New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth : an Analysis of Historical Experience and Cultural Values

New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth : An Analysis of Historical Experience and Cultural Values

Chi-hsiung CHANG*

Community arises when different entities merge into one based on sharing something in common, and the components of symbiotic body thus created then share a common fate expressible as ‘1+1+1+1+N.’ According to concepts from the Chinese Imperial World (中華世界帝國), such unification of states through the five cardinal international relationship theory (五倫國際關係論) of the Chinese World Order Principle (中華世界秩序原理), produces a body which is hierarchically above states and can be considered as tienhsia (天下), i.e. the world. In contrast, the type of supranational relationship formed on the basis of International Law is a ‘community.’ Such a community is similar to tienhsia, however, and the suzerainty system (宗藩體系) can therefore be applied for constructing the commonwealth, while the kaihentai model (華夷變態) can be applied to allow the members of the commonwealth to take turns in governing the community, and the ethical system of the community can be defined as a sibling relationship so that this East Asian Community can be developed into a commonwealth. Moreover, by learning from the history of the Liao, Jin, Yuan and Qing dynasties, during which China, i.e. the universe, was ruled by foreign ethnic groups, and by relying on the cultural values of the suzerainty system, China and its neighboring states can be merged and integrated into a tienhsia Commonwealth. Lastly, if it is to be stable and enduring, the Eastern

* Academia Sinica 38 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

commonwealth should be based on the universal value of ethnic brotherhood. The ultimate goal is to establish cultural principles which include benevolent governance, revival of the extinguished, and non- compulsory governance; and to have these pass down from generation to generation, resulting in the universal and eternal condition of datong (大同).

World Order Principle, tienhsia commonwealth vs. sovereignty, commonwealth, regional integration, kaihentai New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 39

Today, state sovereignty is the dominant viewpoint about the world, but it may soon be replaced by the concept of the tienhsia (天下) commonwealth. The state sovereignty concept asserts the importance of sole and exclusive sovereignty, so that even when sovereign nations are combined into an economic community, the transfers of sovereignty will be limited. By contrast, in the commonwealth concept, a state is only a component part of a commonwealth, and thus this idea of commonwealth is more inclusive. Of course, this implies a number of questions including: how should a state be included into a commonwealth, how can a state govern a commonwealth, how should states be merged into one, how can states and the commonwealth they have formed be merged into a perfect hierarchical system, and how can the prevailing principles of international order be made use of. These questions remain open, and will be considered by this paper. It is also interesting to contemplate ways to apply novel principles of international order to establish and regulate an effective functional commonwealth. It is especially important to examine the components of commonwealth and its operational mechanisms. These issues are critical for the future design of a commonwealth which bears a clear resemblance to the Chinese world of earlier times, so that the past is a mirror for the future. In the 21st century, we can learn from Eastern history and experience, and through a detailed examination develop guidelines for the future based on the past. The current world situation means that this is a good time to plan how Asia can make a fresh start and to develop the appropriate global strategies. This study is therefore primarily concerned with discussing the historical experience and cultural values of the region, and how these can be used in forming an Eastern community. When considering how an Eastern community might be established, it is 40 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

unavoidable to refer to Western ideas; but it is also important to point out that the Eastern world has a unique and very different history from the Western world. Moreover, the cultural values of the Eastern world are superior to those of the Europe and America, so it is necessary and appropriate for Asian countries to plan their Eastern community based on the principle of shared international order which will be termed the ‘Chinese World Order Principle (中華世界秩序原理)’ in this paper. Once a solid foundation is built, the outstanding Eastern qualities found in the East Asian Community will allow it to become a larger Eastern Community. To establish the East Asian Community and to eventually transform it into a tienhsia Commonwealth, it is necessary to explore regional integration concepts from the traditional Eastern community and the suzerainty system (宗藩體系) established by the ancient Chinese. Tienhsia is a Chinese word meaning the universe or the world, which refers especially to the experience of historical and cultural values. It is important to recognize that the suzerainty system in the past was actually a traditional commonwealth. The author will also discuss the historical experience and cultural values of Korea and Japan in the commonwealth. Most important of all, this study will consider the historical experience of China when it was ruled by foreign ethnic groups, such as the Liao, Jin, Yuan and Qing dynasties. For these dynasties established by non-Han people ruled not only China but also tienhsia, and these foreign rulers also established their own suzerainty system for regionally integrating China with its neighboring countries. As for the scope of the commonwealth, from the perspective of historical experience, it is mainly based on those countries associated through the suzerainty relationship. Considering the current international relationships however, the East Asian Community should comprise Southeast and Northeast Asia, but there is a substantial overlap between the definitions of the two. It is essential to note that an East Asian New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 41

Community without Taiwan or North Korea would be incomplete, and thus it is important to discuss the most feasible approaches for Taiwan and North Korea to be incorporated into the East Asian Community. It is also necessary to explore China’s attitude toward establishing an East Asian Community or a Commonwealth, because this will play a central role in determining the success of such a venture. In other words, it is important to understand China’s viewpoint on kaihentai (華夷變態), i.e. its transformation from a patriarch into a vassal, which occurred during modern history. Lastly, it is important to contemplate how the Eastern Community can be endowed with long-lasting universal values and a perpetual ethical order, so that community governance can endure, and a peaceful and mutually beneficial relationship among the members can be ensured.

The major difference between a system of sovereignty and a tienhsia commonwealth lies in the exclusivity of sovereignty due to its emphasis on a single all-powerful authority over a nation. In contrast, the Eastern nations’ commonwealth perspective stresses ethical order and inclusive- ness. In a sovereign system there is exclusive authority, so a state cannot be shared. In tienhsia, a term which has been used since ancient times, individual states are only elements of the whole. According to the ‘fighting for the world’ theory (爭天下論), which deals with the change of dynasties, whether China is ruled by Han or non-Han people, every ruler of China is the ruler of tienhsia because he is the Emperor ― literally the son of heaven (天子). This theory was derived from the experience of imperial rule in China, and deals with how China and neighboring countries can be 42 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

brought into a unity. Thus, the Chinese Imperial World (中華世界帝國) can be regarded as a synonym of tienhsia. One might say that the world is composed of several states but it is true as well that the several states can be unified into tienhsia. In other words, tienhsia is a community formed by a shared leader and several minor states (共主與國家) or it can also be viewed as a patriarch plus its vassals, and this is why tienhsia has also been referred to as a patriarch-vassal community. To modernize the concept for easier understanding, this kind of relationship can be described as an Eastern model of United Nations. Because the Chinese Imperial World is an Eastern type of United Nations, China has dual identities, a state and the tienhsia. China’s friendly tolerance of and adaptability toward its member states make it suitable to be a leader of an Eastern UN. In concrete terms, the traditional tienhsia covers China and its neighbors, and the key basis for such unity lies in their shared history and cultural values, which underlies the drive to merge and can transform the unity into an East Asian Community and eventually, a commonwealth. To be an auspicious leading nation, China should stay humble and encourage other nations to join the East Asian Community. China should not use territorial disputes as a reason to refuse the membership of any nation, for that may hinder or block the formation of a well-consolidated East Asian Community. Those with a clear vision should help to resolve such differences so that China can enlarge its governance and stay in tune 1 with the times.

