Transforming My White Identity from an Agent of Oppression to an Agent of Change Through Education in Contemporary Australian Society

45 Transforming my white identity from an agent of oppression to an agent of change through education in contemporary Australian society

Kimberly Smith University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle.

The construct of identity has been explored by numerous disciplines over time and has engaged scholars such as Piaget, Eriskon, Tajfel and Descartes with their perspectives on cognition, learning and development. Extending upon these, the Bachelor of Behavioural Science at The University of Notre Dame Australia’s Fremantle campus examines the array of factors contributing to identity formation, including the historical, political, social, economic and cultural contexts in which an individual develops. In this paper, I articulate the process of discovering my white ethnicity and its consequences through the unit Culture and Society. While highlighting the discursive mechanisms which have influenced my social understandings, the links between identity, prejudice and oppression are examined. Education, becoming conscious of whiteness and looking critically at myself was paramount to understanding my role in perpetuating discrimination and eliminating racist behaviours. As such, I argue that education, concientisation (Freire, 1974) and critical reflexivity are the crucial elements for promoting a just, pluralistic society. As I expand on this journey I acknowledge that I am a white woman, and pay respect and show gratitude to the traditional owners of the land where I live, the Wadjuk Noongar Aboriginal people, especially as I identify as part of the group that has colonised Australia.

“Awareness of injustice is a precondition for how the dominant white culture I am situated overcoming it.” (Deutsch, 2006, p 23). within benefits me whilst it perpetuates the Psychological theorists and social disadvantage and oppression of non- philosophers such as Piaget (Piaget & white people. I have learned that whiteness Inhelder, 1969), Erikson (1968), Tajfel denies liberation for Aboriginal and Torres (1974), Descartes and Sartre (Weimin, 2007) Strait Islander peoples and for non-white have contributed to understandings of people, which prohibits reconciliation and identity construction with their perspectives authentic cultural diversity in the on cognition, learning and development. contemporary Australian society (Green & Disciplines including Sociology and certain Sonn, 2005, 2006). Furthermore, my fields in the Behavioural Sciences extend education has unravelled the micro- and upon the psychology of the individual by macro-level social forces that have shaped incorporating the multiplicity of social and my life and views about other people. institutional influences on identity Throughout the discussion, the links between construction. The Bachelor of Behavioural identity, moral exclusion and oppression are Science at The University of Notre Dame revealed by connecting common language Australia’s Fremantle campus dissects the practices and images in politics, media and multiplicity of identity contributors, social realms with Opotow’s (1990a) Scope encompassing the historical, political, of Justice theory, and Deutch’s (2006) economic and cultural contexts in which an oppression framework. Education and being individual develops. My education journey in reflexive (reflecting on my words and Behavioural Science has made me conscious actions, and their consequences) has made of my white ethnicity and of its unspoken me critically conscious (Friere, 1974) of my reality, which is the impact of whiteness on white ethnicity and role in perpetuating non-white and white people (McIntosh, white dominance. In addition, the method of 1989). Consequently, I explain how I came to transformative education (Darlaston-Jones, understand that by reproducing whiteness, I Owen, & Lee, 2009; Freire, 1973) in the have been unconsciously racist. In this paper, Bachelor of Behavioural Science has I take the reader on my journey of learning demonstrated that education alone is

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insufficient to combat racism, prejudice and social matters to self-discover one’s position discrimination towards marginalised peoples within the issues and how this position (Darlaston-Jones et al., in press; Darlaston- impacts others (Dutta & de Souza, 2008). Jones & Owen, 2011; Green & Sonn, 2005; The CRA’s enabled me to explore my social Saxton, 2004). As it was only when I was identity and life experiences and understand critical of my white identity and my actions them in relation to psychological theories, in that I could see their consequences and thus particular Critical Whiteness theory and commit to promoting social change by theories of oppression and moral exclusion shifting what I believe, say and do. (Deutsch, 2006; Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; Through my education journey in Opotow, 1990a, 1990b; Prilleltensky & Behavioural Science and specifically in the Gonick, 1996; Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002; unit Culture and