Ghetto Politics

CEU eTD Collection

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Roma. This Roma. A BSTRACT

people who are seen as threatening to the sovereign the to threatening as seen are who people a nihr e nertd o eple fo the from expelled nor integrated be neither can i

thesis seeks to explain why the why explain to seeks thesis

in sixteenth in ractice that wa that ractice

n h sxenh century sixteenth the in

Agamben, - century Roma Roma s medieval and barbaric, yet this yet barbaric, and medieval s

in order to preserve the norm the preserve to order in

Italy the ghett the hleg te system the challenge

used to house Roma in tohousein used Roma ,

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ghettoization threatened to to threatened in

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to answer a lot of lot a answer to CEU eTD Collection B C S N T T I NTRODUCTION EGREGATION EGREGATION IBLIOGRAPHY ONCLUSION HE HEORETICAL THE APPEAL OF THE GHETTO THE OF APPEAL THE PUZZLE THE ANSWERING RULES CAMP NOMAD CAMPS? NOMAD WHY RULES GHETTO GHETTO? THE WHY THEGH A PARADIGM AS THECAMP EXCEPTION OF THESTATE OMAD OMAD G HETTOS OF C ETTO AS A PARADIGM AS ETTO AMPSIN

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CEU eTD Collection ethnic escape to either Italy to went and lives, both sedentary In led EU. they the Romania to and accession Yugoslavia its after Romania from recently came more camps or dissolution, the in residing currently however, Roma people, nomadic many a of problem housing the solve to means a as government Italian beliefs religious their with do to nothing T consider longer no State Italian the and changed, the has of purity the and crisis in was Church Chri Catholic the which in time a was This religion. another followed who “other” deviant the wereJews and period, modern early the in State Papal the of survival the to threatening quartersthatisliving surrounded toafinitespace police and walls patrolled. by seg enforced their warrant the to to community, threatening broader as perceived was that common in something shared have must twentieth, T Italy? centu after now occurring Roma of ghettoization the is Why becomes: thus puzzle The Period. Modern Early and Renaissance the during them house to constructed unlike yet century, fifteenth the since Italy in existed have populati Roma Curiously, lives. private their for respect little and surveillance increased to long are constructions new the form Italy. of camps’used in ‘nomad tohouse Roma in today Italy in occurring is law, by forcibly community, a segregating of practice same this yet population. mainstream ide the Today the among group minority a of dispersal the preventing of same intention the with periods, time different in places, new in reinvented been has ghetto’ ‘the 1516, compell were Jews where area confined the which in island same the on foundry a at stored was slag this 1516 In ore. raw from separated been has metal a after over left product waste a ‘slag’, meaning e oa r vee a traeig eas o ter leel nomadi allegedly their of because threatening as viewed are Roma he stian community was of utmost importance. In modern times, the attitude towards religion towards attitude the times, modern In importance. utmost of was community stian This thesis argues thesis This from stemming invention, Italian an is ‘ghetto’ word The he two communities, the Jews in the early sixteenth century and the Roma in the late the in Roma the and century sixteenth early the in Jews the communities, two he The

word ‘camp’ ‘camp’ word a of a ‘Jewish ghetto’ conjures images of a practice that was medieval and barbaric, and medieval was that practice a of images conjures ghetto’ ‘Jewish a of a

that they each embodied a defining characteristic that was perceived as perceivedwas that characteristic defining a embodied each they that suggests - term in which Roma live for an indefinite period of time, subjected time, of period indefinite an for live Roma which in term

state at that particular time. What we know as Italy today was a was today Italy as know we What time. particular that at state I

pae n hc pol rsd temporarily reside people which in place a NTRODUCTION ed to live under the Venetian Republic until 1797. Since 1797. until Republic Venetian the under live to ed . The c The . 1 onstruction of ‘nomad camps’ is camps’ ‘nomad of onstruction

eain i te ehiu o lmtn their limiting of technique the via regation s

a Jewish minority a threat t threat a minority Jewish a

rm h fre Ygsai atr its after Yugoslavia former the from

with

Ghetto Novo Ghetto es tee ee o ghettos no were there Jews, ghéto

ries of ries n h Vnta dialect Venetian the in lifestyle c

was established; a a established; was their presence in presence their

justified by the by justified however o its survival. its o wih has which ,

former these ons

CEU eTD Collection our to answer an provide to puzzle. order in studies case two these links that highlighted, analysis be comparative will period time each in play nomadism and theoretical wi studies Bull Papal infamous the to response Absurdum in established was that Rome of Ghetto Europe’ 1516, of Ghetto betweenbalance inclusion creates that exclusion and ghettopolicy. a manipulat often them, about stereotypes because integrate to opportunities offered not are they yet useful, prove they times at because state the by expelled not are They abused. and used both are inhabitants ghetto the that so exile, category either and to according citizenthem treat can between sovereign somewhere status legal hybrid a given are Roma and Jews indistinction, of zone this In apply. may rules new that so suspended is law of rule normal is spac aghetto a that toargue conceptualisation ofGiorgio Agamben’s ‘thecamp’, of form new w and this why understand To camps’.used, is it when ghettois, a what understand must we ghetto, a of the form taken has segregation ‘nomad named ghettos of establishment acc from fluctuated their of feature distinctive a five past the Over centuries. for Europe in been presence has prejudice of kind this Yet, state. the by demonization o criminals potential as public the by perceived is population wandering surveillance and walls necessary? perpetually a house to camps’ ‘nomad inaccurate of idea the as needed, is ghettos these for explanation alternative An centuries. for Italy in sedentary been have ancestors o quality their improve to or conflict hat ithat allows thestate todo.This framework ustheoretical of leads tothe this thesis.

Venetian the on focuses which of first the studies, case are Three and Two Chapters twentieth late in Roma and Republic Venetian the in Jews Both Chapter One gives a definition of ‘the ghetto’ drawing on the Italian philosopher philosopher Italian the on drawing ghetto’ ‘the of definition a gives One Chapter

in 155 in and misleading. Furthermore, if a housing solution is all there is to it, then why are are why then it, to is there all is solution housing a if Furthermore, misleading. and framework inspired by Agamben by inspired framework analyse 5. The next chapter discusses nomad camps nomad discusses chapter next The 5.

when ghettos occur, what they entail and why they are used, by applying the applying by used, are they why and entail they what occur, ghettos when eptance, to expulsion, to tolerance, to persecution, and now to the new new the to now and persecution, to tolerance, to expulsion, to eptance, ed for political purposes, have created a culture of fear. It is this peculiar peculiar this is It fear. of culture a created have purposes, political for ed frt fiil hto ad re rfrne il lo e ae o the to made be also will reference brief and ghetto, official first s

f life. Also interned in the camps are Roma and Sinti whose Sinti and Roma are camps the in interned Also life. f to empirical evidence. The importance that religion that importance The evidence. empirical to 2

r social deviants, partly as a result of their their of result a as partly deviants, social r - hundred years policy towards the Roma has Roma the towards policy years hundred in times of convenience. In other words, words, other In convenience. of times in in present day Italy. These case case These Italy. day present in leading

- century Italy have been have Italy century s o Ch to us e in which the which e in pe Fu, a Four, apter u Nimis Cum

