SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... Women in the Early Modern Dutch Atlantic World A Dissertation Presented by Annette Michèle Ricciardi - Cramer van den Bogaart to The Graduate School in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University May 2013 Copyright by Annette Michèle Ricciardi - Cramer van den Bogaart 2013 Stony Brook University The Graduate School Annette Michèle Ricciardi - Cramer van den Bogaart We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, hereby recommend acceptance of this dissertation. Ned C. Landsman - Dissertation Advisor Professor, Department of History Kathleen Wilson - Chairperson of Defense Professor, Department of History Alix Cooper Associate Professor, Department of History Andrew Newman Associate Professor, Department of English, Stony Brook University This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Charles Taber Interim Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation Women in the Early Modern Dutch Atlantic World by Annette Michèle Ricciardi - Cramer van den Bogaart Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2013 This dissertation explores the myriad ways in which women, both overseas and in the Netherlands, engaged in the early modern Dutch Atlantic world. It argues that women in the Dutch colonies around the Atlantic perimeter and at home made significant contributions to the formation and expansion of the Atlantic World because of their participation in the public sphere. Through an examination of court and church records, in addition to notarial papers, it becomes clear that women in the Dutch territories had more independence than their peers of other European maritime powers at the time, and thus were able to exert more influence on the development of the early modern Atlantic world. Women participated in the economy in this territory not only by aiding male relatives and husbands in their business endeavors, but also by establishing themselves independently in a variety of occupations such as merchant, plantation holder, and tavern keeper. In addition, women devised several other strategies for survival and upward mobility in the colonies and territories governed by the Dutch West India Company. Many married several times while ensuring their financial independence and the inheritance of their children through prenuptial contracts. Moreover, women frequently used the courts to further their own and their families’ interests. They did so in the colonies and some even traveled to the Netherlands to bring their cases to the highest court. Not only did white women in the colonies use these strategies for survival and advancement, free black women and some of the enslaved used them as well. The dissertation is divided into six chapters which examine the legal precedents set in the Netherlands with regard to women, the position of wives and widows in the Atlantic world, women’s economic contributions, the position of enslaved women, and the role that concubinage and miscegenation played in the Dutch colonies. The concluding chapter explores the ways in which women in the Netherlands participated in, and were affected by, the Atlantic world. Finally, a short additional chapter deals with the travel experiences of women on board ships in the Atlantic. iii For Esmé with love iv Table of Contents List of Figures vii Abbreviations viii Acknowledgements ix Introduction 1 Chapter One The Legal Position of Dutch Women in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century 33 Hugo Grotius 36 Guardianship and Marriage 41 Dissolution of Marriage 48 Comparisons 54 Chapter Two Wives and Widows: Challenges and Opportunities in the Atlantic World 61 Marriage 61 Prenuptial Contracts 67 Partnership: Women as Actors for the Family 74 Widows 77 Separation and Divorce 92 Bigamy and Annulment 100 Chapter Three Women’s Economic Activities in the Dutch Atlantic World 104 Merchants 106 Plantation Owners 114 The Trades: Bakers, Tavern-, and Innkeepers 122 Prostitution 133 Interlude Women’s Travel Experiences 142 Chapter Four Enslaved Women in the Dutch Atlantic World 156 The Dutch Atlantic Slave Trade 157 The Experience of African Women in the Slave Trade 161 Corporate Slavery 168 Dutch Views on African women 176 Enslaved Women in the Netherlands 182 v Chapter Five Concubinage and Miscegenation 188 West Africa 188 Suriname 203 Free Black Women 206 Chapter Six Women in the Netherlands and their Participation in the Atlantic World 219 Doing Business in the Atlantic World 220 Investors 224 Science, Art, and Collecting 228 Left Behind: Those who suffered losses 239 Epilogue 250 Bibliography 253 vi List of Figures Figure 1 Dutch Colonies in the Atlantic World. 32 Figure 2 List of Female Tavernkeepers on the Island of Curaçao. 140 Figure 3 Frans van Mieris the Elder: Inn Scene, 1658. 141 Figure 4 Jacob Jordaens, Moses and his Ethiopian Wife, circa 1643. 187 Figure 5 Albert Eckhout, Negra, 1641. 