1 See Chang (2013b), pp.1-13. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 43

The important concepts on regional integration for a commonwealth, simply speaking, can be translated into ‘1+1+1+1+N,’ and this formula implies not only the size of a commonwealth, but also its capability to survive and develop, and its competitiveness toward those outside the alliance. Once the regional integration of the commonwealth is consolidated, it can protect itself against foreign invasion by declaring the revival of the extinguished, reverence for benevolent governance, and condemning hegemony. Members of the commonwealth are not only practicing collaboration but also agreeing on the universal value of sharing the world with each other. This universal value supports and confirms the principle of equality among the members as well as the movement toward datong (大同, a Chinese version of Utopia). The method by which integration occurs is important. Before World War II, annexation was often realized by force, but nowadays, it is more likely to be the result of consensus and agreement. The image of integration based on military force does not fit well into the idea of a community; it usually implies a powerful state seizing weaker ones. The basic concept of community, in straightforward terms, is about forming a unity because of ‘being in common.’ This term simply means sharing ― what is mine is yours, what is yours is mine, what is ours is theirs, and so forth. In other words, everything is shared by everyone. To become a common entity, the first step is to have something in common. A lack of distinction among one another promotes the fusion into one common entity. Only by merging into one common entity, can a unity be established. Therefore, seeking common ground is the means to transform ‘being in common’ into unity. Blending into each other is the best way for these 44 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

states to move from ‘being in common’ into a unity. Lastly, the highest expression of commonwealth is for the members to stay together in poverty as well as in wealth, to share in success and misfortune, to remain inseparable, and eventually to become a symbiotic community. Both subjective and objective factors should also be considered in the formation of a community. The objective factors include the relationships between states, between local governments, between a state and its local governments, and between groups and states. And it is also about striving for unification between people, ethnic groups, systems, and governments, as well as the incorporation of territory, citizens, and sovereignty. As for the subjective factors, they are mainly about identifying with a community, which is a psychological factor. If the members do not identify themselves with their community or lack a sense of belonging, the community cannot be established, or if it is established, its future will not be promising at all.

In traditional Chinese culture and history, a peaceful integration based on the Chinese court system is one form of community. Two very early examples are Yao and Shun, benevolently influencing princes of the Titao Era (帝道時代), and Yu’s meeting with princes at Kuaichi (會稽). Another example is Emperor Hungwu of the early Ming Dynasty, who ordered the neighboring states to pay tribute to the emperor and to confer together. In other words, the suzerainty system was used in these cases to realize the Chinese Imperial World. Military forces had indeed been used for achieving annexation in the name of the Chinese court system, and examples include the change of dynasties through revolution and for New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 45

unification of the Chinese world. There were also times when Chungyuan (中原, the central plain of China) was in turmoil, when non-Han ethnic groups invaded and became the rulers of China. Generally speaking, during these much admired historical periods, benevolent governance overthrew dictatorship and preserved the Chinese world. Thus, these rulers were acclaimed by the people even though they obtained the Chinese Imperial World by military force. In their cases, the suzerainty system is equivalent to the Chinese Imperial World, similar to the East Asian Community. Comparatively speaking, the Eastern world’s regional integration is more oriented toward history, tradition, and formality, while the Western style of regional integration is more agreement-based. Therefore, even though these two types of integration are similar in practice, the forms and meaning are in fact quite different. When military force is used to achieve regional integration, rather than agreement, it is more likely to cause disaffection and disputes. Never- theless, there are exceptions, especially when military force is used in pursuing benevolent governance. For example, Mencius mentions that Tang’s military action started with Ko, and that the people had faith in him. When Tang was conquering another state, surrounding states would complain: ‘We are suffering. Save us now.’ People respected Tang as their savior. Tang’s military action did not affect people’s livelihood, so that business people were still doing business and farmers were still farming. Tang was simply overthrowing dictatorships and saving the people, who 2 were pleased with his timely military action. According to the theory underlying the Chinese World Order Principle, when the situation is bad, for example, when a tyrant is ruling, it is admissible for virtuous individuals to use revolution for the sake of all the people. Such popular revolutions

2 Mencius, King Lianhui, Part B. 46 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

call upon both Han and non-Han people to work together to overthrow the tyrant, and the rebellious actions are justified as righteous ― for the sake of the people and the punishment of the wicked. Such insurrections are also presented as God’s will, with the support of the people, and indeed one might say that the will of God and the faith of the people determine the success of a revolution. Lastly, to maintain a peaceful world, 3 governance has to be benevolent and supported by people. One can also look at the outcome of revolutions driven by the concept of regional integration. For example, during the Shang Dynasty in the central plain of China, Tang initiated a revolution to overthrow the contemporary tyrant and to relieve the oppressed people. Because the people welcomed his actions, he was able to successfully integrate the central plain of China with the neighboring states to create a new world, the Chinese Imperial World. This is how Tang of Shang came to power, and he is revered by Confucianism as an ideal ruler. This type of Confucian ideology, namely the Chinese World Order Principle, including the ‘fighting for the world’ theory, the theory of name-status and order, the theory of legitimacy, and especially, the theory of great unity and the theory of benevolent governance, both directly and indirectly influenced the ancient regional integration of China. The mechanism employed is to incorporate the surrounding states into the central state and then use cultural values as the adhesive to consolidate the unity, forming a mutual community. Thus, the ancient Chinese Imperial World is not only a commonwealth, but is also the prototype of the East Asian Community being pursued by Asian nations. Another example from ancient times is Qin’s unification of the Chinese world by the military conquest of six other states. Despite the lack of a

3 Chang (1992), pp.13-43; (2010), pp.117-120. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 47

common identity, Qin was able to achieve the unification of China, and this provided the theoretical foundation for the great unity theory of the Chinese World Order Principle. As a counter-example, consider the expeditionary voyages of Zheng He (鄭和) during the Ming dynasty, who was sent out seven times by Ming Chengzu to demonstrate China’s power and prestige. Unfortunately, although these voyages were very successful, little effort was put into regional integration, especially in terms of promoting cultural integration and a common identity for the greater community, and consequently, the effect of these expeditionary voyages was short-lived. Nowadays, any military invasion lacking adequate justification is likely to be severely criticized worldwide. For example, when Iraq invaded Kuwait, it provoked the Gulf War. Indeed, even a powerful nation like the US, when it used military force in Afghanistan and attacked Iraq in the name of maintaining world order, was still condemned internationally and many considered its military actions reckless. So far, the US has still not yet cleaned up the mess, and this definitely provides a lesson worth thinking about. Clearly, the establishment of benevolent governance is completely different from invasion. Throughout the history of China, it can be seen that regional integration during the feudal period generally took the form of military annexation, with states competing for dominance, and in the name of benevolent governance. So both dynastic change and kaihentai, two phenomena found in the history of China, are traditional types of regional integration. Whether the government was established by the Han people or by others, once the new rulers had entered the core of Chinese world and established their dynasty in China, they naturally inherited the relationship between China and its peripheral states, i.e. tienhsia and the suzerainty system. Moreover, it was also incumbent upon the new ruler to re-integrate the Chinese world, i.e. to include both Han and non-Han people into the 48 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

Chinese Imperial World. Some examples here are the Liao Dynasty established by the Khitan people from the far north, and the Jin Dynasty established by the Jurchen people of northern China. There was also the Yuan Dynasty established by the Mongols which ruled the whole of China. As for the Manchu people, they established the Qing Dynasty and governed the whole of China too. These dynasties all had to reshape China into a new Chinese Imperial World, equivalent to a Chinese commonwealth or a pan-Chinese community. In scale, their Chinese Imperial World was greater than the East Asian Community. Indeed, the territorial scope of regional integration of the empires established by these non-Han peoples was comparable to or even greater than those of the ancient Chinese Imperial World. As for cultural values, these new Chinese Imperial Worlds also treated Confucianism as the foundation for their own civilization. One example here is that the Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature (四庫全書, Ssu Ku Chuan Shu) was deemed to be much more culturally significant than the Yongle Encyclopedia (永樂大典). An essential foundation of Chinese Imperial World is the blending between Han and non-Han people, an ongoing incorporation of territory, and a ceaseless drive for cultural integration and innovation. According to the theory of Han people ruling non-Han people, the continuous assimilation caused by non-Han people ruling Han people was responsible for shaping China into a big nation with a huge population. Thus, throughout history, the cosmopolitan principles underlying the tienhsia Commonwealth have been continuously valued and embraced. This philosophy of sharing the world, i.e. of datong, by blending non-Han people into the Han people to form a unity is the very essence of Chinese culture. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 49

Combining the idea of East Asian Community with the concept of the Chinese Imperial World, Oriental history and cultures can be easily linked, while many common characteristics are revealed. The author provides the following equation in explanation:

Tienhsia ≒ Chinese World = Central + peripheral = Chinese + barbarians = Native + non-native = Han + non-Han = Direct territory + indirect territory = Empire + kingdom = Emperor + king = Patriarch + vassals = Suzerainty community = Chinese Imperial World = Pan-China Community ≒ Asian Community > East Asian Community ≒ Central government + local autonomous 4 governments = World-nation community ≒ Eastern UN.

