The State of Teacher Education in France: a Critique Pradeep Kumar Misra

The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique Pradeep Kumar Misra

To cite this version:

Pradeep Kumar Misra. The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique. 2013. halshs-00937314

HAL Id: halshs-00937314 https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00937314 Preprint submitted on 28 Jan 2014

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Indo-French Programme franco-indien

The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique

Pradeep Kumar Misra N°58 | january 2014

The study of teacher education systems of different countries working in different conditions and following different patterns holds great promise to improve teacher education system in general. The analysis of different systems of teacher education helps to understand that what works well and what not in different systems and conditions and this ultimately paves the way for improvement of teacher education systems across the globe. The French teacher education system that is going through a process of change and radical reforms seems an interesting case in this regard. The study of teacher education system of France becomes more significant in a sense that it is unique in many terms and was a topic of debate and policy reforms between previous and present government.

Working Papers Series

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 2/24

The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique

Pradeep Kumar Misra

January 2014

The author Dr. Pradeep Kumar Misra is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Allied Sciences of M.J.P. Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, India. His research specializations are Teacher Education, Edu- cational Technology and Lifelong Learning. Dr. Misra has received a number of prestigious awards that includes Commonwealth Academic Fellowship of CSC, UK; Indo-French Exchange Scholarship of FMSH, Paris; Erasmus Mundus Visiting Scholar Scholarship of European Commission; Senior Resear- cher and Doctoral Scholarship of DAAD, Germany and Postdoctoral Research Award of UGC, India. Dr. Misra was visiting scholar in the Danish School of Education, Copenhagen in 2009 for Internatio- nal Masters in Lifelong Learning: Policy and Management Programme. He has to his credit a number of international and national publications, authored a book ‘Educational Television in Germany’ and completed different Research and Development Projects. Dr. Misra is also the founder member and Secretary of Society for Professional Development of Indian Teachers (SPDIT). He is also contributing for different educational causes via his website: www.technologyandteachers.com and can be contacted at: [email protected] Acknowledgements

I am extremely grateful to the Fondation Maison des Sciences de l’Homme (FMSH), France and University Grants Commission (UGC), India for offering me a scholarship to carry out this study. The kind hospitality, support and guidance provided by Prof. Eric Bruillard and his team, from the ENS Cachan is also gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to gratefully acknowledge the support and recommendations for this research from Prof. Max Jean Zins, Prof. Pierre Léna and Prof. Georges-Louis Baron. I would also like to express my gratitude to all those who have responded to my survey and given their valuable inputs for this research. Finally, I am thankful to my dear wife and lovely daughter who has given me unconditional support and needed motivation to complete this research. Citing this document

Pradeep Kumar Misra, The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique,FMSH-WP-2014-58, january 2014.

Les Working Papers et les Position Papers de The Working Papers and Position Papers of la Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme the FMSH are produced in the course of ont pour objectif la diffusion ouverte des tra- the scientific activities of the FMSH: the © Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 2014 vaux en train de se faire dans le cadre des chairs of the Institute for Global Studies, diverses activités scientifiques de la Fonda- Fernand Braudel-IFER grants, the Founda- Informations et soumission des textes : tion : Le Collège d’études mondiales, Bourses tion’s scientific programmes, or the scholars [email protected] Fernand Braudel-IFER, Programmes scien- hosted at the Maison Suger or as associate tifiques, hébergement à la Maison Suger, research directors. Working Papers may also Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme Séminaires et Centres associés, Directeurs be produced in partnership with affiliated 190-196 avenue de France d’études associés... institutions. 75013 Paris - France Les opinions exprimées dans cet article n’en- The views expressed in this paper are the http://www.fmsh.fr gagent que leur auteur et ne reflètent pas author’s own and do not necessarily reflect http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/FMSH-WP nécessairement les positions institutionnelles institutional positions from the Foundation http://wpfmsh.hypotheses.org de la Fondation MSH. MSH.

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 3/24

Abstract The study of teacher education systems of different countries working in different conditions and following different patterns holds great promise to improve teacher education system in general. The analysis of different systems of teacher education helps to understand that what works well and what not in different systems and conditions and this ultimately paves the way for improvement of teacher education systems across the globe. The French teacher education system that is going through a process of change and radical reforms seems an interesting case in this regard. The study of teacher education system of France becomes more significant in a sense that it is unique in many terms and was a topic of debate and policy reforms between previous and present government. In this backdrop, present research analyzes the on-going efforts, policies and practices of teacher education in France; makes a SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities, threat) analysis of French teacher education system; and identifies best adoptable teacher education policies and practices from France. Keywords teacher education, France, education systems, education L’état de la formation des enseignants en France : analyse critique Résumé L’analyse comparative des différents systèmes de formations des maitres et des enseignants selon les pays se révèle toujours intéressante. L’étude du système français est particulièrement enrichissante pour l’Inde. Mots-clefs formation des enseignants, France, systèmes éducatifs, éducation

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 4/24

Sommaire

Background 5 Methodology 6 School and Higher Education in France: An Overview 6 (i) School Education 7 (ii) Higher Education 9 Teacher Education in France: From Past to Present 10 (i) History 10 (ii) Entry Routes 12 (iii) Categorisation of Teachers 13 (iv) Teaching and Training 13 (v) Professional and Societal Expectations 14 (vi) Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Provisions 14 (vii) ICT Training 15 Teacher Education in France: A SWOT Analysis 15 (i) Strengths 16 (ii) Weaknesses 16 (iii) Opportunities 17 (iv) Threats 18 Teacher Education in France: Best Adoptable Practices 19 Conclusion 19 References 20

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 5/24

Background approaches to learning and expected to be facilita- nstitutions of teacher education ful- tors and classroom managers rather than ex-cathedra fill vital roles in the global education trainers.” Teacher education systems across the community; they have the potential globe are expected to deliver in backdrop of all to bring changes within educational these expectations, changes and challenges. systems that will shape the knowledge and skills of Teacher education systems of today are expected “Ifuture generations. Often, education is described to nurture a teacher fit for all purposes, as indica- as the great hope for creating a more sustainable ted by Darling-Hammond (2006, p.1), “Teachers future; teacher-education institutions serve as key need not only to be able to keep order and provide use- change agents in transforming education and so- ful information to students but also to be increasin- ciety, so such a future is possible. Not only do tea- gly effective in enabling a diverse group of students cher-education institutions educate new teachers, to learn ever more complex material. In previous they update the knowledge and skills of in-ser- decades, they were expected to prepare only a small vice teachers, create teacher-education curriculum, minority for ambitious intellectual work, whereas provide professional development for practicing they are now expected to prepare virtually all students teachers, contribute to textbooks, consult with for higher order thinking and performance skills once local schools, and often provide expert opinion to reserved to only a few.” Furthermore, classrooms regional and national ministries of education” now contain a more heterogeneous mix of young (UNESCO, 2005, p.11). people from different backgrounds and with dif- Echoing the same sentiments, a report from ferent levels of ability and disability. Besides, ICT OECD (2005, p.96) also underlines, “Teacher provide new tools and resources for teaching and education is high on the policy agenda in many learning; they change the knowledge itself, the countries. Countries are seeking to ensure that teacher ways for accessing knowledge, and they bring education is attractive to high-quality entrants, and new concepts to our Societies. They give informa- that it adequately prepares teachers for the demands tion and knowledge a new status (Cornu, 2006). of modern schooling.” Beside these expectations, From all these observations, it is clear that teacher the teacher education systems have to also take education needs a change in vision and action to into account the ever emerging changes and chal- cater to varying demands of changing societies. lenges emancipating from society, economy and There is great diversity in teacher preparation pro- technology. grammes internationally depending in large part We are living in an era of change that brings new on the economic, political, and social contexts demands and promises before teacher education that exist within each country (Cooper and Alva- at regular intervals. Today, we are confronted with rado, 2006, p.13). In this context, the study of the more radical and in many ways disturbing but teacher education systems of different countries seeming to be very promising prospect of excel- working in different conditions and following lence in an age where innovation is indeed the different patterns hold great promise to improve keyword to gaining access to all the promises and teacher education system in general, as suggested perils of a new world order. By wide consensus, a by Krek (2011, p.8), “A familiarity with the sys- dramatic societal shift is underway, and the grad- tems in various countries enables us to undertake ual emergence of a new technologically textured, professional reflection on individual good solutions knowledge-based form of social existence and and transfer these to practice in such a way that we organization is becoming apparent. These changes either adopt that which is feasible in our own envi- in society place teachers, as well as school policy ronment or adapt the solutions to the characteristics and teacher education, before new demands and of the concrete situation.” The analysis of different challenges (Green, 2004, p.187). Talking about systems of teacher education helps to understand these new demands and challenges, a document that what works well and what not in different of European Commission (2007, p.4) illustrates, systems and conditions and this ultimately paves “As well as imparting basic knowledge, teachers are the way for improvement of teacher education also increasingly called upon to help young people systems across the globe. The French teacher edu- become fully autonomous learners by acquiring key cation system that is going through a process of skills, rather than memorising information; they are change and radical reforms seems an interesting asked to develop more collaborative and constructive case in this regard. The study of teacher education