Society I have become van Dijk, 1992). In my own way and in my acutely aware of my position in Australian own time I wrote about what I thought, felt society, and more broadly throughout the and had researched about these issues world. In addition to its academic challenges, without restriction, which was an extremely the difficulty arose in the need to question valuable process. Additionally, the CRA’s and challenge my reality (ontology), ways of allowed me to explore the contributions of knowing (epistemology), being and doing global collective-level forces such as (Crotty, 1998). Decolonisation involves “the politics, economics and mass media in the overturning of colonial assumptions and the construction of my ‘knowledge’ and reversal of colonial processes” (Smith & assumptions about certain groups (Clyne, Ward, 2000, p 3). As such, I needed to 2005; Gale, 2004; Herman & Chomsky, critically assess my position and roles in 2002; Love & Tilley, 2013; Rowe & society and most difficult of all, my role in O’Brien, 2013; van Dijk, 1992). perpetuating the marginalisation of non- Social Constructionist theory outlines dominant groups of people. The process was that the social world is formed by the very confronting and I posit that this type of language and images, or discourse, used to ‘hard’ is the most difficult for any student, or give meaning to a social construct and thus person who is undertaking transformative create a certain reality (Edley, 2001; Hall, learning (Stevens-Long, Schapiro, & 1997; Potter, Edwards & Wetherell, 1993). McClintock, 2012). This method of learning The discourses have meaning and produce and teaching pioneered by Freire (1973) knowledge, which influences what people involves having to self-assess how your say and do (Hall, 1997). Discourse analysis language and behaviours affect others, both is therefore useful to detect the mechanisms as individuals and as collectives of knowledge construction, revealing power (Prilleltensky & Nelson, 2002). It requires relationships and how certain truths are critical reflexivity, which is to look at the role manufactured (Hall, 1997). What I have and position of self in context, and to discovered throughout this process is that challenge how you came to ‘know’ certain identity is inextricably linked to moral knowledge and make assumptions about exclusion via the language that is used to groups of people (Darlaston-Jones et al., in construct and position groups and their press). Reflexivity was necessary for the in- individual members (Clayton & Opotow, depth class discussions and in the unit 2003). assessments, which were four Critical Common discursive practices and Reflexive Analyses (CRA’s). images in the Australian media, politics and CRA is a valuable learning tool for social settings construct certain non-white critical psychology methodology, promoting groups as less intelligent, unhealthy and decolonisation and for anti-racism education more likely to engage in socially (Darlaston-Jones et al., in press; Darlaston- unacceptable behaviours (Hodgetts, Masters Jones & Owen, 2011). This is because it & Robertson, 2004; Love & Tilley, 2013). requires social actors to analyse their role in Being that most white people experience non

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-white ethnic events through the media (van as a child, through listening to how adults, Dijk, 1992), political rhetoric and media authority figures such as teachers and reporting of issues affecting minority groups politicians and news reports spoke about, can be discursively negotiated in such a way positioned and treated non-white peoples in that it influences mainstream public opinion a negative way. The teachings of early (Clyne, 2005; Dunn, Klocker & Salabay, sociologist Mead (as cited in Crotty, 1998) 2007; Gale, 2004; Gatt, 2011; Klocker, 2004; highlight that the process of adopting the Klocker & Dunn, 2003; Lawrence, 2006; standpoint of others begins in childhood; the McKay, Thomas & Kneebone, 2011; Mullen, adoption of a standpoint is what shapes us as 2010; McCallum, 2011; McCallum & social objects. Connolly’s (1998) research Waller, 2013; van Dijk, 1992). Furthermore, and book further outlines how the Van Dijk (1992) highlights that political socialisation process occurs in young people, discourse and public discourse are instilling dominant views and reinforcing inextricably linked and mirror each other, cultural and social norms by adopting the which is due to the media’s role in language practices used to describe and disseminating information and the language discuss certain issues (Hall, 1997; Potter et used to do so. Aboriginal people’s health al., 1993). issues have been identified in news headlines, As a young person, my reality was that such as ‘Aboriginal Hepatitis C rising, white people were ‘better than’ non-white prompting calls for improved people because of superior intelligence services’ (Davidson, 2015). Headlines like (Branch et al., 1995; Sternberg, 2012; Witty these position Aboriginal peoples as having & Garfield, 1942); ability (Dafler & particular ownership of certain diseases, and Callaghan, 2005; Eddy, 1969); merit are thus in need of