CEU eTD Collection 7 6 5 4 3 2 168 1 lac fictitious a create to crisis, social ambiguous. legally is of indifference that order,but tothe insteadexists norinternal juridical external zone asneither a state. a withinland of pocketa to onlyapply may ratherit state,but entire the scientific States. in theUnited many the is example One ca been have that experiments democracies. contemporary in common increasingly c reason, intothepoliticalintegrated system. some for who, citizens and adversaries political of elimination physical it. to apply that laws of suspension very the through exception Reich Third the a in Germany leaving War, World Second the of for Germany, example,laws emergency Nazi in enacted were committed. be to law of rule normal the to contrary acts allowing form, legal have not does what to form legal gives it law, the within order juridical the und of suspension a including somehow By siege. is that community a protecting of purpose the for unacceptable, considered beotherwise would lawsthat emergency enact to sovereign the allowing decree, emergency an of legis among distinction the THE STATE OF EXCEPTION rule’ functions. it how and about, ‘ came as camp’ it ‘the defines why Agamben is, ghetto the what understand to paradigm, a as This significance. conceptual

The State of Exception The State Homo Ibid.,2. Ibid.,54. Ibid.,1 of Exception The State Agamben, Giorgio - 9. . 1

To understand this how to‘the explaining applies ghetto’, by I begin will Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life Bare and Power Sovereign Sacer: -

4. also is but states, totalitarian in found just not is exception of state a of creation The The its understand first must we formations, reoccurring its in ghetto’ ‘the recognize To

violence that is a is that violence

state of exception of state ,

Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life Bare Sovereign and Power Sacer: Homo , 23. 7. 2005),Press, Chicago (Chicago: KevinAttell , trans. in which the normal rule of law was suspended for twelve years. In a a In years. twelve for suspended was law of rule normal the which in 6

For a For a

The sovereign uses emergency decrees, usually sparked by some kind of kind some by sparked usually decrees, emergency uses sovereign The bsolutely outside the law is impossible, because it is included in the law the in included is it because impossible, is law the outside bsolutely T

lative, executive, and judicial powers’. judicial and executive, lative, is a concept in legal theory that involves ‘the provisional abolition of abolition provisional ‘the involves that theory legal in concept a is state of exception state of HEORETICAL HEORETICAL

framework draws upon Agamben’s conceptualization of ‘the camp’ camp’ ‘the of conceptualization Agamben’s upon draws framework rried out on prisoners and persons sentenced to death, particularly death, to sentenced persons and prisoners on out rried

, 154

the space that is opened when the state of exception begins to become t become to begins exception of state the when opened is that space the 5

una within the state that has rules of its own. Contemporary own. its of rules has that state the within una

- 9.

to occur, it is not necessary for law to be suspended in be suspended to law necessary for is not it occur, to 3

state of exception of state (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1998),Press, University Stanford California: (Stanford, F 4 RAMEWORK

For the Third Reich, this made possible the possible made this Reich, Third the For

1933 and notrepealed and untiltheend1933

2 throughout the whole period of period whole the throughout

It is usually proclaimed as part as proclaimed usually is It

This land becomes Thisland the of state exception ud o be not ould state of state 3

In er he .

CEU eTD Collection 10 9 8 to live thus and protection state of worthy was who words, other in life, politicalfrom excluded or sta the of citizens the proxy by and sovereign, the gave This citizens. its of lifestyle and education health, the and life of production the with state. formula the of calculations and mechanisms the into life private of incorporation the “biopower”; calls Foucault what into transformed progressively incr became state the police, of science the of birth the with onwards, century seventeenth the From juridical. live. let to and die make communi the of survival the to threat a posed those who of punishment or death the with only itself concerning lives, their lived people way the mod the before sovereignty traditional In citizens. priv the over power state in increase dramatic a in resulted has which phenomenon itsand production of biopolitical any lacked states perspective. totalitarian to dedication Arendt’s whereas century, twentieth life in politics of transformation the understand to together theories their link to Arendt, Hannah and Foucault Michel time, our of problems political the on thinkers influential PARADIGMTHE A CAMPAS a within law the of suspension territorial for purpose space, theultimate the by possible becomes is law, which of torture, rule Hence normal exist. the to to cease contrary may it know we as States United the then terrorists, garne not do we if that is idea the example, Bay Guantanamo the use we If itself. law the of existence very the protect to order in broken be must law the is, that purpos The within. interned those to apply not do state the of citizen a upon bestowed responsibilities and rights the where centres, detention and camps, refugee Bay, Guantanamo include examples

Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive the Witness and The of Auschwitz: Remnants Life Bare and Power Sovereign HomoSacer:

Ibid. Fual’ booiis ee rahd dsuso o te ra ttltra sae o the of states totalitarian great the on discussion a reached never biopolitics Foucault’s . and who would be excludedfrom be would its who and thus protectionand

e of creating a state of exception is traditionally to safeguard the existence of the norm the of existence the safeguard to traditionally is exception of state a creating of e ipltc i te nelcn o booia lf wt pltcl ie n h mdr ea a era; modern the in life political with life biological of interlacing the is Biopolitics most two the of failure the noting by camp’ ‘the of discussion his begins Agamben to make live and to let die let to and live make to 8 easingly concerned with the life and health of its subjects, and sovereign power was power sovereign and subjects, its of health and life the with concerned easingly

By linking the two, we may arri may we two, the linking By 9

bare life bare

Here, sovereign power, be it that of a monarch, emperor or similar, was was similar, or emperor monarch, a of that it be power, sovereign Here, .

, in which state power became bureaucratic, deeply concerned deeply bureaucratic, became power state which in , , 119

- 20.

(New York: Zone Books, 1999), 82. 1999), Books, Zone York: (New of protecting thesurvivalof constitution. ve at an understanding of ‘the camp’ as a paradigm paradigm a as camp’ ‘the of understanding an at ve te, the power to decide on who was to be included be to was who on decide to power the te, 4

ern era, sovereign power was un was power sovereign era, ern ty. Foucault calls this sovereign function sovereign this calls Foucault ty. 10

oe tu bcm inve became thus Power left to die r necessary information from from information necessary r .

to the realm of realm the to sd no the into rsed ate life of its its of life ate interested in interested

forced bare bare to –

CEU eTD Collection 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 issue theirnaturalbody’. in also but politics, their in issue at is beings living r increasingly state the of functions biopolitical modern the as of production The citizen’ t citizens; the of rights the in liberties political found ‘to exception. of states of commission ex of possibility the the to subject without and law, the killed be may that life ‘a homicide’. to reduced was status legal whose sacer homo existence’. human to attribute customarily we that expectations and rights the ‘all lacks and outside’ and inside death, and life of production the witness we land, man’s of responsibility inside. ofthethe fate people for indistinguishable. become fact and law and apply, not do sovereignty of functions normal the which within land of pocket any ghetto; ‘the camps, arrangement. spatial permanent a becomes law of rule the of suspension temporary a which in space the is camp’ ‘The protection. thus apply, not do citizen a upon bestowed normally are that responsibilities and rights the because zone, this in possible becomes Anything conscience. on based decisions make who police the to transferred been has power die, to left the on solely

Ibid.,188. Ibid.,181. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.,159. Ibid.,148. Ibid.,170. Ibid.,169. Life Bare and Power Sovereign HomoSacer:

nie te ap, hr booia lf ad oiia lf ae lre tgte i a no a in together blurred are life political and life biological where camp’, ‘the Inside founded is it as insofar space biopolitical pure the is camp’ ‘the that argues Agamben he human that loses its legal status, and is left with merely the quality of being human. human. being of quality the merely with left is and status, legal its loses that human he

but suffer from a peculiar legal ambiguity in a zone zone a in ambiguity legal peculiar a from suffer but

16 h, s uihet o a rm, a eple fro expelled was crime, a for punishment as who,

camp’ as a paradigm may take many forms, such as a refugee camp, a prison or even even or prison a camp, refugee a as such forms, many take may paradigm a as camp’ Here the human body is separated from one’s normal political status abandoned by abandoned status political normal one’s from separated is body human the Here state of exception of state