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 6/24 system of France becomes more significant in a institutions (IUFMs) and University depart- sense that it is unique in many ways and was a ments and conducted semi-structured interviews topic of debate and policy reforms between pre- with teacher educators and would be teachers. vious and present government. Besides, policymakers at the government level, and teacher education researchers and experts The link between teacher recruitment and training were also contacted via email to complete a sur- is a core French specificity. Teachers are recruited vey (developed by the researcher) about teacher by the State through national competitive exami- education in France. In all, 15 people responded nations open to students having passed a bachelor and answered different questions about teacher degree, and then they are provided with a post in education in France. The researcher would like to a school as civil servant. Secondary teachers usu- clarify that at this moment teacher education in ally teach what is commonly perceived as only one France is going through a transition phase (new school subject, even if it is composite (like his- system is expected to take place from September tory and geography, biology and geology, physics and 2013) and this have a bearing on the readiness chemistry). Their professional identity is strongly of people to provide information, collected data marked by a sense of belonging to their subject: and its analysis. The researcher would further the competitive examination they pass principally like to add that data collection and analyses for certifies their competencies in this subject matter. this research are mainly qualitative in nature and By contrast, primary teachers have to be polyva- based on a limited sample of profiles. These issues lent and pedagogy is at the core of their profes- have of course some implications on the validity sional identity (Baron and Harrari, 2003, p.36). of the results, but the conclusions of the study During the past two decades, France has experi- should be seen in the context of the scope of the enced a major change in teacher education insti- analyses and the objectives of highlighting issues. tutional structures. The new orientations tend to promote the competency approach in teacher School and Higher education and training. In other side, teacher education in France remains more regulated than the Education in France: other sectors of higher education. The Ministry An Overview of Education feels a strong responsibility towards It is a well-known fact that teacher education teacher education because it influences the qual- takes inputs (students) from higher education ity of primary and secondary education in general and its outputs (trained teachers) goes to serve in (Sacilotto-Vasylenko and Fave-Bonnet, 2011). primary and secondary education sector. There- Keeping these and many more characteristics in fore, it seems logical that any attempt to under- view, the present research was conducted to: stand the teacher education system of any coun- • Analyze the on-going efforts, policies and try must begin from the study of school and practices of teacher education in France. higher education of that country. Keeping this in • Make a SWOT (strength, weakness, oppor- view, it will be worthy to understand the school tunities, threat) analysis of French teacher and higher education system of France. Talking education system. about the specificity of French education system, Baron and Bruillard (2003, p.178) comment, • Identify best adoptable teacher education “France is a country with a long tradition of debate policies and practices from France. and, sometimes, confrontation, particularly in educational matters.” In France, the state, regional Methodology authorities, and professional bodies have shared The methodological approach to conduct this responsibility for education. Central government research included two main phases: documen- retains fundamental powers when it comes to tary work (desk research) and interviews in the defining and implementing education policy and field. The documentary work was mainly based national education curricula and is responsible on the review of existing policies and practices, for the recruitment and salaries of teachers. Since as well as other available literature and statis- the 1980s, the State has been devolving powers tics related to teacher education in France. The in order to strengthen the role of local authorities field research was conducted mainly in Paris, in the management of the school system. Local France. The researcher visited teacher training authorities are financially in charge of educational

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 7/24 buildings and materials and normally decide 1959, schooling is compulsory from the age of six about the amount of funding they will invest in to sixteen for all French or foreign children who educational reforms and the kind of infrastruc- are resident in France. There is also a provision ture they will install (Baron and Bruillard, 2003). of home schooling with prior approval of state. France spends more per capita on education than Schooling is mandatory from ages 6 to 16 and many other European countries (About-France. nearly all children begin school by age four. There com, 2012). Presently it spends nearly 6% of its are two tiers of school education - level 1 (pre- GDP in education including schooling (World mier degré) that includes nursery and elementary Bank, 2013). schools, and level 2 (second degré) that includes lower secondary schools (collèges) and upper sec- France has 26 regions, 101 district (departments), ondary general, technological and vocational 36,851 municipalities and 30 local authorities schools (lycées). Nursery school (Ecole Mater- (academies). According to Baron and Harrari nelle) is optional, and children can begin classes (2003, p.35-36), “A key feature of the French system at age two. The three-year cycle of Nursery school is the existence, at the regional level, of an impor- (Petite, Moyenne, Grande Section) is referred as tant education administration, named académie. the cycle des apprentissages premiers. Primary Académies are ruled by a rector (Recteur, also chan- schools (Ecole Primaire -CP-CM2) start at age cellor for universities), a very prominent official in six, correspond to grades 1 through 5 and takes 6 the region, representing the minister of education (he years. The first two years- CP (cours préparatoire) or she is directly appointed by the cabinet and may be and CE1 (cours élémentaire) constitute the second fired at any cabinet meeting). Rectors are in charge two-year cycle (cycle des apprentissages fondamen- of the public service of education in their resort, from taux). The next three years, constituting the cycle kindergarten to university and also has competencies des approfondissements, are CE2 (second year of regarding registered private schooling. It is the rec- cours élémentaire), CM1 and CM2 (first and sector’s duty to apply the national regulation, to manage ond year of cours moyen) (Expatica, 2011; Minis- education at his level to inform the ministry and to try of National Education, 2012). maintain links with the other regional powers (economy, territorial authorities…). In every départe- After primary education that lasts for five years, ment, an inspecteur d’académie representing the rec- the next stage is lower secondary education. This tor heads the education services at that level (except education takes place in Collège (four classes- concerning universities).” There are two Ministries 6ème, 5ème, 4ème, 3ème) and lasts for four years. of Education in France- Ministry of National The first year of lower secondary school (6ème), Education, Youth, and Sport (Ministère de l’Éd- is called the cycle d’adaptation; the 5ème and ucation nationale, de la Jeunesse et de la Vie asso- 4ème are the cycle central; the 3ème is the cycle ciative) and Ministry of Higher Education and d’orientation. After lower secondary education, Research (Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur pupils may opt either for general or technological et de la Recherche). In France, both school and or professional education in lycées preparing for higher education systems are guided by clearly the Baccalauréat. The education at lycées lasts for defined objectives, followed by distinct provisions 3 years. The year of lycée, the seconde, is known as and structures. the cycle de détermination; students take the same core curriculum of some eight subjects but are (i) School Education offered three electives and an artistic workshop. The present French school (école) system was At the end of this year, the key decision is made founded on general principles that were inspired as to which baccalaureat the student will pursue. by the 1789 revolution, and principle of secu- There are three types of baccalauréat general: lit- larism. State schooling in France has been sec- erature and language (L), science and maths (S), ular since the Jules Ferry Education Act of 28 and economics and social sciences (ES). There is March 1882. Baron points-out, “There has been a system of national exams for baccalauréat at the in fact a war between partisans of clerical or secu- end of upper secondary education. Passing it gives lar education, in the beginning of the 1900… and a right to undertake higher education in Univer- then came the law separating the church and the state sities or other institutions (Baron and Harrari, in 1905”(G.L. Baron, personal communication, 2003). At lycées, students can also opt for tech- June 22, 2013). According to the Law of year nical/vocational education, preparing first for the Certificat d’Aptitude professionnelle (CAP) or the

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 8/24

Brevet d’Etudes professionnelles (BEP) in two years Education, 2012). The schooling structure of and then, for those who want to continue, there France and students enrolled in different types of is Baccalauréat professionnel which lasts for two schools is discussed as Table-1 and Table-2. more years (Expatica, 2011; Ministry of National

Table-1: Structure of School Education in France

Level Type of School Age Level Length of Certificate/Diploma Schooling Awarded (Years) Primary Ecole Primaire 6 to 11 5 --

Lower Collège 11 to 15 4 Brevet des Collèges Secondary Upper Lycée d’Enseignement 15 to 18 3 Baccalauréat général / Bac- Secondary general / technologique calauréat technologique / et professionnel Baccalauréat professionnel

Vocational Lycée professionnel 15 to 17 2 Certificat d’Aptitude professionnelle (CAP)/ Brevet d’Etudes professionnelles (BEP)/ Source: EuroEducation.net

Table-2: Number of Schools in France and Pupils Enrolled

Type of Schools Number Pupils Enrolled

Primary Schools 53,798 6, 620,000 Lower Secondary Schools (Collèges) 7,018 3, 126,400 General and Technological Upper 2,640 1, 425,700 Secondary Schools (lycées) Vocational Schools (lycées) 1,637 705,500 Special Schools 80 44,300 Adapted secondary schooling: referral units -- 95,600 Total 65,173 12,017,500

Source: Repères et références statistiques 2011 – The State of schools 2011 – Direction de l’évalua- tion, de la prospective et de la performance (Assessment, Forward-Planning and Performance Direc- torate), –Ministry of National Education, Ministry for Higher Education and Research)