According to the concept of the Chinese Imperial World, one can say that tienhsia is a political entity formed by states. A community is also a political entity formed by states, and hierarchically, a community is above states, which explains why a community is similar to tienhsia (community ≒ tienhsia). If a community uses a non-compulsory type of governance, freely letting states decide whether to join the community or not, then according to the Chinese World Order Principle, the community is equivalent to tienhsia. Secondly, according to the theory of kaihentai, both Han and non-Han ethnic groups and states have the right to become the ruler of China, or in other words, the ruler of tienhsia. All the strategies and ideas about forming the highest governing body where a community is equivalent to tienhsia are inspiring: taking turns to be the ruler of the community,

4 Chang (1995), p.11. 50 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

benefiting community members (1＋1＋1＋1＋N), benefiting the entire tienhsia. Because the Chinese Imperial World has a complicated ethnic composition and a huge territory, regulating the many states under tienhsia requires a principle of international order. This international order principle, which has been operating for more than two thousand years, is called the Chinese World Order Principle in this paper, because it is a theory about regulating the world, and as a result, it is also referred to as the world order principle. It comprises a number of secondary principles which are presented below.

(1) Imperial order theory (天朝定制論), (2) Emperor-granted kingship theory (王權帝授論), (3) Legitimacy theory (正統論), (4) Status-order theory (名分秩序論), (5) Serving the great theory (事大交鄰論), (6) Suzerainty theory (封貢體制論), (7) Orthodox theory (奉正朔論), (8) Unification Theory (大一統論), (9) Reviving the extinguished theory (興滅繼絕論), (10) Benevolent transformation theory (王化論), (11) Multi-layer consensus theory (重層認同論), (12) Fighting for the world theory (爭天下論), (13) Chinese / barbarians separate governance theory (華夷分治論), (14) Benevolent governance theory (德治論), (15) Non-compulsory governance theory (以不治治之論), (16) Multi-layer political entity theory (重層政體論), (17) Kaihentai theory (華夷可變論), (18) Five cardinal international relationship theory (五倫國際關係論), (19) Benevolent politics theory (王道政治論), (20) Venerable inside and Kingly outside theory (內聖外王論), (21) Utopianism 5 (世界大同論).

How did such a world empire, composed of different ethnic groups, avoid the collapse which the European empires suffered? Aside from the cultural value of the great unity theory, which says that every unity will eventually be disaggregated and all separations will be united, benevolent

5 Chang (2010), pp.105-146. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 51

governance has also become the universal value shared by all Chinese dynasties. They also stressed the importance of citizen-oriented governance and virtuous governance by controlling violence and protecting the people. Toward their neighboring countries, Chinese emperors had also established a system of suzerainty relations to collaborate and safeguard the community. Therefore, the Chinese World Order Principle has given rise to the theory of supporting the central government and defending against foreign invaders, the revival of the extinguished theory, and other theories 6 about helping the weak while regulating the strong. The goal was always to help China and its vassals walk hand-in-hand toward Utopia or datong.

Korea has long been a Confucian nation ruled by civilian officials selected by imperial examination. According to Chinese and Korean historical records, Confucianism in Korea can be dated back to Jizi of Korea. The nation ruled by Jizi was utopian. It has been stated by a Korean scholar, Lee Joel, that Jizi went to Korea from China with about five thousand followers of various professions, including poets, scholars, musicians, doctors, sorcerers, fortunetellers and other skilled practitioners. Emperor Wu heard about the story and conferred Korea as their place, with Pyongyang as its capital. When Jizi and his people first arrived, they could not speak the local language and required interpreters, then they taught the local people morality, agriculture, silk weaving, reading, and painting; and they established the practical land use planning system (經畫

6 Chang (1989), pp.495-520. 52 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

井田). They also set out eight laws, including the principles that a life should be taken for a life, that injury caused could be redeemed by payment of grain, and that male thieves should have their home confiscated while female thieves should be enslaved. These crimes could also be redeemed by a payment of 500 thousand, but the offender should be humiliated. Another law stated that marriage should not be based on money. Because there were no robbers, there was no need to close doors or windows. And women were chaste and faithful. Jizi also reclaimed wasteland, transforming it into towns, so that the people became civilized, practiced Buddhism, and adopted Chinese culture. Everyone in this place came to dislike fighting and prefer benevolent governance, so that all their neighbors admired them and were willing to be amalgamated with it. The dress system was 7 similar to the one in China. This was a successful beginning for Korea in the Chinese World, and Korea was then considered as Chinese rather than barbarian, and indeed it was regarded as a utopian place, like the one mentioned in Tao Yuan-ming’s The Peach Blossom Spring (桃花源記). Later, Korea introduced Confucianism and Chinese culture to Japan, becoming a pioneer in Confucianism and a critical player in the Chinese World Empire both internationally and culturally. Korean Chuzi scholar Sung Shihlieh mentioned that according to Mencius, Shun was from a barbarian group in eastern China, and King Wen was from a barbarian group in western China. So, if barbarians can be transformed into saints, then Korea must surely become a civilized nation like the State of Lu. In ancient times, Min was considered a barbarian place in southern China, but the emergence of Chuzi foreshadowed the birthplace of Chinese civilization. Those places which had been viewed as barbaric are now the cultural center, because conditions naturally

7 Fan Yi, Dong Yi Biographies in The Book of the Later Han; Lee Yi (1988), p.292. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 53

8 alternate. According to the kaihentai concept of the Chinese World Order Principle, Sung was the first person to raise a cultural type of ‘fighting for the world’ awareness in Korea. Since the beginning of the Jizi Era, Korea had developed a culture and government system resembling China’s and transformed itself from a barbaric neighbor of China into a smaller image of China. Furthermore, because Jizi’s Korea was also recognized by King Wu of the Chou Dynasty, it became a member of the Chinese Imperial World and obtained the right to compete for tienhsia. When the Ming Dynasty was replaced by the Qing Dynasty, Korea thought that it was the end of China and Chinese culture, so it regarded itself the successor of Chinese culture. Believing itself responsible for preserving the Chinese worldview, Korea became dedicated to recovering Confucian culture and used the Confucian Chuzi school of thought as the national model. Korea became a nation that practiced Confucianism, where Confucian culture flourished. Culturally speaking, according to the ‘fighting for the world’ theory, Korea at that time had acquired Confucian cultural supremacy. Moreover, to acknowledge the assistance received from the Ming Dynasty, Korea established the Daebodan shrine in memory of the Ming Dynasty and used chongzhen as the name for that era. Koreans not only practiced Confucianism meticulously, but also believed that the center of Chinese culture had shifted from the Qing Dynasty to Korea. A famous Korean scholar, Lee Jong-Hwui, has stated that Korea, a nation of gentlemen, is the fiefdom of Jizi and possesses all the cultural elements of Confucianism. Lee also said that the Manchu rule in China had murdered its culture, making China a barbaric nation and bringing 9 civilization to an end. According to the Confucian perspective, Korea saw