187 Figure 6 Rembrandt van Rijn, Aletta Adriaensdr, 1639. 248 Figure 7 The Orangery at Gunterstein, 1695. 248 Figure 8 Jan Weenix, Agneta Block and her husband Sybrand de Flines, circa 1694. 249 vii List of Abbreviations CBA Archives of Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba, 1707-1828 FOCM Fort Orange Court Minutes, 1652-1660 FOR Fort Orange Records NA National Archive, The Hague NAS Notarial Archives Suriname, 1699-1828 OWIC Archive of the First Westindische Compagnie RNA Records of New Amsterdam SA Municipal Archive Amsterdam (Stadsarchief) SG Archive of the States General VDR Journals of Commanders at the African Coast (Vijf Dagregisters) WIC Archive of the Second Westindische Compagnie ZA Archives of Zeeland (Zeeuws Archief) viii Acknowledgements During the long and winding road that led to the completion of this dissertation, many along the way have offered their contributions in various forms. I am grateful for the opportunity to thank them here. Ned Landsman is possibly the best advisor any graduate student can have. His knowledge is vast, his compassion is deep, and although his many questions were frustrating at times, he has taught me how to think about writing history and prevented me from making many a mistake. Alix Cooper encouraged me to think about pursuing a Ph.D. when I was still an undergraduate majoring in history and art history. Her attention to detail is unparalleled and I much appreciate her friendship and comments along the way. Kathleen Wilson has been a wonderful advisor who stretches her students intellectually and who has taught me to always keep the bigger picture in mind. Drew Newman was a relative latecomer to the project but his careful reading and comments are much appreciated. Other historians with whom I have worked or taken classes include Susan Hinely, Gene Lebovics, Helen Lemay, Iona Man-Cheong, Donna Rilling, Chris Sellers, and Nancy Tomes, who have all influenced my thinking and allowed me to consider topics from several angles. Several Dutch historians also guided and encouraged me with historiographical help and insightful questions and contributions to the topic. Henk den Heijer of the history department of Leiden University graciously met with me and offered his insights, as did Willem Frijhoff of the Free University in Amsterdam, and Els Kloek of the Institute of Dutch History in The Hague. Els led me to think about the legal history of Dutch women and how it informed and affected the situation of women overseas. The academic environment at Stony Brook University’s history department with its thematic focus allowed me to get to know many fellow graduate students who did not necessarily work in the same field of study. Discussions with these students were invaluable to the development of this thesis and I would like to thank Melixa Abad, Yvie Fabella, Luis Gomez, Stephen Patnode, and Daniel Woulfin for their insights and friendship, as well as Christina Bosco Langert, Alessandro Buffa, Jeff Geary, Annie Khan and Ron van Cleef. Some of the students did work in my field and I benefitted greatly from discussions with Luke Feder, Elizabeth Hornor, and Tao Wei. Moreover, during my time at Stony Brook University, I was fortunate to share an office with Jeff (Clarence) Hall who proved to be an excellent conversation partner with a great sense of humor. I am grateful to him for the chance to commiserate and discuss the progress of this thesis. This dissertation required much research that needed to be done in archives in the Netherlands. The International Center of Leiden University provided housing and I am grateful to Diana van Ringelenstein who made it all run smoothly. Moreover, I am fortunate to have many friends who also lovingly provided housing. Lifelong friends Rian Dekkers and Toon van Diemen trusted me with their home, as did Hans Dekkers and Marianne Seligmann Heilner, and new friends Philippe Disse and Martijne van Vught. The staff at the National Archive in The Hague has been very helpful, especially Gijs Boink and René Janssen, who on occasion helped me decipher some difficult-to-read seventeenth century texts and suggested archival sources. Archivists at the Archives of the Province of Zeeland became just as passionate about searching for female plantation owners as I was and helped me find and decipher several maps. The staff at the Municipal Archive in ix Amsterdam helped me find my way through the voluminous notarial archives and I am grateful for their help. Without them it would have been an impossible task to find the women mentioned in this dissertation. During a long project such as this, one tends to meet people in the archives who become familiar faces. Lucia Werneck Xavier was one such person. A historian and translator, she worked on making an inventory of the papers at the National Archives relating to Dutch Brazil for Marianne Wiesenbron, a professor at Leiden University, who published a series of archival search aids for Dutch Brazil.