As Agamben argues, one of the greatest flaws of Western politics is the attempt attempt the is politics Western of flaws greatest the of one argues, Agamben As bare life bare

19 all, us embody to threatens also it yet camp’, ‘the the in exemplified is

. 11

Those who live in a state of exception are neither neither are exception of state a in live who Those

The concept of concept The , 123. 12

Initially used to explain the functioning of concentration concentration of functioning the explain to used Initially those who reside within within reside who those

Using these pockets of land, the state m state the land, of pockets these Using bare life bare treme misfortunes. treme 5

. bare life bare 14 –

One’s inversely

comes from the ancient Roman figure Roman ancient the from comes 18 bare life bare

evn n poeto fr h non the for protection no leaving – educe us to ‘animals whose life as life whose ‘animals to us educe

of indistinction, where sovereign where indistinction, of 17 te oiia cmuiy and community, political the m citizens whose very politics is at at is politics very whose citizens it

Human rights do not apply in in apply not do rights Human exists in ‘a limit zone bet zone limit ‘a in exists r afre n fra legal formal no afforded are ay absolve itself absolve ay made to live to made ween

nor nor - - CEU eTD Collection 22 21 th for20 allows This life. private one’s around revolves business public and business, public becomes life private that mean measures emergency and surveillance Increased new istoallow rulesnormal suspended tobecreated. ruleoflaw order’. juridical a not is it if even it, in exists still order an sense, juridical a in chaos, ‘ writes, Agamben sovereign. as act temporarily who police the and civility the by committed be to atrocities for possibility the allowing ambiguity, those and denied, is community broader the with equality that is problem The world. outside the and inhabitants ghetto’s the between relationship the upon dependent very rather but survival, human to necessary are that needs economic the of self not is ghetto a outside, the be on discrimination or attacks violent to otherwise subject would population minority a where situations in particularly argued, have many polit of vacuum a a denotes existence very to ghetto’s the thus and inhabitants, the of decision voluntary a not is ghetto confined be To community. political broader the into incorporated be to interned those rather abut death literal a mean necessarily not does were walls ghetto inside interned those that sense the in power, sovereign of inversion an of emergence the see already we 1516 in that responsibilitiesand ofthe than docitizens state. rightsdifferentof set a experience interned those and suspended,is law ruleof normal the which permanent a in live inhabitants Ghetto rule. the becomes exception the ghetto the Inside walls. ghetto the of embodiment very thein concreted boundary, forced the th between in separation today seeing are government to we settlements as informal from and Roma Italy’s Venice, of 1516 relocation in case the was as time, of period is group a which in place or American African a to specifically refer to ‘ghetto’ term the uses as thesis ThisStates. United the in ghettos immigrant such barrios, impoverished called be appropriately more might that GHETTOTHE ASA PARADIGM

Ibid.,50. in citied Schmitt1922, Ibid.,174. In functioning as ghetto’ ‘the understand we If m has ‘ghetto’ word the of understanding our times, modern In

the ghetto, the distinction between what is public and what is private is deactivated. is private is what and public is what between distinction the ghetto, the because the state of exception is always something different from anarchy and and anarchy from different something always is exception of state the because ical agency. Whilst a degree of physical safety is sometimes found inside, as inside, found sometimes is safety physical of degree a Whilst agency. ical The State of Exception The State

ose inside and those outside is a representation of a social and political and social a of representation a is outside those and inside ose compelled

o l to This is not to say that no rules exist within the ghetto. As As ghetto. the within exist rules no that say to not is This , 33. left to die to left v a a atr f oenet oiy o a indefinite an for policy government of matter a as ive

. We must understand this formula of Foucault’s of formula this understand must We . 6

like nie eie n praet tt o legal of state permanent a in reside inside of capacity regardthe to with death political

‘the camp’, then it is interesting to interesting is it then camp’, ‘the state of exception of state

- u cms Te physical The camps. run orphed to include areas include to orphed : a territ a : - suff e possibility of of possibility e orial confine in confine orial icient in terms in icient 21

Rather, the Rather,

note 22

CEU eTD Collection of this thesis. evidence for look will We one. become right and no a find would we ghetto, the Insidemeasures. emergency new of use its and policy ghetto a of initiation the spark to occurred have must crisis external of kind some those others, not and thestatusquo. defy must they thenorm; threaten somehow logically must interned people some to applied been has it why understand to then norm, the the via justified are degree thatemergency masquerades as ofhuman theguarantor survival. occur that circumstances unfortunate all and created, are interned those poli and legal one’s blurring In problems. societal for explanation an as needed and is scapegoat not, a when is them persecute it when them ignore convenient, of is it zone when inside a people with engage of to state creation the The individual. the of right inclu be can people that means also private indistinction the and state, the of business thebetweendistinctions juridical no to with recoursebiopolitical control of levelsunprecedented If ‘the ghe ‘the If

tto’ resides in a a in resides tto’ ia sau wt booia lf, nw e o rgt ad epniiiis for responsibilities and rights of set new a life, biological with status tical

state of exception of state 7

where the law is suspended in order to preserveto order in suspended is law the where ded and exclude and ded of these assumptions in the next two chapters two next the in assumptions these of d at the same time. This allows allows This time. same the at d -

man’s land, in which fact which in land, man’s

Furthermore, CEU eTD Collection 30 5. 2002), Publishers, Cass Frank Oregon: (Portland, Ginio Meyuhas 29 (Baltimo BenjaminRavid and 28 100. 2014), Civilization, Representation and Culture: Boundaries 27 26 25 24 239. 23 Italy, so Italy to fled many and baptised, forcibly Jews 1492. in Monarchs Catholic large first The increased. topography im an by struck was Italy northern city’s Europe, of regions other in Jews of expulsion the into them incorporate to pressures the region, their year per days fifteen than policy physical the spread, sentiment faithful. the corrupt would Jews that afraid were Dominicans and Franciscans situation of idea the despised and feared Judaism, to linked systematically being pernicious C a into community Jewish a integrating socially the of result a As order flaws’. and failings Jew wells. i as such failures. economic and disease famine,

Stow, in "Introduction," Ginio, AlisaMeyuhas in Jews," the and Government Venetian "The BenjaminRavid, in Italy," in Medieval ofJews Isolation Inclusion: and Integration "Selective Gruber, D. Samuel Ibid.,260. Ibid.,235 Ibid.,234 R. Stow, Kenneth

’ figure ’ s to guide Christian behaviour behaviour Christian guide to s 23 permanent permanent . fifty 27

Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Medieval of The Jews Minority: Alienated Accusations In Venice, until Venice, In Jews for situation The

n times of p of times n worsened - - T -

6. 8.

thousand had been had

wave Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe Latin of Medieval The Jews Minority: Alienated rsne n h city. the in presence G 24

in the fifteenth century with the preaching of the mendicant orders, as the the as orders, mendicant the of preaching the with century fifteenth the in of came from the Iberian the from came H Jews

HETTOS OF es ee xeld rm iiy n 42 ad hn from then and 1492, in Sicily from expelled were Jews lague in the fourteenth century when century fourteenth the in lague

create e a

nything from cannibalism cannibalism from nything was re, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 8. 2001),Press, University Hopkins Johns Maryland: re, March 1516 March . , and solely and , Even eating with a Jew was believe was Jew a with eating Even d 29

, ed. Simon Simon , ed. posited as posited ;

More t

he Jew was made to personify ‘the entirety of Christian of entirety ‘the personify to made was Jew he in Europe in eaain f es eae oe iey rmtd s public as promoted widely more became Jews of separation Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Mediterranean World after 1492 after World Mediterranean inthe Muslims and Jews, Christians, refugees came refugees by providing an example of what they must never never must they what of example an providing by ,

