B U L L E T I N Volume: 7 No. 1 Cultural Resources Management • A National Park Service Technical Bulletin April 1984

National Park Service archeologist/diver taking measurements, ll.S.S. Arizona, fonoard section. U.S.S. ARIZONA: HOW THE PARK SERVICE MANAGES ITS A Cultural Resources ARCHEOLOGICAL Management Success Story RESOURCES Gary T. Cummins Douglas H. Scovill Nearly forty-two years after the sinking causes of the ARIZONA'S sinking, the ex­ The tools which support Park Service of the U.S.S. Arizona, the National Park tent of battle and salvage damage, the archeology are many and varied. They Service began its underwater assessment amount of settlement, and her current range from paper documents like the his­ survey. Within the first few hours of that condition. And, of course, we assumed toric structures reports to resources inven­ survey, Navy Explosives Ordinance Dis­ that all ammunition had long been re­ tory, the "bread and butter" of the profes­ posal (EOD) divers removed four live, moved from the ship. It took the survey sion. Some are new. Others have received five-inch naval artillery shells from the to prove how faulty our assumptions were. a new twist to make them applicable to deck of the battleship, virtually beneath One of the newer units of the Park Ser­ the specific resource management prob­ the feet of the visiting public. vice, the Arizona Memorial, consists of lems that archeologists and cultural an­ The episode illustrated how little we ac­ eleven acres located within the Pearl Har­ thropologists face today. This issue of the tually knew about the ARIZONA. When bor Naval Base on Oahu, 15 miles west of CRM BULLETIN explores a few of these we first opened the park in October 1980, Honolulu. It includes a large, new visitor tools. we assumed that a complete body of data center, with theaters, museum, and ad- continued on page 2 existed, that everyone agreed on the continued on page 2 How The Park Service structures report and the absence of arche­ by on-the-ground field survey techniques. Manages . . . ological data with which to complete the Although the archeological resources of continued from page 1 report created the joint demand on man­ certain Park Service areas have been agement and archeology. Randy Biallas' known for decades, others have remained Leading the list is "Parkman," the new article on the historic structure reporting unexplored and are only now receiving computer graphics program for cultural process provides a good overview of this their just attention. Bryan Harry offers a resources management. Developed by the significant tool. thoughtful examination of Pacific parks' Division of Cultural Research in conjunc­ Sometimes the very structure of an ar­ archeology. His area practices a uniquely tion with the Division of Special Pro­ cheological center can determine the effec­ challenging blend of archeology and cul­ grams, Santa Fe, the program allows for tiveness with which it handles fieldwork. tural anthropology. Throughout the islands, the organization of complex archeological The Midwest Archeological Center is a ancient worship sites continue to enjoy data and makes it available to managers case in point. Pursuing an innovative bire- the veneration of present-day Hawaiians. in usable form. Jim Judge examines this gional approach, it serves the archeolog­ As the author explains, "here is archeol­ important contribution. ical needs of both the Rocky Mountain ogy with a cultural constituency," where The inventory process is represented by and Midwest Regions, without the neces­ sensitivity to native populations becomes a number of Service projects. Mark Ly- sity of administrative duplication. Randy as essential as the more technical ap­ nott reviews work underway at Ozark Pope, Lorraine Mintzmyer and F.A. Cala- proaches to site preservation. National Scenic Riverways; Thomas brese report on this successful approach. In the Pacific parks as elsewhere in the Thiessen, the Knife River Indian Villages The applications of remote sensing tech­ Service, rock art has drawn significant at­ archeological inventory; and Bruce Ander­ nology to archeology have focused fre­ tention as a preservation issue. How we son, the project at Wupatki National Mon­ quently on the southwestern and Western protect this fragile evidence of past cul­ ument, the data from which has been in­ U.S. As Stephen Potter successfully dem­ tures is being researched at major institu­ corporated into Parkman. onstrates, however, this tool has signifi­ tions like the University of California. The importance of historic structures re­ cant Eastern U.S. applications. With a One of the first steps taken through the ports to archeology is explored by Joan small sum of money and a lot of careful NPS Rock Art Task Force has been the Mathien. In the case of Kin Nahasbas, the planning, the cultural resource manager development of a research bibliography, Anasazi site, the necessity for an historic can obtain useful information overlooked continued on page 21

U.S.S. Arizona . . . continued from page 1

ministrative areas. However, the primary resources are the U.S.S. Arizona Memo­ rial, and the battleship. Completed in 1962, the memorial is a gleaming white, reenforced concrete structure—184 feet long, 36 feet wide, and 21 feet high— erected directly over the hulk of the Ari­ zona, a 31,000-ton, 608-feet long battle­ ship, launched in 1915. Until the Japanese attack on Pearl Har­ bor, December 7, 1941, the Arizona saw nearly 25 years of peaceful service. Then at 8:20 a.m., an 800 kilogram, armor- piercing bomb struck the forward deck and exploded deep in her hold. This set off a terrific explosion among her ammu­ nition and aviation gasoline supplies. The ship sank in less than nine minutes, killing over 1,100 crew members. The Navy re­ moved most of her superstructure and sal­ vaged most of her guns and turrets, as Crockery and utensils — galley area, U.S.S. Arizona. well as other equipment and machinery. Salvagers left some 1,102 crew members creased to 500,000 a year. The Navy's The new NPS property began operating entombed within her hulk. The Navy con­ ability to cope with the crowds reached its immediately to handle the growing num­ structed a temporary platform over the maximum, and negotiations with the bers of visitors. With nearly 4,000 visitors battleship in 1950. Work on the current NPS, plus pressure from veterans and on our first day and over a million our memorial started in 1961. Following its civic organizations, eventually led to NPS first year, we never had the luxury of a completion, the Navy began transporting responsibility for the memorial. Presently, "developmental stage" of visitation. In­ visitors to the memorial on a regular more than 1.2 million persons world-wide stead, we stressed building an efficient or- schedule. By the mid-1970s, visitation in- visit annually. continued on page 4

2 A BIREGIONAL ARCHEOLOGICAL CENTER: How It Works

Randall Pope, Lorraine Mintzmyer and F. A. Calabrese

Since the end of World War II when remains. Occasionally, larger projects are the National Park Service began sponsor­ done as joint University-Center endeav­ ing major archeological projects, each ors. These accomplish Service objectives region developed different ways to meet while maintaining a high level of profes­ their archeological assistance needs. Some sionalism with limited funds and obtained a staff position to assist in con­ personnel. tracting for archeological services; others In addition, Center staff participate in developed archeological centers. The Mid­ team planning efforts and the preparation west Archeological Center in Lincoln, of environmental assessments and man­ Nebraska emerged out of the Smithsonian agement plans, as well as other general Institution's Missouri Basin Project office planning documents. They also facilitate in 1969. Until then, the service primarily the planning and programming of future assisted other agencies with funds and archeological needs for management and personnel salvaging archeological informa­ interpretation. They maintain the basic tion from dam and reservoir areas. cultural sites inventory information for Then in 1974, the Center received its park archeological resources, and update first base funding for work with parks the archeological base maps as well as and the salvage program responsibilities other basic resource inventory data. They shifted to the newly established Inter­ curate collections and records of past ar­ agency Archeological Services offices in cheological investigations, and maintain Denver and Atlanta. At about the same the files and library information pertaining time, the boundaries representing the to both regions' archeological resources. revised Midwest and the new Rocky These activities are carried out by the Positive crop mark of site 44 NB 29 is visible as Mountain regions were established. The four divisions: the Rocky Mountain and a dark concentration of winter wheat in the regional directors decided that the Mid­ Midwest Region Divisions, the Develop­ narrow strip of field adjacent to a grass runway. west Archeological Center would serve mental Archeology Division, and the Ad­ both. Since then, the Center has devel­ ministrative Division. The two parallel oped an organizational structure designed divisions for the Midwest and Rocky LOW BUDGET AND solely to assist these regions in the man­ Mountain Regions provide the planning, agement of their archeological resources. programming and review assistance out­ LOW ALTITUDES: This primary mission is accomplished in lined above. They are the major contacts Aerial Photography And a number of ways. The Center staff par­ with the regional offices and park staffs. ticipates in the review of planning, pro­ Dr. Mark Lynott heads the Midwest Re­ Archeological Survey In gramming, and management documents. gional Division, Dr. Douglas Scott the Tidewater Virginia They provide advice about needed ar­ Rocky Mountain Region Division. cheological work prior to new construc­ The Developmental Archeology Divi­ Stephen R. Potter, Ph.D. tion and provide program development sion, headed by Robert Nickel, conducts assistance to park managers gathering basic research on magnetic and resistivity sur­ inventory data or initiating interpretation veying, and other geophysical exploration In 1976, an archeological and ethno- programs. techniques. Nickel's division adapts com­ historical study began in a locale corre­ Given an identified need for archeolog­ puter hardware and software to archeo­ sponding to the territory of an early ical work in conjunction with develop­ logical problems and programs, to the seventeenth century Virginia Algonquian ment, management or interpretive needs, archeological laboratory and the curation chiefdom—the Chicacoan (Potter 1982). the staff designs, implements, and then of collections. The territory of the Chicacoan extended reports on the needed archeological inves­ The Division of Administration Con­ between the Potomac and Rappahannock tigation. Determining who provides arche­ tract and Support Services, headed by Rivers on a peninsula referred to as the ological services—the Center or a contrac­ Thomas Thiessen, provides administrative Northern Neck of Tidewater Virginia. tor—is done in consultation with the and contracting services, as well as clerical The purpose was to develop an aerial regions; though given the shifting design support. It maintains the staff research li­ settlement pattern model of late prehis­ and construction priorities, it is often brary and obtains the illustrations needed toric and early historic aboriginal occupa­ easier and more cost effective to accom­ for archeological publications. tions. Using ethnohistorical and environ­ plish projects in-house. On a day's notice, The Midwest Archeological Center is mental data, several hypotheses pertaining Center personnel provide archeological the only unit in the Service that routinely to village size and location were postu­ on-site monitoring in conjunction with lated for archeological testing. Although continued on page 11 construction and other earth-disturbing the study concerned late prehistoric and activities impacting historic or prehistoric historic aboriginal settlement patterning, all archeological manifestations dating to continued on page 6

3 U.S.S. Arizona . . . shallow our knowledge was of the park's virtually no new information had become continued from page 2 primary resource, the U.S.S. Arizona. available. Visitor curiosity first spurred our need Survivors of the Arizona, as well as rel­ to learn more about the battleship. We atives, friends, and acquaintances of the found ourselves unable to answer their crew, made it extremely important for the ganization, developing competent staff, questions. Though information existed staff to be well informed about all aspects programming a realistic budget, and pro­ from the battleship's construction to its of the disaster. Failure would jeopardize viding a solid interpretive program. It was sinking, details of the Navy's 1942 salvage Park Service credibility nationally, and not long, however, before we saw how operation remained hazy; and since 1943, park management credibility locally, par-

