Monitoring Programs using Rewriting
Klaus Havelund Kestrel Technology http://ase.arc.nasa.gov/havelund NASA Ames Research Center Moffett Field, CA, 94035 Grigore Ros¸u Research Institute for Advanced Computer Science http://ase.arc.nasa.gov/grosu NASA Ames Research Center Moffett Field, CA, 94035
Abstract LTL. The models of LTL are infinite execution traces, re- flecting the behavior of such systems as ideally always be- We present a rewriting algorithm for efficiently testing ing ready to respond to requests, operating systems being an future time Linear Temporal Logic (LTL) formulae on finite example. LTL has typically been used for specifying prop- execution traces. The standard models of LTL are infinite erties of concurrent and interactive down-scaled models of traces, reflecting the behavior of reactive and concurrent real systems, such that fully formal program proofs could systems which conceptually may be continuously alive. In subsequently be carried out, for example using theorem most past applications of LTL, theorem provers and model provers [15] or model checkers [10]. However, such for- checkers have been used to formally prove that down-scaled mal proof techniques are usually not scalable to real sized models satisfy such LTL specifications. Our goal is instead systems without an extra effort to abstract the system to a to use LTL for up-scaled testing of real software applica- model which is then analyzed. Several systems are cur- tions, corresponding to analyzing the conformance of fi- rently being developed that apply model checking to soft- nite traces against LTL formulae. We first describe what ware [4, 16, 3, 22, 6, 27], including our work [11, 28]. In it means for a finite trace to satisfy an LTL formula and this paper we restrict ourselves to investigate the use of LTL then suggest an optimized algorithm based on transform- for testing whether single finite execution traces conform ing LTL formulae. We use the Maude rewriting logic, which to LTL formulae. The merge of testing and temporal logic turns out to be a good notation and being supported by an specification is an attempt to achieve the benefits of both efficient rewriting engine for performing these experiments. approaches, while avoiding some of the pitfalls from ad hoc The work constitutes part of the Java PathExplorer (JPAX) testing and the complexity in full-blown theorem proving project, the purpose of which is to develop a flexible tool for and model checking. monitoring Java program executions.
An important question is how to efficiently test LTL for- mulae of finite trace models, and the main decision here 1. Introduction is what data structure one should use to represent the for- mula such that it can be used to efficiently analyze the trace Future time Linear Temporal Logic (future time LTL), as it is traversed. We will present such a data structure. introduced by Pnueli in 1977 [23], is a logic for specify- We will present and implement our logics and algorithms ing temporal properties about reactive and concurrent sys- in Maude [1], a high-performance system supporting both tems. Future time LTL provides temporal operators that re- membership equational logic [20] and rewriting logic [19]. fer to the future/remaining part of a trace relative to a cur- The current version of Maude can do up to 3 million rewrit- rent point of reference. We shall use the shorthand LTL ings per second on 800MHz processors, and its compiled when it is clear from the context that we mean future time version is intended to support 15 million rewritings per sec- ond1. The decision to use Maude has made it very easy to the concrete program. The instrumentation specification es- experiment with logics and algorithms. Later realizations of tablishes this connection between the concrete boolean pro- the work can be done in a standard programming language gram predicates and the abstract propositions. Hence the such as Java or C++. In [14] we have for example described instrumentation specification in particular defines what pro- a data structure used to represent an LTL formula as a min- gram variables will be monitored. The instrumentation is imal finite state machine, based on a concept called binary automatic and is performed using the bytecode engineering transition trees. This structure can then be represented and tool Jtrek [2]. interpreted within Java. In [25] we furthermore describe a dynamic programming algorithm for checking LTL formu- Specifications lae on execution traces. This algorithm evaluates a formula bottom-up for each point in the trace, going backwards from Instrumentation Verification the final state, towards the initial state. In [9] we apply this dynamic algorithm to past time LTL, in which case the trace Java Observer more naturally can be examined in a forward direction. In Program Deadlock that paper it is in addition shown how future time and past Compile time LTL formulae can be embedded as comments in code Datarace and get expanded into Java code fragments to get executed Bytecode LTL Maude Dispatcher
