplant is a bushy plant and grows to a height of 60 to 120 centimeters. The plant is erect, compact, and well branched. It has a rather fibrous or lignified root system. The leaves are large, simple, lobed and alternate on the stems. The flowers are large, violet- or white-colored, and solitary, or in clusters of two or more. The stems, leaves, and calyx of some cultivars are spined. The fruit is a pendant, fleshy berry. The shape of fruit varies from ovoid, oblong, obovoid, or long cylindrical; the color of fruit varies from (shiny purple, white, green, yellowish, or striped. The seeds are borne on the fleshy placentae filling the locular cavity completely (Nunome et al., 2001: Fukuoka et al., 2012).

CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Materials 3.1.1. Study samples: This study was conducted in the University of Gezira during autumn of 2016, where the weather was rainy and the humidity was relatively high and the whole conditions were very suitable for most plants to germinate and flourish well. Mud samples used in this study were ant and termites nest-mud. These samples were brought from Elnishishiba area (3 kg of each). Normal soil (3 kg) was also collected from the Experimental farm, University of Gezira, Gezira state, Sudan. The mud samples and the normal soil were transferred to the Basic Sciences Laboratory, University of Gezira, where the germination tests were run. Sufficient amount (250g) of Okra (Khartimia) (Figure 1) originally from Sudan and Eggplant (Black Beauty) (Figure 2) originally from USA seeds were brought from the local market of Wad Medani City, and were used to test the germination rates on different mixtures of soil-mud mixtures. 3.2. Methods: 3.2.1. Preparation of different mixtures of soil-mud mixtures: The preparation of different mixtures of soil-mud mixture were done by mixing 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 g of each of ant mud or termite mud to 450, 400, 350, 300, 250 and 0 g normal soil, respectively, to obtain 50:450, 100:400, 150:350, 200:300, 250:250 and 300:0 soil-mud mixture. Each soil-mud mixture was put in aluminum-foil dish. A pure soil was taken as a control. A sensitive balance was used. 3.2.2. Germination tests: In each soil-mud mixture or control, that was put in aluminum-foil dish, about 40 seeds of each of okra and eggplant were added. A sufficient amount of irrigation water was added to each treatment. From the second to the 9th day, the germination percentage was calculated from the Number. of the emerging plants and the total Number. of the seeds (40).

3.3. Statistical analysis The obtained data was subjected to simple regression and correlation to calculate “b” which is the rate of germination per day. ANOVA two factors was also used.

(Fig1). Seeds of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus ) ( khartomia originally from Sudan)

(Fig2). Seeds of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) ( Black beauty originally from USA)

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSION

4.1 Germination rates of okra and eggplant seeds planted in the ant mud-soil Table (4.1) showed the germination rates of okra and egg plant seeds planted in different mixtures of soil-ant mud mixtures. (Figure 3). Concerning soil mixture of 50 g ant mud and 450 g normal soil, 17.5% (7\40) okra seeds and 0% (0\40) eggplant seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting, but at the third day, 30% (12\40) of the okra seed and (0%) of the eggplant seeds were germinated, while at the 4th and 5th days, the germination rate reached (47.5%; 19\40) okra and 0% eggplant. From the 6th day to the 9th day, the okra seeds germination rates were 50% (20\40). The eggplant, at the 6th day, showed 15% (6\40), whereas, at the 7th day, it was 30% (12\40), 52.5% (21\40), at the 8th, and 60% (24\40) at the 9th day. Concerning soil mixture of 100 g ant mud and 400 g normal soil, 10\40 (25%) okra seeds and 0% eggplant seed showed normal germination at the second day of planting. At the third day, 11\40 (27.5%) of the okra seeds and 0% of the eggplant seeds were germinated. The germination rate of okra seeds at the 4th, was 18\40 (45%), while at the 4th and 5th days, it still 0% in eggplant. From the 5th day to the 9th day, the okra seeds showed 50% (20\40) germination rates. The germination rate of eggplant at the 6th, was 4\40 (10%), whereas, at the 7th, it increased to 10\40 (25%), and at the 8th, it was 16\40 (40%). while at the 9th, it reached 20\40 (50%). The germination rates in soil mixture of 150 g ant mud and 350 g normal soil, were 6\40 (40%) in okra seeds and 0% in eggplant seeds, at the second day of planting. At the third day, 14\40 (35%) of the okra seeds, while at the 4th and 5th days, the germination rate reached (50%; 20\40) in okra seeds. Till the 6th day, the germination rates in eggplant seeds were 0%. The germination rate in okra, at the 6th day was 21\40 (52.5%). The germination rates in eggplant at the 7th, was 5\40 (12.5%), while at the 7th and 9th days, it reached (55%; 22\40) in okra. The germination rates in eggplant at the 8th day, was 11\40 (27.5%), whereas, at the 9th day it reached 17\40 (42.5%).