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 9/24

In France majority of the schools are state schools directly from the minister. Regional inspectors work- with few private schools that have a contract with ing in close relation with the General Inspection and the state to coexist within the system. As fact, the rector have authority upon pedagogy in subject 83% of pupils are schooled in the state system matters or school life in secondary education. “Pri- and 17% in private schools. Following the direc- mary education inspectors (named National Educa- tives of French constitution that ‘it is the duty tion inspectors), have in charge smaller units, called of the state to provide free, compulsory, secular “circonscriptions“.” education at all levels’, state offers free schooling (no fee, free text books) at primary and lower (ii) Higher Education secondary education level (Ministry of National Higher education in France is characterized by a Education, 2012). The average number of chil- dual system: it is provided in Universities (includ- dren per class is currently around 25.9 (nursery ing Instituts nationaux polytechniques) open to a school), 22.7 (primary school), 23.7 (collège) and large number of students and in Grandes Ecoles 27.6 (lycée) (France Guide, 2013). The French and other professional higher education institu- educational philosophy emphasizes: the authority tions with selective admission policies. The edu- of the teacher; individual competition including cation in Universities is divided into three cycles an absolute grading system; stress on analytical in accordance with the common European sys- thought; and generally high academic expecta- tem: Licence (Bachelor), Master and Doctorate tions. The schools more or less follow same syl- (LMD). The number of semesters of postsecond- labus and textbooks at the same level through- ary study and their equivalent in ECTS credits out France. In general, French schools place a are counted toward the award of degrees. The great emphasis on the French language (particu- credits required for different degrees are: Licence larly grammar), arithmetic and the sciences. The (L) = 6 semesters = 180 ECTS credits; Master Outline Act of 23 April 2005 for the future of (M) = 4 additional semesters = 120 ECTS cred- French schools, entail ensuring equal opportuni- its; and Doctorate (D) = minimum of 3 years ties and success for all students by establishing after the Master (not expressed in ECTS cred- a common knowledge base and integrating more its). Currently, France has 83 public universities young people into the working world (Ministère enrolling 1.4 million students, including 70,000 des Affaires étrangères, 2007). doctoral candidates. Universities in France offer Besides, schools in France try to help pupils to curricula in academic fields and of various insti- acquire the Common Core of Knowledge and tutes and schools - such as the IUT - offering Skills that are based on the recommendation courses in Engineering and Technology and spe- of the European Parliament and the European cial programmes in Management, Political Sci- Council on ‘key competences for education ence, Languages and Physical Education, the and lifelong learning’. These key competencies IUFM (Instituts Universitaires de Formation des include: command of the French language; pro- Maîtres) which offer training courses for primary ficiency in a modern foreign language; key ele- and secondary schools teachers, the IUP (Insti- ments of mathematics, scientific culture and tuts Universitaires Professionalisés) which offer technology; mastery of ordinary information and technological courses and practical training with communication skills; humanist culture; social an introduction to research and foreign languages and civic skills; autonomy and initiative. Since (EuroEducation.net; Campus France. Org). Uni- 2011, command of the seven skills – as certified versities in France come under the responsibil- by the head teacher at the end of troisième – is a ity of the Ministry of Higher Education and compulsory prerequisite for the Diplôme National Research (Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur et du Brevet (DNB), the end of lower-secondary de la Recherche). In comparison to other parts of school exam. The other notable feature of French the French higher education system, tuition fee is education system is that about 80 per cent of lower in Universities (about €400 a year) as gov- children continue their schooling beyond the age ernment pays much of the true remaining cost of 16 (Ministry of National Education, 2012). In of each student’s education (which ranges from words of Baron and Harrari (2003, p. 36), “France €8,000 to €14,000 per year). has a strongly controlled school system. Several bod- The other unique feature of higher education ies of inspectors are in charge of overseeing how the in France is the Grand Schools (grandes écoles system is functioning: general inspectors, depend

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 10/24 and écoles supérieures). Grandes écoles and écoles Teacher Education supérieures are university colleges specializing in France: From Past in professional training. Often termed as elitist to Present higher education system in the world, grandes écoles are heavily funded and equipped. The state When one traces about the history of teacher spends around €40,000 educating a student at education, it appears that teaching existed long a grande école, compared with just €12,000 at a before teacher education came in place. In ear- university ( Justlanded.com, 2013). Grandes écoles lier times, the assumption was that anyone who comprises both public and private institutions, had completed a given level of education could such as schools of engineering, the four écoles turn around and teach it. Teachers needed no normales supérieures (ENS), institutes of political special preparation in the art of teaching; they studies (IEP), schools of business and manage- just needed modest familiarity with the subject ment, and schools of veterinary medicine, agron- matter to teach. The simple rule for teachers was- omy, and other specialized subjects. Admission take the class, teach the class (Labaree, 2004). is highly selective in grandes écoles. Students are The credit to change this situation and evolving admitted after 2 years of preparatory study at a the concept of teacher education mainly goes to special preparatory school (Classes Préparatoires Europe and North America. France played a aux Grandes Écoles/CPGE), and the passing of pioneer role in bringing the concept of teacher a very selective competitive entrance examina- training in reality. This is evident from the fact tion. Grandes écoles offer a high standard of pro- that way back in 1685, John Baptist de La Salle fessional education that ranges from 3 to 7 years founded the first teachers’ training college é( cole of study. The other notable feature isthat these normale) in Reims (city in the Champagne- prestigious schools (ecoles normales supérieures, Ardenne region of France). According to French Polytechnique) pay the students during their stud- text and Encyclopaedia, the exact English version ies. Beside Universities and grandes écoles, there are of the French term école normale (‘en Angleterre, more than 3,000 other public and private insti- les écoles normales d’instituteurs et d’institutrices sont tutions that offer programs in specific areas like appelées’) is ‘training colleges’ (Edwards, 1991). health professions, paramedical services, audio- visual arts, communication, journalism, social (i) History work, fashion, design, tourism, culinary arts, mil- The legal use of the term école normale in France itary studies, agriculture, agronomy, and political first appeared in a law of October 30, 1794, science. Normally these programs last for 2 to 5 approved by the National Convention (1792- years (EuroEducation.net; Campus France. org). 1795). Educational historians have inferred the The number of different types of higher educa- existence of the idea of teacher education in Rol- tion institutions in France is given in Table-3. land’s Theory, History, and Practice of Education

Table-3: Number of Higher Education Institutions in France

Type of Higher Education Institutions Number Universities and Equivalent institutions 83 Schools of Engineering 224 Schools of Business and Management 220 Schools of Art 120 Other Schools and Institutes 3000

Source: Campus France. org

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 11/24

239 Report (1768) which “proposed a national colleges for preparation of primary school teach- system of education to replace both the schools ers, the ENIs (Ecoles Normales d’Instituteurs et of the Jesuits and those of the Brothers of the d’Institutrices), were opened progressively in all Christian Schools,” and “a higher normal school counties to take charge of pre- and in-service to train teachers for the Colleges (secondary training. On the contrary, secondary school schools) (Cubberley, 1920a, p. 510). Incorpo- teachers did not receive any professional train- rated with these ideas has been the proposition ing until the middle of the 20th century. The sit- of Condorcet (1791) that teachers for each grade uation changed in 1989, as observed by Baron, of school should be prepared in the school above “Since 1989, primary and secondary teachers are (Cubberley, 1920b, p. 512). This proposition supposed to receive the same level of training in uni- paved the way for a school higher than the lycées versities. But modalities differ” (G.L. Baron, per- to prepare teachers for the lycée, and saw its fulfil- sonal communication, June 22, 2013). The credit ment in Lakanal’s bill submitted to the National for changing this situation goes to Orientation Convention for the creation of a national nor- law (Loi d’orientation) of 1989. This law brought mal school (école normale), where citizens of the a major change in the French teacher education Republic already schooled in the useful sciences system by emphasizing global education, learner- should be taught to teach. These schools engaged centered approach, and competence development distinguished teachers such as Laplace, Lagrange (Sacilotto-Vasylenko and Fave-Bonnet, 2011). and Berthollet (Edwards, pp. 238-239). This law paved the way for creation of postgrad- uate teacher training institutes (Instituts Univer- The teacher education came under resurrection sitaires de Formation des Maîtres- IUFMs) in each by a decree of Napoleon of March 17, 1808. This county of the state. These institutes, popularly decree has laid the foundation for establishment known as IUFM, was entrusted the responsibil- of école normale supérieure (the Grand schools) ity of initial education to primary school teachers, and training for three hundred young persons in secondary school teachers (in mainstream, tech- the art of teaching the arts and sciences - i.e. for nical and vocational education) and organization teaching in the lycées. After this decree, Prus- of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) sian law of 1819 came into existence. This law programmes for teachers. continued the foundation of primary teacher training colleges (Schüllehrer Seminarie) in major Since its inception in 1990, the IFUMs have towns, one for each department of the state. This gone through three phases so far. The first phase law emphasized that each teacher training college starts from 1991. During this phase (1991- would have approximately seventy pupils, age 16 2010), IFUMs were isolated from Universities to 18, who would remain there for three years, and worked as an independent institution. In after which each successful candidate would be this phase, students were given “concours” at the required, by contract, to teach for ten years in the end of the first year, and have to complete sec- school or schools to which he was assigned. This ond year with part time in schools. This situa- law was followed by Guizot Law of 1833. With tion changed in 2010, when as per the law for Guizot’s law, a school was set up in every town priorities and curriculum in the future of school, district and in every county a teacher training IUFMs became schools within universities. This college (école normale) was created to train pri- second phase existed during 2010-2013 and mary school teachers (IUFM, 2005). The impor- called as Masterisation and integration of IUFM tance given to teacher education in France clearly in Universities. During this phase, there was no reflects in these words of Guizot’s Law, “No more second year and it was necessary for stu- Schoolmaster should be appointed who has not him- dents to pass the exam and join the schools as self been a pupil of the school which instructs in the full time teacher. In 2012, the labour govern- art of teaching, and who is not certified, after a strict ment came into power in France and keeping examination, to have profited by the opportunities he the promise of electoral manifesto, decided to has enjoyed” (Cubberley, 1920b, p. 459; Edwards, restructure the teacher education system. As first pp. 238-239). step in this direction, the government has decided to rename and restructure the existing IUFMs. Until the recent reforms, initial teacher educa- These IUFMs will now be called as, Schools of tion was different for primary and for second- Education (Ecoles Superieures du Professorat et ary school (collège and lycée) teachers. Since 1879, de l’Education - ESPEs) (E. Bruillard, personal