whenever reached. In [24, 21] various algorithms to gener- Event Stream Instrument ate testing automata from temporal logic formulae are de- . . . Instrumented scribed. Our colleague Dimitra Giannakopoulou has also Bytecode
Execute implemented a B ¡ chi automata inspired algorithm adapted (JVM) to finite trace LTL. The Maude rewriting implementation of LTL described in this paper, besides its simplicity and ele- Figure 1. Overview of A gance, however offers a greater flexibility in experimenting JP X with temporal logics and is quite efficient for practical pur- poses. The idea of using temporal logic in program testing is The work constitutes part of the Java PathExplorer not new, and at our knowledge, has already been pursued (JPAX) tool [13, 14] for monitoring Java program execu- in the commercial Temporal Rover tool (TR) [5], and in tions. JPAX facilitates automated instrumentation of Java the MaC tool [18]. Both tools have greatly inspired our byte code, which then emits relevant events to an observer work. Our basic contribution in this paper is to show how during execution, see Figure 1. The observer can be running a rewriting system, such as Maude, makes it possible to ex- a Maude process as a special case, hence Maude’s rewriting periment with monitoring logics very fast and elegantly, and engine can be used to drive a temporal logic operational se- furthermore can be used as a practical program monitor- mantics with program execution events. The observer may ing engine. This approach makes it possible to formalize run on a different computer, in which case the events are ideas in a framework close to standard mathematics. The transmitted over a socket. When the observer receives the formula transforming approach suggested is a new and ef- events it dispatches these to a set of observer rules, each rule ficient way of testing LTL formulae. A previous version performing a particular analysis that has been requested. of the paper, published as a technical report [12], presents a Observer rules are written in Java, but can call programs simplified action based formalization of LTL rather than the written in other languages, such as in this case Maude. In state based more realistic framework presented here, which addition to checking temporal logic requirements, rules can is the one currently implemented in JPAX. In [13] and [14] also be programmed to perform low level error pattern anal- we describe a formalization of past time LTL (as well as ysis of, for example, multi-threaded programs, identifying future time LTL), again illustrating the succinctness of new error-prone programming practices, such as unhealthy lock- logic definitions. ing disciplines that may lead to data races and/or deadlocks. The process is driven by a specification, written in Java, Section 2 contains preliminaries, including an introduc- which, as in [18], consists of an instrumentation part and a tion to Maude, propositional logic and the standard defini- verification part. The verification specification defines the tion of propositional LTL with its infinite trace models. Sec- high level requirements (as String values), usually written in tion 3 presents a finite trace semantics for LTL and then its temporal logic, that events are to be checked against. The implementation in Maude. Although abstract and elegant, propositions referred to in these requirements are abstract this implementation is not efficient, and Section 4 presents boolean flags, and do hence not refer directly to entities in an efficient implementation using a formula transformation approach. Finally, Section 5 contains conclusions and a de- 1Personal communication by Jose´ Meseguer. scription of future work.
2 2. Preliminaries fmod TRACE is protecting ATOM . sorts Event Event* Trace . subsorts Atom < Event < Event* Trace . This section briefly introduces Maude, a rewriting-based op nil : -> Event . op __ : Atom Event -> Event [prec 23] . specification and verification system, then a relatively stan- op _* : Event -> Event* . dard procedure to reduce propositional formulae, and then op _,_ : Event Trace -> Trace [prec 25] . endfm reminds the propositional LTL with its infinite trace models. The statement protecting ATOM imports the module 2.1. Maude and Logics for Program Monitoring ATOM. The above is a compact way to use mix-fix2 and order- sorted notation to define an abstract data type of traces: a Maude [1] is a freely distributed high-performance sys- trace is a comma separated list of events, where an event is tem in the OBJ [8] algebraic specification family, support- itself a list of atoms. The subsorts declaration declares ing