Latin Europe Latin

J. Bronner (Portland, Oregon: The Littman Library ofJewish Library Littman Oregon: The (Portland, Bronner J. 28 Jews

for the inverse of the ideal Christian, ideal the of inverse the

S hristian one became one hristian Jews e a mr ad oe eih refugees Jewish more and more as Yet

IXTEENTH declined purpose of trade of purpose

Peninsula after Jews were expelled from Spain by the by Spain from expelled were Jews after Peninsula had been banned from staying staying from banned been had traditionally , 265. 8

to they could return to their faith. their to return could they

in in the late Middle Ages with the intensity of of intensity the with Ages Middle late the in

ritualistic murders ritualistic 1497 The Jews of Early ModernVenice of Early The Jews

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 1991), Press, University Harvard (Cambridge:

evd s cpgas for scapegoats as served after

, C they virtually because d to pollute oneself. pollute to d ENTURY

King Manuel of Manuel King

were blamed for poisoning the poisoning for blamed were

impossible. the Venetians objected to objected Venetians the

occurred, and a a and occurred, often in the city the in I TALY , ed. Robert C. Davis Davis C. Robert , ed. h Kndm of Kingdom the 26 used by religious by used migration crisis. crisis. migration Portugal had all all had Portugal Framing Jewish Framing

Christians both Christians

As anti As 30 arrived in the the in arrived 25

In southern southern In the to Due In Italy, the the Italy, In such , ed. Alisa , ed.

for ‘ mythical become. society’ -

Jewish crises more s ,

CEU eTD Collection Governm Deuteronomy 38 37 36 35 34 83. 2001),Press, Modern Venice Early 33 32 112. Publishers, 2002), 1492 after World Mediterranean the Muslims in Christians,and 31 a movement humanist Renaissance the by threat under was t all like in Judaism, cohesion social to importance utmost maintaining the state, of was secular homogeneity modern religious the with Unlike elements. undesirable and desirable both THE GHETTO?WHY practise ofusury urbanised becoming increasingly was that econo an of problems socioeconomic the relieve and wars finance to Romania. helped moneylending lower and upper from goods bringing for responsible were S with connections maintained political a also but burden, crisis. financial a just not caused and 1517 until lasted war This region. H the andI Maximillian Emperor France of XII Louis with up teamed II Julius Pope which in Cambrai, heavy with them left had Mediterranean. eastern the in trade spice the in monopoly their lost had Venetians that meant which India to Africa around as far as the to revenue considerable Republic. bring to potential the had affairs commercial Jewish that realise with was faced swelling wasa of it tointegrate. population people unable Naples

Christians followed the Jewish interpretation of the biblical laws of Exodus 23:24, Leviticus 25:35 Leviticus Exodus23:24, lawsof biblical ofthe interpretation theJewish followed Christians Crypto Ioly Zorattini,Cesare "Jews, Pier Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.,79. in Ponentines," and ofthe Levantines Emergency The Trade: International in "Jews BenjaminArbel, Stow, Settlements in Sixteenth "Sephardic Segre, Renata iwd as viewed 36

31 Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe Latin Medieval of The Jews Minority: Alienated Jews in the early sixteenth century suffered from a constructed identity that incorporated that identity constructed a from suffered century sixteenth early the in Jews R ent and the Jews," ibid. (Johns Hopkins University Press),8. University (JohnsHopkins ibid. theJews," and ent

Many Jews had important trade connections, particularly particularly connections, trade important had Jews Many the economy was concerned. The Portuguese has established a new navigational route navigational new a established has Portuguese The concerned. was economy the and

ather than expelling the Jews the expelling than ather 33

The first two decades of the sixteenth century sixteenth the of decades two first The

23:20

various other communities in the in communities other various particularly , ed. Robert C. Davis and Benjamin Ravid (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Ho Johns The (Baltimore, Maryland: Ravid Benjamin and Davis C. Robert , ed. . non - 38 21, which forbade moneylending toco moneylending forbade 21, which

- Catholic

in an anti an in

financial financial 34 incorrigible incorrigible

Furthermore, the War with the Ottomans at the tur the at Ottomans the with War the Furthermore,

religions, constituted a threat to the Roman Catholic Church Catholic Roman the to threat a constituted religions,

panish - Venetian alliance attempt alliance Venetian losses. - Jews, and the Inquisition," ibid., 89. ibid., theInquisition," and Jews, , and Portuguese economies, and the Levantine Jews Levantine the and economies, Portuguese and

as many other regions had done, the Venetians began to began Venetians the done, had regions other many as t tm we te Church the when time a at 35 ,

- A new war began in 1509, The War of the League of League the of War The 1509, in began war new A without violating Christian religious laws religious Christian violating without Century Italy: A Historical and Geographical Survey," Survey," Geographical and AHistorical Italy: Century , ed. Alisa Meyuhas Ginio (Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Cass Oregon: Frank (Portland, Ginio AlisaMeyuhas , ed. , 303. 9 region between 1510 an 1510 between region

- religionists.

was the nd

ing to curb Venice’s influence in the in influence Venice’s curb to ing See See

an anxious time for the Venetians Venetians the for time anxious an Benjamin Ravid, "The Venetian "The BenjaminRavid,

emerging emerging s oe ad influence and power ’s the d

1541.

Furthermore, Jewish Jewish Furthermore, Marranos who had had who Marranos Reformation. he Middle Ages. Ages. Middle he 32 n of the century century the of n

pkins University University pkins Northern Italy Northern - 38, and 38, and

l Roman oly against the against The Jews of The Jews in

Jews, Jews , and and ,

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CEU eTD Collection 43 42 196. 1971), Press, University in Seventeenth AStudy Cardoso: Issac Ghetto: Italian 41 40 2002),178. Publishers, Cass Oregon: Frank in Ghetto," 39 Nimi Cum the signified presence officials enforcement law and framework, Jews for predictability group interactions reached been compromise solution had community Jewish the of part inside, become and Judaism to convert could they where ghetto the prohibited’. was this Spain in for hat, ghetto. oft contamination’. or association. through corrupted walls wrong. for thatwent things moneylending the area, segregated associate. to want not did population local the whom s with deal time same economy. the with engagement socia was capacity occupational their because but occupations, such towards them drove characteristic however,

Ginio, "Introduction," 9. "Introduction," Ginio, 15. theJews," and Government Venetian "The Ravid, in cited 107, Busta Uffizio, Santo Venezia, di Stato di Archivio 23. theJews," and Government Venetian "The Ravid, ElisabethCrouzet en , l

l s after years on therun after yearson y meant that the Christian popu Christian the that meant 42 , 40 h ghetto The ‘ghetto’ The

and so and

osrce oe centuries, over constructed lhuh often although As one man said, man one As as much as the Venetians. the as much as s Absurdum Absurdum s Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the Mediterranean World after 1492 after World Mediterranean the Muslimsin and Christians, Jews, , falling into a ‘zone of indistinction’, and requiring a specific tailored arrangement to arrangement tailored specific a requiring and indistinction’, of ‘zone a into falling , ee lo aud oelnes mrhns n taes nt eas a inherent an because not traders; and merchants moneylenders, valued also were uch a situation uch a in Italy in Italy

deterioration of deterioration . A . t inhabitants - he Republic of Venice of Republic he

Pavan, "V Pavan, Jewish presence in the city city the in presence Jewish 39 over thethreehundredover years, next and

a a etrl nw nttto ta st peeet o Christian for precedent a set that institution new entirely an was The was

in 1555 placed severe religious and economic constraints on Jews in Rome Rome in Jews on constraints economic and religious severe placed 1555 in

eein eulc ol bnft from benefit could Republic Venetian

n Venice, in

. . Unfortunately, Unfortunately, . benefit for benefit enice between Jerusalem, Byzantium, and Divine Retribution: The Origins ofthe Origins The Retribution: Divine and Byzantium, betweenJerusalem, enice rae frapol whom people a for created ald te names other called