Table (4.1) Germination rates of Okra and Eggplant seeds in soil mixed with ant mud

Day Mixture of ant mud (g): normal soil (g) Control 50:450 100:400 150:350 200:300 250:250 300:0 Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant Plant 1 0 0 5 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 2 7 0 10 0 6 0 5 0 12 1 6 0 11 0 3 12 0 11 0 14 0 12 0 22 1 9 0 16 0 4 19 0 18 0 20 0 23 0 28 1 18 0 25 0 5 19 0 20 0 20 0 23 2 29 4 21 0 25 2 6 20 6 20 4 21 0 24 10 29 19 21 9 26 11 7 20 12 20 10 22 5 26 16 30 20 21 20 26 16 8 20 21 20 16 22 11 26 21 30 24 21 23 26 20 9 20 24 20 20 22 17 26 23 30 24 21 24 26 24

Simple Regression analysis

b 2.27 3.15 1.83 2.53 2.35 1.85 3.07 3.28 2.98 3.68 2.60 3.57 2.63 3.32 R2 0.72 0.79 0.77 0.78 0.76 0.66 0.80 0.86 0.70 0.86 0.77 0.81 0.72 0.86

ANOVA two factors analysis

Raw f= 41.33 ; f-crit= 2.03, the difference was significant Colm f= 16.89 ; f-crit= 1.82 , the difference was significant

(Fig3). Germination of Okra and Eggplant Seeds Planted on Different Mixtures of Ant-Mud

Concerning soil mixture of 200 g ant mud and 300 g normal soil, 5\40 (12.5%) okra seeds showed normal germination but no eggplant seeds germinated at the second day of planting. At the third day, 12\40 (30%) of the okra seeds germinated, while at the 4th and 5th days, the germination rate reached (57.5%; 23\40) of okra, whereas the eggplant seeds still not germinated, till the 4th day. The germination rate of okra seeds, at the 6th day was 24\40 (60%). At the 6th day, the germination rate in eggplant seeds was 10\40 (25%), while at the 7th to 9th days, the germination rate reached (65%; 26\40) in okra. The germination rate in the eggplant seeds at the 7th day was 16\40 (40%), and at the 8th day it increased to 21\40 (52.5%), and at the 9th day it reached 23\40 (57.5%). Concerning soil mixture of 250 g ant mud and 250 g normal soil, 12\40 (30%) okra seeds and 1\40 (2.5%) eggplant seed showed normal germination at the second day of planting, but at the third day, 22\40 (55%) of the okra seeds and 1\40 (2.5%) of the eggplant seeds were germinated, whereas, the germination rate at the 4th, was 28\40 (70%) in okra seeds and it still 2.5% in eggplant seeds at the 4th day. At the 5th and 6th days, the germination rate reached (72.5%; 29\40) in okra seeds, while it reached 10% (4\40) in eggplant seeds at the 5th day. From the 7th to 9th days, the germination rates reached (75%; 30\40) in okra seeds while it reached (60%; 24\40) in eggplant seeds. The soil mixture of 300 g ant mud and 0 g normal soil, 6\40 (15%) okra seeds and 0% eggplant seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting. At the third day, 9\40 (22.5%) of okra seeds were germinated, and at the 4th, it reached 18\40 (45%). Till 5th day, the germination rate still 0% in eggplant seeds. From the 5th to the 9th day, the germination rates in okra seeds were 52.5% (21\40), but in the eggplant seeds, at the 9th day it reached 24\40 (60%). In normal soil (control), 11\40 (27.5%) okra seeds and 0% eggplant seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting. At the third day, 16\40 (40%) of okra seeds were germinated, while at the 4th and 5th days, the germination rate reached (62.5%; 25\40) in okra seeds, whereas, from the 6th to the 9th days, the germination rates in okra seeds reached 65% (26\40). The germination rate in the eggplant seeds, at the 5th day was 2\40 (5%) and it increased gradually to 60% (24\40) at the 9th day.