both rewriting logic [19] and membership equational Atom to be a subsort of Event, which in turn is a subsort of logic [20]. Because of its efficient rewriting engine, able Event* as well as of Trace. Since elements of a subsort to execute 3 million rewriting steps per second on currently can occur as elements of a supersort without explicit lifting, standard hardware configurations, and because of its meta- we have as a consequence that a single event is also a trace, language features, Maude turns out to be an excellent tool consisting of this one event. Likewise, an atomic propo- to create executable environments for various logics, mod- sition can occur as an event, containing only this atomic els of computation, theorem provers, and even program- proposition. Note that there is no definition of an empty ming languages. We were delighted to notice how easily trace. Operations can have attributes, such as the prece- we could implement and efficiently validate our algorithms dences above, which are written between square brackets. 3 for testing LTL formulae on finite event traces in Maude, The attribute prec gives a precedence to an operator , thus admittedly a tedious task in C++ or Java, and hence decided eliminating the need for most parentheses. Notice the spe- to use Maude at least for the prototyping stage of our run- cial sort Event* which stay for terminal events, i.e., events time check algorithms. that occur at the end of traces. Any event can potentially We very briefly and informally remind some of Maude’s occur at the end of a trace. It is often the case that ending features, referring the interested reader to the manual [1] for events are treated differently, like in the case of finite trace more details. Maude supports modularization in the OBJ linear temporal logic; for this reason, we have introduced style. There are various kinds of modules, but we are using the operation _* which marks an event as terminal. only functional modules which follow the pattern “fmod Syntax and semantics are basic requirements to any
3 formed formula in any logic. There are two designated for- fmod PROP-CALC is extending LOGICS-BASIC . true false *** Constructors *** mulae, namely and , with the obvious meaning, op _/\_ : Formula Formula -> Formula together with a “projection”, denoted [_], of any formula [assoc comm prec 15] . op _++_ : Formula Formula -> Formula into a boolean expression. The only role of this operation is [assoc comm prec 17] . to check whether a logical formula is violated or not, each vars X Y Z : Formula . eq true /\ X = X . logic being allowed to refine this operator according to its eq false /\ X = false . policy. Its attribute says that this operation should always be eq X /\ X = X . eq false ++ X = X . evaluated eagerly; numbers in the strategy declaration stay eq X ++ X = false . for argument positions that are numbered from left to right, eq X /\ (Y ++ Z) = X /\ Y ++ X /\ Z . Bool *** Derived operators *** 0 staying for the operator itself. The sort is builtin op _\/_ : Formula Formula -> Formula to Maude and has two constants true and false which [assoc prec 19] . Formula op !_ : Formula -> Formula [prec 13] . are different from those of sort , and a generic op- op _->_ : Formula Formula -> Formula [prec 21] . erator if_then_else_fi. The second block defines the op _<->_ : Formula Formula -> Formula [prec 23] . _{_} eq X \/ Y = X /\ Y ++ X ++ Y . operation which takes a formula and an event and eq ! X = true ++ X . yields another formula. The intuition for this operation is eq X -> Y = true ++ X ++ X /\ Y . eq X <-> Y = true ++ X ++ Y . that it “evaluates” the formula in the new state and produces *** Finite trace semantics a proof obligation as another formula for the subsequent var T : Trace . var E* : Event* . true false eq T |= X /\ Y = T |= X and T |= Y . events, if needed. If the returned formula is or eq T |= X ++ Y = T |= X xor T |= Y . then it means that the formula was satisfied or violated, re- eq (X /\ Y){E*} = X{E*} /\ Y{E*} . eq (X ++ Y){E*} = X{E*} ++ Y{E*} . gardless of the rest of the execution trace; in this case, a eq [X /\ Y] = [X] and [Y] . message can be returned by the observer. As we’ll soon see, eq [X ++ Y] = [X] xor [Y] . each logic will further complete the definition of this oper- endfm ator. Finally, the satisfaction relation is defined. That is, Operators are again declared in mix-fix notation and have two equations deal with the formulae true and false and attributes between squared brackets, such as assoc, comm should be obvious. The last two equations state that a trace, and prec
4
A iff head X
in some future time point, and until then holds (so we con- true iff true,
sider strict until). Finally, o X holds for a trace if X holds in false iff false,
!
X /\ Y iff X and Y,
the suffix trace starting in the next (the second) time point.