U.S.5. Arizona, December 7, 1941 (Official U.S. Navy Photograph)

4 ticularly in its relationship with the U.S. some determination of the time, man­ anticipated due to assistance from the Navy. power, supplies, and funds required to Navy's Mobile Dive and Salvage Unit One. Therefore, gathering sufficient informa­ completely map the ship and a close ex­ September 20, the first phase of the tion to support the interpretive program amination of the port hull for torpedo project came to an end. Over 200 hours became an important management objec­ damage to settle a disagreement between of underwater time had been accumulated tive. We were unsure about the condition survivors and official records as to a tor­ without mishap, a testimony to divemaster of the battleship. Was it in danger of col­ pedo strike. The deck and hull would be Dave McLean's careful management. A lapse from corrosion? Could increased set­ examined for evidence of hits by other substantial amount of the ship had been tlement affect the memorial structure? aerial bombs. Datum points on the hull of mapped, with final drawings expected What was the source of the oil which con­ the Arizona and the pilings supporting the early in 1984. tinued to seep from the hulk? When we memorial would allow periodic measure­ We found the hull in generally good turned to the Navy authorities for answers, ments and identify further settlement or condition. The luxurient sealife covering we found they knew little more than we. shifting of the hulk. The team would care­ virtually all exterior portions of the wreck The deficiencies in our knowledge could fully examine two portions of the port seems to act as a barrier to salt water cor­ be divided into two categories: historical hull for buckling or distortion from steel rosion. No evidence of torpedo damage and resource management. We set about and concrete landings built in 1950, and was found. However, the ship rests on the designing a research program to provide pinpoint the persistent oil seepage as well bottom with a slight list to port. Evidence us with information on both. We sus­ as any remains of the ship or other his­ of a torpedo hit in the lower section of pected, however, that a hands-on, under­ toric debris on the harbor bottom. Phase II the hull could be obscured by the ship water examination of the battleship would entailed total mapping of the ship. resting directly on it. Holes were found in be required. Research at the National Admiral Rorie approved the project, the main deck, some from battle damage, Archives narrowed the recent history and loaned Navy divers to assist. He also but most from the salvage operation. gaps. We then drew up a list of questions added an additional research item—to lo­ Datum points were set as well. The sur­ for which no documentation could be lo­ cate an area on the harbor bottom close vey team sank steel pins in the hull and cated. This formed the basis for a pro­ to the memorial where remains of the pilings, and located the oil seepage adja­ gramming document (10-238) sent to Dan U.S.S. Arizona's deteriorated superstruc­ cent to the Number Three Main Battery Lenihan, chief of the Submerged Cultural ture could be deposited, safe from souve­ mount. In examining the old 1950s land­ Resources Unit, Santa Fe. Soon, Dan and nir hunters. ings attached to the port hull gunwales, I worked out survey plans as well as a Finally, on September 13, after planning no apparent distress to the ship's fabric tentative timetable and estimated cost. conferences with Navy divers and the seemed evident. Finally, we located a early morning removal of the lethal five- "sterile" area on the harbor bottom some The next step was to obtain funding. 25 yards from the ship's last resting place Turning to our cooperating association, inch artillery shells, the project began. Overall control rested on Dan Lenihan, where the remaining fragments of her we requested $10,000 to fund an underwater superstructure could be safely deposited. survey of the battleship. The AMMA assisted by team archeologist Larry Mur­ board of directors, which includes two phy, and Jerry Livingston, a scientific From the mapping work carried out, we survivors of the Pearl Harbor attack, illustrator/diver pulling together myriad now have a good idea of what the second granted us the needed funds. So we offi­ measurements, notes and videotapes taken phase of the operation will entail. The cially requested use of the Submerged during the seven days of operations. The Arizona Memorial Museum Association Cultural Resources Unit from the South­ divers from the Arizona Memorial and has tentatively agreed to fund the under­ west Region. We explained that the inter­ War in the Pacific NHP served as field taking, scheduled for twelve days in early national significance of the battleship crew, the underwater equivalent of arche- October 1984. Plans include using the mandated the trained eyes and judgment ological "shovel bums," attaching lines, scale drawings to make a large scale of a competent archeologist. Also, carry­ recording measurements, setting datum model of the wreck for site interpretation. ing out the job within Pearl Harbor, one points, and holding lights for the video Overall, the survey represents the best of the U.S. Navy's major installations, re­ camera. aspects of a successful cultural resources quired the blessings of the Navy for the Lenihan decided to map a small portion management oriented project. Excellent survey. To accomplish this, we had to of the badly damaged forward section. rapport and understanding developed be­ demonstrate the concrete, identifiable The team set a center line of nylon cord tween management and researchers. goals of a completely professional operation. from the bow aft, eventually all the way Hours spent in pre-project discussions re­ I presented a position paper explaining to the stern. They then set plastic clips at sulted in research objectives tailored to the need for the survey and including the carefully measured predetermined inter­ yield the maximum amount of historic timetable, the goals, and the resumes of vals, and numbered the clips in consecu­ data as well as serve management needs. I survey team members to the staff of Rear tive order, measuring from each interval believe the U.S.S. Arizona survey demon­ Admiral Conrad J. Rorie, USN, the in­ to features along the ship, such as gun­ strated close cooperation and involvement coming Commander, Naval Base Pearl wales, or turrets, then recording them between research and management—from Harbor. with grease pencil on plastic easels. which the park is still reaping benefits. In­ The proposed survey goal included the Slowly, complicated by poor visibility, deed, the manager of a television station close examination of all submerged, exte­ sections of the ship began to evolve on in Phoenix, Arizona, saw the ABC-TV re­ rior portions of the ship and sufficient paper. Given silt levels in the Harbor port on the project, called the Memorial, measurements to produce a set of scaled, which limited visibility to less than ten and offered to help fund the second phase three-dimensional drawings. The survey feet, the mapping project became similar of the undertaking. With cooperation like would be carried out in two phases. Phase to entering a strange room in the dark this, the future looks bright.® I would be an overall look at the vessel with pencil, paper, measuring tape and a and mapping of a specific portion, plus flashlight, to make a scale drawing. Fortu­ The author is the Superintendent of the U.S.S. nately, more of the ship was mapped than Arizona Memorial.

5 Low Budget, Low Altitudes . . . continued from page 3

the mid-nineteenth century A.D. were to be recorded. Aerial photography and sur­ vey proved to be the best means to achieve this end. I felt that such an approach would be successful because: 1) approximately 60% of the study area is in cropland; 2) the soils are mainly light colored sandy loams or silt loams (Elder et al. 1963: 13-21), which serves to enhance the soil discolora­ tion of archeological middens; and 3) most of the topography consists of necklands, broad areas of level to gently sloping ter­ races along the Potomac River, or uplands composed of tableland dissected by streams. Such broad, flat expanses are usually tilled. Also, flat land makes it easier to discriminate the soil and crop marks of ar­ cheological sites from soil and crop marks of differential drainage. Once everyone knew that I intended to Aerial photograph of Coan Hall (44 NB 11), a seventeenth century anglo-american site. The use low altitude aerial photography, I en­ archeological remains are visible as a series of dark soil marks in the cultivated field adjacent to a countered skepticism from those who winter wheat crop. think it impossible to employ this tech­ nique in the eastern woodlands. As Baker and Gummerman (1981:10) noted in their study of remote sensing applications in the Midwest, major portions of the east­ ern woodlands are not forested. This is obviously true of the Chicacoan locality and of the Chesapeake-Tidewater region, in general. Three other comments were heard frequently: 1) "if the archeological sites are so obvious from the air, they will be just as obvious from the ground"; 2) "in areas of previous collection by ama­ teur archeologists or survey by profes­ sionals, all the major sites will be known"; and 3) "why bother with low altitude aerial photographs when the areas have already been photographed by the Soil Conservation Service or the state highway department." These tidbits of archeolog­ ical scripture notwithstanding, I decided to plunge headlong into the folly of flight, photography and archeology in the east­ ern woodlands.

Applications of Aerial Photography and Survey From the beginning, I was faced with constraints on money and equipment. During the three years of 1976, 1978, and Map showing the Chicacoan study area and its relationship to the Northern Neck of 1979, I had a total of $450 which I could Tidewater Virginia. apply toward aerial photography and sur­ vey. Nor did I have access to a diversity of camera equipment or belly mounts for vertical, aerial photography. Thus, it was my purpose to determine, by the most in-

6 Positive crop marks showed best when Conclusion the soils began to warm in late winter or By way of concluding, let me offer a very early spring, ostensibly due to the few rules of thumb regarding my experi­ higher organic content and moisture reten­ ence with oblique angle, low altitude pho­ tion capability of the midden deposits tography. First, archeological sites visible compared to the surrounding natural as soil marks are not always obvious from sandy loams and silt loams (Limbrey the ground. Even if they were, site detec­ 1975:328-330; Baker and Gummerman tion from the air is faster, economical, 1981:11). Depending on the severity of the and the observer obtains a better appreci­ winter, the moisture in the soil and the ation of the environmental setting. In one daily increase rate in air temperatures, 20 minute flight over a portion of the March proved the most advantageous pe­ Rappahannock River's north bank, nine riod to observe positive crop marks in suspected archeological sites were ob­ winter cover crops. The best oblique angle served and all nine later confirmed. Just photographs were taken during midmorn- because amateurs have collected from an ing, when the angle of the sun was low area or professionals have completed and little or no distortion occurred from some surveys does not mean all the major heat rising off the fields. sites have been recorded. And finally, Soil marks provided the most obvious while the Soil Conservation Service and means of detecting sites in the Northern the state highway department have aerial Neck. Best observed in cultivated fields, photographs available for inspection, they they appeared as gray-black stains against are of limited value because photographed the lighter colored natural soils of the re­ at a less optimal time of year and at too gion. By paying close attention to the to­ high an altitude. pography and subtle color differences, the Indeed, the optimum seasons for spot­ gray-black color of middens can be dis­ ting sites have proven to be late winter criminated from the dark brown color of and early spring. Archeological sites moisture laden soils in poorly drained usually appear as dense and/or very green areas. Archeological soil marks show best areas of small grain crops, or as gray- photographed at an angle to the furrows. black soil marks. However, aerial survey expensive means possible, the optimum Various archeological sites or features at altitudes higher than approximately conditions for discovering and recording appeared as soil marks. One of the most 2,000 feet (612 meters) usually proves use­ archeological sites through oblique angle striking examples was the site of the first less for spotting small, historic Anglo- aerial photography and survey. permanent English settlement on the Vir­ American archeological sites. Prior to each flight, we briefed the pilot ginia side of the Potomac River. The sev­ I make no pretense that low altitude, as to what to look for, examined topo­ enteenth century site of Coan Hall and its oblique angle, aerial photography is an in­ graphic maps of the area to be flown, dis­ dependencies is visible as a number of novation. However, it certainly has not cussed current land and weather conditions, gray-black stains. A long, linear feature been used to its fullest potential. The tech­ and planned the flight path. We used sev­ can also be seen, which represents the re­ nique is well suited to a Coastal Plain eral different light aircraft, mainly Cessnas. mains of a road leading to the plantation environment consisting of broad, flat In order to increase the probability of complex. Another Anglo-American site, necklands and interior plateaus covered spotting small archeological sites, we flew this one an eighteenth century structure, by extensive agricultural fields. With con­ at low altitudes, usually between 500 and and its dependencies, is clearly visible as tinued systematic experimentation, low al­ 1,000 feet (152 and 305 meters). dark soil marks in a freshly cultivated field. titude, oblique angle, aerial photography Once a suspected site was observed, the The results of the survey were very en­ can be adapted to a variety of physio­ plane circled once to determine the best couraging. Ninety-five percent of the sites graphic settings. © photographic angle, taking into considera­ located from the air and predicted to be tion the altitude and the angle of the historic Anglo-American sites were later plane, the angle of the sun, the direction confirmed as such. Large prehistoric or of cultivation, and the nature of the sus­ The author is Regional Archeologist, National historic Indian sites greater than 2.5 acres Capital Region, and Research Associate, De­ pected archeological site. Both color and (about 1 hectare), with dark earth or partment of Anthropology, Smithsonian Insti­ black-and-white photographs were taken, dense shell midden, were also detected tution. His work with low altitude flights was using a hand-held, 135 mm camera. presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society with 90% chance of success. Intermediate for American Archeology, April 17, 1982. Archeological sites in the Northern prehistoric or historic Indian sites between Neck were detected primarily by differen­ 10,800 square feet (about 1,000 square tial crop growth or coloration and by va­ meters) and 2.5 acres (1 hectare), with riations in soil color. Positive crop marks dark earth midden or dense shell midden, appeared strongest in small grain crops, were spotted with about a 60% probabil­ such as wheat, rye, or barley. For exam­ ity of being correct. ple, if a winter cover crop, such as wheat, grew over an archeological midden, the wheat would be denser, greener and thicker than in surrounding areas.