4.2 Germination rates of okra and eggplant seeds planted in the termite mud-soil Table (4.2) showed the germination rates of okra and eggplant seeds planted in different mixtures of soil-termite mud mixtures.( Figure 4). Concerning soil mixture of 50 g termite mud and 450 g normal soil, 13\40 (32.5%) of okra seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting. At the third day, 20\40 (50%) of okra seeds were germinated, while that, till the 6th day, no germination was noticed in eggplant seeds. At the 9th day, the germination reached (70%; 28\40) in okra seeds, but in eggplant seeds it was 12\40 (30%). Concerning soil mixture of 100 g termite mud and 400 g normal soil, 14\40 (35%) okra seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting. At the third day, 26\40 (65%) of okra seeds were germinated, while the eggplant seeds started to germinate at the 4th day (1\40; 2.5%). At the 9th day, the germination reached 65% (26\40) in okra seeds and 60% (24\40) in eggplant seeds. The soil mixture of 150 g termite mud and 350 g normal soil, showed normal germination of 5\40 (12.5%) okra seeds at the second day of planting. At the 4th day eggplant seeds started to germinate (1\40; 2.5%). The germination reached (67.5%; 27\40) in okra seeds at the 9th day whereas, it was 9\40 (22.5%) in eggplant seeds. The soil mixture of 200 g termite mud and 300 g normal soil showed normal germination of 14\40 (35%) in okra seeds at the second day of planting and it increased gradually to reach 60% (24\40) at the 9th day. The eggplant seeds started to germinate at the 5th day (2\40; 5%) and it reached 16\40 (40%) at the 9th day. Concerning soil mixture of 250 g termite mud and 250 g normal soil, 12\40 (30%) of okra seeds showed normal germination at the second day of planting and at the 9th days, the germination reached (52.5%; 21(40). Concerning eggplant, seeds showed germination at the 4th day (3\40; 7.5%), whereas, at the 9th day it reached 13\40 (32.5%). The soil mixture of 300 g termite mud and 0 g normal soil, showed germination of 12\40 (30%) in okra seeds which at the 9th day reached (65%; 26\40). The eggplant seeds started to germinate, at the 5th day, whereas, at the 9th day it reached 12\40 (30%). Concerning controls, at the 9th day, the germination reached 65% (26\40) in okra seeds and 60% (24\40) in eggplant seeds.

Table (4.2) Germination rates of Okra and Eggplant seeds in soil mixed with termite mud

Day Mixture of termite mud (g): normal soil (g) Control 50:450 100:400 150:350 200:300 250:250 300:0 Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Okra Egg Plant Plant plant Plant Plant Plant Plant 1 3 0 3 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 5 0 3 0 2 13 0 14 0 5 0 14 0 12 0 12 0 11 0 3 20 0 26 0 15 0 15 0 17 0 18 0 16 0 4 23 0 26 1 22 1 23 0 20 3 20 0 25 0 5 25 0 26 7 24 1 23 2 21 3 24 1 25 2 6 26 0 26 18 25 1 23 4 21 3 25 5 26 11 7 27 1 26 20 26 1 24 4 21 7 25 5 26 16 8 28 2 26 21 27 1 24 6 21 10 26 7 26 20 9 28 12 26 24 27 9 24 16 21 13 26 12 26 24

Simple Regression analysis

R2 0.77 0.42 0.51 0.89 0.82 0.39 0.69 0.69 0.62 0.83 0.81 0.82 0.72 0.86 B 2.70 0.93 2.13 3.60 3.05 0.67 2.20 1.57 1.87 1.60 2.41 1.40 2.63 3.32

ANOVA two factors analysis

Raw F= 27.59 ; f-crit= 2.03, the difference was significant Colm F= 34.59 ; f-crit= 1.82 , the difference was significant

(Fig4) Germination of Okra and Eggplant Seeds Planted on Different Mixtures of Termite- Mud