, and were given complete freedom of religious observance within the within completereligious observance of freedom given were , and

‘I have come to this city in order to put on my head this Cardinal’s this head my on put to order in city this to come have ‘I F are subjected subjected are urthermore, the social and political political and social urthermore, the their

The ‘ Judaism

previous ir segregation protected Christian society from ‘ from society Christian protected segregation ir h get a a institution an as ghetto the

Jews or Judaism to converted being of danger in less was lation When other regions in regions other When

41 - . r Century Marrani Century

slig rm as ht iie te xet f their of extent the limited that laws from esulting ’ New Christians who moved t moved who Christians New became a haven for haven a became

had thus beco thus had to rules to in the sixteenth century sixteenth the in was that they they that was existence also

. 10

Whilst

that change at at change that meant that Jews could Jews that meant sm and Jewish Apologetics Jewish sm and , particularly after the infamous Papal Bull Papal infamous the after particularly ,

Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Yerushalmi, Hayim Yosef the state did not wish to expel, yet with yet expel, to wish not did state the

me both desirable and undesirable at the the at undesirable and desirable both me were allowed to settle down in the city the in down settle to allowed were

i t brought a degree degree a brought t y epn Jw wti te iy n a in city the within Jews keeping By it

, ed. Alisa Meyuhas Ginio (Portland, (Portland, Ginio AlisaMeyuhas , ed. forstill today otherminorities exists Italy

Jewish exiles Jewish boundary the whim of the government the of whim the xss usd te oml legal formal the outside exists their adopted this model, it model, this adopted not everyone needed everyone not

o Venice went directly to directly went Venice o (New York: Columbia Columbia York: (New rd conn trade continue to be bl be to continue , . materialised in materialised 43 From Spanish Court to Spanish From

It appeared as if a a if as appeared It f stabi of danger, stain, danger, cin and ections a Jewish a lity and and lity -

usually usually Jewish ghetto amed

or ,

CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 23. 44 now yet inclusion and expulsion scapegoats the perfect preserve were they bad, were times when And bankers. effects’. punitive its and belief of absence the personify to them for only if necessary, judged was society A population. majority the of behaviour the dictate order in become, to not what of examples as used also were They Jew mythical were musicians and doctors worked often popes Roman fit. ghetto the indistinction m psychologically and physically more isolat even became instead and convert, to refused however, arrivals.new of anticipation in expanded, was ghetto the outside converts for house attend to forced and taxes unbearable with burdened were Jews The walls. ghetto the beyond live to order in Judaism their that thought conversion Jews’ the up speeding in that believed near was Daysof End the Inquisitor,that former Chief IV,a Paul Pope convinced had territory European Sant’Angelo badges, were yellow todegradeclearly intended sermons. catholic to attendthem forcingand communities gated into peoplepreviously free locking elsewhere, and

Zimmermann, Zimmermann, Stow, 97 Italy," in Medieval ofJews Isolation and Inclusion:Integration "Selective Gruber, Ibid.,307. Ibid.,305. Stow, 104 Italy," in Medieval ofJews Isolation and Inclusion:Integration "Selective Gruber, Zimmermann, JoshuaD. inority

ed from society. Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe Latin Medieval of The Jews Minority: Alienated The J Minority: Alienated 50 The Counter the was It

, Italy

that was both desirable and undesirable at the same time same the at undesirable and desirable both was that

, arrived. had enter” “to Jews the for moment the foretold, had Paul Saint as and

Jews crig to ccording

’ in which the which in ’ appeal of the of appeal

if conditions inside conditions if n 1555 in

was safely locked away in order to protect the survival of the Christian community. community. Christian the of survival the protect to order in away locked safely was rsne f es ihu advocatin without Jews of presence had found a way to do both at the same time same the at both do to way a found had Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule Nazi and Fascist under inItaly Jews

participated 44

These new laws, which required men to wear yellow pointedyellow wear to required men whichlaws, new These 48 .

Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule Nazi and under Fascist Italy in Jews

sae b Kneh tw ‘h Jw cniud rsne n Christian in presence continued Jews ‘the Stow, Kenneth by stated s

had h Poetn shs ad h tra o Otmn a Ottoman of threat the and schism Protestant The oha imra, ‘w Zimmerman, Joshua ews of Medieval Latin Europe Latin Medieval of ews ghetto normal rule of rule normal -

eomto ta sparked that Reformation

ovrinr sermons. conversionary constantly wavered throughout wavered constantly in the broader community only when and how the government saw government the how and when only community broader the in mlyd tteppl court papal the at employed

the ghetto the for the majority population was that it that was population majority the for lsl wt Jws financiers Jewish with closely law was s was law were harsh enough, they would voluntarily renounce voluntarily would they enough, harsh were , 23. 11 , 242 , 306. Jews

e tms ee od t good, were times hen - uspended and new rules could be could rules new and uspended ter nerto. T integration. their g

he and and

n ocrac wt tee e laws new these with concordance In (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2005),Press, ofCambridge University (Cambridge: the ol hse a ieial process. inevitable an hasten would limit . 49 rain f h Get o Rm in Rome of Ghetto the of creation

t . As an anonymous early Christian early anonymous an As . Yet as night fell, the fell, night as Yet heir 1500 year presence in presence year 1500 heir

their personal freedom.

and and , by placing them in a ‘zone of ‘zone a in them placing by , ’. eih akn firms, banking Jewish 51 -

107. solved the problem of a a of problem the solved - tl nee a a to way a needed Italy 5. he boundary between between boundary he e es ee valued were Jews he

hats and women women and hats dvancement on on dvancement 47 figure of the of figure

Most Jews, Jews, Most applied Europe 46 the ,

and and . He He He

I n ,

CEU eTD Collection 60 59 180. Publishers, 2002), 1492 after World Mediterranean the Muslims in Christians,and 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 Venice to came only trade who subjects Ottoman their were traders Jewish of Some Romania. in advantage connections full take to Venice, in base permanent a establish to Jews Levantine Novo Ghetto compromise economic an reaching eventually poor of time a at the for credit compensated it their so harvest, on depended people local the that knew government the but of hours, outside after theghetto presence revenue for owners property Christian to third a of increase rent a pay goods. secondhand in for except trade in engaging from prevented were community broader the of desires the to according fluctuated do being were legislations ghetto enforced. that ensure to night and day canals these patrolled boats Two were walls ghettoth the of sides two on built High them. paying of responsibility the with charged were Jews the and gates, the guarded guards Christian Four overnight. inside Jews confine to sunset, at closed and sunrise at Levant. the t inside; environment over very created which apartments, their divide vertically develop to allowed only was that area GHETTO things as inall part ifthetake non were they if as but fatherlands, own their in ‘reside they wrote, once author

Ibid.,11. 21. theJews," and Government Venetian "The Ravid, in Ghetto," oftheVenetian Origins on the Research New Functions: Houses, "Owners, EnnioConcina, Zimmermann, Ibid.,9. Ibid.,x. Vene "The Ravid, Robert in cited Anonymous, the Christian community. Christian the o Bonfil, oBonfil, Inside the ghetto was a zone of legal ambiguity. legal of zone a was ghetto the Inside The

that was exempt from taxation so that property owner property that so taxation from exempt was that .