X ++ Y iff %$'&)(+*-,/.)0X xor Y,
1 2
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The propositional operators have their obvious meaning. As []X iff %$'&)(+*-,/.)0 X
1
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<>X iff %$'&)(+*-,/.)0 X
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an example illustrating the semantics, the formula [](X -> 2
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X U Y iff .;<¦=)&Y and X
<>Y) is true if for any time point ([]) it holds that if X is true o X iff (if tail is de®ned then X else X) then eventually (<>) Y is true. Another similar property is [](X -> o(Y U Z)), which states that whenever X holds Notice that finite trace LTL can behave quite differently then from the next state Y holds until eventually Z holds. from standard infinite trace LTL. For example, there are for- It’s standard to define a core LTL using only atomic propo- mulae which are not valid in infinite trace LTL but valid sitions, the propositional operators !_ (not) and _/\_ (and), in finite trace LTL, such as <>([] A \/ [] ! A), and and the temporal operators o_ and _U_, and then define all there are formulae which are satisfiable in infinite trace LTL other propositional and temporal operators as derived con- and not satisfiable in finite trace LTL, such as the negation structs. Standard equations are <>X = true U X and []X of the above. The formula above is satisfied by any finite = !<>!X. trace because the last event/state in the trace either contains A or it doesn’t.
3. Finite Trace Linear Temporal Logic 3.2. Finite Trace Semantics in Maude
Now it can be relatively easily seen that the following As already explained, our goal is to develop a framework Maude specification correctly “implements” the finite trace for testing software systems using temporal logic. Tests semantics of LTL described above. The only important are performed on finite execution traces and we therefore deviation from the rigorous mathematical formulation de- need to formalize what it means for a finite trace to sat- scribed above is that the quantifiers over finite sets of in- isfy an LTL formula. We first present a semantics of finite dexes are expressed recursively. trace LTL using standard mathematical notation. Then we present a specification in Maude of a finite trace semantics. fmod LTL is extending PROP-CALC . *** syntax Whereas the former semantics uses universal and existential op []_ : Formula -> Formula [prec 11] . quantification, the second Maude specification is defined op <>_ : Formula -> Formula [prec 11]. op _U_ : Formula Formula -> Formula [prec 14] . using recursive definitions that have a straightforward op- op o_ : Formula -> Formula [prec 11] . erational rewriting interpretation and which therefore can *** semantics vars X Y : Formula . be executed. var E : Event . var T : Trace . eq E |= [] X = E |= X . eq E,T |= [] X = E,T |= X and T |= [] X . eq E |= <> X = E |= X . 3.1. Finite Trace Semantics eq E,T |= <> X = E,T |= X or T |= <> X . eq E |= X U Y = E |= Y . eq E,T |= X U Y = E,T |= Y or E,T |= X and T |= X U Y . As mentioned in Subsection 2.1, a trace is viewed as a eq E |= o X = E |= X . eq E,T |= o X = T |= X . sequence of program states, each state denoting the set of endfm propositions that hold at that state. We shall outline the fi- nite trace LTL semantics using standard mathematical no- Notice that only the temporal operators needed declarations
tation rather than Maude notation. Assume two total func- and semantics, the others being already defined in PROP- § tions on traces, head ¡ Trace Event returning the head CALC and LOGICS-BASIC, and that the definitions that in-
event of a trace and length returning the length of a finite volved the functions head and tail were replaced by two al- §
trace, and a partial function tail ¡ Trace Trace for tak- ternative equations. One can now directly verify LTL prop-
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ing the tail of a trace. That is, head ¢¡¤£ head , erties on finite traces using Maude’s rewriting engine, by
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length . Assume further for any trace , that denotes red a b, a, c a, a b, c b, a b, a, c a, a b, c b
the suffix trace that starts at position , with positions start- |= [] (a -> <> b) . §
red a b, a, c a, a b, c b, a b, a, c a, a b, c b
ing at . The satisfaction relation Trace Formula |= <> (! [](a -> <> b)) .