8 Song (1988), p.438. 9 Lee Jong-hwi (2000), p.499. 54 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

itself as the new China because of its Chinese cultural heritage. In a sense, Korea used the ‘fighting for the world’ theory built on the cultural values of Confucianism to make itself the ideological ruler of China according to kaihentai. Meanwhile, Korea was also competing with the Qing Dynasty to establish Confucian orthodoxy. For the Chinese Imperial World, this can be seen as an alternative way in which foreign ethnic groups can be said to have ruled China. Therefore, besides using military force to achieve regional integration, a Confucian cultural approach can also obtain the same result. That is, culture can be used for establishing a cultural hegemony through soft power, as well as in competing for supremacy. This is why researchers are interested in the kaihentai type (華夷變態型) of competition for the tienhsia. As well as establishing the rule of China itself by non-Han dynasties (異族入主中國), the suzerainty system also enabled non-Han rulers to govern the neighboring nations as vassals. In other words, the ruler is governing the tienhsia. Taejo Wang Geon, a 2010 Korean TV drama which was also quite popular in other East Asian countries, was about Wang Geon and his father, who both contemplated attacking China when the mainland was in chaos, and this can be viewed as a form of regional integration. Although this Korean drama has a historical setting, it nevertheless reveals the Korean ambition to establish their version of East Asian Community, and sheds light on the complicated relationships of northeast Asia, both historically and psychologically. From a cultural perspective, Korea, among all non-Han neighbors of China, has been most deeply influenced by Chinese cultural values and the Chinese World Order Principle. As a result, Korea is definitely and historically qualified to compete for the Chinese world, based on the ‘fighting for the world’ theory. Even today, Korea is still a powerful candidate to lead the East Asian Community or New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 55

the tienhsia. As a matter of fact, according to the ‘fighting for the world’ theory, any member of the Chinese Imperial World can aspire to rule China, the Chinese Imperial World or the traditional East Asian Community. It does not matter whether they are aiming for political or cultural power, as long as such a revolution is essential, and the ruler follows the Chinese World Order Principle, maintains the orthodox Chinese value system, and adopts a benevolent governance approach. If the above criteria are met, then the new ruler will be supported by all the people due to his or her benevolent 10 virtue. This mechanism explains the power of the Chinese nation throughout history. Whether regional integration is based on the ‘fighting for the world’ theory, the dynasty alternation theory, the suzerainty relationship, the orthodox name and order theory, or even the great unity theory, any regional integration based on the Chinese World Order Principle is entirely distinct from the Western style of regional integration popular today. The essence of Eastern regional integration is the building of a traditional community based on shared culture, history, and experiences. Korea has become a strong nation today, amazing other advanced nations including Japan and the US, especially by its electronics, technology, and entertainment industries. Nevertheless, because of Korea’s over-emphasis on nationalism, the scale and power of this emerging nation have not yet followed the international trend of globalization to become truly universal. So Korea, at this stage, is not capable to take the lead in regional economic or political integration, for example in Free Trade Areas (FTAs), community integration or world integration. In some ways, the international situation is like the Warring States Period of China (戰國時代); losing the opportunity of ‘fighting for the world’ can only lead to

10 Chang (1992), pp.13-43; (2010), pp.117-120. 56 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

being incorporated by others. A fundamental concept here is to minimize the nationalism of the Western world, while maximizing the pursuit of tienhsia. As Eastern nations have been open- mindedly embracing globalization, a movement coming from the Western world, they should also be aware of the idea of tienhsia from the culture of the East if they wish to have an upper hand during the transition of world power. Korean President Park Geun-hye has grasped this opportunity, and proposed the signing of the Free Trade Agreement between China and Korea in June, 2013. It is a critical step helping Korea to change, and taking the initiative like this in international relations has given Korea the power to be a pioneer in East Asian Integration.

Japan is a powerful nation pursuing bushido, the way of the warrior, and though it has been influenced by Confucianism, it has traditionally been a militaristic nation. As for the suzerainty relationship between China and Japan, it was formally recorded in The Book of the Former Han that “there were Wana (the Na State of the Wa) in the seas, and they belonged to 11 hundreds of kingdoms. The Wana made their tributes to China annually.” The Book of the Later Han also mentioned the tribute that the Wana made in Chungyuan Year 2 (Year 57) when the emperor Kungwu conferred upon 12 the king of the Wana ‘The seal of the King of the Na State of the Wa.’

11 Ban Gu, Yanti Section of Geography Record in The Book of the Former Han. 12 Fan Yi, Chungyuan Year 2 section of Dong Yi Biographies in The Book of the Later Han. The Wana seal given by the Han Dynasty was part of the collection of the Fukuoka Prefectural Museum of Art. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 57

Since then, Japan has been a member of the Chinese Imperial World and had a right to become the ruler of the Chinese empire according to kaihentai. Indeed, following the theory of ‘fighting for the world,’ Japan used kaihentai to become the ruler of the Chinese Imperial World and to carry out a project for East Asian regional integration. If Japan had used this Chinese World Order Principle appropriately, it would have integrated the region and benefited all the people of the Chinese Imperial World, but in practice Japan misused the power, disrupted the international order of the Chinese Imperial World, made other members of Chinese suzerainty system suffer, and destroyed countless nations and families. In the sixteenth century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豐臣秀吉) unified Japan, and although this was a military based regime, Kuge Diplomacy (Imperial Court Diplomacy) from the Wana era continued in use. In Year 15 of Wanli (1587), Japan ordered Korea to pay tribute to Japan, but Korea rejected the request. Consequently, Toyotomi attacked Korea to carry out its Sangoku Kuniwake (Distribution of Land in Three Countries) plan, i.e. the unification of Japan, Korea and China. Toyotomi intended to conquer Korea first, then use it as a channel to invade China, after which he would move his capital to Beijing, China. In Beijing, Emperor Go-Yōzei would have his coronation and start the rule of tienhsia. The plan was to have the 13 crown prince of Japan become the ruler of the island of Japan. As for Toyotomi, the plan was to have his son Toyotomi Hidetsugu succeed to the kampaku position to govern Japan, while Toyotomi Hideyoshi himself was to move to Ningbo, a port in China used for receiving tributes from Japan during the Muromachi Bakufu Period. Because Ningbo was also an important link with South Asia, it would facilitate the invasion of

13 Miki (1987), pp.81-83. 58 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

Southeast Asia and India to establish an even greater empire. According to this dual emperor regime, Emperor Go-Yozeī of course was supposed to occupy the highest position and rule over the entire Chinese Imperial World, and the Emperor of the island of Japan and its territories were supposed to be subject to the Emperor at Beijing. This proposed version of Chinese Imperial World, however, was destroyed by a joint counter-attack from China and Korea. Toyotomi’s egocentrism had caused him to ignore the principle of reviving the extinguished according to the Chinese World Order Principle shared by the patriarch and vassals of the community, and he also did not understand the responsibility of joint defense between the patriarch and vassals. Moreover, the world situation at that time was not supportive of revolution, so his timing was not right, and thus Toyotomi’s attempt failed. Subsequently, Japan went through the Meiji Restoration in the modern period and became a strong nation, but it still had not given up the idea of competing with China to lead the Chinese Imperial World. As in the period of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Korea was again troubled by Japan, and the Korean territory was occupied in another Japanese attempt at regional integration. The actions of Japan after the Meiji Restoration, frankly speaking, were designed to obtain control of the Chinese Imperial World, i.e. the East Asian Community. To do so, Japan developed the concept of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and although this strategy also failed, this institution can still be categorized as a type of regional integration of the traditional Chinese Imperial World. Reviewing the origins of modern East Asia, China was the nation most directly affected by the Western world. Threatened by Western invasion, the Qing government finally started a westernization movement similar to the Meiji Restoration in Japan which had successfully transformed Japan into a powerful nation, but China’s westernization failed. As a result, New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 59

Japan started to challenge China and sought the opportunity for a duel with China to determine the new leader of the Chinese Imperial World. Japan began by occupying Ryukyu and invading Korea, and in the crucial First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), China was defeated by Japan which thus obtained the leadership of the Chinese Imperial World. Occupying Korea to the north, and also Taiwan to the south, Japan was able to attack Beijing from the north through Korea and Nanjing from the south through Taiwan. This pincer movement determined the fate of China and Japan for the next hundred years. The end of the First Sino-Japanese War implies the collapse of China as a conventional tienhsia-oriented nation, moving away from cosmopolitism toward nationalism. Japan, in contrast, after emerging as a modern nationalist state, mitigated its extreme nationalism by promoting the so-called Asianism (アジア主義) in place of Chinese cosmopolitism. Japan not only tore down the wall protecting the old Chinese empire which distinguished China from its vassals, but also integrated East Asia by establishing the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere with Japan at its 14 center. This type of integration, however, is still a type of traditional East Asian regional integration and it produced an image of the Chinese Imperial World. The end of World War II also terminated Japan’s version of the Chinese Imperial World in which Northeast Asia was merged with Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, the Japanese economy enjoyed an unusual boom after the Korean War (1950-1953). The so-called Jimmu Economy (1955-1957) and Iwato Economy (1959-1961) thoroughly reconstructed the economic body of Japan, creating the Olympic Economy (1963-1964), which was followed by the Izanagi Economy (1965-1970). Together they constituted early 20

