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Understanding Pro-Environmental TOURISM STAKEHOLDER IDENTITY, VALUES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN: UNDERSTANDING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR IN THE MOUNT EVEREST BASE CAMP REGION By GRISHA RAWAL Bachelor of Arts in Sociology University of Central Oklahoma Edmond, Oklahoma 2012 Master of Arts in Gerontology University of Central Oklahoma Edmond, Oklahoma 2014 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY July, 2019 TOURISM STAKEHOLDER IDENTITY, VALUES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN: UNDERSTANDING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR IN THE MOUNT EVEREST BASE CAMP REGION Dissertation Approved: Dr. Tamara Mix Dissertation Adviser Dr. Andrew Fullerton Dr. Monica Whitham Dr. Rebecca Sheehan ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There is an old proverb: Man plans, god directs. This four-year journey has been nothing as originally planned and there were times when I did not believe that I would make it through this finish line. I humbly thank my wonderful support system who have helped me overcome some tough times and tough decisions through my academic journey. First and foremost, I would like to thank my husband who has been an incredible support. Thank you for dreaming my dreams with your eyes and then insisting on making them a reality. Next I would like to acknowledge my children. If it were not for you, giving up would have been easy. With your little eyes on me failure was never an option. I would like to thank my academic adviser and committee chair, Dr. Tammy Mix, for all her tremendous advice and direction through the entire research process. She has been incredibly supportive and encouraging. I sincerely appreciate her commitment to my academic and personal development and mostly for being open to different ways of defining professional victory. I would also like to thank Dr. Andrew Fullerton. Dr. Monica Whitham, and Dr. Rebbeca Sheehan for their substantial guidance and criticism. Their comments and suggestions helped make this project much stronger. I appreciate all their time and expertise throughout this process. iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Name: GRISHA RAWAL Date of Degree: JULY, 2019 Title of Study: TOURISM, STAKEHOLDER IDENTITY, VALUES, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN: UNDERSTANDING PRO- ENVIORNMENTAL BEHAVIOR IN THE MOUNT EVEREST BASE CAMP REGION. Major Field: SOCIOLOGY Abstract: This research project explores the causes and consequences of the tourism economy on values, environmental concerns, and pro-environmental behaviors amongst stakeholders in the Mount Everest Base Camp (EBC) region of Nepal. Stakeholder groups were divided into five different categories: local residents, business owners, government officials, guides/ porters, and tourists to understand their interaction with the environment and impacts of their behavior on environmental inequalities in the region. Tourism is very important for the EBC region. It is not only an economic activity but also a social institution. People gain their stakeholder identities by engaging in the tourism economy. Tourism differentiates amongst stakeholders through unequal distribution of resources. People’s willingness to engage in environmental behaviors is based on power, privilege, and resources available to the stakeholders. Difference in power and privilege impacts people’s exposure to environmental benefits and harms. When environmental problems impact poor and ethnic minorities, their concerns are least likely to be addressed in policies and practices. Pro-environmental behaviors are multidimensional, with people choosing to engage in one behavior and not engage in others based on available resources or personal biases. Stakeholder groups in the EBC region engage in environmental behaviors based on their personal conception of the problems in the region and their personal biases, such as rationality (betterment of tourism economy), altruism (place attachment to the region), self-interest (personal hardships), or their job requirements. Stakeholders often engage in pro-environmental behaviors to promote tourism and facilitate the tourism economy. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................................................................................9 Environmental Concern and Pro-Environmental Behavior ...................................10 Values ....................................................................................................................11 Identity ...................................................................................................................14 Values, Identity, Environmental Concern, and Pro-Environmental Behavior .......18 Stakeholder Identity, Environmental Concern, and Pro-Env. Behavior ................23 Tourism, Environmental Justice, and Pro-Environmental Behavior .....................29 Analytical Framework ...........................................................................................39 III. CONTEXT .............................................................................................................45 The Region .............................................................................................................45 The Stakeholders ....................................................................................................49 IV. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................52 Research Design.....................................................................................................52 Data Collection ......................................................................................................55 Survey Measures ....................................................................................................61 Data Analysis .........................................................................................................64 V. QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS ...............................................................................68 VI. QUALITATIVE FINDINGS I ..............................................................................78 Place Attachment: This is My Home .....................................................................80 Buddhism: Living in Harmony with Nature ..........................................................90 People Do Not Have Similar Attitudes Regarding the Environment ...................96 VII. QUALITATIVE FINDINGS II ..........................................................................107 Positions Define our Concern and Behaviors ......................................................108 Local Stakeholders .........................................................................................108 Outside Stakeholders .....................................................................................122 v Chapter Page VIII. QUALITATIVE FINDINGS III .......................................................................133 Tourism: Benefits and Harms .............................................................................133 IX. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS .............................................................147 Limitations ...........................................................................................................157 Contributions........................................................................................................159 REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................163 APPENDICES ...........................................................................................................181 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................181 APPENDIX B: SURVEY ....................................................................................186 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1: Variables for the Regression Models .....................................................................193 2: Descriptive Statistics of Stakeholders....................................................................195 3: Ten value Constructs Measured in the Survey as per (Schwarttz et al.2000) and their corresponding PVQ Questions ............................................................195 4: Results of Logistic Regression between Stakeholder Identity, Env. Values, Env. Concern and Public Sphere PEB ...........................................................................196 5: Results of Logistic Regression between Demographic Variables and Public Sphere PEB ............................................................................................................196 6: Results of Multiple Regression between Stakeholder Identity, Env. Values, Env. Concern and Private Sphere PEB ..................................................................197 7: Results of Multiple Regression between Demographic Variables and Private Sphere PEB ............................................................................................................197 8: Results of Logistic Regression between Demographic Variables and Environmental Concern ..................................................................................................................198 9: Results of Multiple Regression between Salient Stakeholder Identity
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