7 KNIFE RIVER INDIAN VILLAGES A Useful Man Thomas D. One of the tasks facing each unit of the National Park System is the creation of a cultural resources inventory. Several forms of cultural resource inventories exist which partially achieve this purpose, i.e., the List of Classified Structures and the National Register of Historic Places. How­ ever, these do not provide a complete list of archeological properties because they either restrict themselves to above-ground resources or reflect incomplete knowledge of park resources. Few parks have com­ prehensive archeological resource inven­ tories to assist management decisionmaking. One notable exception is Knife River In­ dian Villages National Historic Site in North Dakota, which commemorates the traditional homeland of the Hidatsa and Mandan Indians. At its creation, only four archeological sites were known, three of them highly visible remains of earth- lodge villages occupied in late prehistoric and early historic times. Travelers such as Lewis and Clark, John Evans, Manuel Lisa, and Prince Maximilian and the artist Karl Bodmer have left a wealth of written testimony about the inhabitants of these villages. Despite their exceptional state of preservation, none of the sites received much attention from archeologists prior to their acquisition by the Park Service. During the past several years, an inten­ sive archeological and ethnohistorical re­ search program has focused on the park. Beginning in 1976 and continuing for each summer through 1981, archeologists from the University of North Dakota and the NPS Midwest Archeological Center con­ ducted research to determine the park's archeological resources. The research would provide understanding of the re­ gional prehistory and ethnohistory, using an interdisciplinary approach to test new archeological methods in the field and lab­ oratory. A comprehensive research plan prepared by Dr. Stanley A. Ahler of the University of North Dakota outlined spe­ cific tasks tied to regional archeological research problems as well as to the spe­ cific cultural resource management needs of the park. This document provides a sound methodological and problem-oriented basis for the entire archeological program at Knife River. Essentially, there are three primary Contour map of the Sakakawea Village, produced photogrammetrically from aerial photographs. facets to the overall research program, the The contour interval is six inches. first being a comprehensive inventory and

8 ARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY: agement Tool Thiessen evaluation of the archeological resources. where earth has been subjected to the ef­ nificance. A new understanding of the na­ We systematically examined the 1157 fects of fire, deviations from the sur­ ture and frequency of this trade has acres of fee land in the park, using a bat­ rounding magnetic field can be mapped emerged as a result. This has important tery of different techniques including a with proton magnetometers. Plotting and implications for both the park's interpre­ power auger in timbered tracts, careful analysis of the collected magnetic mea­ tive story and the interpretation of the ar­ mapping of surface artifacts, and a point- surements are presently underway; when cheological research results. In addition to quarter statistical sampling method to completed, small-scale maps for each of this synthesis of the early fur trade at measure artifact density in formerly culti­ the park's historic earthlodge villages will Knife River, other ethnohistorical research vated tracts. An aerial photo program be invaluable for locating interpretive has uncovered significant information provided base contour maps of the vil­ trails and signs and for designing future leading to a new interpretation of the lages and the entire park. Aerial photo­ scientific excavations. 1837 spread of smallpox among the Mis­ graphs, photogrammetrically-produced The third important aspect of the Knife souri River tribes. contour maps, a proton magnetometer River research program entailed a re­ The archeological sites on park fee survey, and historic documentation were assessment of the voluminous historical lands have been identified and numbered, also used to identify archeological sites. literature pertaining to the park. Under and, in most instances, a good deal of in­ The second major aspect of the pro­ the direction of Dr. W. Raymond Wood formation made available about their ar­ gram was a proton magnetometer survey of the University of Missouri, contempo­ cheological content and significance. of each of the three major village sites. rary documents describing the eighteenth Instead of the four archeological sites Where the ground has been disturbed by and nineteenth century fur trade between known at the park's authorization, the in­ digging and refilled with material different the Mandan and Hidatsa, and traders ventory of sites now stands at 55, many from the surrounding soil matrix, or from Canada have been surveyed for sig- representing more than one period of past use or occupation. Consequently, the park's interpretative story appears far more complex than previously thought. In addition, the archeological inventory has offered practical advantages to park man­ agement, allowing the development of boundaries for National Register districts and also excluding those areas where ar­ cheological resources do not exist. The parkwide archeological survey has also lo­ cated two contiguous archeological sites, subject to gradual deterioration from the temporary visitor's center/administrative building directly above. The need to relocate the headquarters complex elsewhere in the park has subsequently been recognized. This and other management concerns (including proposed improvement to a country highway transversing the park) are all addressed in the recently completed cultural resources management plan—a plan made more useful through the re­ search of the last several years. Because of this work, the park management at Knife River Indian Villages possesses sufficient knowledge of the resources to accurately define their cultural resource management problems, and resolve them. ©

The author is an archeologist at the Midwest Archeological Center in Lincoln, Nebraska.

A computer-produced magnetic map of one of the earthlodges at the Sakakawea Village, The central fireplace and entryway extension are obvious. Features 1, 2, and 3 mark probably locations of storage pits.

9 PAST PATTERNS OF HUMAN ADAPTATION: Ozark National Scenic Riverways

Mark J. Lynott

Located in the eastern Ozark region of collections, using that information to re­ Radiocarbon techniques applied to char­ southeast Missouri, the 180 miles of Ozark construct the spatial and temporal extent coal or other organic substances generally National Scenic Riverways contains giant of prehistoric cultures in the Current date prehistoric archeological occupations. springs, narrow valleys and beautiful River watershed. The study has shown The research program at Ozark National rivers. Protection of cultural resources continuous occupation from approximately Scenic Riverways also utilizes thermolum- and interpretation of the rich cultural her­ 10,000 B.C. until 1300 A.D. inescence to date prehistoric ceramics. itage of the eastern Ozarks are major Among the many questions investigated Thermoluminescence measures the energy components of NPS activities in the park. by the study, the Early Missisippian settle­ trapped in the crystal structure of min­ To determine the number, location, and ment within the park has received consid­ erals like quartz, present as temper, or oc­ significance of archeological sites and to erable attention. Large civic-ceremonial curring naturally within ceramic clays. study changes in past patterns of human sites with associated temple mounds in the The thermoluminescent energy trapped in adaptation, the Midwest Archeological major alluvial valleys exemplify the Missi­ ceramics develops from exposure to radia­ Center began a multi-year study of the sippian culture. Mississippian sites in the tion after firing a ceramic vessel. The an­ park's prehistoric and historic archeolog­ park conform to a more dispersed settle­ nual dose rate of radiation to which a ical resources in 1979. The study resulted ment pattern. Testing has shown that ceramic sample is exposed may be calcu­ in the discovery of numerous archeolog­ many of them date two to three centuries lated from the soil matrix surrounding the ical sites and has illustrated the potential earlier than major Mississippian towns sample in its archeological context. Once of these resources for scientific research like Cahokia near East St. Louis, Illinois. the dose rate is estimated, then the total and public interpretation. The discovery of Ozark participation in thermoluminescence content of the sample A major thrust of the study involved the early development of this culture has may be used to calculate the age of the ce­ reconstruction of past environmental con­ led to its reexamination. ramic since its last firing. ditions in the area surrounding the park. Reconstruction of past adaptive patterns Testing to determine the age and nature As part of this research, Dr. Roger Saucier in the eastern Ozarks is highly dependent of sites like Old Eminence has also con­ (U.S. Army Corp of Engineers) is deter­ upon reconstruction of past dietary and tributed extensively to the interpretation mining the geomorphological history of subsistence patterns. Traditionally accom­ of life in historic times. Documented writ­ the Current River valley and the relation­ plished by analysis of food remains from ten and oral histories claim Civil War ship of landforms to past patterns of archeological sites, the technique may be bushwackers burned the original county human settlement. In association with more or less accurate, depending on the seat of Shannon County, Missouri. The Saucier's geomorphological work, Drs. Paul types of food preserved. Chemical analy­ site was rediscovered as part of the re­ and Hazel Delcourt (University of Tennes­ sis of human skeletal remains provides an search study. Absence of domestic refuse see) have been conducting palynological opportunity to collect data directly related indicates the county seat served a strictly studies of bog deposits. These studies to the foods ingested by specific individ­ political or civic function in 1861. The have produced long pollen sequences uals. Dr. Thomas Boutton (Baylor College data collected from Old Eminence will be which will permit reconstruction of past of Medicine) has conducted a study of the used in conjunction with that collected vegetation history and climatic changes stable carbon isotope content of human from farmsteads, mills, roads, etc. to re­ for the past 30,000 to 70,000 years. skeletal remains. His study provides infor­ construct adaptive patterns on the eastern Within the emerging environmental and mation on corn consumption. After exam­ Ozarks frontier during the early nine­ climatic reconstructions, the research pro­ ining twenty human skeletal samples from teenth century. gram has attempted to identify the se­ southeast Missouri and northeast Arkansas These examples represent only a portion quence of past cultures occupying the dating from 2500 B.C. to 1880 A.D., of the ongoing archeological investigations park. While test excavations and other Dr. Boutton found that corn became a at Ozark National Scenic Riverways. The traditional archeological activities have significant part of the diet after 1100 A.D. interdisciplinary study has produced excit­ contributed, the study has also benefitted His data suggests that a dependency on ing research data and essential manage­ from the knowledge and data controlled corn farming did not characterize the ment information. A motivated research by amateur archeologists and private arti­ Early Mississippian populations, thus con­ team, incorporating local expertise, new fact collectors in the area. This compo­ tradicting existing hypotheses linking the methods and ideas, and a highly commu­ nent of the study complies with the development of Mississippian culture to nicative interdisciplinary approach, has Archeological Resources Protection Act of the adoption of corn agriculture. made the program a success. The study 1979 which recommends professional ar­ will continue through 1985 and will result cheologists work with amateur archeolo­ in professional and popular publications gists and private collectors to make better interpreting the archeology in the use of data for the interpretive benefit of park area. ® the general public. Dr. James Price (south­ west Missouri State University) has docu­ mented the artifacts in these private The author is an archeologist with the Midwest Archeological Center.