§
defines when a trace satisfies a formula , written , and is defined inductively over the structure of the formulae which should return the expected answers, i.e., true and as follows, where A is any atomic proposition and X and Y false, respectively. The algorithm above does nothing but are any formulae: blindly follows the mathematical definition of satisfaction
5 and even runs reasonably fast for relatively small traces. For a trace T, then a formula X holds on this trace if and only if example, it takes5 about 30ms (74k rewrite steps) to reduce X{E} holds on the remaining trace T. If the event E is ter- the first formula above and less than 1s (254k rewrite steps) minal then X{E *} holds if and only if X holds under stan- to reduce the second on traces of 100 events (10 times larger dard LTL semantics on the infinite trace containing only the than the above). Unfortunately, this algorithm doesn’t seem event E. to be tractable for large event traces, even if run on very fast fmod LTL-REVISED is protecting LTL . platforms. As a concrete practical example, it took Maude vars X Y : Formula . 7.3 million rewriting steps (3 seconds) to reduce the first var E : Event . var T : Trace . eq ([] X){E} = [] X /\ X{E} . formula above and 2.4 billion steps (1000 seconds) for the eq ([] X){E *} = X{E *} . second on traces of 1,000 events; it couldn’t finish in one eq (<> X){E} = <> X \/ X{E} . eq (<> X){E *} = X{E *} . night (more than 10 hours) the reduction of the second for- eq (o X){E} = X . mula on a trace of 10,000 events. Since the event traces eq (o X){E *} = X{E *} . eq (X U Y){E} = Y{E} \/ X{E} /\ X U Y . generated by an executing program can easily be larger than eq (X U Y){E *} = Y{E *} . 10,000 events, the trivial algorithm above can not be used op _|-_ : Trace Formula -> Bool [strat (2 0)] . in practice. eq E |- X = [X{E *}] . A rigorous complexity analysis of the algorithm above eq E,T |- X = T |- X{E} . is hard (because it has to take into consideration the eval- endfm uation strategy used by Maude for terms of sort Bool) The rule for the temporal operator []X should be read as and not worth the effort. However, a simplified analysis follows: the formula X must hold now (X{E}) and also in can be easily made if one only counts the maximum num- the future ([]X). The sub-expression X{E} represents the ber of atoms of the form event |= atom that can occur formula that must hold for the rest of the trace for X to during the rewriting of a satisfaction term, as if all the hold now. As an example, consider the formula []<>A. boolean reductions were applied after all the other reduc- This formula modified by an event B C (so A doesn’t hold)
tions: let us consider a formula X = [] ([] (... ([] yields the rewritings sequence ([]<>A) B C []<>A
A) ...)) where the always operator is nested times,
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/\ (<>A) B C []<>A /\ (<>A \/ A B C )
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and a trace T of size ¡ , and let be the total num- []<>A /\ (<>A \/ false) []<>A /\ <>A, ber of basic satisfactions event |= atom that occur in the while the same formula transformed by A C (so A holds)
normal form of the term T |= X if no boolean reductions
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yields ([]<>A) A C []<>A /\ (<>A) A C
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specification above. Since , it follows
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¡ £¤ © ¡ £¤ ¡© that , that is, , which is each temporal operator. An alternative solution would be of course unacceptable. to define some operators in terms of others, as is typically the case in the standard semantics for LTL. For example, 4. An Efficient Rewriting Algorithm we could introduce an equation of the form: <>X = true U X, and then eliminate the rewriting rule for <>X in the In this section we shall present a more efficient rewrit- above module. This turns out to be less efficient because ing semantics for LTL, based on the idea of consuming the more rewrites are needed. events in the trace, one by one, and updating a data structure This module eventually defines a new satisfaction rela- (which is also a formula) corresponding to the effect of the tion _|-_ between traces and formulae. The term T |- event on the value of the formula. Our decision to write an X is evaluated now by an iterative traversal over the trace, operational semantics this way was motivated by an attempt where each event transforms the formula. Note that the new to program such an algorithm in Java, where such a solution formula that is generated in each step is always kept small would be the most natural. As it turns out, it also yields a by being reduced to normal form via the equations in the more efficient