additional help, however (Lipsey, 2014); and biology (Darity, Royal the systemic power imbalances causing such & Whitfield, 2010), because these were the disparities are overlooked by the media messages I received from the white culture (Australian Human Rights Commission around me. The discriminatory attitudes that [AHRC], 2005, 2013; Hodgetts et al. 2004; I learnt as a child are evident in Pedersen, Love & Tilley, 2013; McCallum, 2013; Griffiths, Contos, Bishop and Walker’s World Health Organisation, 2008). (2000) research, which outlines the Through analysing my common beliefs prevalence of prejudice and false beliefs in in my CRAs and by reading academic an Australian city and in my home town. literature, I realised that the impression non- Additionally, I was taught the history and Indigenous people receive from news reports, ideology of the British ‘settlement’ in political figures and social interactions is that primary school, in terms of it being Indigenous peoples are a social ‘problem’ beneficial to Australia and First Nation’s and are in need of assistance or punitive Peoples, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait measures (Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006). Islander peoples. However, since being However, I have learnt that it is white educated about, and reflecting on, my culture, its ideology, systems and institutions cultural context and its biases, I now which have created, and continue to understand there are multiple realities and perpetuate, these unjust conditions knowledges that are very different to what I (Augoustinos, Rapley & Tuffin, 1999; Love was brought up with (Crotty, 1998; & Tilley, 2013; McCallum, 2011, 2013). Dudgeon, Wright, Paradies, Garvey & Therefore it is the discourses, systems, Walker, 2014). As an example, I had institutions and ideology embedded in believed and repeated the (white person’s) whiteness which need to be challenged in assumption that the Stolen Generations (a order to create systemic change and promote government-endorsed forced child removal equality (Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; Potter program) was a benefit to Indigenous people et al., 1993; van Dijk, 1992). as it brought education and a better (white) I had learned white ideology implicitly future for Aboriginal peoples (Dafler &

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Callaghan, 2005). However, with education, I Milroy & Walker, 2014; Roberts, Jones & now understand this to be an assimilation Smith, 1993). Whiteness disseminates as the program that has decimated cultural and silent ‘norm’ of being; being a white person, familial ties for Aboriginal and Torres Strait knowing white histories and knowledge, Islander peoples, with ramifications spanning understanding and negotiating ‘white’ generations (Australian Human Rights processes, systems and social structures, Commission [AHRC], 1997; Dafler & using ‘white’ language, and conforming to Callaghan, 2005). white social norms is the standard by which I understand that I believed these all else is compared and judged (Deutsch, assumptions because I was acculturated into 2006; Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; Saxton, white ideology and was grounded in the 2004). Subsequently, anyone who is not white education system and social structures, white or afforded nominal white status is which are inherently biased towards white delineated as either deviant (thus detrimental people, and white knowledge (Green & Sonn, to white) or exotic (thus beneficial to white) 2005, 2006; McIntosh, 1989; Saxton, 2004). (Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; Saxton, 2004). Realising this through class discussions and I had unknowingly engaged in white writing the CRA’s helped me to comprehend cultural imperialism, as I defined people by that I am positioned within an ethnicity that their nationality and ethnicity, but had never dominates non-white people and gives defined myself as white, nor had I ever been unearned privileges to whites (McIntosh, required to. Hence, whiteness remains 1989). I realised I have a white ethnic hidden as it identifies the ‘other’ whilst it identity that I was unaware of because being does not classify itself (Suchet, 2007). Yet white and living by white systems and regardless of how whiteness attempts to hide institutions is positioned as the ‘normal’ and itself, it is only invisible to (the majority of) ‘natural’ way of being in mainstream white people (Suchet, 2007), which became Australia (Deutsch, 2006). apparent to me during a class discussion with I came to understand through reading my non-white student colleagues. The Deutsch’s (2006) oppression framework that students were hesitant to speak of whiteness, the process of cultural imperialism is how but as they became more comfortable with whiteness has become the dominant ideology voicing their experiences, they made it very in Australia. Cultural imperialism is the clear to me that the only people who do not ‘universalisation’ of the dominant culture see whiteness (and its consequences) are (Deutsch, 2006). It involves alienating the white people. I realised after this discussion dominated ‘other’ by representing itself as that my ethnic identity benefits me because I the normal state of being, thus infuses itself am white, but it negatively impacts upon as the undefined, natural state in a society people who are non-white, and in particular (Deutsch, 2006). ‘Others’ who are ‘different’ in the Australian context, Aboriginal and from the dominant majority are defined by Torres Strait Islander peoples. My student their differences and are therefore positioned colleagues helped me to understand that as deviant or inferior (Deutsch, 2006; Young, people who are oppressed by whiteness have 1990). ‘Other’ are forced to interact with the a sophisticated knowledge and dominant culture which provides understanding of its mechanisms, because stereotypical views about them, causing they experience its negative effects and hear pressure to conform to the dominant social its discourses on a daily basis (Hatchell, norms, and the internalisation of the 2004; Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; Nielsen, dominant viewpoint (Deutsch, 2006; Stuart, & Gorman, 2014; Suchet, 2007). Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). Whiteness is My education has taught me that there the cultural imperialism that has diffused exists an acute nexus between the way in itself into Australia, which for around 60,000 which an identity is constructed and the years has been owned by Aboriginal and experience of injustice (Clayton & Opotow, Torres Strait Islander peoples (Dudgeon, 2003). Regardless of how a person may

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identify themselves, the identity a person has traditional psychological theories propose in the eyes of the dominant group can cause that mental shortcuts create categories in them harm and injustice by being morally which an individual uses to make sense of excluded (Clayton & Opotow, 2003). their social world (Billig, 2002; Tuffin, Traditional social psychology has 2005). However, the theories actually produced theories of social identity and support and legitimise prejudice, because group interactions, which centre on social they reduce group interactions down to cognition (Tuffin, 2005). Put briefly, social neurological processes and assume they are cognition generalises that people simplify automatic, instinctual and cannot be changed information such as social groups into (Billig, 2002; Tuffin, 2005). Neither do the categories, and make discriminations theories offer solutions to counter prejudicial between these categories accordingly (Tuffin, behaviours (Tuffin, 2005). 2005). Social categorisations may lead to The theories are further limited as they assumptions that all people in the group are do not explain the mechanisms of how social the same, resulting in stereotyping, prejudice categories are included or excluded from the and the construction of ‘in-groups’ and ‘out- moral boundaries of the ‘ingroup’ (Billig, groups’ (Billig, 2002; Tuffin, 2005). For 2002). These mechanisms are linguistic, example, asylum seekers who arrive by boat highlighting the power of language in the in Australian waters have been constructed as practice of prejudice (Billig, 2002; Potter et ‘illegal queue jumpers’ and assumptions have al., 1993; Tuffin, 2005). To reiterate the been made about their legitimacy (Every & effect on asylum seekers, it is not merely the Augoustinos, 2008a, 2008b; Klocker, 2004; social category of ‘asylum seeker’ that Rowe & O’Brien, 2013). Consequently, the individuals reject; it is the use of language identity of ‘asylum seeker’ is portrayed that positions asylum seekers in a negative negatively in Australia, due to the way which creates the desire to accept or assumptions they are criminals who are reject them (Every & Augoustinos, 2008a, breaking the law (Every & Augoustinos, 2008b; Gale, 2004; Klocker, 2004; Klocker 2008b; McDonald, 2011). This example & Dunn, 2003). Therefore, people do highlights how group categorisations can be prejudice by discursive negotiations, as it is used to positively represent one social group the language which individuals use to over another, as the category the ‘other’ is construct similarities or differences between placed enables the legitimisation of harm groups, legitimising moral inclusion, or (Clayton & Opotow, 2003; van Dijk, 1992). exclusion (Billig, 2002; Clayton & Opotow, Positive self-representation is also a 2003; Opotow, 1990a, 1990b; Potter et al., feature in group comparisons outlined in 1993). Van Dijk argues these language Social Identity Theory (Billig, 2002; Tajfel, practices usually have two features: in-group 1974), which proposes that a person’s self- reinforcement and out-group derogation. esteem is linked with comparing their social Van Dijk (1992) further elucidates the group (the ‘in-group’) with other groups (‘out discursive “double strategy” individuals use -groups’). The positive self-representation of to positively self-represent whilst subtly the ‘in-group’ whilst negatively positioning positioning the ‘other’ in a negative way to the ‘out-group’ creates feelings of legitimise prejudicial attitudes. This strategy superiority, thus the self-esteem of the is employed in denials of racism; by denying individual increases (Billig, 2002; van Dijk, that one (or a group) is being racist, one 1992). Social Identity Theory outlines a positively represents ‘self’, whilst excusing person’s desire to increase self-esteem by their derogation of ‘other’. Van Dijk (1992) using negative behaviours of discrimination argues that the most blatant racist discourse towards, and stereotyping of, the ‘other’ and features forms of denial. The denial of regards prejudice as an outcome of racism defends the person (or in-group) and information processing, likening it to social their views, which are portrayed as common cognition (Tajfel, 1974; Tuffin, 2005). These sense, fair and reasonable whilst undermining other accounts, effectively