10 ARCHEOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF HISTORIC STRUCTURE REPORTS

Frances Joan Mathien

The cultural resources manager often Between 1935 and 1983, the NPS con­ of the field notes, maps, and artifacts col­ tackles tough and unexpected problems, ducted two additional surveys. The 1972 lected in 1935. Faced with little or no but the Park Service also provides the records indicate the presence of house detailed information, we saw a need for manager with some unexpected tools to rooms, trash, hogans, petroglyphs, etc., accurate maps and detailed notes, not just accomplish the job. CRM policy provides but none of the published reports empha­ on the great kiva, but the entire site. This for the documentation, evaluation, and size these features. In fact, some of the meant archeological fieldwork. The Divi­ preservation of historic and prehistoric publications studied the great kiva exclu­ sion of Cultural Research developed a cultural resources. One way to accomplish sively and termed it "isolated." research design addressing both manage­ this is through a historic structure report Reviewing these documents to obtain a rial and archeological research questions. (HSR), a document including all available history of Kin Nahasbas, we located none continued on page 19 information on a particular structure and its setting. Not only does the HSR provide anthropological/archeological, historical, and architectural/engineering findings, but Biregional. . . also an evaluation of data and recommen­ continued from page 3 dations for treatment/possible use. the author responsible for such a report often provides archeological assistance to two Supervision of the archeological center uncovers critical information important to regions. This biregional responsibility has from a host Regional Director's perspec­ park management. proven to be a viable, efficient alternative tive must be based on his knowledge and The HSR contains a record and analysis to the single-region centers. The arrange­ trust of the Center Chief. In addition, the of all periods of construction, modifica­ ment, however, offers both advantages Center must follow appropriate channels tion, source materials, building techniques, and disadvantages. for authority. The signatory authority for other evidence of use, cultural and social Organizationally it can be difficult to all archeological contracting, as well as setting, and history. Therefore, conduct­ work across regional boundaries. The personnel ceilings and actions is controlled ing new studies prior to writing such a Chief reports directly to the Region Direc­ by the host region. Review of project report sometimes becomes necessary. This tor of the Midwest (host) Region, which work plans and research designs as well as situation arose in 1983 when Kin Nahasbas, programs base funding and personnel for the review of the summary and final re­ an Anasazi site in Chaco Culture National the Center. The region also provides man­ ports of the work involves both the host Historical Park, was scheduled for stabil­ agement, contracting, and equipment sup­ and non-host regions. Annual review of ization and maintenance. port for the Center's biregional work. the Center Chief gives both Regional Di­ Initially, we obtained a history of ar- However, the Center maintains close rectors an opportunity to evaluate how cheological site work. Reginald G. Fisher working relationships with the Rocky well the Center meets NPS objectives. We needed to know how much of the site Mountain (non-host) Region, coordinating The success of the bi-regional archeo­ had deteriorated since 1935, what stabil­ activity through the Associate Regional logical center can be measured by the ization had really occurred, and how the Director for Planning and Resources Pres­ quality of the data developed in specified stabilized walls compared to original wall ervation, the Chief of the Cultural Resource time frames and whether it meets service first conducted a survey as part of the Division, and the Regional Archeologist. and professional needs. Maintaining Park School of American Research/University In addition, it maintains a continuous liai­ Service leadership in preservation and of New Mexico investigations from son with the Assistant Manager and conservation archeology and the success 1929-1937. In conjunction with his survey, branch chiefs of the Midwest/Rocky of programmatic memoranda of agree­ several sites, including the great kiva at Mountain Team, Denver Service Center, ments with the cultural resource commu­ Kin Nahasbas (1935), were partially exca­ to provide archeological assistance for nity is dependent upon that output. But vated by Dorothy Luhrs, a graduate stu­ DSC projects. that leadership image must be real, based dent who produced the field report. Occasionally the host region feels it upon high standards for research and high provides services to the second region for quality in the management of our archeo­ which it goes unrecompensed. On the logical resources. From the perspective of other hand, the non-host believes it lacks both the Midwest and Rocky Mountain control over the Center's activities and Regions, the bi-regional concept, although finances. The programs must be balanced faced with occasional problems, is a suc­ with the pragmatic needs of the regions cessful and economical method of accom­ and parks considered, to accomplish ar­ plishing that objective. ® cheological programs within existing financial and personnel constraints. Randall Pope is Deputy Regional Director, Midwest Region. Lorraine Mintzmyer is Re­ gional Director, Rocky Mountain Region. F. A. Calabrese is Chief, Midwest Archeological Center.

11 COVERING THE FIELD: Rock Art In The National Park Service

Debra Berke

When prehistoric people first struck Quarries NM, Amistad NRA, Bandelier rock and made pictures, they left extraor­ NM, Big Bend NP, Canyon de Chelly dinary records to their passing. Rock art NM, Canyonlands NP, Capitol Reef NP, refers to the intentional modification of Carlsbad Caverns NP, Chaco Culture non-portable stone by human beings. Pic- NHP, Death Valley NM, Dinosaur NM, tographs (rock paintings) and petroglyphs El Morro NM, Glacier NP, Glen Canyon (rock engravings) may be found in many NRA, Golden Spike NHS, Golden Gate national parks. At Amistad NRA in NRA, Grand Canyon NP, Gran Quivira Texas, pictographs of animals, humans, NM, Quadalupe Mountains NP, Hawaii and geometric designs were painted in Volcanoes NP, Hovenweep NM, Joshua prehistoric rock shelters. The largest con­ Tree NM, Lava Beds NM, Mesa Verde centration of petroglyphs in the State of NP, Navajo NM, Pecos NM, Petrified Hawaii is within Hawaii Volcanoes NP. Forest NP, Saguaro NM, Santa Monica These petroglyphs range from gameboards Mountains NRA, Virgin Islands NP, and salt pans to contemporary designs of Wupatki NM, Yellowstone NP, Yosemite people on horses holding guns. A spiral NP, and Zion NP. petroglyph at Fajada Butte in Chaco Can­ yon NP has been identified as a solstice Petroglyphs near Crack In Rock ruin, marker, the Park Service has a mandate Wupatki National Monument, to protect these echoes from the past. But Managing and Preserving Rock Art much work remains to be done. Two major repositories of rock art Many articles have been published on data, the University of California, Los protection and treatment for rock art. Angeles Rock Art Archive, and the Cen­ (See articles by Berke 1981, Grant 1967, tre Camuno Di Studi Prehistorici in Italy, Meighan 1981, Schaafsma 1966.) These contain a wealth of information. With so references emphasize that rock art sites many rock art sites in National Park Ser­ are threatened by natural, biological, and vice areas, we need to correctly interpret manmade phenomena. Water and wind pictographs and petroglyphs for the visi­ erode sites; vandals deface rock art. Petroglyphs near Crack In Rock ruin, Wupatki National Monument. tor, using the most up-to-date research. Protective techniques to minimize damage We also need to be sensitive to the preser­ have been developed, including diverting vation needs of rock art. Information water off a petroglyph or controlling pub­ from the Rock Art Archive and the Cen­ lic access to sites. Conservators are devel­ tre Camuno Di Studi Prehistorici could be oping techniques to treat damaged rock useful. art, such as cleaning graffitti, as well as experimenting with treatments to strengthen The NPS Rock Art Task Force, which the art. Because of the threats to the re­ initially met in 1981 to develop policies source, researchers advocate complete and guidelines, felt a bibliography of documentation of all known sites to in­ park-related references might be useful. I sure against loss of the record. Recording completed a literature search and indexed standards have been proposed by the the references into park and geographic Petroglyphs near Crack In Rock ruin, Wupatki National Monument. American Committee to Advance the areas, as well as subject matter. The bibli­ Study of Petroglyphs and Pictographs. ography focuses on the description and Information on technical conservation interpretation of rock art on or near NPS Descriptive Reports dating associated artifact materials like treatments can be found in professional sites. General references have been habitation refuse; matching dated material journals, museum publications, and con­ divided into: descriptive reports, informa­ Archeological field studies make up like pottery; or determining period ference notes. tion on management and preservation, most of the descriptive reports. However, through time markers. (See V. Smith, for and interpretation of rock art. The the two major continent-wide surveys of description of Big Bend pictographs repre­ microfiche card included in this issue of rock art were not done by archeologists senting European contact.) the CRM BULLETIN contains the first but by an art historian (Grant 1967) and a The analysis of rock art produces some Interpretation of Rock Art draft of the bibliography. As you will see, physician (Wellmann 1979). These interesting information. Two archeologists The bibliography includes a number of a number of references discuss rock art descriptive reports include information on obtained data on petroglyphs by experi­ exciting, recently published references that resources in particular national park location and inventory of sites, the culture mentally producing rock art themselves offer ideas on the multiple meanings of areas, many of them archeological site creating the art, classification of design (Bard and Busby 1974). James Keyser rock art. The interdisciplinary nature of reports. The parks with reference material elements, and geographic distribution of (1975) proposed that native peoples of the the topic has been demonstrated by the on rock art are as follows: Alibates Flint styles. Photographs and drawings are Northern Plains and the Great Basin were archeologists, anthropologists, astrono- usually included. Some archeological stud­ culturally related, based on a rock art ies attempt to date rock art either by motif found in both. continued on page 18 Petroglyphs near Puerco ruin, Petrified Forest National Monument.