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 12/24 communication, May 30, 2013). As per the law, the state: it decides where the teachers go to work (and these ESPEs will be in charge of initial teacher live). There are two competitive exams: the CAPES education for primary and secondary education and the AGREGATION. The first one allows you to and will also take care of continuing professional teach at the secondary and higher secondary levels, the development for primary and secondary teachers second the secondary, higher secondary and university (Sarre, 2013). These institutes will be affiliated to level. Basically the AGREG is harder to get, the per- nearby Universities and are supposed to function sons who graduate from this exam get a higher salary from September 2013. and less hours of teaching, and sometimes they teach in nicer schools too. It is kind of a hierarchy thing” (ii) Entry Routes ( J.T. Thanah, personal communication, July 30, The teacher education system in France is going 2013). through a wave of reforms, as observed by Baron, The students have to study for two years to com- “Education is traditionally rather high on French plete their masters and qualify a national compet- decision makers’ agenda. Teacher education has been itive examination. The students having obtained undergoing a series of reforms for more than 20 years” credits corresponding to a first-year Masters (M1), (G.L. Baron, personal communication, June 22, or 60 ECTS credits after the first year of Masters 2013). The system was changed in year 2010, and are allowed to sit in competitive examinations new government has completed his homework to for the recruitment of primary school teachers change it again from September 2013. Therefore, (Professeurs des Écoles) (Eurypedia, 2013; IUFM, it will be justified to discuss the existing as well 2005). Afterwards, students go for completion of proposed entry routes to teacher education in second year of Masters (M2). Being recruited as France. According to the existing norms, Master a teacher, which means entering the State civil is an essential qualification for the recruitment of service (with the status of trainee teacher in the primary and secondary school teachers. Till last first year of work), implies both passing the com- academic session, initial training of teachers was petitive examination and successfully completing conducted by IUFMs and from September 2013 a Masters. For those, who wish to become sec- onwards it will be the responsibility of ESPEs. ondary school teachers the path is almost similar As part of the autonomy that has been granted by with minor variations. The main difference is that law No. 2007-1199 of 10 August 2007 relating those wishing to become secondary school teach- to university freedoms and responsibilities, the ers have to go to Universities to complete Mas- IUFMs were responsible the Masters programme ters, whereas, primary teachers were required to as well as the preparation of competitive recruit- complete their Masters from IUFMs. The other ing examinations for entry to the profession of requirements remain same. At the end of first primary- or secondary-school teacher. Now this year of their Masters (M1), students have to take responsibility will be entrusted to ESPEs. one of the following competitive examinations, as A future teacher in France has to meet two cri- per their field of specialization: teria to become a fully qualified teacher: hold- • the certificat d’aptitude au professorat du deu- ing a Masters degree and passing the competi- xième degré (certificate for teaching one par- tive recruitment examination organized by the ticular subject – foreign language/ mathe- French Ministry of Education. Once these cri- matics/ sciences/etc. - at secondary level) teria are met, newly qualified teachers become (CAPES) civil servants after one probation year. Teachers recruited by private schools must also pass com- • the certificat d’aptitude for technical school petitive examinations and are paid by the State teaching (CAPET) if they are part of grant-aided schools. However, • the certificat d’aptitude for physical and sport they are not civil servants (Picard and Ria, 2011). education (CAPEPS) Explaining further about this system, Thanh • the certificat d’aptitude for vocational lycée underlines, “Teachers have to undergo a Masters’ teaching (CAPLP) degree in a specific field (e.g. Physics) then pass a national competitive exam. If they get it, they become • the Agrégation “fonctionnaires” meaning they work for the state, The competitive exams are same in nature but they have their job for life but are at the disposal of differ in terms of curriculum for primary and

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 13/24 secondary school teachers. The competitive consequences of this extreme diversity of status, examination has two parts – part A is written workload and wages for teachers who sometimes examination and part B consists of oral exam- do the same job in front of the same pupils. The inations. For primary school teachers, written process of enhancing the teaching profession examinations consists of two papers of 4 hours launched in 1989 by Minister of Education Jospin each-paper I-French, civics, history, geography, unified the status of all teaching staff (whether in paper II- maths, science and technology. The oral primary or secondary or in general, technologi- examination is also divided into two parts- lesson cal or professional education), the same minimal planning in French, and education system and recruitment level (at least a three year university lesson planning in maths and arts/music/phys- degree, the licence), two years of initial profes- ical education. The competitive examination for sional training at one of the University Institutes secondary school teachers mainly focuses about of Teacher Training (IUFM) and strictly compa- their school subjects. The structure of examina- rable career opportunities. Yet, there are still three tion remains same- two written papers and two categories of professors who share in common oral examinations. Like primary school teachers, the same recruitment, compensation and career secondary school teachers have to also pass both- conditions: school professors (at pre-primary and the competitive examinations and Masters to primary schools), certified professors (atcollèges become permanent teachers in secondary schools and lycées) and professional lycée professors. In (civil servant). In the proposed reforms, the addition, the traditional agrégation, a higher and basic qualification for becoming a teacher would more prestigious concours requiring the higher remain same-Masters and qualifying the compet- university degree of the maîtrise has been kept for itive examinations. The reform is mainly focusing the recruitment of about 10% of secondary edu- about where to put the competitive examinations cation professors (Cros and Obin, 2003, p.15). for the recruitment of teaching staff, means in the middle of first year of Masters or in the begin- (iv) Teaching and Training ning of second years of Masters (M. Huchette, The main aim of initial teacher education to pri- personal communication, May 31, 2013). mary as well secondary school teacher in France In existing system, teacher educators for primary is to help them to become profession-oriented; and secondary school teachers differ in terms of recruitment-oriented; and research-oriented. But qualifications and training. Those who wish to their curriculum and training patterns differ. Pri- become teacher educators for primary school tea- mary school teachers have to complete 2 semes- chers have to receive a specific one-year training ters (12 course units) in first year, and 2 semes- leading to a Certificat d’Aptitude (CAFIPEMF, a ters (12 course units) in second year of Masters. certificate of professional competence) as a Mas- During these 2 years, they have to go through ter Educator. There are two forms of theCertificat various subjects and activities like- Humanities: d’Aptitude: first, a general form that enables an academic and didactic approach; Sciences: aca- individual to be assigned as a “generalist’ for an demic and didactic approach; knowledge, tools inspector of National Education or as a Master and methods in teaching; teaching practice and educator for a university, second with specialisa- reflective analysis; Research in education, semi- tions (EPS, music teaching, the plastic arts, lan- nars, project, and dissertation. As practical acti- guages and regional cultures, educational tech- vity, during first years (semester 1 &2) they go for nologies and resources) leads one to specialist class observation and supervised teaching prac- positions. In other side, teacher educators for tice. The supervised teaching practice continues secondary school teachers are normally university in second year of masters (semester 3). In the last teachers. semester, the students go for independent practice teaching. During their teaching practice, student (iii) Categorisation of Teachers teachers are observed by a mentor and a teacher educator. These observers give a report (observa- In France, the teaching profession was frag- tion sheet with feedback and advice) after each mented into many different categories before its observational visit. structures were unified. Several parliamentary and ministerial reports ( Joxe in 1972, Prost in There are several Secondary Education Masters 1983 and Ribot in 1899) underlined the adverse e.g. research-oriented or profession-oriented. The