14 Chang (2005b), pp.1-37. 60 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

years of a booming economy in Japan, with a high growth rate of nearly 15%, compared to typical European and American figures of 6-9%. Japan grew at 8.4% between 1955 and 1960, 10% between 1960 and 1965, and 11.3% between 1965 and 1970, which means that during the eighteen years from1955 to 1973, Japan’s economy had a 5.8-fold increase, and in 1967 and 1969 Japans’ GNP exceeded that of the UK and also that of West Germany. Japan became the strongest Asian nation and the second largest economy in the capitalist world. From the aspect of its international balance of payment, Japan had indeed revived its economy after World War II. From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, Japan ran a balance of payment deficit, but between the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, it began to export capital, with a balance of 15 payment surplus. At this stage of its economic transformation, Japan had deployed globalist economic strategies to create the so-called flying geese economic paradigm with Japan at the apex. The Japanese government transferred industrial investment and technologies to southern nations, including Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and the ASEAN countries, and to other more remote areas with careful planning. It also established a hierarchical labor system. Then, the paradigm was expanded out into the Newly Industrializing Countries / Economies, to five ASEAN countries, followed by China, and eventually to the other five ASEAN countries. Japan acted as the leading goose, with the other geese following. This economic hierarchy, based on the division of industrial labor, was established through capital investment and technology transfers, and thus Japan set up a system of economic order for others to follow. Nowadays, Japan has not only become an economically powerful country but has also successfully established an East Asian Trading system

15 Kurosaka (1997), pp.34-36. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 61

16 with Japan as the core. Thus, after losing its political dominance, Japan managed to construct an economic East Asian Community, but Japan’s flying geese economic paradigm is now being challenged by the ‘peaceful 17 rise’ of China which has become the world’s factory. In 2010, the rapidly expanding Chinese economy, with its extensive lands, abundant resources and huge population, finally displaced Japan as the second largest global economy. The Japanese Prime Minister Abe Shinzo, however, is determined to restore Japan’s past glory. Abe is working to establish a powerful army to normalize Japan’s military status after the post-war regime, trying to get rid of those constraints put on Japan’s Self-Defense Forces after World War II. He continues to increase the defense budget in order to cope with (as he perceives it) an aggressive China and a belligerent Korea. Abe also announced that Japan will collaborate with the US and India in national 18 defense. While it remains unclear whether Abe’s ambitions can be entirely realized, the friction between China and Japan during Abe’s tenure is likely to hamper regional integration among China, Korea and Japan. Consequently, it is likely that China and Korea will first form a Northeast Asian FTA, with Japan joining later. For Japan, this situation is unfortunate, and Japan may be obliged to join such a community despite its reservations. Since World War II, Japan has kept itself aloof from other Asian nations by sticking close to the US, so it is not easy to imagine any early movement toward joining a Northeast Asian FTA or a Northeast Asian Community.

16 Chang (2005b), pp.13-14. 17 Chang (2006), pp.559-640. 18 “The Wall Street Journal: Japan Moving toward Strong Military after Senate Re-election,” United News, 19 July 2013. 62 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

History is a mirror to the future. It can be seen from the past that kaihentai type changes of leadership in the Chinese Imperial World are likely to be accompanied by an expansion of the East Asian Community. What makes the traditional Chinese Imperial World great is its inclusion of different ethnic groups, and moreover, the empire itself had also been open-minded in accepting kaihentai. The Chinese Imperial World assimilated neighboring nations, treated them as part of the empire and accepted kaihentai type changes in leadership. In other words, non-Han groups were treated as if they were the Han group. Historically, both theoretically and practically, all countries that have been governed by the Chinese Imperial World have been considered as members of the empire, and they all possess an equal opportunity and possibility to rule the Chinese Imperial World, i.e. the commonwealth. Thus, non-Han and the Han groups have an equal opportunity to rule China by replacing the existing dynasty; while the non-Han groups would use the kaihentai-based approach, the Han groups could use revolution to install a new emperor with a different last name (易姓革命). From the interrelated history and experience of China and the surrounding (i.e. barbaric) neighbors, it is important to recognize that the development of the Eastern community in the future is strongly dependent upon the kaihentai-based alternation of dynasties. And for the Eastern community to be expanded into an Asian Community through the implementation and development of the East Asian Community, it is important for all members to take turns in ruling the Community according to the established system. A smoother community operation can result in a more pluralistic nature, which in turn can encourage members to identify themselves with the New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 63

community, consolidating the unification, so that the East Asian Com- munity or the Asian Community has a bright and unlimited future. Historically, the purpose of ambassadors in the Chinese Imperial World was to ensure or enhance their nation’s status through praising and glorifying the ruler of the Chinese Imperial World. At that time, the status of allies was determined by their level of civilization, by whether they were considered civilized or barbaric. In fact, the greatest difference between tienhsia and a state is that a commonwealth prohibits any individual nation from taking advantages of the other members. A commonwealth stresses the importance of mutual interests, whereas a state pursues its own self-interest, even if this harms other states. Thus many Western nations in the modern era stress the exclusivity of sovereignty, but the Eastern Community (commonwealth) emphasizes courtesy and justice. By promoting a harmonious suzerainty relationship as well as equality between its members, it behaves very differently from the way in which Western colonial powers pursue their own economic interests. For a harmonious international relationship it is important to respect cultural values, and the obsession with economic matters in international relationships has led the Western world into countless wars, from the Thirty Years War through the Hundred Years War to The First and Second World Wars. Therefore, promoting cultural values can improve cultural identi- fication, thereby solidifying the mutual agreement within the community. Sacrificing others for the sake of fortune is exploitation and leads nowhere but imperialism, which resulted in the colonization of Asia, Latin America and Africa by Western countries. So the non-compulsory governance theory of the suzerainty system is much better than the colonial system as 19 the principle of effective control. From a domestic affairs perspective,

19 Chang (2013a), pp.47-86. 64 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

the ruling body of an empire should treat its neighboring countries as part of the community. Therefore, even though the empire may possess the ultimate decision-making power, it should adopt a laissez-faire attitude to the domestic affairs of community members. In other words, the concept of self-governance can be applied to a specific ethnic group, a region or even a state. Ethnic governance, local governance, and state governance are all part of the suzerainty system since the Chinese Imperial World is founded on traditional cultural values. In contrast, Western countries which stress their own sovereign rights often deprived others of their rights by setting up colonial governors, or by direct administration of the colonial power, and by collecting exploitative taxes from colonial residents. Thus, the interests of the colonizer and the colonized are misaligned, and their relationship is not mutual, so that conflicts and contradictions are bound to arise between the exploiters and the exploited. For an East Asian Community to be established, the members have to abandon modern Western political concepts and thinking, and re-embrace the commonwealth ideas rooted in the Eastern world, only thus can we contemplate a reasonable commonwealth organizational structure covering and blending states into the commonwealth. Each state should have an equal opportunity to become the ruler of the commonwealth and should be constantly supervised by the other members and counseled by the wiser states. While each state is self-governed, it should let the commonwealth have the external political power for its survival and development. Ultimately, the commonwealth will have sole sovereignty, whereas the states would be under ethnic self-governance, state self-governance and local self-governance. It is also important to keep in mind the underlying reasons for establishing a commonwealth ─ to ensure harmonious survival and development. By following this system, commonwealth states can be converted into a commonwealth community and then lead the world New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 65