12 13 PARKMAN: A Computer Graphics Program for Cultural Resource Management

W. James Judge

Background The program provides regional planners, the archeological resources of Chaco Cul­ PARKMAN is an acronym for Park cultural resource specialists, and park ture NHP, the program is being modified Management, an interactive computer managers with computerized information to assist other national parks and handle a program with full graphic capabilities de­ sufficient to make refined and knowledge­ variety of cultural and natural resources. veloped by the Division of Cultural Re­ able decisions governing the long- and To manage cultural resources effec­ search, in conjunction with the Division short-term management of NPS cultural tively, site data and data on the natural of Special Programs, Southwest Region. resources. Initially developed to manage environment must be readily available to

CHACO CANYON SITE DISTRIBUTION

PS-SWO CCtftTER FACILITY, 11/21/83

Computer printout illustrates how site density and environmental zones are related (in this case, Chaco Canyon).

14 accommodate long-range protection plan­ Operation zones on site locations, and its ability to ning, scientific research, resource interpre­ PARKMAN, a user-oriented, user- select virtually any combination of site tation, and development planning. In interactive computer program, permits ar- type, size, and function for display and parks with a complete cultural resources cheological sites and digitized maps or analysis. inventory, the volume of data is stagger­ zones to be selected through combining a As the program develops, we plan to ing. A computerized data base manage­ wide range of attributes (variables). Se­ add other management-significant vari­ ment system is the most efficient way to lected sites and zones can then be plotted, ables, such as site visibility (e.g., standing compile, process, and retrieve information or only sites located within the zones. wall heights, type of masonry, amount of in a format most useful to planners and Further, the entire park area, or any seg­ rubble, etc.); artifact collections made; ex­ managers. PARKMAN was developed ment of it, can be selected through posi­ cavation or other research dates; location specifically for such cultural resource tioning a cursor on the computer screen. of site records and artifacts; stabilization management purposes and has the addi­ For example, the user might want to select history; preservation status; National Reg­ tional advantage of a refined graphics an area in the park impacted by heavy ister status; site interpretation status; his­ (plotting, mapping) capability. erosion, a common occurrence following toric structures report; and archival intensive summer rainstorms in the South­ documentation. west. In addition to the erosional channel In addition to these variables, there will digitized with recent aerial photos, the be a simple formula for determining site computer will plot all sites in the chosen significance based on site redundancy area or only those sites selected by time within environmental zones (e.g., combi­ period, size, function, etc. by positioning nation of landform, soils, vegetation) and the cursor on the screen, distance from classification by chronological and func­ any site to the channel can be calculated tional units. Sites can easily be ranked immediately, and site numbers and addi­ based on the relative frequencies of a tional information can be displayed quickly. given site type to all sites within the zone. An almost endless variety of other man­ agement, research, and interpretive appli­ cations are available, as desired and Predictive Modelling defined by the user. Once natural, cultural, and administra­ tive zones in a park area have been digi­ Equipment tized and entered in the data base, it PARKMAN currently runs on the NPS becomes relatively easy to develop the Data General Eclipse system in the South­ next feature we plan to add to PARK- west Regional Office. A dedicated line to MAN, the capability of predictive model­ the Division of Cultural Research in Albu­ ling. This refers to the ability to estimate querque links the main frame with a Tek­ cultural resource frequencies within se­ tronix 4052 graphics terminal and a lected zones in unsurveyed park areas, Tektronix 4663 interactive plotter, at a based on knowledge of actual site loca­ baud rate of 9600. Tektronix terminals, a tions gained from resource sampling sur­ Versatec plotter, and a digitizer are also veys. Such ability will permit informed available in the Southwest Cultural Re­ cultural resource management decisions source Center. prior to a complete site inventory. Though this approach cannot predict exact site lo­ The Data Base cations, site densities within selected zones In developing the data base for PARK- can be estimated. As information is gained MAN, we computerized information on through future archeological inventory, approximately 2400 archeological sites lo­ the accuracy of the estimates can be cated during the Chaco Project surveys. improved. The UTM coordinates of each site served Future predictive modelling applications as the basic locational index for the site will include the capability for selecting al­ record. Additional information included ternative locations for planned park devel­ maps of boundaries, soil and vegetation opment projects and ranking them on the zones, roads, stairways, cairns, historic basis of predicted low site density. Back- structures, and main erosional drainages country patrols also can be routed to in the Canyon, digitized from 7.5 minute areas of predicted high site density to topo sheets or recent aerial photos. These check for vandalism. For areas susceptible have been incorporated into the PARK- to fire, the computer can estimate site MAN file and are accessible for analytical density from coordinates, thus permitting purposes. a rapid decision as to whether an archeol- ogist should accompany fire crews. Applications Although comprehensive site inventory PARKMAN provides a variety of appli­ is the long-term goal for cultural parks cations for park management, including and for cultural (historic) zones within preservation, interpretation, and research. parks, refined density estimates of cultural This is possible through its ability to over­ resources, based on techniques of sample lay environmental and/or management continued on page 18

15 THROUGH ANCIENT EYES: Ethno-Historic Research In The New Alaska National Parklands

G. Ray Bane

The Alaska National Interest Lands contributions from NANA and the Na­ world through the eyes of an ancient Conservation Act of 1980 established four tional Park Service. The first phase of the people. From this perspective, it would new park units above the Arctic Circle. project produced a record of Joe's life, seem that the lure of natural areas to These totaled over sixteen million acres of with detailed information on use areas, modern man transcends mere esthetic intact and unaltered arctic and subarctic methods of travel, travel routes, resource values. Wilderness has so influenced hunt­ ecosystems. These units contain important concentrations, established campsites, ing and gathering cultures that perhaps cultural resources—archeological remains place names, sites of historic and spiritual modern man returns to it as to his first dating back in excess of 8,000 years as significance, etc. and truest home. ® well as present day examples of long es­ The second phase began at a base camp tablished native cultures, who rely on the at the headwater of the Noatak River. land for basic subsistence needs. The author is cultural resource manager for From there, extensive aerial surveys were Gates of the Arctic National Park, and Pre­ The Kuuvangmiit, a group of Inupiaq made of the northern subsistence territory serve and Northwest Alaska Park areas. Eskimos living along the upper Kobuk used by Joe Sun and other Kuuvangmiit River in Northwestern Alaska, historically hunters prior to the late 1940's. For seven have used lands within three of the new days, the field party flew over the vast- park units. Until the late 1930's and early ness of the west central Brooks Range 1940's, these people maintained a tradi­ while Joe pinpointed and named old tional semi-nomadic lifestyle, ranging over camping sites, resource concentrations, Parkman . . . ten thousand square miles. Now residing travel routes, environmental hazards, continued from page 15 in three permanent villages, the Kuuvang­ burial sites, sites of battles between Es­ miit still rely on hunting, fishing, and kimos and Indians of "long ago," and sites survey and predictive modelling of ecolog­ gathering. But as elders pass from the for raft building to travel mountain streams. ical zones, may be enough to manage cul­ scene, accumulated cultural traditions, What appeared as a wilderness untouched tural resources in natural park areas where skills, and history are irretrievably lost. In by man became, through Joe Sun, a cul­ site densities are low or where visitor or response to this situation, the Northwest tural landscape rich in history, spiritual natural impacts are minimal. Refinement Alaska Native Association (NANA) has values, economic importance, and impli­ of this approach appears to have consider­ initiated programs designed to document cations to the development of the Inupiaq able potential for park managers and re­ and utilize traditional cultural informa­ worldview. This information was recorded gional staff. It should help them to plan tion. An Elders' Conference has been on topographical maps, in notebooks, and and implement resources management and formed to provide advice and guidance on tape. park development more efficiently and at for the younger generation. During seven days of intensive field- considerable cost savings. The National Park Service is also inter­ work, the research party flew roughly Currently, data gathered during an ested in recovering and documenting cul­ 2200 miles. Approximately 130 new place ongoing survey at Wupatki National tural information, particularly that which names were recorded, along with a con­ Monument is being entered into a PARK- pertains to the new parklands in Alaska. siderable store of environmental and his­ MAN program similar to the Chaco In order to intelligently manage subsis­ toric information. The first draft of this program. The Division intends to use tence activities, a historical perspective on report should be ready for review early in PARKMAN during its future studies at human uses of wild resources is particu­ 1984. Publication may be possible by mid­ Bandelier, NM also. In the meantime, we larly important. The rapidly dwindling summer, with further information avail­ are writing a "universal," more generic number of Alaska Native elders born near able on the project at that time. PARKMAN program to allow park man­ the turn of the century can provide pres­ Thanks to Joe Sun's desire to share the agers to modify several variable labels and ent and future generations with an appre­ traditions and environmental knowledge adapt the program to specific areas. The ciation for man's ingenious ability to of his people, we obtained a clearer pic­ generic PARKMAN will handle natural adapt to and thrive in a sparse, demand­ ture of the dynamics of a subsistence life­ resource as well as cultural resource data, ing environment. style as well as the rich cultural blanket and should function as an effective man­ One of the most knowledgeable and re­ that rests gently on the land. Perhaps agement tool when it is completely opera­ spected elders in the NANA region is Joe most importantly, the research party had tional in FY-1985. ® Sun, a Kuuvangmiit Eskimo born at the the rare opportunity to see the natural turn of the century. Joe served as a pri­ The author is the chief of the Division of Cul­ mary informant for a subsistence study of tural Research. Requests for additional infor­ the Kobuk River Eskimos from 1974 to mation may be addressed to this division, 1975. During the fall of 1982, a follow-up Southwest Region, FTS 474-3780. project was initiated with funding from the Alaska Humanities Forum and in-kind