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 14/24 trainees have to go through similar curriculum • Being able to use ICT in their teaching; organisation. In first year they have to take aca- Being able to work in collaboration with demic training and introduction to professional parents and other educational partners training. Afterwards, they go for competitive • Being innovative and willing to train further recruitment exam preparation and professional (CPD) training in real situations. The professional training aims to engage teachers to deepen their sub- Teachers are expected to play a vital role to ful- ject knowledge; enable them to identify resources fil these expectations. Talking about the societal and constraints in situations they may encounter; expectations from teachers, Baron suggests that enable them to analyze their practice; and help teachers are respected as professional of childhood them gather and exploit the knowledge acquired and there is awareness that teachers have been through experience (Deane 2003, p. 117). There well trained and selected under the supervision are two phases of practice teaching. During phase of the national state. Teachers traditionally have first, trainees go for observation and supervised a large pedagogical freedom. Expectations are practice in the class of a tenured teacher. This probably traditional that their children should be phase lasts a maximum of six weeks and offers taken care of in a good way (G.L. Baron, personal trainees the chance to participate in the real exer- communication, June 22, 2013). While, Thanh cise of the profession. The second phase which comments, “Parents expect the teachers to have full also lasts for a maximum of six weeks is termed or exceptional command of their topic(s), to prepare as work experience with responsibility. In this their children for exams, to be fair and neutral yet phase, trainees act as full-fledged classroom to take into account their child’s difficulties and take teachers under the supervision of mentors. Dur- some time to address them. I feel parents also expect ing training phase, students are given proximity the school system to educate their children on various support and attend several trainee-specific meet- topics as well (e.g. how to behave in group, not to ings, depending on the available budget. Expert steal...), not only school related subjects (e.g. math). instructors and educational advisers (in primary So double expectations: academic content + “social” school) and tutors (lower and upper secondary content’’ ( J.T. Thanah, personal communication, schools) provide guidance and support under the July 30, 2013). The other big issue for teachers aegis of inspectors (Picard and Ria, 2011). is social differences and diverse population in classes. School teachers are expected to deal with (v) Professional and Societal pupils from all social categories, whether working Expectations in a secluded rural area or in the suburbs of a city As per the law of 22 July 2010, a core of ten populated mainly by families of immigrant work- teacher competences defines the new profes- ers (Cros and Obin, 2003). Reffay aptly sum- sional model (Ministry of Higher Education marizes the expectations from teachers in these and Research, 2010). Every teacher in France is words, “To make them study in the best possible way expected to acquire following ten skills: whatever their skin colour, origin, or religion and to adapt their teaching methods to find the best capaci- • Being able to behave as a civil servant and in ties of the children” (C. Reffay, personal communi- an ethical and responsible way cation, June 19, 2013) • Have a good command of French (vi) Continuing Professional • Have good academic knowledge of their cur- Development (CPD) Provisions ricular subject and general knowledge Academic authorities are in charge of the Con- • Being able to plan lessons and teach from les- tinuing Professional Development (CPD) or son plans in-service teacher training of permanent teach- • Being able to organize class work ers in France. CPD is organized within region by each DAFOR (Délégation Académique à la FOR- • Being able to differentiate their teaching mation). The DAFOR is in charge of conducting • Being able to assess learners’ knowledge and a needs analysis in terms of staff training, elabo- skills rating training schemes for staff in both primary and secondary education, drawing up the local Plan Académique de Formation continue- PAF and

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 15/24 list of courses offered, following up on the imple- context. This ICT training to teacher trainees is mentation of the PAF courses by the various cross-sectoral and mainly provided in distance- actors (Universities, IUFMs, inspectors, external and self-training mode. The other feature of consultants, etc.), setting up more individualized this ICT training is that majority of the com- training pathways for certain staff, and evaluat- petences of the framework revolves around the ing the PAF courses. According to the Law for practices developed in schools and pedagogical the future of schools when a teacher seeks train- teams (Europan Schoolnet, 2010, p.8; Ministry ing for the purpose of personal advancement of Higher Education and Research, 2012). Talk- and receives approval from the recteur, it will ing about this training, Baron comments, “The be arranged in priority, outside of the required scheme put in place around Certificat informatique et teaching hours and may qualify for an indemnity internet (C2i) is a good idea. It offers a first level of (Eurypedia, 2013). training” (G.L. Baron, personal communication, June 22, 2013). This training mainly focuses on developing additional professional skills, providing adaption trai- Teacher Education in France: ning (new career, new position, etc.), providing training to gain official qualification (competitive A SWOT Analysis exam) or certification, providing training for per- Above observations clearly reveals that France sonal/ cultural development, providing training has a well placed and well defined teacher edu- and resources for teacher trainers and mentors. cation system. This system has worked well and There is a provision of different types of training served education system of France from more like courses open for all teachers, courses open for than 200 years. But at this juncture, all is not specific target groups (often organized by inspec- well with teacher education in France. A closer tors), and pedagogical workshops (on particular look reveals that France is witnessing progressive topics, e.g. new curriculum) (Sarre, 2013). An development as well experiencing persistent ten- important point is that teachers have a right to sions in the path of revamping and reorganizing get professional development training as per his/ teacher education. The main points of concerns her needs but have no obligation to attend CPD and debates about teacher education are: impact programmes. The participation in CPD is gene- of “masterisation” of teacher education to improve rally voluntary, and participation by teachers in the quality of teacher preparation, proper use of one or several on-going training activities may ICT cultures for the networking and teachers’ be taken into account in their evaluation, which involvement in formal and informal learning, partly determines their career advancement building links between Licence and Master (Eurypedia, 2013). cycles, cooperation of different actors (acade- (vii) ICT Training mics, trainers, school authorities), maintaining balance between theory and practice, bridging ICT is integrated in initial teacher education the gap between the world of university focusing and made compulsory for future teachers. The on research and the world of school focusing on certificate C2i (computing and internet certifi- practice, evolving new models of teacher prepa- cate) (level 1) at bachelor level is mandatory to ration, retention of central control over the qua- enter teacher training institutes. During their lification process and teacher recruitment, and teacher training, trainees are thought about ICT, the development of partnership and professional and have to acquire certificate C2i (level 2). The learning approaches (Sacilotto-Vasylenko and government sets training areas and framework, Fave-Bonnet, 2011, p.190). Before delving fur- while Rectorat and Inspection Académique are in ther on these issues, it will be beneficial to talk charge of in-service training and sometimes they about the core objectives of teacher education in also take help from IUFM. These certifications France. The teacher education in France is mainly mainly help students- to know and respect the guided by following objectives (Sacilotto-Vasy- rights and obligations linked to digital opera- lenko and Fave-Bonnet, 2011, p.179): tions, to manage strategies for the research and • To prepare all the candidates for the com- exploitation of digital information and maximi- petitive examinations of the recruitment zing its use, and to organise professional collabo- (concours) ration using digital technology in a professional

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 16/24

• To provide the professional preparation for 30, 2013). The other aspect is multi-disciplinary the teacher trainees who have passed the approach of teacher education. Following this concours approach, teacher trainers of different subjects learn from each other, and incorporate this new • To organize and offer in-service training for found wisdom into their classroom. For example, all teachers a teacher of science learns from a teacher of his- • To develop research in the field of education tory, and uses this knowledge to teach about dif- A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, ferent topics like history of science, history of sci- threats) analysis of French teacher education sys- entific inventions, and so on (Cécile de Hosson, tem with reference to these objectives will help us personal communication, June 5, 2013). Indicat- to discuss about the system in a more objective ing about another unique feature of teacher edu- way. cation in France, Baron states, “Perhaps, the main unique feature is that public teaching is very tightly (i) Strengths linked with the emergence of the secular republic, toward the end of the XIXth century and that there Strengths of any system is usually defined in terms has long been a general trust regarding the teaching of those factors that are likely to have a positive profession, which may be fading away” (G.L. Baron, effect on (or be an enabler to) achieving the laid personal communication, June 22, 2013). down objectives. An analysis of French teacher education system in reference to above mentio- In France, new models and methodologies have ned objectives reveal that its biggest strengths lie also been evolved to bring professional orienta- in preparation and recruitment of teachers for tions among future teachers, like the model of teaching profession. After passing the competi- “alternance” that includes theoretical preparation tive examinations (concours), the future teachers at the institute and supervised practice in schools get the status of civil servants. This is a unique during the two years of pre-service professional feature in itself. In other parts of the world, training (Sacilotto-Vasylenko and Fave-Bon- students prepare them to get the degree first, and net, 2011, p. 183); preparation of portfolios for then look for a job of teacher. While in France, evaluation purposes; and sessions for reflections they get the job first and then go for completion on different issues and classroom problems. The of second year of their Masters. More interestin- earlier system of teacher education, before 2010, gly, teacher training institutions/Universities help was also known for its intensive internship pro- them to prepare and qualify the concours. After gramme. The new reforms would like to bring passing the examination, the students have a job back this system in practice again. It has also security and are expected to learn their lessons of been observed that masterization of teacher edu- teaching with confidence and purpose. The other cation has helped the teachers to come better pre- feature of this system is that there is hardly any pared to develop research in the field of educa- ‘trained teachers unemployment’, as system pro- tion. The system also offer good opportunities for duces only the required number of teachers (M. students to establish a link between knowledge Artigue, personal communication, June 3, 2013). gained in Universities and its use in classroom conditions (M. Artigue, personal communication, The other notable feature of French teacher educa- June 3, 2013). In nutshell, one can say that French tion system is a good balance between theory and teacher education system is unique in some ways practice. During professional preparation phase, and best among them is that it offers excellent system gives good emphasis to both theory and opportunities for acquisition of both subject-spe- practice, and maintains a good balance between cific knowledge and didactic skills for teacher subject knowledge and its practical implications trainees during the same period of study. in classroom conditions. Although, its priorities differ: for primary teachers more emphasis about (ii) Weaknesses pedagogy and for secondary school teachers more emphasis about subject knowledge. In French Weaknesses are usually defined as factors that system, students have enough chances to field test are likely to have a negative effect on (or be a their subject knowledge in classroom conditions barrier to) achieving the objectives. It is an old and apply various pedagogical principles train- saying that often your strengths become your ing (E. Bruillard, personal communication, May weaknesses, and this applies on French teacher