58 56

RULES Only merchants and Jewish doctors treating Christian patients were permitted to be to permitted were patients Christian treating doctors Jewish and merchants Only was expanded to include the new new the include to expanded was Ghetto Novo Ghetto

There were two entrance two were There Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule Nazi and Fascist under inItaly Jews Jewish Life in Renaissance Italy Renaissance Lifein Jewish tian Government and the Jews," 20. theJews," and tianGovernment

Stow, Stow,

he inhabitants came from Spain, France, Germany, Italy, the Balkans and and Balkans the Italy, Germany, France, Spain, from came inhabitants he Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe Latin Medieval of TheJews Minority: Alienated in Venice in

In 1526, after the imposition of a new tax, Jews threatened to leave, to threatened Jews tax, new a of imposition the after 1526, In y were suffery were and citizens things all strangers’. as were ifthey 59

thus only in instances when it was seenas itwas instanceswhen thus in only at overlooked small canals, so that no one inside could seeout. inside onecould no that socanals, small overlooked at

housed approximately 2500 Jews of various ethnicities in an in ethnicities various of Jews 2500 approximately housed tax by granting them new money new them granting by tax

s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 77. 1994), Press, ofCalifornia University (Berkeley:

to the ghetto, both ghetto, the to , 23.

Ghetto Vecchio Ghetto stipulated in the Venetian Charters Venetian the in stipulated , ed. Alisa Meyuhas G AlisaMeyuhas , ed. 12 . 53

As the population increased, Jews had had Jews increased, population the As - rwe conditions. crowded Rules as to what Jews could and couldn and could Jews what to asRules of wh of , for the purpose of encouraging the encouraging of purpose the for , their residence inside the ghetto; the inside residence their s

would not complain not would inio (Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass Cass Oregon: Frank (Portland, inio , 24 ich had ich . In 1.

lending and trade permits, trade and lending the Roman Ghetto Roman the 54 57

gates that w that gates In Venice, Venice, In in in t a a multicultural a was It the ultimate ultimate the

. 60 - citizens; they they citizens;

In 1541, the 1541, In

Jews had to to had Jews ere opened ere about their about Jews, Jews, interest interest to sub to 52 , Jews ,

’t a - CEU eTD Collection xiv. 2001), Press, University JohnsHopkins The Maryland: (Baltimore, 67 66 65 64 63 62 Press),80. University JohnsHopkins 61 no a in existed rather but community, Italian the from excluded one became outside. from them upon imposed restrictions the with deal to which in ways negotiating of consisted usually ghetto the nature. religious and secular c take demands, taxation state’s the ghetto confines living their of segregation confined inside were they that knowing them, among dispersed being Jews without safer felt public c almost ghettos the of period Bonfil, Roberto by Jew every changed not had ghettoization migration a to solution the protect an to response in suspended was pawnshopsmanage Christianneedy. for the were Jews afloat, keep to struggling were poor the when 1573, as majority, the for law the save to was minority the for law the laws. civiland divine both of violation wasa which usury, in i reside was Venice ghetto. the in reside to temporary, or permanent whether t order in but intervals, short for

Robert C. Davis, "Introduction," in "Introduction," Davis, C. Robert Ibid. Bonfil, 100. Italy," in Medieval ofJews Isolation and Inclusion:Integration "Selective Gruber, 119. Press), University JohnsHopkins (The ibid. Republic," Ghetto "The Malkiel, J. David Press),12. University Hopkins (Johns ibid. Jews," the and Government Venetian "The BenjaminRavid, (The ibid. Ponentines," and ofthe Levantines Emergency The Trade: International in "Jews BenjaminArbel,

, the ghetto the

n the city had been had city the n Jews created their own form of self of form own their created Jews As we have seen, the ghetto began as a a as began ghetto the seen, have we As Jewish Life in Renaissance Italy Renaissance Lifein Jewish ompletely

living outside living

survivalof gvn te n rcus fr ea protection legal for recourse no them giving , again , because the both positively and negatively constructed nature of ‘Jewish identity’ identity’ ‘Jewish of nature constructed negatively and positively both the because , . walls walls

, eee i 15 we te eae ere ta priso fr h Jw to Jews the for permission that decreed Senate the when 1553 in renewed

Eventually

and the freque the and ‘t he overall attitude toward the Jews was in fact far more liberal liberal more far fact in was Jews the toward attitude overall he

the broader community. thebroader hn t a be before’, been had it than at night. night. at a designated designated

extended extended n economic and hy xse i a uey ipltcl pc i wih at n right and fact which in space biopolitical purely a in existed They 67

Of course, however, the nature of the political discussions within within discussions political the of nature the however, course, Of

, 72.

h get mdl a aotd throughout adopted was model ghetto the The Jews of Early Modern Venice Modern Early The Jewsof The price of their tolerated presence, presence, tolerated their of price The o enforce ghetto policy it became necessary to require all Jews, Jews, all require to necessary became it policy ghetto enforce o

emergency situation emergency ncy of attacks against Jews against attacks of ncy are of ghetto maintenance, and resolve basic issues of both a both of issues basic resolve and maintenance, ghetto of are ad h ls o ter ea ad oiia status political and legal their of loss the and , for the sole purpose of preventing Christians from engaging engaging from Christians preventing of purposesole the for gh etto was etto - 63 rss und into turned crisis government, as they had to organise the payment of payment the organise to had they as government,

13 Yet w

to be to

state of exception of state

s a as hat may have been intended as a shortterm been as a haveintended may hat expelled from the Papal State. Papal the from expelled , and new rules were created created were rules new and , ccusations of ritual murder disappeared disappeared murder ritual of ccusations , ed. Robert C. Davis and Benjamin Ravid Ravid Benjamin and Davis C. Robert , ed. 61

The right to to right The 62

Te wr nihr nldd nor included neither were They . Thus, the justification for breaking breaking for justification Thus,the markedly ; a territorial space in space territorial a ; oe hn he cnuis of centuries three than more told that they were required to required were they that told in all all in - man’s land land man’s however, was the physical physical the was however, states of exception of states

Jewish money Jewish

declined

tl, hn n 1562 in when Italy,

subjected to the the to subjected . 66

64 The general general The . in order to order in

during the during nie the Inside which law which As argued argued As lending in lending .

Then, in in Then,

CEU eTD Collection 68 constituted tolonger threat sovereignpower. a features of humanity biological s its of spirituality which in era new a in ushered and affairs, system tobebased, is believed Citiz and Man of Rights the of Declaration citizen equal as regarded be should Jews system, state secular new the in that, and aberration wasan thatJewish segregation decided had exploita that authorities local of whims

Agamben, Agamben, The tive Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life Bare Power and Sovereign Sacer: Homo

or conversionary purposes. Ghetto Novo Ghetto ubjects

was abolished in 1797 after the fall of the of fall the after 1797 in abolished was bt rather but , 68

became part of political strategy.became ofpolitical part

put an end to the prominence ofthe tothe Catholic put anend prominence inpolitical Church lre together blurred

ih h pouto o booe, n hc te bas the which in biopower, of production the with , 126. n f 79 uo wih u mdr nation modern our which upon 1789, of en h sovereign the

their public and and public their of the sacre of the was

Judaism, as a spiritual ‘other’, no Judaism, spiritual as a no ‘other’,

o ogr ocre wt the with concerned longer no d and inalienable rights man of inalienable d and Venetian rvt lives private Republic. Napoleon Republic. s . T .