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delegitimising and silencing them (Deutsch, 2006; Nelson, 2013). (Kirkwood, Liu & Weatherall, 2005; Potter et Denials of racism by elites (politicians, al. 1993; van Dijk, 1992). Denying racism business and community leaders) have a defends one’s position and allows for the macro-level social and political function social acceptance of racist views (van Dijk, (van Dijk, 1992). When elites and authority 1992). This contradiction is discursively figures legitimise prejudicial views, it negotiated with the word ‘but’; for example, becomes unnecessary for citizens to justify, “I’m not being racist, but…..” is a common excuse or deny their racist views, and so they expression (van Dijk, 1992). Discursive are exonerated for prejudiced speech (van forms of denial are identified by van Dijk Dijk, 1992). The attempted changes to (1992, p 92) and re-iterated by Nelson (2013, Australia’s Racial Discrimination Act, p 90) as ‘act-denial’: “I didn’t say that at section 18C, in 2014 would have allowed all”; ‘control-denial’: “I didn’t say that on this exoneration (Griffiths, 2014). The purpose”; ‘intention-denial’: “I didn’t mean proposed changes attempted to remove the that, it was taken out of context”; and ‘goal- protection from harm done by racial denial’: “I was trying to explain that….”. vilification by narrowly redefining what Such forms of denial function as excuses for vilification is (Rice, 2014, March 26). racist discourse and make accusations of However, the Abbott Government racism problematic as it is difficult to prove abandoned the measures in order to “unite intent (van Dijk, 1992). Additionally, denial the nation” (Griffiths, 2014) as it was discourses which position addressing the past causing ‘complications’ with sections of the (the British colonisation of Australia) as ‘not public after an outcry against the proposed constructive’, excuse contemporary changes. Former Prime Minister Abbott colonisers from acknowledging their role in stated “I don't want to do anything that puts addressing the legacies of colonisation, our national unity at risk at this time and so which are white dominance at the expense of those proposals are now off the table” (as Indigenous peoples rights (Green & Sonn, cited in Griffiths, 2014). Rather than being a 2005, 2006; Saxton, 2004). genuine attempt at addressing racism and Another common rhetoric is “it’s got admitting the changes were granting nothing to do with me, I didn’t take away impunity for bigotry (Rice, 2014), the their lands and steal their children”, which is Government’s abandonment of the bill was a deferral of responsibility (van Dijk, 1992). I discursively negotiated under nationalist am ashamed to admit that I used to engage in rhetoric (Griffiths, 2014). Using these this rhetoric. I used to believe that because I contemporary examples, it is evident that was born in New Zealand and had no family denying racism helps maintain dominance, history of colonisation in Australia that I had but once resistance becomes out of the nothing to do with ‘what happened to them’. control of the dominant, nationalist rhetoric I now understand that being a white person in is adopted to suppress the concerns of Australia or New Zealand means that I am a marginalised peoples whilst maintaining coloniser, and therefore I have a role and white hegemony (Augoustinos et al., 1999; responsibility in de-colonisation (Smith & Every & Augoustinos, 2008a). Ward, 2000). Nelson (2013) further Nationalism discourages ‘other’ highlights that denials of racism are also identities on the basis they will divide the employed by people who are oppressed by nation and positions all citizens as the same, racism. This is disturbing because to survive thus none should have privileged rights over white dominance and avoid further others (Augoustinos et al., 1999; Kirkwood persecution, individuals deny they have et al., 2005). Desmond and Emirbayer experienced racism, or live in a racist space (2012) argue that unifying people under a (Nelson, 2013). In these cases, denials of national banner and denying differences is racism become a survival mechanism for assimilation. Common negotiations of those who are on the receiving end of it nationalism in the media and social settings