It was observed that, the best mixtures for Okra were 200 g ant-mud: 300 g normal soil, that gave 26/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments as same as control, whereas, the mixture 250:250 gave 30/40 germination. Mixtures containing ant- mud less than 200 g gave germination less than the control same as that not containing normal soil. The best mixtures for Eggplant were 50:450, 250:250 and 300:00 (ant-mud: normal soil), that gave 24/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments as same as the control. The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.07 and 2.98 plants/day within the mixture of 200:300 and 250:250, respectively, while that of Eggplant were 3.68 and 3.57 plants/day within the mixtures of 250:250 and 300:00, respectively (the reason may be the delay in germination till the 4th or the 5th day in all treatments). ANOVA analysis proved significant differences at the rows level (f=41.33; f- crit=2.03) and at the columns level (f=16.89; f-crit= 1.82), i.e. changes in mixtures of ant- mud for both Okra and Eggplant in addition to days resulted in differences in germination percentages and rates. It was observed that, the best mixtures for Okra were 50:450, 150:350, 300:00 and 100:400 termite-mud: normal soil, that gave 28/40, 27/40, 26/40 and 26/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments, while the control gave 26/40 germination, whereas, the rest of the mixtures gave less germination than the control. The best mixture for Eggplant was 100:400 (ant-mud: normal soil), that gave 24/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments as same as the control. The rest of the mixtures gave less germination compared to the control. The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.05 and 2.70 plants/day within the mixture of 150:350 and 50:450, respectively (it was 2.63 in the control), while that of Eggplant was 3.60 plants/day within the mixture of 100:400 (it was 3.32 in the control). ANOVA analysis proved significant differences at the rows level (f=27.59; f- crit=2.03) and at the columns level (f=34.59; f-crit= 1.82), i.e. changes in mixtures of termite-mud for both Okra and Eggplant in addition to days resulted in differences in germination percentages and rates.

Germination usually depended on some factors such as temperature, light, pH, and soil moisture and contents (Rizzardi et al., 2009 and Guan et al., 2009). High-quality seeds are also required to obtained best germination. The physical and chemical characteristics of the same ant-mud and termite-mud used in this study were run by Ismaeel (2016). The results of that study showed that, the bulk density (g/cm3) was relatively similar (1.41) in ant and (1.46) in termite nest-mud. Porosity (%) was 47 in ant and 45 in termite nest-mud. The moisture content (%) was relatively similar in termite (37.7%), and in ant nest-mud (39.3%). The pH ant-mud was 7.2, while it was 7.6 in termite mud. The organic carbon (OC %) was higher in ant nest-mud (2.184) compared to that of termite (0.62) nest-mud. The available phosphorus (AVP) was relatively high in ant-mud (26.4 mg/Kg soil), in ant nest-mud and 7.4 mg/Kg soil, in termite-mud. The electrical conductivity (EC in ds/m) was relatively high (6.1) in ant-mud compared to termite-mud (2.6) (Ismaeel, 2016). And since that, Okra and Eggplant seeds showed high, normal and even low germination within the soils mixed with ant-mud or termite-mud at different mixture, inconsequently, the phenomenon of no germination of any kind of plant on any colonies of termite-mud or ant-mud are not concerned mainly with the physical or chemical composition of them, in reverse, they should be recommended to be used enhance germination (after making some intensive studies to handling the desired mixtures) in some plant seeds.

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions: 1. Regarding germination of Okra seeds and Eggplant seeds on different mixtures of Ant- mud, the following could be concluded: a- The best mixtures for Okra germination were 200 g ant-mud: 300 g normal soil, that gave 26/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments same as the control, whereas, the mixture 250:250 gave 30/40 germination. Mixtures containing ant-mud less than 200 g gave germination less than the control same as that not containing normal soil. b- The best mixtures for Eggplant germination were 50:450, 250:250 and 300:00 (ant- mud: normal soil), that gave 24/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments same as the control. c- The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.07 and 2.98 plants/day within the mixture of 200:300 and 250:250, respectively, while that of Eggplant were 3.68 and 3.57 plants/day within the mixtures of 250:250 and 300:00, respectively. 2. As for termite-mud mixtures, the following could be concluded : a- The best mixtures for Okra were 50:450, 150:350, 300:00 and 100:400 termite-mud: normal soil, that gave 28/40, 27/40, 26/40 and 26/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments, while the control gave 26/40 germination, whereas, the rest of the mixtures gave less germination than the control. b- The best mixtures for Eggplant was 100:400 (ant-mud: normal soil), that gave 24/40 germination till the 9th day of the experiments as same as control. The rest of the mixtures gave less germination in compared to control. c- The best germination rates in Okra were: 3.05 and 2.70 plants/day within the termite mixture of 150:350 and 50:450, respectively (it was 2.63 in control), while that of Eggplant was 3.60 plants/day within the mixture of 100:400 (it was 3.32 in control).

5.2. Recommendations: Ant-mud and termite-mud, should be used to enhance germination in some plant seeds (after making some intensive studies on handling the desired mixtures).

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