rewriting system. PROP-CALC module in Subsection 2.2. In fact, the new formula consists of boolean combinations of subformulae 4.1. The Main Algorithm of the initial formula, kept in a minimal canonical form. Therefore, the algorithm is linear in the size of the trace, We implement this algorithm by extending the definition and worst-case exponential in the size of the formula. How- of the operation _{_} : Formula Event* -> Formula ever, it seems that this exponential complexity in the size of to temporal operators, with the following intuition. As- the formula is more of theoretical importance than practi- suming a trace E,T consisting of an event E followed by cal, since in general the size of the formula grew only twice 5On a 1.7GHz, 1Gb memory PC. or less in our experiments. If speed is crucial and the above
6 procedure turns out to be still too slow, then one can stat- quantified variables E and T, but also two other constants ically generate all formulae in which a formula can trans- y and z standing for formulas which can be combined via form and store them as the states of an automaton, the edges operators to give other formulas. The induction hypothesis being the possible events. Then when a new event is gener- for the second lemma is added to the following specification ated by the monitored program, one could directly go to the as equations. Notice that we merged the two proofs to save “next” state of the automaton without any logical reason- space. A proof assistant like KUMO or PVS would prove ing. We have implemented an improved version of such a them independently, generating only the needed constants procedure (in which only a minimal subset of atomic propo- for each of them. sitions are evaluated); details regarding this implementation fmod PROOF-OF-LEMMAS is will appear elsewhere, but an informal description can be extending LTL . extending LTL-REVISED . found in [14]. op e : -> Event . op t : -> Trace . Verification results are very encouraging and show that ops a b c : -> Atom . ops y z : -> Formula . eq e |= y = e |- y . this optimized semantics is orders of magnitudes faster than eq e |= z = e |- z . the first semantics. Traces of less than 10,000 events are eq e,t |= y = t |= y{e} . eq e,t |= z = t |= z{e} . verified in milliseconds, while traces of 100,000 events eq b{e} = true . never needed more than 3 seconds. This technique scales eq c{e} = false . quite well; we were able to monitor even traces of hun- endfm dreds of millions events. As a concrete example, we cre- It is worth reminding the reader at this stage that the func- ated an artificial trace by repeating 10 million times the 10 tional modules in Maude have initial semantics, so proofs event trace a b, a, c a, a b, c b, a b, a, c a, by induction are valid. Before proceeding further, the reader a b, c b, and then checked it against the formula [](a should be aware of the operational semantics of the opera- -> <> b). There were needed 4.9 billion rewriting steps tion _==_, namely that the two argument terms are first re- for a total of about 1,500 seconds. duced to their normal forms which are then compared syn- tactically (but modulo associativity and commutativity); it 4.2. Correctness and Completeness returns true if and only if the two normal forms are equal. Therefore, the answer true means that the two terms are in- In this subsection we prove that the algorithm presented deed semantically equal, while false only means that they above is correct and complete with respect to the semantics couldn’t be proved equal; they can still be equal. of finite trace LTL presented in Section 3. The proof is done red (e |= a == e |- a) completely in Maude, but since Maude is not intended to be and (e |= true == e |- true) a theorem prover, we actually have to generate the proof and (e |= false == e |- false) and (e |= y /\ z == e |- y /\ z) obligations by hand. However, the proof obligations below and (e |= y ++ z == e |- y ++ z) could be automatically generated by a proof assistant like and (e |= [] y == e |- [] y) 6 and (e |= <> y == e |- <> y) KUMO [7] or a theorem prover like PVS [26] . and (e |= y U z == e |- y U z) and (e |= o y == e |- o y) Theorem: For any trace T and any formula X, T |= X if and only if T |- X. and (e,t |= true == t |= true{e}) and (e,t |= false == t |= false{e}) and (e,t |= b == t |= b{e}) Proof: By induction, both on traces and formulae. We and (e,t |= c == t |= c{e}) first need to prove two lemmas, namely that the following and (e,t |= y /\ z == t |= (y /\ z){e}) LTL LTL- and (e,t |= y ++ z == t |= (y ++ z){e}) two equations hold in the context of both and and (e,t |= [] y == t |= ([] y){e}) REVISED: and (e,t |= <> y == t |= (<> y){e}) and (e,t |= y U z == t |= (y U z){e})
and (e,t |= o y == t |= (o y){e}) .