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include phrases such as ‘we are all confirming the legitimacy of such treatment Australian’ (Cornwall, 2014), and the Abbott to both oppressor and oppressed Government used the term ‘team (Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). Oppressed Australia’ (Summers, 2014). This similarities individuals and groups can feel a heightened discourse blames people for the disadvantage vulnerability and may be perpetually they experience, because its meritocratic defensive (Deutsch, 2006; Prilleltensky & assumptions position everyone as having the Gonick, 1996). If they resist, lash out and same opportunities (Lipsey, 2014). possibly end up breaking the law or social Meritocracy further permits victim-blaming norms, they may be punished for as it assumes those who do not capitalise on disobedience and/or jailed (Deutsch, 2006; the available opportunities must be Prilleltensky& Gonick, 1996). Consequently, inadequate, lacking or lazy (Lipsey, 2014). the disobedience and resulting punishment However, it is the inequitable social and are what keep oppression in place (Deutsch, systemic factors, such as inadequate 2006), which is evident in the education (Lawrence, 2012), that create disproportionate percentage of Indigenous inequality and people’s inability to capitalise people in the Australian prison system on opportunities (Green & Sonn, 2005, 2006; (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014; Lipsey, 2014; Saxton, 2004). Additionally, if AHRC, 2013). disadvantaged groups are unable to avoid On the relational level, people are oppressive conditions, the dominant oppressed by family members, friends or characterise the oppressed as inferior and colleagues due to a struggle for power and inadequate, thereby confirming the belief that superiority (Deutsch, 2006). This is evident they ‘deserve’ their circumstances (Deutsch, in bullying, teasing or joking behaviours 2006). which function to humiliate the other (van I have learnt that the underlying factors Dijk, 1992). It is evident in family of oppression are the use of language to relationships where verbal, emotional, negatively construct the identity of another, psychological and physical abuse are used to leading to moral exclusion which can occur maintain power and control over family on individual, relational and collective levels members – generally women and children (Collins & Clement, 2012; Opotow, 1990a, (Deutsch, 2006; Kingston, Regoli & Hewitt, 1990b, 1995, 2011; Deutsch, 2006). Power is 2002). Having the freedom to reflect on this central, as one group desires to maintain in my CRA’s, I was able to pinpoint how power, or gain it at the expense of another this occurred in my own family as a child, (Deutsch, 2006; Prilleltensky & Gonick, which helped me to identify with the pain 1996). Those who hold power also control and suffering people face. I came to the inequitable distribution of resources, the understand oppression on an intimate level, unjust procedures and biased social systems rather than seeing it as a macro-level (Prilleltensky & Gonnick, 1996). phenomenon that is removed from my own Consistently reinforced social disadvantage experience. On a collective level, systemic and legitimised harm ultimately results in the oppression is evident in social policy that oppression of ‘other’ and thus they are placed privileges wealthy people, while providing into a position of inferiority (Opotow, 2011). inadequate resources for underprivileged Unjust treatment can result in self-oppression groups (Desmond & Emirbayer, 2012; when a person believes that they deserve Lawrence, 2012). what they get (Deutsch, 2006). This is the Institutional oppression manifests in ‘just world ideology’, which as a self- under-resourced schools and inadequate fulfilling prophecy, is another mechanism of health care facilities in poorer areas, creating moral exclusion (Deutsch, 2006; large gaps between wealthy and Prilleltensky & Gonick, 1996). As people disadvantaged populations (Desmond & experience oppression, they may begin to feel Emirbayer, 2012; Deutsch, 2006; Lawrence, and behave in ways that are congruent with 2012; AHRC, 2005, 2013). On a macro- the oppressor’s constructions of them, thus scale, oppression occurs as a result of a

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collective removing another group from their McDonald, 2005). The former government’s moral boundary, such as the exclusion of emphasis on the need for security due to Jewish people during World War II (Opotow, terrorism successfully created fear amongst 1990a, 2011), which led to the ultimate and the (majority of) public, who subsequently most dire form of oppression, genocide supported government policy to detain (Opotow, 2011). It is necessary to reiterate asylum seekers who arrive by sea in offshore here the role of political rhetoric and the ‘processing centres’ (Clyne, 2005; Dunn, media’s role in perpetuating certain Klocker & Salabay, 2007; Flynn & discourses which influence individuals’ LaForgia, 2002; Kathrani, 2011). Using the opinions (Every & Augoustinos, 2008a; language of fear and securitisation the Gale, 2004; Klocker & Dunn, 2003; Mullen, former government managed to gain 2010). As one collective ostracises the impunity for the inhumane treatment of ‘other’, policy is formed by governments to vulnerable people (Clyne, 2005; Marr & reinforce and maintain the exclusion (van Wilkinson, 2003). These examples highlight Dijk, 1992; Opotow, 2011). This is how the use of language can influence what historically evident in Australia, as individuals do, say and believe, therefore Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples perpetuating the status quo of certain groups were excluded from the moral boundaries of having power and others being subject to non-Indigenous Australians, which control and oppression (Herman & legitimised having their lands stolen from Chomsky. 