he French he o either for - state ic

CEU eTD Collection 72 Paradigms New Towards EuropeanLegacy: 71 10. 2000), Centre, Rights Roma 70 Law Journal of International 69 is market housing the access to inability their so limbo, legal a in or stateless are Italy in Roma thi so and poor be must housing official without people that assumedjust was it money; thisstolen fact in had Roma the that given proof lira’. billion one than more worth possession their objectsin found We criminals. manag [we] camps illegal dismantling from ‘apart that release press a in said Lusi, Luigi Dr Affairs, Nomad for Advisor Rome’s of City the 2000, May 28 on settlement e smooth visibly the thus ofthefunctioning state. living, of style and standard certain a ensure to function: modern its ‘filthy in living for bridg under sides, road on settlements unofficial criticized went’. they vagrants; wherever disease and dirty sewage ‘stench, as with associated stigmatized and encampments’ being Roma the in resulted nation modern the deviance, cross. the on While Jesus crucify to used were that nails the made have to believed even were and devil, the with sixteenthfornicate evil, and and havoc wreak children, fifteenthsteal to rumoured the were Roma centuries In society. new a of preoccupations the with line in considerably rights responsibilitiesthe new and oftheir citizens. that governments expected accept they did nor them, upon imposed boundaries territorial new the to conform always not gover those from consent the obtain to has theoryto work contract social pr for a order in as into system, new this turned for challenge a presented religion Roma The biopower. with of production obsession an time, Over subjects. its of health and life the with concerned became instead and people its of spirituality the in interest conomic slumps for citizens’ financial woes. After evicting the people in an informal Roma Roma informal an in people the evicting After woes. financial citizens’ for slumps conomic

Approximately five million euros. See See euros. million five Approximately ofHate," Geography Political Towardsa Society: in European 'Other' as Gypsy Laughlin, "The Mac Jim inItaly," in ofRoma Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland: A Democracies: Emerging and ofSecession Theory "The McGee, WRobert

society is no longer concerned with mystical capabilities, religious loyalties or sexual sexual or loyalties religious capabilities, mystical with concerned longer no is society Roma today are also stereotyped as beggars and thieves, often blamed in times of of times in blamed often thieves, and beggars as stereotyped also are today Roma Middle the From nation secular the of birth the with onward, 1789 From N OMAD

28 (1991): 450. (1991): 28

Ages to the Modern Era, the constructed identity of Roma changed Roma of identity constructed the Era, Modern the to Ages C - state’s preoccupation with issues such a such issues with preoccupation state’s – AMPS IN

4, that is, for a government to secure legitimacy over its peopleits over legitimacy secure to government a foris, that ERRC, "Campland: Racial Segregation of Roma in Italy," 33. Italy," in ofRoma Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland:

no. 3 (2008):41. 3 no. s money must logically have been stolen. In fact, many many fact, In stolen. been have logically must money s ned. C ONTEMPORARY 15

es, or in fields, defy what the nation the what defy fields, in or es, 69

As a stateless nation of people, the Roma did Roma the people, of nation stateless a As Country Repo Country rt Series rt Constitutional Solution," Solution," Constitutional

- (Budapest, Hungary: European European Hungary: (Budapest, state, sovereign power lost lost power sovereign state, s housing and hygiene has hygiene and housing s I ocpto wt the with eoccupation TA d o vc dangerous evict to ed

There was no was There

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70 it

CEU eTD Collection Politics 76 54. ERRC,2014), Hungary: (Budapest, 75 74 73 li private the which in places deviants; social of group a for facilities correctional as presented huts. metal insulated poorly or caravans of consisting areas to transferred forcibly inhabitants their with bulldozed, systematically been have settlements Romani unofficial where NOMAD CAMPS? WHY economic and social the strengthen to order in force, labour and market housing the both with engage they that and nation these of nature the From become. to people its want not does sovereign the what embody to made is society in ‘outgroup’ an of identity constructed the that occurrence common a is It settle. to unwilling and work, to unwilling dangerous, vagrants; controlkeeping themassesunder re were settlements that backlash public unoffic from the Roma 700 camp. rather new the of but building the prompted man, and order public Roma disturbed the of actions the not was it Interestingly, settl Romani the to fire set gasoline and guns clubs, wooden with armed locals morning next The girl. local a killed and hit accidentally man Romani a when 1999 June 21 on occurred that accident road confession. a force to order ab physically to known been have officers police and commit, didn’t they crimes for blamed often are Roma Consequently, mentality. public the in criminality and community cre they way this in and identity, ethnic their specify always tabloids person, Roma a by committed is crime a if communities, all in present is crime Whilst r in engage to capacity financial their necessarily not documentation, of lack their to related often eal estate. eal

Isabella Clough Marinaro, "Between Surveillance and Exile: Biopolitics and the Roma in Italy," Italy," inRoma the and Exile: Biopolitics and Surveillance "Between Marinaro, IsabellaClough in of"Happiness"," Pursuit "The ElizabethVivaldi, Ibid.,72 Ibid.,37

1, no. 2 (2009): 278 (2009): 2 1, no. - state is concerned with assuring that its citizens maintain a respectable sedentary lifestyle, sedentary respectable a maintain citizens its that assuring with concerned is state Over the past thirty years, Italy has witnessed the construction of many ‘nomad camps’, ‘nomad many of construction the witnessed has Italy years, thirty past the Over I peace. public the disturb who criminals dangerous as viewed are Roma the Furthermore, te oen times, modern the n - - 73. 45.

mns n doe u oe huad epe wt plc rfsn t intervene. to refusing police with people, thousand one out drove and ements - located to the camp to keep the peace. the keep to camp the to located stability ofthe state.

- 9.

73 rather than

surrounded by high metal fencing, often on city outskirts, usually usually outskirts, city on often fencing, metal high by surrounded In La Scam La In

therefore,

a direct response direct a criminality. toRoma pia in Naples, a nomad camp was built as the result of a a of result the builtas was camp nomad Naples, a in pia

oa r seetpd s rmnl, hee a thieves criminals, as stereotyped are Roma Going Nowhere? Western Balkan Rom WesternBalkan Nowhere? Going 16

76 stereotypes we can see that the modern modern the that see can we stereotypes

On the surface, ‘nomad camps’ are are camps’ ‘nomad surface, the On 75 ate a connection between the Roma Roma the between connection a ate

Thus, the problem became one of one became problem the Thus, a and EU Visa Liberation Visa EU and a

Bulletin ofBulletin Italian use

oa in Roma d dirty nd

ial fe 74

CEU eTD Collection 83 82 81 80 Italy," inRoma the Addressing 79 78 Studies ModernItalian 77 Northern to came who Sinti many as first, at mistake honest them describe tointegrate. unable is it that noticeable visibly are who people of influx mass a with faced is Italy again once market, housing the or labour the either in participating people undocumented often and impoverished th Roma both Due with Roma. were associated whom of many arrived, migrants of wave further a Bulgaria, and Romania incorporate to EU the of expansion the With limbo. legal a in reasons adequ provide or status virtually refugee to and claims complicated long, is Italy in status inaccessible. their regularising for system the because post the in citizenship access stateless currently are Italy in Roma of Thousands members. family extended pre join to flocked refugees as drastically status. economic their further ofthis to opportunity took advantage Roma many to work,and Italy to travel the rightto and emigration, exceeded immigration that Italy country in time first the was 1970s The crisis. ghetto, actually much sweeping a problemunderthedeeper rug. problem a solving for praised is it as citizens; are sedentary respectable, into Roma turning inhabitants is it that belief thethe from benefits government of majority the when camps’ ‘nomad called life’ of way sedentary normal a to adapt and educated be ‘must nomads that spread belief popular controlled. be can Roma of