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 17/24 education system as well. The competitive exami- teachers is crucial to achieving the Goals of Education nation system for entry into teaching profession for All by 2015, teachers should be given a high stan- is often hailed as its strengths, but critics see this dard of training to ensure they embark successfully on examination system as a weakness of system itself. their careers and stay in the profession.” An SNES- Commenting on this issue, Picard and Ria (2011, FSU - an EI national affiliate in France - survey p.122) affirms, “The competitive recruitment exami- in October aimed at trainee teachers and com- nation mainly assesses disciplinary knowledge, espe- pleted by 400 people revealed that it is becom- cially during the written admission tests. While oral ing very difficult for trainee teachers and school examinations rather assess the candidates’ teaching leaders to join the profession (Educational Inter- and relational skills, the overall academic course does national, 2012). not guarantee that those who pass the competitive According to the OECD, France is at the bottom recruitment examination will master basic profes- of the league of member countries, when it comes sional competences.” Responsibility of supervising to the ratio of staff to students (five to 100), far practice teaching of trainees is another big issue, behind Portugal, Greece and Spain, but also Swe- as observed by Sacilotto-Vasylenko and Fave- den, Belgium and Austria, countries where the Bonnet (2011, p. 183), “It can be supervised by rate fluctuates between six and 10. In 2011, the university teachers, by trainers of the IUFM, by class OECD also indicated that the country invested teachers depending on the phase of practice. The coop- 14 per cent less than the average in OECD mem- eration between them is very weak and there isn’t any ber countries, and that the statutory salary of pri- official framework describing how teacher trainers mary and secondary school teachers with at least must be prepared.” Baron (personal communica- 15 years of experience declined in France between tion, June 22, 2013) also supports this claim and 1995 and 2009 (Carroue , 2012). This issue is cer- recommends for better organization of practi- tainly has a negative impact on those wishing cum. Thanh points out a different problem of to join teaching profession in future. The par- teacher education, “New, young and inexperienced ticipation of teachers in CPD is also an issue in teachers who just got their test are sent to sometimes France. In spite of expectations from government very difficult schools or areas, where schools don’t have and local authorities only few teachers’ volunteer a big budget for activities or material for instance, or to attend these programmes. There are two rea- where the classes welcome too many students. The dis- sons, first participation in CPD is not mandatory, crepancy between the schools is sometimes enormous second participation in the in-service training and it impacts on the quality of teaching, not because does not have any significant influence on teach- the teachers are bad, but because they don’t have the ers’ careers. The other noted weaknesses is that means to teach properly” ( J.T. Thanah, personal in spite of the same recruitment, compensation communication, July 30, 2013) and career conditions, training for primary and Concerns has also been raised that teacher educa- secondary education teachers is very different in tion for secondary school teachers mainly focuses terms of content and organization (M. Huchette, on subject knowledge, and gives less emphasis personal communication, May 31, 2013). on pedagogical aspects. Talking about this issue, Cros and Obin (2003, p. 43) observe, “Only after (iii) Opportunities passing the concours will trainee teachers start dis- Opportunities denotes to those external fac- covering the questions related to the professional tors that are likely to have a positive effect on practice of teaching, i.e. to those concerning the organ- achieving or exceeding the system objectives, or isation of teaching, the pedagogical link to learners, unforeseen goals. A communication from the general education, teamwork and the role of par- European Commission observes, ‘Improving the ents.” Similarly, Gumbel (2012) claims, “Teach- quality of teacher education is an important goal for ers haven’t been trained to bring as many students Europe’s education systems...’ (European Commis- as possible up to the sought-after level. What teacher sion, 2007, p.3). Another document of Euro- training existed in the past was mainly focused on the pean Commission (2012, p.7) justifies this call teachers’ own knowledge of their subject, and not on for improvement in teacher education in these how to convey it effectively to pupils.” The teachers words, “In the global economy, and in the current unions in France are also raising this issue, as evi- economic climate, education and training are more dent from the comment of EI Secretary General important than ever. Helping all citizens to develop Fred van Leeuwen, “While intensive recruitment of

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 18/24 the competences they need in a global labour market professions are going down. It has been observed based on ever higher skill levels requires the Educa- that ratio for number of candidates appearing tion and Training systems of Europe to adapt and versus available positions is continuously going improve thoroughly; it calls for radical changes in down (E. Bruillard, personal communication, teaching and learning. This cannot be achieved wit- May 30, 2013). Commenting on this situation, hout significant improvements to the ways that tea- Cros and Obin (2003, p.27) affirm, “Teachers’ sal- ching staff are encouraged and supported so that they ary in itself is unattractive and young graduates with can help every learner to achieve optimum educa- scientific qualifications find it easy to earn a better tional outcomes.” These observations are more or living in private enterprises; this is the reason why less equally applicable for teacher education in so few applicants hold science degrees: in particular France. France has number of opportunities to in primary education, the vast majority of teach- improve its teacher education system. ers hold degrees in humanities.” The other threat emancipates from the fact that expectations from The first opportunity is that in comparison to other teachers are increasing but the pattern of prepar- European countries, France still not has shortage ing teachers is almost same as it was years before. of teachers. It means France has time enough to According to Sacilotto-Vasylenko and Fave- critically analyze and tighten the loose strings of Bonnet (2011, p.182), “The demands of the State, prevailing system. The proposed reforms of new the “teachers’ employer”, towards the teacher qualifi- government that came into power in 2012, seems cations has considerably increased but the amount of a fitting attempt in this direction. The second hours for their preparation is unchanged and some- opportunity is to make the jobs of teachers more times it is diminished.” attractive and rewarding. This measure will be helpful to attract better students towards teach- It has been observed that from 2007 to 2012, ing profession, as observed by Fred van Leeuwen some 80,000 teaching posts were eliminated in (General Secretary, National Union of Indepen- France while, at the same time, the number of dent Trade Unions-Education), “Good working pupils remained virtually stable. Education was conditions and decent pay for teachers are a big part seen only in its financial dimension, and, there- of providing quality education for all” (Educational fore, potentially as a way of saving costs to the International, 2013). The third opportunity is to national budget, and not considered as a universal use new technologies for continuing professional right. This led to deterioration in working condi- development and in-service training of teachers. tions for teachers, reduction in the quality of ini- This measure will help the teachers in many ways, tial training, undermining of the status of the tea- as suggested by Reffay that use of technologies ching profession in society, and low pay, which has will bring more practices about interdisciplinary resulted in a lack of interest in the teaching pro- problems, subjects and projects that are complex fession among today’s students (Carroue, 2012). enough. He further adds that it will also bring Discussing about the concerns of teacher trainees, reflexion on methods and advanced features or a survey from National Union of Independent tools (C. Reffay, personal communication, June Trade Unions-Education reports, “Qualifications 19, 2013). In a holistic view, Baron very nicely in foreign languages and IT can now be demanded summarizes the opportunities before teacher for gaining tenure in all disciplines is causing trai- education in France in these words, “I think that nees extra anxiety. Almost half of all those who have things must be considered as a whole regarding edu- passed the competitive examinations to enter the pro- cation. Uppermost, what is needed is stability” (G.L. fession do not have these qualifications. The results Baron, personal communication, June 22, 2013). show that the trainee year is not a year of training and even discourages some trainees from taking up (iv) Threats careers in teaching and education” (SNES, 2012). Threats are defined as those external factors and The other threat comes from the fact that teacher conditions that are likely to have a negative effect education system in France is facing a gender on achieving the objectives, or making the objec- imbalance, as observed by Cros and Obin (2003, tive redundant or un-achievable. The first big- p.27), “The proportion of female teachers keeps gest threats for teacher education in France is growing, to such an extent that a gender-balanced that attractiveness of the profession is decreasing approach to education becomes difficult. Since it has and numbers of those applying to enter teaching become unconstitutional to recruit separately for men

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 19/24 and women, the question of how to attract more male • Its system of minimal competency standard teachers no longer finds an answer, all the more that for ICT to enter the profession and acqui- until recently the teaching profession has been seen sition of further ICT skills during teacher as an easy job suitable for women seeking a topup training phase. These competencies help the income compatible with raising a family.” The edu- teachers to use emerging technologies for cational divide among teachers belonging to dif- betterment of teaching learning process in ferent categories (primary, secondary and profes- best possible way. sional education) is another issue. The other point • Its system of ten competencies and expec- of concern is that whether universities who are tations from teachers. These guidelines help known for their academic orientations would be teachers to realize that what to do and what able to offer a real professional preparation to the not to do to become a professionally commit- future teachers (M.S. Claude, personal communi- ted and socially responsible teacher. cation, June 14, 2013). There is another belief that presence of so many actors in teacher education • Its system of interdisciplinary approach of is rather a problem than solution, while Reffay teaching, training and learning. This helps views this from another angle and comments that both teachers and trainees to learn from their major threat to teacher education in France is its colleagues and develop new insights and disorganization (C. Reffay, personal communica- perspectives about their disciplines. tion, June 19, 2013). Conclusion Teacher Education In view of Calderhead (1997, p.2), “Teacher educa- in France: Best tion in Europe offers a fascinating natural laboratory Adoptable Practices for educational researchers to explore different ideas and programmes, and the effects of different forms of Above analysis reveals that French teacher edu- training.” This observation is equally applicable cation system boasts a number of good practices for teacher education system of France. A critical that can be adopted for betterment of teacher analysis of the system reveals that: education in other countries. In this context, some of the best adoptable practices from teacher • Teacher education in France has a unique education system of France may be: history and played pioneering role to develop teacher education discipline at global level • Its system of picking would be teachers first and then preparing them for the real job. This • Teacher education has a steady past and ser- system helps both trainees and educators to ved well to French society by producing qua- carryout their tasks in a better way. After lified teachers knowing that they got the job, trainees are • Teacher education in France is undergoing a supposed to try their best to learn about the turbulent present with waves of different and profession. In other side, teacher educators frequent reforms feel more committed to train these selected teachers. • Teacher education receives due consideration at social and political level and is part of elec- • Its system of intensive internship. During toral promises and debates internship students understand the tricks of profession in real life situations. This helps The good news is that teacher education is on the them to prepare in a better way for world of agenda of current government with a promise teaching. that new Teacher Training Colleges (ESPEs) will be opened at the start of the school year in 2013 • Its system of research orientation to future and they will address the “professionalisation of teachers. The research orientation of would both content and method” (Carroue, 2012). The be teachers helps them to deal with educatio- academicians, practitioners and experts of teacher nal problems in a better and organized way. education view the present situation of teacher This orientation helps them to conduct use- education from two different angles. One view ful action researches on different educational is that present reforms will make it more signifi- issues. cant and productive in terms of teacher preparation and serving the society, and opposing voices