toward Utopia or datong. In this way East Asian Community can be established while its members become united. Unless they recognize that a commonwealth is equivalent to a community, this community-type of organization is useless. Although the unified European nations have changed the name of their organization from the European Economic Community (EEC) to the European Union (EU), each sovereign state still competes with the others, causing the EU to be internally limited by sovereignty transfers and externally restricted by the exclusive sovereignty (高權排他) of its corporative relations. Furthermore, the lack of cosmopolitan open-mindedness, moral beliefs and attitudes have restricted and weakened the EU. According to this perspective, an East Asian Community, which is also a commonwealth, adopting the non-compulsory governance theory from the Chinese World Order Principle, will definitely be superior to Western state systems focused on sovereignty and exclusivity. Eastern nations have to rely on their historical experience and cultural values to prevent themselves from repeating the mistakes of the EU system, and to reveal the advantages of an Eastern commonwealth. This is how they can gain the confidence to start constructing a commonwealth made up of Eastern nations. Furthermore, even though the formation of East Asian Community relies on re-combining principles utilized by Western sovereign nations such as sovereignty, peace, equality, reverence, and self-esteem and stressing the importance of contract-based unification, an East Asian Community must not follow the exploitative, egocentric and bullying behavior of Western nations. It is important to practice the Chinese World Order Principle, especially the five cardinal international relationships from the Eastern world (五倫國際關係論). The rules for brotherhood are especially beneficial for the commonwealth because they can build family links among the members. This philosophy improves upon Western 66 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

egocentrism by prioritizing righteousness over personal interests. In the past, a commonwealth ruler would only use force against evil, for ensuring justice rather than for invading and destroying other nations. Such decisions are solely based on whether something is right or wrong rather than on greed. The historical experience of the commonwealth shows that it can create a benevolent world; protecting the weak, punishing the evil, and reviving the extinguished.

In response to the current international situation, China as the world’s 20 second largest economy should perhaps concentrate on global deployment rather than on the details related to cross-strait relations. But China’s relationship with Taiwan is also a core interest for national unification, and it is also part of the first island chain on the Asia-Pacific coast and involved in the US strategic deployment. It is therefore important to establish peaceful negotiations to strengthen cross-strait relations, and then Taiwan’s economic interests will keep it close to China, at least in the short term. Moreover, because China was once hurt by Western invasions, it is reasonable for Taiwan to be worried about unification. In principle, participating in international organizations is the way to form international relationships among sovereign countries under international law. But Taiwan is not a member of the UN, and thus it can only be categorized as a political entity rather than a sovereign state, and

20 See “China’s GDP Surpasses Japan and Becomes the No. 2,” United News, 21 January 2011; “Bureau of Statistics: China Has to Deal Calmly with Being World No. 2 in GDP,” News, 14 February 2011. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 67

although such entities can also take part in international organizations and activities, their participation is limited. Moreover, whenever China is recognized as the only legitimate representative, Taiwan is classed as a local government. Thus, if the East Asian Community is defined as a type of international relationship among sovereign states for East Asian integration, Taiwan will not be eligible because it is not a sovereign state. At best, Taiwan could probably join the East Asian integration as a political entity with the permission of Beijing. Despite cross-strait disputes, Taiwan and mainland China held the Koo-Wang Talks, establishing the 1992 Consensus. Although the parties differed about the constitutional structure of China, they agreed on the ‘One China Principle’ though with different interpretations. Beijing, on the one hand, is willing to interact with Taipei only if the two parties can reach consensus on the meaning of the One China Principle. Taipei, on the other hand, insists on preserving its own interpretation as a condition for further substantive negotiations. According to the orthodox theory of the Chinese World Order Principle, Beijing is not 100% satisfied with Taipei’s position, but if these different interpretations are viewed from a higher level, the Great Unity Theory, Beijing can attain the long-term strategic goal of peaceful unification and ‘One Country, Two Systems.’ To avoid having two Chinas, or one China and one Taiwan, or even an independent Taiwan, Beijing has adopted a deliberately ambiguous strategy. Thus Beijing does not acknowledge Taiwan’s independent interpretation, but to maintain the relationship, it does not comment or act upon the issue. Taiwan and mainland China have therefore established a channel for substantive negotiation and a focal point for cross-strait interaction. At this crucial and sensitive moment, creating a vague, tentative but effective buffering space is a useful stage to facilitate broadening the scope of relations. To make a group stronger, it is important to recruit nations both large 68 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

and small, as well as weak and strong. Without Taiwan and North Korea, the East Asian Community will not be complete. The issue with North Korea is slightly different from the one with Taiwan; for Korea, one has to consider the government system, political and economic development, diplomatic strategies, and compliance with existing international orders and regulations. In addition, South and North Korea are competing for legitimacy, and they have to deal with national security, state unification and other complicated problems. These issues will not be discussed here. The author considers that the East Asian Community should establish a system to allow members varying levels of involvement at different stages of integration, even though a common goal is shared by all members. In this way, those coming late to the community can be easily incorporated. Furthermore, instead of merely forming an East Asian community, the aim should be a wider Asian Community. Allowing Taiwan to join the East Asian Community via the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA) means that cross-strait integration and unification can be potentially achieved without using force. Nonetheless, true integration is about more than economics or any structural agreement; these are only the starting points. It would also be helpful to establish international participation agreements, cultural agreements, technological agreements, social agreements, political agreements, military agreements, and other such arrangements between Taiwan and China. 21 For cross-strait agreements, the emphasis should be on urgent but less sensitive political issues. Once these issues are resolved, the two parties can move onto more sensitive or less urgent topics. All important topics

21 Two terms are used for ‘agreement,’ by consensus between Taiwan and mainland China; ‘協定’ is used for international agreements, while ‘協議’ is used for cross-strait agreements. This logic is typical of the name and order theory of the Chinese World Order Principle. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 69

should be comprehensively discussed and resolved. International participation and cultural agreements are the most urgent but least sensitive topics. The function of these agreements, passively, is to ensure a peaceful negotiation without using force. Actively, such agreements will allow Taiwan and China to collaborate, to repair their relationship, to interact, to integrate resources, and to create a win-win situation to work toward peaceful integration. A core question here is how Taiwan should join an international organization such as the East Asian Community. For a cross-strait (non- international) relationship, the most urgent issue to be dealt with is for Taiwan and China to reach an agreement on international participation. This is critical for the survival and development of Taiwan, while for China, such an agreement is related to its core interest of a unified China. In other words, the constitutional structure of China and Taiwan has to be dealt with, and this issue cannot be unilaterally resolved by Taipei or any international organization. A shortcut for Taipei to enter the international community is to have a globalized Beijing. From the aspect of cultural values, the one China principle under the one nation and two governments condition proposed by Beijing, is in fact based on the great unity theory for integrating cultural values between the two parties. As for sole legitimacy, China, according to the orthodoxy theory, asserts its claim as the only legitimate government of China. Regarding cross-strait international participation, it is simply a question on how to follow the theory of status and order. Moreover, because disputes on one China and Chinese representation are involved, the theory of status-and-order has to be considered when 22 searching for solutions. From examining cross-strait international

22 Chang (2001); (2002), pp.85-146; (2004b), pp.103-153; (2005a), pp.170-231; Chang and Cheng (2009), pp.143-194. 70 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

23 organization participation, the accession model, previously proposed by the author for resolving the dispute about the representation of China in the WTO, can also be applied to the process of bringing Taiwan into the East Asian Community. The accession model comprises one principle, three common conditions, and one special condition. Thus, the one China principle is applicable, and the four conditions of the accession model are: participation title (affiliated entity description), name used for participation (membership name), participation level (member status), and participation time (membership duration). The first three are common conditions, while the time of membership is a special condition. The common conditions apply to everyone, and the special condition prevails only when neither Taiwan nor China has joined the international organization. In that case, Taiwan and China can either join the organization concurrently, or Taiwan can join the organization after China. Principles can be viewed as a type of prerequisites. These prerequisites may vary temporally but cannot be substituted. Thus, in a sense, the one China principle will be converted into the goal of de jure discourse, while 24 the accession model will be the means for realizing this goal. Therefore, if the accession model is adopted for joining the WTO, Taiwan has to join the East Asian Community under the one China principle, i.e. using a title approved by Beijing, such as Chinese Taipei. As for the level of participation, Taiwan would be represented as an agency rather than as an embassy, and the official would use the title of ‘EAC representative’ rather than ‘ambassador.’ This rational analysis uses the accession model to show how Taiwan and China might join the East Asian Community.