16 THE PRESERVATION OF RESEARCH MATERIALS Anthony Crosby

In the years ahead, the Park Service the Records Management Guidelines, ad­ • A rather large historical project, the will be facing a significant problem in­ dresses the storage of many finished docu­ Historical Resource Study for Golden volving the preservation of research mate­ ments but remains silent on the storage of Gate National Recreation Area, re­ rials. Too often, irreplaceable and non- field notes. NPS-28 does require that ar- sulted in approximately 2,000 maps reproducible research information has cheological field notes be incorporated and building plans, 8 feet of 5 X 8 re­ been lost. The need and directive to pre­ into the accession system of the National search cards, 10 feet of manuscript serve such material is found on page Catalog, thus keeping notes in association material and 1,500 photographs. A eight, Chapter V of the "Management Pol­ with artifacts; and architectural research smaller Historical Resource Study for icy (1974)." can be treated as archival material and Fort Lapwai at Nez Perce National handled by the National Catalog system. Historical Park resulted in 100 photo­ Field notes and collections of arti­ But even so, such action is often not taken. graphs, 150 slides, one foot of manu­ facts and structural features re­ Just what is the actual size of the prob­ script material, and 2 feet of 5X8 trieved in the conduct of research in lem? How many research materials are research notes. archeology and historic architecture, collected from projects of various com­ or during restoration projects, shall plexities? The following offer a few The research materials in both archeo­ be preserved for the benefit of fu­ examples. logical and architectural investigations can ture investigators and as an aid to probably be related to the amount of field continued preservation. work and laboratory work involved. • Archeological work at Harpers Ferry, Hence, an estimation could be made and both a salvage and a research project, How we accomplish this directive is an­ funds set aside to preserve the research aimed at gathering information on other question with a complex solution. materials they produce. Preservation professionals undertake the several nonextant architectural fea­ The quantity of materials needing pres­ actual collection of field notes and other tures. It required one field season and ervation is extensive, and they arrive in written materials, and frequently they produced approximately 100 boxes of any shape or form—cassette tapes, video seem to feel that all important informa­ artifacts as well as 5 feet of field notes, cassette tapes, individual sheets of paper, tion can be found in their reports. Why recorded in a standardized 8V2 X11 maps, plans, photographs, and slides, preserve material on completed projects format, with some oversized drawings field books, and specifically designed where follow-up action has been taken? "I and plans. forms, magnetic cards and tapes, mass put everything of importance in the re­ computer data storage tapes and disks port" is not an atypical comment. One • An archeological investigation at Sitka, generated during the compilation and professional may have developed a de­ Alaska, oriented to locating nonextant analysis of field data. An architect may tailed system for recording conditions and structures, resulted in 20 boxes of arti­ produce more oversized materials than an retaining the written materials afterwards; facts and approximately 2 feet of field historian and an archeologist, but all face another may be less systematic and record notes. the problem of providing for the preserva­ field notes on anything from recording tion of materials in tremendously varied tape to field books to notes on the back • The preservation project at Tumaca- formats with various life expectancies. of a napkin. But too often they fail to cori National Monument produced 6 A few researchers feel that all pertinent realize that even poor notes can be ex­ feet of written material, consisting of information should be included in reports tremely important to future researchers, if 9 field books, rolled charts and graphs and anything left over be destroyed. the alternatives are no notes at all. (some up to 4" in diameter), tables However, most seem to think their mate­ In addition to the notes of staff re­ and charts (8V2XII format), and rials should be saved and returned to the searchers, valuable field research often notes on irregularly sized sheets, as park of origin. This seems to be a proper comes from a contractor's report or con­ well as full and half size drawings and first step. However, the necessity for ade­ struction drawings. While this material prints, cassette recording tapes, video quate storage facilities at the park poses a logically belongs to the government, the recording cassettes, topographic maps problem of great proportions. Indeed, data rarely ends up in a location or condi­ and irregularly sized drawings. Photo­ some professionals feel that sending mate­ tion where it can be used again. graphic coverage included original rials to the park only postpones the prob­ black and white prints mounted on Other valuable information can be lem and that if we have been entrusted mat boards (for photogrametric pur­ found in the notations and comments as­ with the preservation of the research, then poses), other variously sized back and sociated with contracts. Field notes pro­ we must take a more active role. Indeed, white prints, color prints, color xerox duced in conjunction with construction some professionals choose not to send ma­ copies, both color and black and contracts at the Denver Service Center be­ terials to the park since they have little white negatives, several models, ap­ come a part of that particular contract confidence in park preservation facilities. proximately 3,000 color transparen­ file. However, such files are scheduled for This is obvious to even the casual ob­ cies, and unpublished research reports. destruction six years after the contract server when boxes of research materials An architectural investigation oriented ends (NPS-19, Appendix B, D22-15). Only from past projects stack up under tables to a full restoration of a large complex when an individual recognizes their value, and in corners of a professional's office. removes them from the contract files, and building or series of buildings could stores them elsewhere, are they preserved. produce even more research materials continued on page 18 Unfortunately NPS-19, 1978, revised 1979, and of a more varied nature.

17 Rock Art. .. Basin designs tend toward abstract geo- mation more available to parks, we are continued from page 13 metrick shapes with occasional groups of distributing the microfiched bibliography sheep, deer, or human figures. They are in draft. Additional references and com­ located near game trails and in narrow ments are being solicited from the field to draws leading to water. It is known from refine and complete the bibliography. mers, art historians, psychologists, and Great Basin ethnology that shamans often These should be sent by July 30, 1984 to historians interested in the subject. directed the hunt, thus supporting the pic­ Chief Anthropologist, National Park Ser­ Among some of the plausible explanations tures as part of a ritual to increase the vice, (434), Department of Interior, referenced are hunting magic, clan sym­ supply of game. Washington, D.C. 20240. ATTN: Debra bols, astronomical significance, mental Other scholars suggest that rock art Berke. experiences, and commemorating events. may be stimulated by drug or phosphene- Once all the comments and additions Examples of prehistoric astronomical generated (non-drug related) images uni­ are received, the bibliography will be reis­ recording include a supernova in 1054 versal in human populations. An example sued as a final product. Using this collec­ recorded by Native Americans throughout may be the colorful work of the Santa tive NPS effort, we will be able to develop the Southwest, and possible Navajo Barbara Chumash, known to ingest the a comprehensive bibliography of sources planetaria made in the ceilings of rock Datura plant which induces visions. (See relevant to NPS sites. ® shelters. articles by Hudson and Underhay 1978, Dr. Heizer and Dr. Baumhoff (1962) Blackburn 1977, Meighan 1981). The author is Staff Curator (Museum Manage­ suggest hunting magic as an explanation The references described above show ment), WASO. for much of the Great Basin petroglyphs that rock art research is vibrant and inter­ Photos.by ].P. Schafer (Nevada and Eastern California). Great disciplinary. In order to make this infor­

Pictograph panel, Fern Cave.

Preservation of lettering taking their place on a park's or their copies could provide such a sys­ Research Materials .. . library book shelves rather than the tem, with recopying on a cyclic basis of continued from page 17 "working" shelf. I am convinced that perhaps every 50 years. Videodisc tech­ those reports will be better preserved sim­ nology may offer another effective means There are reasons for this attitude. Dur­ ply because they look more important and of preserving data. ing the 1950s, a directive ordered parks to more permanent. Given the extensive nature of present destroy records, many of which included Another more pragmatic solution might research materials, we may have exceeded research files. At Whitman Mission, mate­ tie the research material to another docu­ our capabilities to effectively record and rials which later proved invaluable to an ment with a more permanent status. Field store all the backlogged information. historian survived only because one per­ notes for an historic structures report However, if a system is devised now, the son assumed responsibility for their pres­ might be included as an appendix in the effort required for each subsequent project ervation. Optimally, original research HSR, though no doubt expanding the may be more manageable. Nevertheless, materials, not convenient copies, should length of the document and functioning the optimum preservation approach will be stored and cared for by and at the most effectively on relatively small proj­ still require a significant commitment by park of origin, or become part of an effec­ ects. With large projects, size reduction Park Service management. © tive archival system. But what do we do might be required to enable field notes to while waiting for the optimum situation be included. One microfisch card contains The author is an Historical Architect, Denver to become a reality? approximately 55 separate pages; 1,000 Service Center. One historic architect keeps all field pages of research material can be repro­ notes, sketches, and photo in three-ring duced on 19 microfisch cards, at a cost of $2.25 each for the originals and 25 cents The Associate Director, Cultural Resources in­ binders, then transfers them to the park vites comments on this subject to determine the when the project ends. However, even each for the duplicates. I plan to include scope of the problem. Please address all re­ conveniently sized binders have a non- microfisch originals of research notes as sponses to: CRM BULLETIN, 18th & C St. permanent look. One possible further step an integral part of an HSR in the near fu­ NW, Washington, D.C. 20240. may be to bind these same materials in ture. And what about permanency? Its life hardbound covers. The Western Archeo- expectancy has conservatively been placed Observations on CRM BULLETIN issues are at 30 years. welcomed in the form of Letters to the Editor. logical Center used to bind their reports Please address all responses to: CRM BULLETIN, on ruins stabilization projects. One can Granted, some type of backup system 18th & C St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20240. find them in red cloth covers with gold may be desired also. Then, the originals