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 20/24 claim that present reforms are merely eyewash education_in/pdf/workshop/tesee/dokumenti/ and will not bring any significant changes in the monografija/Cornu-France.pdf vision and action of teacher education. France is Cros, F., & Obin, J. P. (2003). Attracting, devel- in middle of new teacher education reforms. The oping and retaining effective teachers country back- new teacher training institutions (ESPEs) with ground report for France. Retrieved from http:// new teacher training modalities will come into www.oecd.org/france/30414627.pdf existence from current academic session that will begin from September 2013. What shapes these Cubberley, E.P. (1920a). History of education. Bos- reforms will take and what impact they will have, ton: Houghton Mifflin. only time and future researches will tell. Cubberley, E. P. (1920b). Readings in the history of References education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing About-France.com. (2012). Primary and second- 21st century teacher education. Journal of Teacher ary schools in France. Retrieved from http://about- Education, 57 (X), 1-15. france.com/primary-secondary-schools.htm Dean, M. (2003). Teacher education in France: Baron, G.L., & Bruillard, E. (2003). Information Evolution or revolution? In Moon B., Vlas- and communication technology: models of eva- ceanu L. and Barrows L.C. (Eds.), Institutional luation in France. Evaluation and Program Plan- approaches to teacher education within higher edu- ning, 26(2), 177-184. cation in Europe: current models and new deve- Baron, G.L., & Harrari, M. (2003). Potential for lopments (pp.109-135). Bucharest: UNESCO dramatic change- France, ICT and decentraliza- CEPES. tion. LLinE Lifelong Learning in Europe, VIII (3), Education International. (12 December 2012). 34 - 43. France: Improving working conditions for trainee Brisard, E. (2002). National visions of initial teachers. Retrieved from http://www.ei-ie.org/en/ teacher education? The coceptualisation of the initial news/news_details/2400 preparation of secondary teachers in England, France Educational International (03 May, 2013). and Scotland. Retrieved from http://www.ser.stir. France: Government move to improve primary tea- ac.uk/pdf/144.pdf chers conditions. Retrieved from http://www.ei-ie. Calderhead, J. (1997). Towards a research base for org/en/news/news_details/2558 the development of teacher education in Europe: Edwards, R. (1991). Theory, history, and practice The 1996 SERA Lecture. Scottish Educational of education: Fin de siècle and a new beginning. Review, 29 (1), 3-9. McGill Journal of Education, 26 (3), 237-266. CampusFrance.org. (2011). Higher education in France. Retrieved from http://ressources. campusfrance.org/publi_institu/agence_cf/ Europan Schoolnet.(2010). France country report presentations/en/enseignement_sup_en.pdf on ICT in education. Retrieved from http://cms. eun.org/shared/data/pdf/cr_france_2009_final_ Carroue, C. (2012). Enhancing teachers’ status proofread_2_columns.pdf in France is the long-eroded status of teachers about to improve? Worlds of Education, 41, 46-49. EuroEducation.net.(2013). The Europeans educa- Retrieved from http://worldsofeducation.org/ tion directory. Retrieved from http://www.euro- pdf/46/Magazine_en.pdf education.net/prof/franco.htm Cooper , J.M., & Alvarado, A. (2006). Prepara- European Schoolnet. (2010). France country tion, recruitment, and retention of teachers. France: report on ICT in education. Retrieved from http:// IIEP; Belgium: IAE. insight.eun.org Cornu, B. (2006). Teacher training: the context European Commission.(2007). Improving the of the knowledge society and lifelong learning, the quality of teacher education. Retrieved from http:// European dimension and the main trends in France. ec.europa.eu/education/com392_en.pdf Retrieved from http://www.seeeducoop.net/ European Commission. (2012). Supporting the teaching professions for better learning outcomes.

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 21/24

Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/ enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/ news/rethinking/sw374_en.pdf rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=52614 Eurypedia. (2013). European Encyclopaedia on Ministry of Higher Education and Research. national education Systems. Retrieved from https:// (2012). Computing and internet certificate (C2i). webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/ Retrieved from http://www.c2i.education.fr/ index.php/Main_Page IMG/pdf/Referentiel-C2i2-en.pdf Expatica. (2011). French education system. Ministry of National Education. (2012). School Retrieved from http://www.expatica.com/fr/edu- education in France. Retrieved from http:// cation/school/a-guide-to-the-french-education- cache.media.eduscol.education.fr/file/dos- system-945_10468.html siers/07/3/2013_School_Education_in_ France_244073.pdf France Guide.(2013). Introduction the French education system. Retrieved from http://www. OECD. (2005). Teachers matter attracting, devel- justlanded.com/english/France/France-Guide/ oping and retaining effective teachers. Paris : Education/Introduction OECD. Retrieved from http://www.nefmi.gov. hu/letolt/nemzet/oecd_publication_teachers_ Justlanded.com (2013). Higher education Uni- matter_english_061116.pdf versities, Grandes Écoles & Ecoles Supéri- eures. Retrived from http://www.justlanded. Picard, P., & Ria, L. (2011). Neopass@ction: a com/english/France/France-Guide/Education/ training tool for beginning teachers. In P. Picard Higher-education & L. Ria (Eds.), Beginning teachers: a challenge for educational systems– CIDREE Yearbook 2011 (pp. Green, B. (2004). Renewing teacher education. 119-130). Lyon, France: ENS de Lyon, Institut Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 32(3), français de l’Éducation. 187-191. Sacilotto-Vasylenko, M., & Fave-Bonnet, M.F. Gumbel , P. (2012).Too much grammar, too few (2011). Teacher education in France: Persistent teachers: The French education system is failing. tensions. In M. Valenčič Zuljan and J. Vogrinc Retrieved from http://qz.com/24585/too-much- (Ed.), European dimensions of teacher education grammar-too-few-teachers-the-french-educa- -Similarities and differences. Ljubljana : Faculty of tion-system-is-failing/ Education ; Kranj : The National School of Lead- IUFM. (2005). Instituts Universitaires de For- ership and Education. mation des Maîtres- IUFMs . Retrieved from Sarre, C. (2013). Teacher education programmes http://www.iufm.education.fr/connaitre-iufm/ at the IUFM Paris. Power-point presentation plaquettes-documents/en_4pages-quadri.pdf (unpublished). Krek, J. (2011). Foreword. In M. Valenčič Zul- SNES. (2012). SNES survey on trainee teachers. jan and J. Vogrinc (Ed.), European dimensions Retrieved from http://www.snes.edu/Semaine- of teacher education -Similarities and differences. d-expression-des,24172.html Ljubljana : Faculty of Education; Kranj : The National School of Leadership and Education. UNESCO. (2005). Guidelines and recommendations for reorienting teacher education to address sus- Labaree, D. (2004). The trouble with ed schools. tainability. Paris: UNESCO. New Haven: Yale University Press World Bank. (2013). Public spending on educa- Ministère des Affaires étrangères. (2007).The tion, total (% of GDP). Retrieved from http:// education system in France. Retrieved from http:// data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL. ambafrance-us.org/IMG/pdf/education_system. GD.ZS pdf Ministry of Higher Education and Research. (2010). Définition des compétences à acqué- rir par les professeurs, documentalistes et conseil- lers principaux d’éducation pour l’exercice de leur métier. Retrieved from http://www.