)" E : Event, X : Formula
E |= X E |- X, It took Maude 129 reductions to prove these lemmas. )" E : Event, T : Trace, X : Formula Therefore, one can safely add now these lemmas as follows: E T |= X T |= X{E}. fmod LEMMAS is X protecting LTL . We prove them by structural induction on the formula . protecting LTL-REVISED . Constants e and x are needed in order to prove the first var E : Event . var T : Trace . var X : Formula . lemma via the theorem of constants. However, since we eq E |= X = E |- X . prove the second lemma by structural induction on X, we not eq E,T |= X = T |= X{E} . only have to add two constants e and t for the universally endfm
6We’ve already done it in PVS, but we prefer to use only Maude in this We can now prove the theorem, by induction on traces. paper. More precisely, we show:
7
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E , and described in [25], although it examines the trace backwards,
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T implies E,T , for all events E and traces requiring the trace to be stored. As it turns out, this algo- T, rithm applies more naturally to the checking of past time
¥ LTL, since this can be done by a forward examination of the where T is the predicate “for all formulas X, T |= X iff trace. Of future work can be mentioned that we will exper- T |- X”. This induction schema can be easily formalized iment with new logics in Maude, such as interval and real in Maude as follows: time logics and UML notations. We have already in [13, 14] fmod PROOF-OF-THEOREM is protecting LEMMAS . described how past time LTL can be succinctly defined in op e : -> Event . Maude (note that this work is different from the dynamic op t : -> Trace . op x : -> Formula . var X : Formula . programming algorithm for past time LTL just mentioned). eq t |= X = t |- X . endfm A general question is how such requirement monitoring can be tied into the different levels of the development cy- red e |= x == e |- x . red e,t |= x == e,t |- x . cle. With the composition of the specification into a verifi- cation part that refers to abstract propositions, and an instru- Notice the difference in role between the constant x and the mentation part that relate these to concrete program entities, variable X. The first reduction proves the base case of the in- the verification part can potentially be written before the duction, using the theorem of constants for the universally program is developed. Hence, Maude can be used during quantified variable X. In order to prove the induction step, the early phases of a project to write down requirements,
we first applied the theorem of constants for the universally which can then can be tested later in the implementation
¥ quantified variables E and T, then added t to the hypoth- phase. One can further imagine that the requirements writ-
esis (the equation “eq t |= X = t |- X .”), and then ten in Maude themselves can be subject to various forms of
¥ reduced e t using again the theorem of constants for formal analysis, also programmed in Maude, such as rapid the universally quantified variable X. Like in the proofs of prototyping, symbolic simulation, static analysis, theorem the lemmas, we merged the two proofs to save space. proving, and model checking. We have for example consid- ered formulating state machines in Maude and use these for 5. Conclusions and Future Work monitoring. Such state machines are obvious candidates for the above mentioned forms of analysis. As described in [13, 14] JPAX provides in addition to We have presented a finite trace semantics of LTL in specification based monitoring also a capability of check- the Maude logic together with a much more efficient ver- ing error patterns in multi-threaded programs. Future work sion based on formula transforming state changes. The for- will try to develop new algorithms for detecting other kinds mula transformation approach can be regarded as a self con- of concurrency errors than data races and deadlocks. This tained result with interest to at least the rewriting and tem- includes studying completely new functionalities of the sys- poral logics communities. However, what perhaps makes it tem, such as guided execution via code instrumentation more interesting is that its integration into the general pro- to explore more of the possible interleavings of a non- gram monitoring framework JPAX seems to be quite effi- deterministic concurrent program during testing. cient for practical purposes, allowing an elegant flexibility Last, but not least, program monitoring can not only be in the choice and design of requirement languages. This applied during program testing, but, perhaps more interest- can be useful not only for research projects and educational ingly, during operation, and be used to influence the pro- purposes, but also for real-life projects, where requirement gram behavior in case requirements get violated. Our future languages may be domain or application specific. In prin- research will focus on this aspect. ciple what Maude provides is a static parsing environment for defining syntax, combined with a rewrite-based dynamic execution environment for defining efficient semantics over References the parse trees. It is our goal to examine the feasibility of this approach on a selection of NASA software systems. [1] M. Clavel, F. J. Duran,´ S. Eker, P. Lincoln, N. Mart´ı- A current research activity is, however, to find yet more Oliet, J. Meseguer, and J. F. Quesada. Maude: efficient representations of future time LTL formula for the Specification and Programming in Rewriting Logic, purpose of achieving an absolute optimal algorithm for test- Mar. 1999. Maude System documentation at http://maude.csl.sri.com/papers. ing their satisfaction on execution traces. This becomes es- [2] S. Cohen. Jtrek. Compaq, pecially crucial for an implementation in a standard pro- http://www.compaq.com/java/download/jtrek. gramming language such as Java. In [14] we describe such [3] J. Corbett, M. B. Dwyer, J. Hatcliff, C. S. Pasareanu, Robby, a provably minimal finite state machine representation. An S. Laubach, and H. Zheng. Bandera : Extracting Finite- efficient dynamic programming algorithm is furthermore state Models from Java Source Code. In Proceedings of
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