18 Archeological Application . . . continued from page 11 ment outlining a multidisciplinary approach Evolution Of Historic to the HSR. The organizational structure fabric. Three major research goals were Structure Reports included an Administrative Data Section, outlined: 1) define and record architec­ Historical Data Section, Architectural Randall J. Biallas, A.I.A. Data Section, Archeological Data Section, tural features of the great kiva prior to Landscape Data Section, and a Furnishing stabilization (required for the HSR); 2) de­ Background and Exhibits Data Section. The Associate fine and analyze the great kiva as part of In 1935, following the Moore House Director's 1958 memorandum was the first the larger site; and 3) define and analyze restoration at Colonial National Historical document to use the term "Historic Struc­ the site as part of the larger community. Park, Charles E. Peterson prepared a re­ ture Report." port entitled The Physical History of the The archeological site of Kin Nahasbas Moore House, 1930-1934. This report ini­ Activities Standards, 1971 consists of an Anasazi pitstructure (be­ tiated the Historic Structure Report (HSR) The organizational structure of HSRs neath a great kiva), house blocks, and concept. To record documentary and changed in 1971 with the issuance of the trash, a great kiva (or large, round "cere­ physical research concerning the evolution Activities Standards. Only an Administra­ of a structure, its condition before phys­ tive Section, Historical Data Section, monial" chamber), petroglyphs, and sev­ ical work, and finally the physical work Archeological Data Section, and an Archi­ eral Navajo hogans and small village sites. itself established a National Park Service tectural Data Section were required. The Part of an important prehistoric commu­ precedent. It underscored the importance physical work was to be recorded in a nity inhabited by ancestors of today's of documenting such projects for future new report called a Historic Structure Preservation Guide which also contained Pueblo Indians, it represented one of over researchers. information regarding the maintenance of 75 Chaco Anasazi communities linked by Although the Service prepared many HSRs in the decades following 1935, it the structure. a road network. The apparent sophistica­ was not until 1957 that the Director of the tion of this ancient civilization makes it Park Service sent a memorandum to field Historic Preservation Fund, important to gain accurate, complete data offices concerning the "Historic Buildings Grants Management Manual, 1979 on the communities in the system, as well Report Form." This established a Service- In 1979, the Heritage Conservation and wide organizational structure for prepar­ Recreation Service issued the Historic as detailed information on individual sites. ing the HSR. To assure some professional Preservation Fund, Grants Management Analysis of the data from Kin Nahasbas standard of quality and administrative Manual. This document included an orga­ is still underway, but the information to order through a diverse, decentralized or­ nizational structure for HSRs prepared ganization, a Servicewide organizational under the Historic Preservation Fund date has increased our knowledge of site structure and approval process became based upon the Activities Standards. This history, during Anasazi occupation and in necessary. Then in 1971, a Historic Struc­ organizational structure is still current. more recent times. Evidence shows the ture Preservation Guide (HSPG) for main­ earliest occupation of Kin Nahasbas dur­ taining historic structures was required Cultural Resources Management Guideline ing the early 900s. A pitstructure (previ­ and an organizational structure imposed (NPS-28), 1980, 1981 with issuance of the Activities Standards. With the issuance of Release No.l of ously unknown), roomblock, and trash The public is little aware of the HSR's NPS-28, the organizational structure of a from this period suggest that the earliest role in Park Service preservation pro­ historic structure report changed to in­ occupation coincided with the earliest grams. This is also true of the Historic clude only three sections: an Administra­ rooms at Una Vida, the larger town site in Structure Preservation Guide. The pur­ tive Data Section, a Physical History and Analysis Section, and an Appendix. Re­ this community. The building of a great pose of this article is not to present a lease No. 2 continued this practice. The kiva over the pitstructure and additional detailed administrative history of these documents, but simply to trace their evo­ Guideline, in contrast to the Activities roomblocks during the 1000s may corre­ lution and structural development for the Standards, integrated the three profes­ late with the growth of Una Vida and preservation community. sional discipline sections into one Physical shed light on the importance of this strate­ History and Analysis Section. This change encouraged a multidisciplinary working gically located community. Major recon­ Director's Memorandum of February 12, relationship leading to integrated recom­ struction efforts at the great kiva, as well 1957, "Historic Buildings Report Form;" mendations to park management. The as remodeling of several features, suggest Associate Director's Memorandum of Guideline also helped to standardize cer­ occupation for over two centuries during October 24, 1958, "Historic Structure tain sections of an HSPG to enable com­ Reports;" Inventory with Classification the florescence of the Chaco Anasazi. The puterization and encourage the development and Work Code for Historic Buildings and of a Servicewide preservation maintenance data being analyzed from Kin Nahasbas Structures . . . 1960; and Historic and financial plan. will significantly expand management Prehistoric Structures Handbook, 1963. knowledge of the site, and, with the com­ The 1935 Moore House report was pre­ Future Evolution pletion of the HSR, assist management pared after completion of the project. Currently under development is a com­ However, beginning in 1956, Field Order decisionmaking. puterized inspection schedule with an in­ 11-56 required that a "Survey Report" spection instructions system called the In summary, HSRs provide management outlining the history, condition, and pro­ Preservation Maintenance Information posed work on a historic structure be pre­ with a valuable source of thoroughly doc­ System (PMI), to become part of the pared and approved by park management HSPG system. This is a cooperative effort umented cultural research information. At before the physical work began. This by the North Atlantic Region's Historic its most useful, the HSR emerges from a resulted in the evolution of a rather com­ Preservation Center and the Washington research design encompassing the needs of plicated HSR approval process and orga­ Office's Historic Architecture Division. both the archeologist and the manager. In nizational structure as outlined in the During 1983, work began on the compu­ Director's memorandum of February 12, this way, Park Service efforts not only terization of preservation instructions and 1957, the Associate Director's memoran­ material specifications. From Charles protect a particular site or area, but add dum of October 24, 1958, the Inventory Peterson's precedent setting report, the to the reservoir of knowledge concerning with Classification and Work Code for HSR and HSPG concept has expanded to our cultural heritage in its broadest Historic Buildings and Structures, and the fill a crucial role in NPS management. context. ® Historic and Prehistoric Structures Handbook. The author is Assistant Chief Historical Architect The Director's 1957 memorandum was with the Park Historic Architecture Division, The author is an archeologist with the Division the first Servicewide management docu­ WASO. of Cultural Research, Albuquerque, NM.

19 Regional Updates;

POTHUNTING DETERRENTS FORT RALEIGH RESEARCH eral agricultural areas and water control AT PETRIFIED FOREST features have been located which include PROJECT field markers, rock alignments, terrace systems, small field structures, check In April of 1983, a routine patrol dis­ The 1983 Fort Raleigh research project dams, and reservoirs. Several lithic re­ covered one 3' by 2Vi' deep test hole at a used data collected from proton magne- source areas and stone quarry areas have small pueblo near the southeast boundary tometry and electromagnetic induction also been located and recorded. of Petrified Forest National Park. Patrols studies to identify possible remains of the Computerizing the survey information were increased. Again in August of 1983, 1587 English settlement for archeological will allow the study, manipulation, and six more test holes were discovered. At testing. The upcoming celebration of the handling of a tremendous volume of in­ that time, we began ranger surveillance of site's 400th anniversary makes the identifi­ formation. Future survey data will help the site, based on known methods of op­ cation of archeological resources an im­ evaluate current ideas about the region, eration by two suspects. We requested portant management goal. Therefore, six update and reevaluate previous research, and were granted an NPS Law and Order areas were examined through limited ar­ and lead us toward more positive ap­ Account to fund our activities and were cheological testing. Early analysis indi­ proaches to better understanding the area. able to purchase and install at the site a cates limited amounts of cultural debris sophisticated, state-of-the-art detection de­ dating to the proper historical period. —Bruce A. Anderson vice. As the weather turned sour, we Supervisory Archeologist withdrew our physical surveillance but —David G. Orr left the detection device in place and acti­ MARO vated for the winter. We plan to resume surveillance when the "pothunters" come MITIGATION UNCOVERS out in the spring. " NEW DATA In preparation for this case, we have Historical archeology at urban sites gener­ had the site surveyed by an archeologist ally impacts areas which have undergone from the Western Archeological Center in disturbance from historic and contempo­ Tucson. We also have contacted the As­ rary occupants. Nevertheless, information sistant U.S. Attorney to determine exactly is still obtained which can be checked for what she needs as evidence and suspect accuracy against the historic record. At apprehension. the Adam's Birthplace National Historic Finally, the U.S. Forest Service gener­ Site, a considerable amount of data evolved ously loaned night vision goggles and ex­ during the mitigation of drainage ditches changed intelligence. Since 1982, we also around both Adams' structures. Present have been involved in a cooperative archeological knowledge about the size agreement with BLM and the State of Ari­ and location of the milk room throws into zona for mutual funding of aerial surveil­ question the sequence of construction, as lance flights over the archeological sites well as sketches of the time. Excavations on state, BLM, and Petrified Forest lands. at the Paul Revere House, Boston National Along with the flights, we have issued Historical Park, uncovered mid-eighteenth numerous press releases and received tele­ century artifacts in an undisturbed context vision coverage from the ABC affiliate in Excavations at RS-1, Fort Raleigh NHS. below a cobblestone surface near the rear Phoenix. We feel the deterrent value of door of the house. this effort is important. In addition, the Mid-Atlantic Region —Chris L. Andress WUPATKI NATIONAL Archeology Division recently completed a Chief Ranger MONUMENT large water line mitigation project at Fort McHenry. Major discoveries included the ARCHEOLOGICAL foundation of the 1813 sally port traverse, INVENTORY the late 18th century scarp wall, the bom­ bardment period bridge piers and draw­ The third field phase of a six-year ar­ bridge abutments, and elements of the cheological survey at Wupatki National pre-1840s sally port brick paving. In addi­ Monument has just been completed. We tion, a broad-based stratigraphic investi­ have completed the fieldwork for 13,160 gation was completed for a large part of acres (ca. 37.5% of the monument), and the FOMC reservation and existing utility recorded a total of 1,022 archeological installations. The mitigation work allowed sites. archeologists to survey and monitor the To date, most of the prehistoric archeo­ resources of a previously unsurveyed logical materials observed from the survey area. The information uncovered necessi­ show a mixing of cultures—Kayenta Ana- tated changing the direction of the pipe­ sazi, Sinagua, Winslow Anasazi, and Co- line in order to avoid endangered resources. honia. The historic materials include Pothunter's footprints, now cast in plaster for Navajo, Hopi, and early ranching and —David G. Orr future comparisons and held in evidence. mining interests in the Wupatki area. Sev­ MARO

20 SHIPWRECK PRESERVATION v. SUNKEN TREASURE

In 500 hours of underwater work, States has identified the ship as the HMS cance of two 17th century Spanish ship­ Southeast Region project archeologists Fowey, a 44-gun fifth rate vessel which wrecks. Twenty-five thousand square and volunteers made controlled surface sank in 1748 due to pilot's error. Litiga­ meters were subjected to intensive visual collections and mapped and probed 1620 tion regarding salvage rights on the site survey, with twenty-seven one meter square meters of the Legare Anchorage was decided in favor of the United States square excavation units completed. The Shipwreck Site. A 1.5% sample of the in late July. Because the ship lies embed­ main site has been tentatively identified as site's central portion was excavated, yield­ ded within Biscayne National Park and Nuestra Senora del Rosario, a galleon of ing information pertinent to the ship's within U.S. territorial waters, Judge Atkins the 1622 Spanish plate fleet, the second as preservation and the destruction caused declared ownership by the NPS. The deci­ a patche from Havana which sank during by treasure salvors. Artifacts collected sion gives added protection to the other salvage operations on the Rosario. from the ship included three pewter plates, 45 shipwrecks in the park and extends to three British bayonetts, distinctive French submerged resources throughout the —David G. Orr ceramic ware, and two English cutlasses in country. MARO scabbards. Analysis of the data, the sal­ Further underwater investigations vor's collection, and research conducted in occurred at Fort Jefferson National Monu­ Canada, Great Britain, and the United ment to determine the nature and signifi­

Probing

How The Park Service Manages . . . continued from page 2 photographed on the enclosed microfiche headed by Dan Lenihan, dramatically in­ It is hoped that this issue and the previ­ card. Field archeologists are being encour­ creased Service knowledge of the U.S.S. ous issue of the CRM BULLETIN will aged to survey the list, update it, and re­ Arizona and its current condition. serve as a useful overview of Park Service turn their comments to Debra Berke so Finally, Anthony Crosby tackles the archeology. The cooperative effort among that the bibliography can be completed. question of how to preserve research management, archeology, and cultural Research efforts of a different kind are notes and associated materials. Since the anthropology serves an increasingly im­ represented by Ray Bane and Gary Cum­ 1970s, NPS policy has been that field re­ portant role in the continued preservation mins. Ray Bane's efforts produced a useful search notes, field catalogs, and remote of our cultural resources. © body of ethnographic data recorded labor­ sensing data be included as a part of the iously over seven weeks of fieldwork. collections. Whether this is the case in Cummins' efforts, in conjunction with the practice is of interest to us, and your Douglas Scovill is Chief Anthropologist, Submerged Cultural Resoruces Team, comments are solicited. WASO.