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 22/24

Working Papers : la liste

Hervé Le Bras, Jean-Luc Racine Marc Fleurbaey, The Facets Dominique Méda, Redéfinir le & Michel Wieviorka, Natio- of Exploitation, FMSH- progrès à la lumière de la crise éco- nal Debates on Race Statistics: WP-2012-11, may 2012. logique, FMSH-WP-2012-22, towards an International Com- octobre 2012. Jacques Sapir, Pour l’Euro, parison, FMSH-WP-2012-01, l’heure du bilan a sonné : Quinze Ibrahima Thioub, Stigmates et février 2012. leçons et six conclusions, FMSH- mémoires de l’esclavage en Afrique de Manuel Castells, Ni dieu ni WP-2012-12, juin 2012. l’Ouest : le sang et la couleur de peau maître : les réseaux, FMSH- comme lignes de fracture, FMSH- Rodolphe De Koninck & Jean- WP-2012-02, février 2012. WP-2012-23, octobre 2012. François Rousseau, Pourquoi François Jullien, L’écart et l’entre. Ou et jusqu’où la fuite en avant des Danièle Joly, Race, ethnicity and comment penser l’altérité, FMSH- agricultures sud-est asiatiques ?, religion: social actors and poli- WP-2012-03, février 2012. FMSH-WP-2012-13, juin 2012. cies, FMSH-WP-2012-24, novembre 2012. Itamar Rabinovich, The Web Jacques Sapir, Inflation moné- of Relationship, FMSH- taire ou inflation structurelle ? Dominique Méda, Redefining WP-2012-04, février 2012. Un modèle hétérodoxe bi-sectoriel, Progress in Light of the Ecologi- FMSH-WP-2012-14, juin 2012. cal Crisis, FMSH-WP-2012-25, Bruno Maggi, Interpréter l’agir : décembre 2012. un défi théorique, FMSH- Franson Manjali, The ‘Social’ and WP-2012-05, février 2012. the ‘Cognitive’ in Language. A Ulrich Beck & Daniel Levy, Cos- Reading of Saussure, and Beyond, mopolitanized Nations: Reima- Pierre Salama, Chine – Brésil : FMSH-WP-2012-15, july 2012. gining Collectivity in World Risk industrialisation et « désindus- Society, FMSH-WP-2013-26, trialisation précoce », FMSH- Michel Wieviorka, Du concept february 2013. WP-2012-06, mars 2012. de sujet à celui de subjectivation/dé-subjectivation, FMSH- Xavier Richet, L’internationalisa- Guilhem Fabre & Stéphane WP-2012-16, juillet 2012. tion des firmes chinoises : croissance, Grumbach, The World upside motivations, stratégies, FMSH- down,China’s R&D and inno- Nancy Fraser, Feminism, Capi- WP-2013-27, février 2013. vation strategy, FMSH- talism, and the Cunning of His- WP-2012-07, avril 2012. tory: An Introduction, FMSH- Alain Naze, Le féminisme critique WP-2012-17 august 2012. de Pasolini, avec un commentaire Joy Y. Zhang, The De-nationali- de Stefania Tarantino, FMSH- zation and Re-nationalization of Nancy Fraser, Can society be WP-2013-28, février 2013. the Life Sciences in China: A Cos- commodities all the way down? mopolitan Practicality?, FMSH- Polanyian reflections on capita- Thalia Magioglou,What is the WP-2012-08, avril 2012. list crisis, FMSH-WP-2012-18, role of “Culture” for conceptua- august 2012. lization in Political Psychology? John P. Sullivan, From Drug Wars Presentation of a dialogical model to Criminal Insurgency: Mexican Marc Fleurbaey & Stéphane of lay thinking in two cultural Cartels, Criminal Enclaves and Zuber, Climate policies deserve a contexts, FMSH-WP-2013-29, Criminal Insurgency in Mexico negative discount rate, FMSH- mars 2013. and Central America. Implica- WP-2012-19, september 2012. tions for Global Security, FMSH- Byasdeb Dasgupta, Some Aspects Roger Waldinger, La politique WP-2012-09, avril 2012. of External Dimensions of Indian au-delà des frontières : la sociologie Economy in the Age of Globali- Marc Fleurbaey, Economics is politique de l’émigration, FMSH- sation, FMSH-WP-2013-30, not what you think: A defense of WP-2012-20, septembre 2012. april 2013. the economic approach to taxation, Antonio De Lauri, Inaccessible FMSH-WP-2012-10, may 2012. Ulrich Beck, Risk, class, crisis, Normative Pluralism and Human hazards and cosmopolitan solida- Rights in Afghanistan, FMSH- rity/risk community – conceptual WP-2012-21, september 2012.

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 23/24 and methodological clarifications, Pierre Salama, Les économies FMSH-WP-2013-52, GeWoP- FMSH-WP-2013-31, april 2013. émergentes, le plongeon ?, FMSH- 5, october 2013. WP-2013-42, août 2013. Immanuel Wallerstein, Tout Guilhem Fabre, The Lion’s se transforme. Vraiment tout ?, Alexis Nuselovici (Nouss), share : What’s behind China’s FMSH-WP-2013-32, mai 2013. L’exil comme expérience, FMSH- economic slowdown, FMSH- WP-2013-43, septembre 2013. WP-2013-53, october 2013. Christian Walter, Les origines du modèle de marche au hasard en Alexis Nuselovici (Nouss), Exi- Venni V. Krishna, Changing finance, FMSH-WP-2013-33, liance : condition et conscience, Social Relations between Science juin 2013. FMSH-WP-2013-44, sep- and Society: Contemporary Chal- tembre 2013. lenges, FMSH-WP-2013-54, Byasdeb Dasgupta, Financiali- november 2013. zation, Labour Market Flexibi- Alexis Nuselovici (Nouss), lity, Global Crisis and New Impe- Exil et post-exil, FMSH- Isabelle Huault & Hélène Rai- rialism – A Marxist Perspective, WP-2013-45, septembre 2013. nelli-Weiss, Is transparency a FMSH-WP-2013-34, juin 2013. value on OTC markets? Using Alexandra Galitzine-Loum- displacement to escape categori- Kiyomitsu Yui, Climate Change in pet, Pour une typologie des objets zation, FMSH-WP-2014-55, Visual Communication: From ‘This is de l’exil, FMSH-WP-2013-46, january 2014. Not a Pipe’ to ‘This is Not Fukushima’, septembre 2013. FMSH-WP-2013-35, juin 2013. Dominique Somda, Une humble Hosham Dawod, Les réactions aura. Les grandes femmes au Gilles Lhuilier, Minerais de irakiennes à la crise syrienne, sud de Madagascar, FMSH- guerre. Une nouvelle théorie de la FMSH-WP-2013-47, sep- WP-2014-56, january 2014. mondialisation du droit, FMSH- tembre 2013. WP-2013-36, juillet 2013. Débora González Martínez, Gianluca Manzo, Understan- Sur la translatio de miracles de la David Tyfield, The Coal Renais- ding the Marriage Effect: Changes Vierge au Moyen Âge. Quelques sance and Cosmopolitized in Criminal Offending Around notes sur les Cantigas de Santa Low-Carbon Societies, FMSH- the Time of Marriage, FMSH- Maria, FMSH-WP-2014-57, WP-2013-37, juillet 2013. WP-2013-48, GeWoP-1, janvier 2014. octobre 2013. Lotte Pelckmans, Moving Pradeep Kumar Misra, The State Memories of Slavery: how hie- Torkild Hovde Lyngstad & of Teacher Education in France: A rarchies travel among West Afri- Torbjørn Skarðhamar, Unders- Critique, FMSH-WP-2014-58, can Migrants in Urban Contexts tanding the Marriage Effect: january 2014. (Bamako, Paris), FMSH- Changes in Criminal Offending WP-2013-38, juillet 2013. Around the Time of Marriage, FMSH-WP-2013-49, GeWoP- Amy Dahan, Historic Overview 2, octobre 2013. of Climate Framing, FMSH- WP-2013-39, août 2013. Gunn Elisabeth Birkelund & Yannick Lemel, Lifestyles and Rosa Rius Gatell & Stefania Social Stratification: An Explora- Tarantino, Philosophie et genre: tive Study of France and Norway, Réflexions et questions sur la FMSH-WP-2013-50, GeWoP- production philosophique fémi- e 3, octobre 2013. nine en Europe du Sud au XX siècle (Espagne, Italie), FMSH- Franck Varenne, Chains of Reference WP-2013-40, août 2013. in Computer Simulations, FMSH- WP-2013-51, GeWoP-4, Angela Axworthy The ontologi- october 2013. cal status of geometrical objects in the commentary on the Elements Olivier Galland & Yannick Lemel, of Euclid of Jacques Peletier du avec la collaboration d’Alexandra Mans (1517-1582), FMSH- Frenod, Comment expliquer la per- WP-2013-41, août 2013. ception des inégalités en France ?,

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58 The State of Teacher Education in France: A Critique 24/24

Position Papers : la liste

Jean-François Sabouret, Mars Antonio Sérgio Alfredo Gui- Samadia Sadouni, Cosmopo- 2012 : Un an après Fukushima, marães, Race, colour, and skin litisme et prédication islamique le Japon entre catastrophes et rési- colour in Brazil, FMSH- transfrontalière : le cas de Maulana lience, FMSH-PP-2012-01, PP-2012-04, july 2012. Abdul Aleem Siddiqui, FMSH- mars 2012. PP-2013-08, septembre 2013. Mitchell Cohen, Verdi, Wagner, Ajay K. Mehra, Public Security and Politics in Opera. Bicen- Alexis Nuselovici (Nouss), Étu- and the Indian State, FMSH- tennial Ruminations, FMSH- dier l’exil, FMSH-PP-2013-09, PP-2012-02, mars 2012. PP-2012-05, may 2013. septembre 2013. Timm Beichelt, La nouvelle poli- Ingrid Brena, Les soins médi- tique européenne de l’Allemagne : caux portés aux patients âgés inca- L’émergence de modèles de légiti- pables de s’autogérer, FMSH- mité en concurrence ?, FMSH- PP-2013-06, avril 2013. PP-2012-03, mars 2012.

Fondation Maison des sciences de l’homme - 190 avenue de France - 75013 Paris - France http://www.fmsh.fr - FMSH-WP-2014-58