2002; Lawrence, 2006). them, their children stolen and abused and In summary, I understand that the their culture destroyed (AHRC, 1997; language used to construct the identity and AHRC, 2005, 2013; Dudgeon, et al., 2014). inferiority of other groups can promote All of this was legislated and therefore moral exclusion, and lead to oppression. declared just by the Australian Federal White cultural imperialism, its discourses, Government and the law (Australian institutions and systems, racism and the Government Department of Immigration and denial of harm underpins and maintains Border Protection, 2009; AHRC, 1997), white group dominance in Australian which highlights how oppression occurs with society. This has led to the oppression of impunity. First Nations Peoples, non-whites and those It has been confronting to learn the who do not adhere to white norms of mechanisms that enable governments, behaviour. Although it has been confronting dictators, leaders and groups to act with to learn that I have been an agent of impunity while violating the human rights of oppression, becoming conscious of the others. I had discovered whilst researching mechanisms of power, moral exclusion and for an assessment that the former Howard oppression is necessary to arouse the desire government had used political and to change (Deutsch, 2006; Freire, 1974). As psychological impunity (Prilleltensky & such, the Bachelor of Behavioural Science Gonick, 1996) to justify punitive measures and Culture and Society has inspired a deep taken against asylum seekers from 2001 desire within me to promote social change through to 2007 (Clyne, 2005; Flynn & and work for equity (what is fair) and LaForgia, 2002; Klocker & Dunn, 2003; equality for marginalised groups in my Marr & Wilkinson, 2003; Williams, 2002). professional career, and personal Securitisation (McDonald, 2011) and endeavours. criminalisation (Kathrani, 2011) discourses The decolonising approach (Smith, were used to reinforce public fear in the wake 1999) to Culture and Society has achieved of the 11 September 2001 attacks, by this through its transformative learning outlining potential threats to Australia’s process (Freire, 1973), and fostering my security, its people and territory by ‘illegal’ critical consciousness (Freire, 1974). By asylum seekers (Friedman, 2011; Gale, 2004; teaching me to be critical of my actions and Klocker & Dunn, 2003; Lawrence, 2006; behaviours, the unit has also promoted my

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respectful and sensitive interactions with Australian Human Rights Commission. others. Additionally, I recognise and accept (1997). Bringing them home: Report of the realities and knowledges that are different the national inquiry into the separation of to my own, and respect these as equal. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Although Culture and Society has children from their families. Retrieved deconstructed, and managed to decolonise from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/ my knowledge bases and my reality, it has publications/bringing-them-home-report- given me the tools to challenge the dominant 1997 white culture of my upbringing in order to Australian Human Rights Commission. promote the interests of those it (2005). Social justice report. Retrieved disadvantages. As highlighted by McIntosh from https://www.humanrights.gov.au/ (1989), I can use my unearned privileges to publications/social-justice-report-2005- weaken dominant systems by recognising home and speaking out against racist and Australian Human Rights Commission. oppressive acts; use my time and energy to (2013). Social justice and native title advocate for change; increase people’s report. Retrieved from https:// awareness about the mechanisms and www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/ negative impacts of white dominance; and social-justice-and-native-title-report-2013 share my unearned assets with others to Billig, M. (2002). Henri Tajfel's 'cognitive increase their power. However, I feel that aspects of prejudice' and the psychology larger-scale social change will require a of bigotry. British Journal of Social greater public interrogation of whiteness, as Psychology, 41(2), 171-188. not doing so will leave dominant discourses doi:10.1348/014466602760060165 and white power unchallenged, which are the Branch, C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Broughton, J. core of racism and the oppression of First M., Deutsch, M., Ginsburg, H. P., Greene, Nations and non-white peoples (Green & M., & Passow, A. H. (1995). Statement Sonn, 2005). on race differences in intelligence: Occasioned by the bell curve. Peace and References Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 1 Augoustinos, M., Rapley, M., & Tuffin, K. (1), 99-100. doi:10.1207/ (1999). Genocide or failure to gel? s15327949pac0101_11 Racism, history and nationalism in Clayton, S., & Opotow, S. (2003). Justice Australian talk. Discourse and Society, 10 and identity: Changing perspectives on (1), 351-378. doi: what is fair. Personality and Social 10.1177/0957926599010003004 Psychology Review, 7(4), 298-310. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2014). doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0704_03 Prisoners in Australia: Aboriginal and Clyne, M. (2005). The use of exclusionary Torres Strait Islander Prisoners. language to manipulate opinion: John Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ Howard, asylum seekers and the re- ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/by% emergence of political incorrectness in 20Subject/4517.0~2014~Main% Australia. Journal of Language and 20Features~Aboriginal%20&%20Torres% Politics, 4(2), 173-196. doi:10.1075/ 20Strait%20Islander%20prisoner% jlp.4.2.03cly 20characteristics~10007 Collins, K., & Clément, R. (2012). Language Australian Government Department of and prejudice: Direct and moderated Immigration and Border Protection. effects. Journal of Language and Social (2009). Fact Sheet 8 – Abolition of the Psychology, 31(4), 376-396. “White Australia” Policy. Canberra: doi:10.1177/0261927X12446611 DIBP. Retrieved from http:// www.immi.gov.au/media/fact- sheets/08abolition.htm

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Rowe, E., & O'Brien, E. (2013). Tuffin, K. (2005) Understanding critical Constructions of asylum seekers and social psychology. London, England: refugees in Australian political discourse. Sage. In Richards, Kelly & Tauri, Juan van Dijk, T. (1992). Discourse and the denial Marcellus (Eds.), Crime Justice and Social of racism. Discourse and Society, 3,87, Democracy: Proceedings of the 2nd doi: 10.1177/0957926592003001005 International Conference, Queensland Weimin, M. (2007). Cogito: From Descartes University of Technology, p 173-181. to Sartre. Frontiers of Philosophy in Brisbane: Queensland. China, 2(2), 247-264. doi:10.1007/s11466 Saxton, A. (2004). Whiteness and -007-0016-0 reconciliation: A discursive analysis. Witty, P., & Garfield, S. (1942). Trends in Australian Psychologist, 39(1), 14-23. discussions of intelligence: race doi:10.1080/00050060410001660407 differences. Journal Of Educational Smith, C., & Ward, G. K. (2000). Psychology, 33(8), 584-594. doi:10.1037/ Globalisation, decolonisation and h0056705. Indigenous Australia. Australian Young, M. (1990). Justice and the politics of Aboriginal Studies, 1(2), 3-11. Retrieved difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton from http:// University Press search.informit.com.au.ipacez.nd.edu.au/ documentSummary;dn=131514067155251 Address for correspondence ;res=IELAPA [email protected] Smith, L. (1999). Decolonising methodologies: Research and Indigenous Acknowledgements peoples. Dunedin, New Zealand: Thank you to Associate Professor Dawn University of Otago. Darlaston-Jones, Sarah Koelsch and the Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence. unknown peer reviewers for their valued Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14 input. Also to the University of Notre Dame (1), 19-27. Retrieved from http:// Australia for providing excellence in www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ education and the innovative Behavioural PMC3341646/?tool=pmcentrez Science degree that has changed my world Stevens-Long, J., Schapiro, S. A., & view and my life. To my family who have McClintock, C. (2012). Passionate unconditionally supported my educational scholars: Transformative learning in journey and throughout the process of doctoral education. Adult Education writing and revising the paper. Quarterly, 62(2), 180-198. doi:10.1177/0741713611402046 Biography Suchet, M. (2007). Unraveling whiteness. At the time of writing, Kimberly Smith is an Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 17(6), 867- undergraduate student at The University of 886. doi:10.1080/10481880701703730 Notre Dame Australia, studying a Bachelor Summers, A. (2014, August 23). Tony of Science (Human Biology) and Bachelor Abbott's Team Australia entrenches of Behavioural Science at the Fremantle inequality. Sydney Morning Herald. campus. Kimberly grew up in Wangkatha Retrieved from http://www.smh.com.au/ country, in the Goldfields of Western comment/tony-abbotts-team-australia- Australia after migrating to Australia as a entrenches-inequality-20140822- young child from New Zealand with her 106sdk.html family. As such, Kimberly acknowledges she Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and is a Pakeha New Zealander and Wadjella intergroup behaviour. Social Science Australian citizen, and pays respect to the Information, 13(2), 65-93. traditional owners of both countries, the doi:10.1177/053901847401300204 Maori and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.