21 MANAGING PACIFIC PARKS ARCHEOLOGY: Or Park Staffs Need To Include Archeologists Bryan Harry

Pacific parks have no awesome Keet I imagined, given the long "lava tube" with these artifacts, still believe in the Seel or Cliff Palace. And, new managers— hidden from above. As my eyes adjusted, same mythology and revere the same gods superintendents, interpreters, rangers, dozens, then hundreds, and then many as did the makers of these ruins. In the maintenance chiefs—on occasion don't hundreds of intricate petroglyphs emerged islands, ancient archeology is hard to sep­ know of the archeological resources for from the darkness. The figures of people, arate from history, anthropology, sociol­ which they are responsible. Early on my dancers, birds, shapes and patterns ex­ ogy, and the modern cultural beliefs of first job in Hawaii I poked around the tended from below the dirt floor to across these ruin-maker's descendents. flank of Kilauea, saw red lava erupt, the ceiling and the length of the tube, ap­ Take the tale of the "footprints." As the glimpsed endangered honeycreepers, parently beyond where recent roof collapse legend goes, a young Kamehameha, a ris­ puzzled the identification of several dozen sealed off the rest of it. A few gourds, ing warrior, attempted to consolidate the rare plants—but was frankly confused by carefully broken in half, rested on the kingdoms under one—his own. His chief Hawaii Volcanoes National Park's huge floor collecting condensation water drips rival, a cousin named Keoua, encamped historic district designation commemorat­ from some wet ceiling locations, perhaps between battles for island supremacy near ing an archeology which didn't seem a Hawaiian's water catchment system in Kilauea Caldera (home of the Volcano to exist. Luckily, an old-time local this waterless landscape. No Cliff Palaces Goddess, Pele). Only twice in all of his­ marked a tiny, precise location on some indeed! tory had Kilauea erupted with Mount stereo photo pairs and suggested I take a Hawaiian archeology is deceptive and St. Helen's velocity. This instance, Keoua's look. too few managers ever get the friendly men and camp followers were engulfed in Sometime later I did, and after discov­ steer to find and be turned on by a tiny poison gas, hot ash, and rocks. Some 400 ering the remote 2 ' X3 ' "puka" or hole in sample of the island's archeology—an en­ died instantly. The survivors fled. Keoua's a smooth flow of lava, contemplated tirely different archeology than a main- threat to the young Kamehameha ended dropping down into the uninviting black­ lander is used to. Perhaps the greatest without another spear ever being raised. ness. Dropping along some ledges into the distinction between Keet Seel and the lava Obviously, even the gods supported subterranean cavern wasn't as difficult as tube is that here, living people still coexist Kamehameha.

Modern day Hawaiians re-enact a ceremonial function of Kamehameha's time at the Puukohola Heiau.

22 Now, in the Kau Desert of Hawaii Vol­ Haleakala, and War in the Pacific parks manager's staff can assure an adequate re­ canoes National Park, shifting sand dunes contain fine archeological resources. How­ source preservation job. Ed Ladd and regularly uncover barefoot prints—made ever, with limited FTEs and dollar base, Gary Somers, our two archeologists, by running men embossed in the layer of we have two field archeologists instead, cover the nine parks of the Pacific. Their rain soaked ash that fell in the explosion operating put of the Honolulu Area Office tasks could keep a much larger crew busy, of 1790; Kamehameha's war temple of and serving the management staffs of all but these two provide yet another integral piled cobblestones (where Keoua surrend­ these parks. Their tasks are basically: service. They oversee all on-site day labor ered to be killed) rests precariously on a and construction activities which could • Keep park managers aware of re­ hill in Puukohola Heiau National Histor­ harm archeological sites. At Pacific parks, sources under their care. Help be their ical Site. These ruins are relics of very sig­ an archeologist (as well as an ecologist) conscience, their resource monitoring, nificant Hawaiian history. looks at all local maintenance jobs before their expertise in facing responsibility and as they are happening. Some are Perhaps it's rare in the NPS that genuine to care for the resource. descendents—family—live beside the sig­ quick, drastic, emergency construction op­ nificant archeological sites of their culture, • Supervise the stabilization of impor­ erations. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and that the sites are still ceremonially tant sites. maintenance crew rebuilds park roads im­ mediately after volcano eruptions. Since used to celebrate ancient events. Regu­ • Continue systematically to inventory most eruptions are in a "Historic District," larly, the ethnic/cultural descendents cel­ and document archeological sites in all the bulldozer work potentially threatens ebrate at the archeological places in the the parks. (No rational preservation archeological sites. Invariably, an archeol­ Pacific parks. Here, every move a park plan can be developed without some ogist on the job helps locate the new road makes to stabilize, preserve, or restore a perception of the resource.) significant structure has a host of modern alignment. • Deal directly with, or help the man­ Hawaiians questioning, disagreeing—or Even so, neither park operations nor ager deal with, people who wish to perhaps expressing honest concern—over visitor use threatens archeological resources use sites in their ceremonies, so as to the correct way to do it. Here is archeol­ most. The widespread harm comes from find ways that neither abuse the sites ogy with a cultural constituency. the islands' dynamic geology. As I write nor degrade the cultures represented. Under such circumstances, a manager these words, a local radio broadcasts that Use of sites in ways that belittle or may be tempted to waffle and wait, but a 6.7 earthquake has jarred the Big Island defy the old traditions is regarded as a that is not enough. Many ruins are like (Hawaii). Archeologist Ed Ladd, working breach of trust by those of us who are Puukohola—of round lava boulders piled on archeological inventory maps at Kalau­ caretakers of the sites. Professional ar­ in simple dry wall construction. It has an papa National Historical Park, just called cheologists often can tie together or active thoroughfare nearby and every ve­ to find out if anyone knew whether there interpret the contemporary legends, hicle shakes the structure, tumbling rocks. were rock collapses at the Puukohola myths, and beliefs with actual phys­ Exotic pest shrubs and trees very recently Heiau ruins. ical evidence at the site. introduced to the islands grow from ruins, Earthquakes of 6.0 or 7.0 occur every crumbling the rockwork. At Kalaupapa, • Assure that Cultural Resource Man­ few years, with many 4.0 to 5.0 quakes feral goats, pigs, and cattle hasten wide­ agement Plans are competently written annually. The result to structures of un- spread erosion of ruins by trampling. Un- and based upon current knowledge. mortared, piled, round rocks is obvious. stabilized, these ruins disintegrate quickly. • Assure that archeological resources Many quakes result from massive earth What, then, must a manager in Hawaii do needs are represented in individual slippage along the seward flanks of Mauna with archeology? park's 10-237 and 10-238 program pri­ Loa and Kilauea. The sea edges of Hawaii ority setting exercises. Volcanoes and Puuhonua parks, with • An obvious start is to have extensive their concentration of archeological ruins, knowledge and some empathy for the Unless the park manager is an archeolo­ visably slip into the sea with each quake. subject. Yet, most of us are not profes­ gist, only a talented archeologist on the continued on page 24 sional archeologists and can rely on neither education nor training. • So, check park master plans and re­ source basic inventory maps to learn the archeological resources of one's park (though far more area goes un- inventoried than studied). • Rely on Region or the Western Arche­ ological Center (though they tend to concentrate their research on needs closer to home rather than on the Pacific). • Realistically, each Pacific park with significant archeological resources needs a competent archeologist, for it's utterly unrealistic to manage a re­ source that the manager doesn't know about. Hawaii Volcanoes, Puukohola, Puu- The extensive Pnuloa petroglyph field lies vulnerable to both erosion by hiker's feet and obliteration honua, Kalaupapa, Kaloko-Honokohau, by Kilauea's molten lava.

23 Managing Pacific Parks. . . continued from page 23 ANNOUNCEMENTS More noticeable are the drastic lava flows inundating the historic district. In the ical stances in architectural conservation. Summer School Opportunity 1970s alone, an entire area five miles wide Those interested in making a presentation by twelve miles long vanished under new within this framework, please contact The West Dean Summer School at West lava flows. Thus, a Pacific parks manager Herb Stovel, Programme Director, 77 Dean College, Chichester, England, brings has a unique responsibility to assure that together experts and students, July 27 to Bloor Street West (2nd Floor), Toronto, sites are inventoried and evaluated for August 3, to consider the problems of Ontario, Canada, M7A 2R9 further research needs before lost forever conserving the built environment. 1984 is (416/965-5727). to natural geological processes. Heritage year in Britain and the theme of I'm a manager, typical of many who this year's Summer School is the conser­ manage incredibly interesting archeolog­ vation of historic houses, great and small. Announcement ical park areas but who know nothing of The program covers the principles and archeology. This lack of knowledge doesn't philosophy of conservation, and the con­ In 1981 a research project was initiated lessen our responsibility to those resources, tribution of research, survey and docu­ to provide data on the packaging and but merely points out that we need the mentation. There will be lectures and labelling of nineteenth and early twentieth best professional help at our elbows. discussions on traditional building mate­ century consumer and trade goods. The There's an exceptionally fine petroglyph rials and construction and on repair and information gathered will be used to en­ field with a nature trail at Puuloa in remedial works. Further information and hance the representation of such goods at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. A dec­ application forms can be obtained from: Parks Canada national historic parks and ade ago we proposed to build a raised Gary Scott (American Convenor), 23 Q sites. The data will also provide guidelines trail on boardwalks to confine visitors Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20001 to archeological and material culture re­ solely to the trail and to stop foot erosion Closing date for final applications will be searchers in the identification and classifi­ on the rock etchings. Finally last year, it May 31, 1984. cation of artifacts. The first study in this was funded, but a huge outcry from local project covers British North American Hawaiians threatened to stop the job in its barrel specifications, 1758-1867. Research tracks. The superintendent, rangers, and Bulletin No. 208, Bulk Packaging in Brit­ APT 1984 maintenance people explained the purpose ish North America, 1758-1867: A Guide to no avail. Finally, Ed Ladd went to the to the Identification and Reproduction of The Association for Preservation Tech­ Hawaiian community and gently explained Barrels can be ordered through Parks nology will be holding its 1984 Annual the archeology, the erosion, the concern, Canada. Conference •in Toronto, Canada, from the proposed structure. Only then did the September 19 to 23, 1984. The conference people endorse the idea. The trail is now seeks to address the issue of "Principles in built and works well. Archeologists here get involved in more than mapping and Practice" by stimulating awareness of the excavations; and managers don't survive technological consequences of philosoph­ without their talented help.

The author is Director, Pacific Area.

IN THIS ISSUE. . . Archeological Application ... 11 Park Service Manages ... 1 Covering the Field ... 12

April 1984 U.S.S. Arizona ... 1 Parkman ... 14 Biregional Center ... 3 Through Ancient Eyes ... 16 Low Budget, Low Altitudes ... 3 Preservation of Research ... 17 Published quarterly by the Associate Director, Cultural Resources, in the interest of promoting and Knife River Indian Villages ... 8 Regional Update ... 20 maintaining high standards in the management of . . . Human Adaptation ... 10 Managing Pacific Parks ... 22 those cultural resources entrusted to the National Park Service's care by the American people.

Director: Russell E. Dickenson Cultural Resources Postage and Fees Paid National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Editor: Mary V. Maruca U.S. Department of Interior INT 447 Assistant Editor: Karlota M. Koester Washington, D.C. 20240

Cultural Resources, Washington, D.C.

Volume 7: No. 1