23 Chang (2004a), pp.96-97. 24 Chang (2004a), pp.61-104; (2009), pp.114-138. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 71

It is true of power politics that weak states conduct no diplomacy, and small nations also find foreign affairs difficult. Moreover, since large and strong nations use diplomacy as a means to compete among one another, there is no chance for weaker and smaller states to achieve their aims in this way. Thus, small or weak nations should use the opportunity to develop their economies and technological levels and to improve the quality of their labor forces and societies when big and powerful nations are competing with each other, in order to be internationally respected. Once the East Asian Community integration among China, Taiwan, and other East Asian nations has progressed beyond the state level, people with vision should pursue tienhsia, which is similar to the East Asian Community, followed by the Asian Community, and eventually the commonwealth. It is important to expand our horizons and discard old ideas about sovereign states.

In the history of Chinese Imperial World, there were few territorial disputes. When national sovereignty is emphasized, territorial conflicts become common, and wars are often used as the means to resolve conflicts; whereas communities promote cosmopolitism, oppose property exclusivity, and support collaboration. If the East Asian Community can be established, there will be no more disputes over the ownership of Diaoyutai, Takeshima, or even the Kuril Islands because everything will be shared within the community. When everything is owned, governed, and used mutually, there is no need to compete for resources, and then the problems of territorial exclusivity can be resolved. 72 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

Today, with the advances in science and technology, the productivity that comes from capitalism, the socialist perspective on resource distribution, and Confucian cosmopolitanism, reaching datong is realistic and feasible. Several significant 10+1 FTAs are either already in force or soon will be so between ASEAN and China, Korea, and Japan individually, while an effective linkage among these three FTAs between Northeast and Southeast Asia, will shortly be established. In other words, the era of the East Asian Community (EAC) is already upon us. The three northeast Asian countries began trilateral FTA negotiations at Seoul on March 26, 25 2013, but the unfriendly attitude of Japan’s new right-wing government caused China to postpone the development of a Northeast Asia free trade area. When visiting China, Korean President Park Geun-hye declared that friendship should come before business, which can be regarded as a type of oriental cultural wisdom. President Park not only stressed the importance of prioritizing the general interest through collaboration among China, Japan and Korea, but also encouraged the China-Korea Free Trade 26 Agreement. Apparently, Korea has grasped the opportunity to become a major force pushing for East Asian integration. The development of a Northeast Asian Free Trade Area or even the Northeast Asian Community will begin with the China-Korea FTA, while Japan will be absorbed into the organization later by forming a China-Korea-Japan FTA. While Korea is now acting as the impetus driving the integration movement happening in East Asia, Japan is losing such a good opportunity due to its distrust of China’s peaceful rise. Indeed, Japan has proposed a comprehensive regional trading partnership (10＋6 CRTP), comprising

25 See “Trilateral Negotiations among China, Japan and Korea,” United News, 27 March 2013. 26 See “Park Geun-hye Showing off Her Chinese: Friends Come before Business,” United News, 29 June 2013. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 73

ASEAN, China, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Australia, and India. This is an attempt to dilute the influence of China, but China has accepted the invitation with an open mind. The scope of such proposals has gradually expanded from East Asian FTA integration through regional integration as an Asian FTA to a general Asia-Pacific FTA, and this trend is timely and appropriate. The question, therefore, is not whether, but when such a community can be established, and there is some grounds for optimism that the day is drawing near. To establish an East Asian Community, there must be an integration between the Chinese concept for the EAC and the East Asian Summit favored by Japan. A major difference between the two is that the former stresses the importance of group collaboration and progressive development, while the latter is essentially a forum to facilitate foreign affairs. But these two ideas can both exist together. The source of the dissonance here is actually the competition between the two nations. As a result, Japan relies on support from the US. Indeed, since the Meiji period, Japan has alienated itself by refusing to be part of Asia and insisting on embracing European values after World War II, while still rejecting Asia, turning to the US. China and Japan both understand that regional integration is an inevitable trend, but the two parties, nevertheless, still have a hard time letting go of the bitter past between them. They also suffer from the malign influence of emphasizing national sovereignty and territorial exclusivity, so the competition for resources continues. To resolve these problems and help Japan return to Asia, it is important to consider the tienhsia viewpoint and the ‘fighting for the world’ theory derived from the Chinese World Order Principle. From past experience of non-Han groups ruling China (kaihentai), one possibility is for all community members to take turns in governing the community, and Japan could be encouraged by being given 74 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

priority in taking this position. If the traditional East Asian regional integration is used as a prototype, then the Chinese Imperial World can be used to combine the Eastern and the Western models. Now that East Asia has moved into the post-war modern era, it can integrate the Western conceptions of community. East Asian regional integration can therefore be summarized into the following formulae:

Traditional Chinese suzerainty community = Chinese Imperial World à Japan’s Pre-war Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere à Japan’s post-war Flying Geese Paradigm à Modern East Asian Free Trade Area à Future East Asian Community = C＋E＋W＋S＋N＋n → J＋NEA＋SEA → J＋NIEs＋ASEAN (5) → 10＋1 FTA → 10＋3 FTA → (10＋3 EAC) → 10＋6 CRTP (C= China; E, W, S, N=east, west, south, north; J = Japan; NEA = Northeast Asia; SEA = Southeast Asia)

For about 60 years after the end of World War II, Japan, once the largest economic entity in Asia, has been heavily dependent in multiple ways upon the US, from politics and foreign affairs to military, security and economic matters. This over-dependency on the US has created the illusion that Japan is part of the US. One of its consequences is that Japan has lost the capability to be a powerful nation, together with its distinc- tiveness. At present it has no competency, courage, or strength to be a leader for East Asia. In fact, post-war Japan did not assume the responsibility appropriate to the second largest economy in the world and the largest in Asia. They took no action to integrate the East Asian economic community or toward East Asian regional integration, and the recently awakened lion, China, has now surpassed Japan economically. Compared to Japan, China is a great leader; its diplomatic strategies and distinctive plans well reflect its New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 75

national dignity, and although negotiation with the US and the European nations remains unavoidable, China clearly has found a constructive path. Japan’s submission to the US is related to its practice of bushido and the Chuzi school of thought. Japan’s rigorous hierarchical morality is based on Chuzi’s name and order theory, and bushido encourages Japanese militarism and stresses the importance of a master-slave relationship in which the slave must be loyal. This kind of philosophy has created a mindset which emphasizes strict and unyielding discipline, so that the weak must be entirely submissive to the strong, and the losers must follow the wishes of the winners. The war between Japan and the US in World War II was fundamentally similar to the historical dual between the samurais Miyamoto Musashi and Sasaki Kojiro. Once the winner is determined, the loser has to surrender both physically and mentally, while the winner can treat the loser as a slave; and if the loser refuses to obey, then the only choice open to him is death. This Japanese concept is essentially about honor and disgrace; the winners are honored, the deceased are respected, the losers are enslaved, and the disgraced are humiliated. This philosophy has driven Japanese people to stake everything, including their lives, upon victory. Although the cultural values of bushido have motivated Japanese to always do their best, the practice of only honoring the strong and humiliating the weak has been abhorrent to the other East Asian nations. The culture of Bushido may make inspire some strength, but it is limited; in the final analysis, only the benevolent governance of Confucianism can provide unlimited strength. In the author’s opinion, in order to bring about the regional integration of the East Asian Community, the first step is to dissolve the resentments of the past among China, Korea and Japan. Two choices are available: either China must have a duel with Japan, like the one between the US and Japan, and defeat it to make it into a follower; or China can be 76 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

open-minded, seeking to conquer the unyielding through yielding, and to govern the world benevolently in order to persuade Japan to return to Asia from the US. The size of Japan is similar to that of a Chinese province, and yet Japan’s strength is similar to China’s. Instead of scaring it away, China should attract Japan to join the establishment of a ‘10+3’ mutual community for East Asia and thus convert Japan from a hindrance into a driving force. It is also critical to maintain a good relationship with Korea, so that China, Japan and Korea can work together to build the East Asian Community promoting Utopia or datong. Currently, even though China’s peaceful development is proceeding quite successfully, there is still a huge gap in scale and form between the world’s first and second economies. The Chinese should remain humble and make every effort to develop their industrial and technological base in order to build up China’s national power and influence. It is also important to find opportunities to modify international law as it has been inherited from the period of Western imperialism; China needs to develop its international jurisprudence to tailor the Chinese World Order Principle for Oriental cultural values and establish universal values for the international society of the future. China should also set up a public fund to support international society and use this fund to preserve the world, to suppress the strong and protect the weak, and to revive the extinguished by promoting benevolent governance. Before China comes into its full power as the dominant country in the world with overwhelming advantages, it should adopt creative thinking and new concepts. The conceptual basis of international jurisprudence should be replaced by the Chinese World Order Principle extracted from the historical and cultural values of the East, i.e. to be kind and generous to all nations worldwide. Then, Japan’s invasion of East Asia will be seen in a different light, and the China-Japan relationship can be re-interpreted according to the ‘fighting for the world’ New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 77

theory. Then it will be possible to welcome Japan back into East Asia and to slowly move beyond past disputes and resolve the lingering antipathy between China and Japan. In the current geopolitical climate, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, West Asia and North Asia will all be drawn inevitably into the movement toward regional integration, and they will all be integrated into an East Asian or wider Asian international community. The concept of state will also be incorporated into regional integration. Under tienhsia, though states remain, the concept of sovereignty will fade away, while the borders between nations will become vague and eventually disappear. At that stage, the territory of a community will expand, and there will be more space for activity. We can be certain that we will all become East Asians or Asians one day, and it is therefore important to help people become mentally prepared for that situation and more aware of the need to facilitate regional integration on an East Asian or wider Asian scale. Lastly, in order to promote the formation of East Asian Community or a wider Asian Community, peace, equality, reverence, and respect are essential. It is also crucial to reach consensus and draw agreements accordingly between the parties. For a community, the last step is to form cultural values and to establish a high quality society with dignity and respect in order to stabilize the community. By recognizing that all members are in the same boat, this symbiotic relationship can eliminate exclusive attitudes toward sovereignty, and make territorial disputes and other conflicts unnecessary. Community members will embrace the moral order derived from East Asian culture to give everyone the freedom they need in the symbiotic relationship. The individual leaders of the nations must let go of national sovereignty and put leadership struggles aside, promoting the utmost benefits of the community by providing the people 78 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

with a safe and comfortable lifestyle. In summary, for Eastern nations to rebuild a symbiotic community, they need not only shared traditional cultural values to function as the base but also a nation with East Asian identity, leadership qualities and open- mindedness to guide the commonwealth. Regional integration built on Eastern international order principles with Eastern universal values and a substantial amount of public resources will be required to realize this symbiotic community. East Asian nations can then be integrated into an East Asian Community, which should gradually evolve into a state community of East Asia. Finally, it can move onto become a commonwealth and be welcomed by all. Such an East Asian Community can be used as a foundation for integrating all Asian nations into a commonwealth with Eastern characteristics.

At this point when East Asian Community is not yet established and international competition is threatening East Asia, China, as a benevolent leader, should initiate regional integration and draw up a practical plan based on historical experience. The first step is to use the ‘C＋1＋1＋1＋1 ＋N’ approach based on ‘10+1’ and then move to ‘10+3,’ ‘10+6,’ and eventually ‘10+N.’ Thereafter, the group can be converted into a Chinese community circle like ‘China + East + West +South + East + N.’ China can promote Oriental universal values and set up a community fund to transform the community into a symbiotic community and to ultimately form a new Great Wall Community with China as the center. The new community will protect the weak, eliminate the evil, and revive the extinguished to preserve the safety of the community. Eventually, an East New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 79

Asian Community or Asian Community defense system can be implemented to protect the community from invasion and the security of its members. Although there will be a central government in the commonwealth, all members will take turns in this role. Each state within the commonwealth will have its own local and ethnic governance in line with non-compulsory governance. Whether it is an East Asian Community or an Asian Community which is established, the principles of traditional ethnic and state annexation should be used to verify if the Han and non-Han peoples, i.e. China and its neighboring nations, are suited to collaborate well. While the weaker surrounding states should serve the strongest, i.e. China, it is even more important that the strong should serve the weak, i.e. the neighboring nations. In establishing the East Asian Community, small and weak nations should be treated the same as the main body of the community, so that they need not hesitate about being swallowed by China. During this current warring state period, China should use its political wisdom to plan, to stay humble, and to be friendly with the neighboring nations. It should act as the driving force for the East Asian Community rather than the leader, and following the kaihentai model, the Chinese territory and people will form the main body of the community during annexation, with Chinese culture as the universal value. Self-interest should be abandoned, and the general interests of all the members should be taken into account. It may seem that China has been taken advantage of, but serving the small and weak nations is exactly the required strategy for uniting East Asia or even the whole of Asia. Eventually, all the nations will support China’s initiative. To sum up, it is important to be practical, and in order to realize tienhsia Commonwealth, names and titles have to be put aside. As for the leadership, all the members of the community will take turns at governing the community based on the kaihentai model. 80 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

Eventually, all the members of the East Asian Community or the tienhsia Commonwealth can be truly blended and form a symbiotic community.

It has been widely forecast by various organizations including the IMF in April 2011 that the GDP of China will exceed that of the US as soon as 2016. The Economist estimates that this will occur in 2018 (“How to Get a Day,” 31 December 2011). Even the US National Intelligence Council announced, in December 2012 in an article titled “2030 Global trend: A Different World,” that the economy of China will surpass that of the US before 2030. And PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) expects, in a statement made in February 4, 2013, that this will happen as early as 2017. If one considers the typical economic growth rates of the US (2.2%) and China (7.8%), it is easy to see that the time when China will replace the US as the world’s leading economy is rapidly approaching. Many countries, including Canada, the UK, Germany, and France, have expressed a view that the 27 Chinese economy is performing much better than the US economy. Leaders of all nations need to take these figures into consideration when establishing their economic policies, and in fact, this rapid economic development is helpful for promoting the regional integration of the East. Thus, with its rapid economic development and more comprehensive infrastructure, emerging China will soon replace the US as the world’s leading economy, and this implies that the creation of an Eastern Community with China at its center is only a matter of time. In the current

27 See “Canada, UK, Germany, France: China Has a Stronger Economy than the US,” United News, 19 July 2013. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 81

international situation, East Asian nations, especially island nations, although they have become economically dependent on China, remain politically allied with the US. So the growing international power and influence of China will oblige these East Asian nations to reconsider their positions. In the past, China was strong not only economically but in all areas. The country had previously adopted the non-compulsory governance approach for leading the Chinese Imperial World, which is similar to the East Asian Community. Nowadays, China should work on promoting the establishment of an East Asian Community based on its past historical experience and the existing historical and cultural values. In leading such a movement, China should adopt the theory of ‘serving the weak and small’ to motivate Korea and Japan to break away from the US circle and join the Asian circle. It is also a good idea for China to comfort and give priority to Korea, Japan, and other nations according to the kaihentai model, so as to facilitate building the East Asian Community and then moving onto a commonwealth. During the transitional phase, the priority is to convert the East Asian Community into a commonwealth. But after this is done, China should adopt the secondary doctrines underlying the Chinese World Order Principle to promote the benevolent governance and serve the community. According to the five cardinal international relationship theory, China should treat all members as its siblings and construct an ethical structure for the brotherhood. According to the revival of the extinguished principle, China also has to provide the community with a public security fund. According to the ideal of promoting benevolent governance and avoiding hegemony, China has to protect the weak and small from the strong in order to establish a symbiotic community. Lastly, following cosmopolitanism, China will be able to lead the commonwealth toward datong. 82 CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS IN EAST ASIA

China should pay close attention to how Tang of the Shang Dynasty implemented benevolent governance to make his people happy, and should use universal cultural values to create a community that goes beyond satisfying basic needs to create a prosperous society, followed by a peaceful and equally affluent tienhsia, and eventually progresses to datong. ‘Being in common’ is the foundation for becoming a common body, and it is essential for creating a well-blended commonwealth before moving into datong. Finally, throughout all this, China must take on the responsibility to continue driving the process forward, whatever the difficulties. New Reflections on the Regional Integration of a Traditional Tienhsia Commonwealth 83

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