Barbara Pierro, Emma Ferulano, and Kitti Baracsi, "Residence Nowhere,"ibid., 36. Nowhere,"ibid., "Residence Kitti Baracsi, and EmmaFerulano, Pierro, Barbara Migration "Romani Verneuil, de Maylis 55. of"Happiness"," Pursuit "The Vivaldi, " Picker, Kn Expert and State The Minorities. "Abnormalising Gabriele, Roccheggiani and Picker Giovanni Le 'In'. "Welcome Picker, Giovanni theEte in Humanitarianism and "Roma Daniele, Ulderico and Marinaro IsabellaClough 78

in order to order in

h dsicie hrceitc bu te oa s otae i te inmr sd to used misnomer the in portrayed is Roma the about characteristic distinctive The large a as Just it is it was unprepared. was Welcome 'In'. Left Welcome 83 the migration of Roma to Italy over t over Italy to Roma of migration the

Until now, the Italian government has been either unwilling or unable to process to unable or unwilling either been has government Italian the now, Until –

16, no. 5 (2011): 625. (2011): 5 16, no. their ‘nomadness’. The idea of a ‘nomadic’ population may well have been an been have well may population ‘nomadic’ a of idea The ‘nomadness’. their cure

their anti their 81 prece refugees Jewish of influx - With the Balkan conflicts in the 1990s, immigration to Italy increa Italy to immigration 1990s, the in conflicts Balkan the With Wing Tuscany and Romani Migrants (1987 Migrants Romani and Tuscany Wing 80 Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power and Culture in Studies Identities:Global

77 During this time citizens from the former Yugoslavia were granted granted were Yugoslavia former the from citizens time this During t r hl b te oa pplto, n te mosblt of impossibility the and population, local the by held are at

Once the idea of the ‘nomad’ became fixed in the local psyche, the psyche, local the in fixed became ‘nomad’ the of idea the Once

- ft - uolv tts ne hi Yugosla their once states Yugoslav social behaviour. social - Wing Tuscany and Romani Migrants (1987 Migrants Romani and Tuscany Wing

Resulting in Statelessness: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina,"ibid. and ofBosnia Case The Statelessness: in Resulting of health, crime and public security. In reality, however, it is it however, reality, In security. public and crime health, of

t lgl sitne o niiul wo r fr other for are who individuals to assistance legal ate - established migrant networks, often consisting of of consisting often networks, migrant established 17 79

he past few decades few past he This does not does This

e te salsmn o te Venetian the of establishment the ded

- 21, no. 2 (2014): 195. (2014): 2 21, no. 2007)," 610. 2007)," Italy before the 1980s did in fact in did 1980s the before Italy

explain, however, why they are are they why however, explain, - psprs expired, passports v n at not fact in 2007)," ibid.: 616. ibid.: 2007),"

that rnal City," City," rnal

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to ,

being unable to unable being nomadic. h prejudices the owledge owledge Journal of

The and and sed the CEU eTD Collection 90 89 (2003):75. 1 88 87 86 and State The Minorities. Anti Progress?Neo 85 Italy," Sinti inContemporary and 84 the of mayor the Milan, of province the in Navilglio sil Cernusco of town the in ago, long so In settle. to result. a as yearsfor place to place from moving locationsbeen familieshave some and months, five new out seeking keep forced example, for Milan, in settlements must unauthorised they and demolished are settlements informal their which in evictions of series a of consequence a rather but choice, lifestyle a not is in Yet another. to settlement informal one from moving constantly are communities to camp.Mr relocated nomad F.S.hiswere a family and Calabrian the and houses, the Sicilian bulldozed authorities the 1985 In houses. makeshift in non with lived he where hill a of foot the at shack a himself He 1969. in Italy to came who Yugoslavia from man Roma a was F.S. Mr policies. housing Italian of nature racist the illustrated Rome, in camp Casilino the from F.S., Mr man, a of ERRC of recognition without and refugees, or migrants citizens, Italian are they whether of regardless populations Sinti and Roma yours’. like life a and houses want we f move to prefer they if asked when consensus, general the and Italy, throughout Roma with interviews conducted has (ERRC) Centre Rights Roma European The lifestyles. sedentary led previously Europe, Eastern from migrants economic as came who policy. on discussions any in present they were nor beforehand, consulted not were Roma Unfortunately, tempora Romani traditional be culture. to believed was what protect to designed were they as camps, first the Th immigrants. Romani for camps left the was basis. seasonal a on work to preferring travelling, to attachment strong a display

Ibid.,28 22. Italy," in ofRoma Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland: in Italy Policy Labelling and Roma Kosovo 'Refugee'? a Be 'Nomad' a Can "How Sigona, Nando 11. Italy," in ofRoma Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland: 'In'. Left "Welcome Picker, See Anti "Introduction Sigona, Nando and Marinaro IsabellaClough - Gypsy Politics Gypsy Giovanni Picker, "Welcome 'In'. Left "Welcome Giovanni Picker, s 85 The stereotype of ‘nomad’ is enforced in the public psyche by the fact that many Roma many that fact the by psyche public the in enforced is ‘nomad’ of stereotype The

iy ete on eoe oig n gi, nta o cetn uofca settlements. unofficial creating of instead again, on moving before down settle rily - were given houses in a government apartment building apartment government a in houses given were 31. The goal was to allow nomads to keep travelling, and to have sites in which they could they which in sites have to and travelling, keep to nomads allow to was goal The 86

- However, However, - Nationalism and the Case of Romani Migrants in Italy," inin Italy," Migrants ofRomani theCase and Nationalism ig einl oni wo a te n o te 90, ea cntutn fenced constructing began 1980s, the of end the at who, council regional wing , ed. Michael Stewart (London: Hurst & Co, 2012); Picker and Gabriele, "Abnormalising Gabriele, and Picker Co, 2012); & Hurst (London: Stewart Michael , ed.

Expert Knowledge Addressing the Roma in Italy." theRoma Addressing Knowledge Expert

the - Wing Tuscany and Romani Migrants (1987 Migrants Romani and Tuscany Wing Roma who were forcibly displaced in the conflicts in Y in conflicts the in displaced forcibly were who Roma

their previous sedentary lifestyles. sedentary previous their Journal of Modern Italian Studies ModernItalian Journal of

ere was a well a was ere - Wing Tuscany and Romani Migrants (1987 Migrants Romani and Tuscany Wing 87

Yet the label ‘nomad’ is applied indiscriminately to both to indiscriminately applied is ‘nomad’ label the Yet 18

- meaning ideology behind the construction of construction the behind ideology meaning

16, no. 5 (2011): 58 16, no.(2011): 5 - 89 Gypsyism and the Politics of Exclusion: Roma Roma Exclusion: of thePolitics and Gypsyism evictions occur on average every two to two every average on occur evictions

- - Roma from Calabria and Sicily, alsoSicily, and Calabria from Roma 2007)," 614. 2007)," The Gypsy 'Menace'. Populism and the New the and Populism 'Menace'. The Gypsy 88

rom place to place, was that ‘No, that was place, to place rom

One particular story told by the the by told story particular One

half a kilometre away, whereas away, kilometre a half 4.

- 2007)," ibid. 2007)," 84 ,"

In Tuscany, it Tuscany, In ; "Left Wing Wing ; "Left Sociology ugoslavia, or or ugoslavia, reality, this reality,

37, no. 37, no. 90 s

built Not and CEU eTD Collection 93 92 91 Rom Since schemes. integration and services social to with access associated costs significant and changes bureaucratic on also willingness but just government, the not of require behalf would Roma stateless of status legal the Resolving b ethnicity. label a than rather stereotype behavioural a is ‘nomadism’ as racism, of accusations inhabitants camp of traits cultural centres, or immigration detention as function camps these part, In elements. certain accommodate to equipped deviants. social criminals and hence and that ‘normal’; not is Roma of lifestyle the that seek asylum of or migration, of condemnation explicit the for allow not do sentiments liberal Modern threat. at is state the of functioning smooth the when situations in community ‘protected’ its of part a sover responsethe to frequentlya are ‘Camps’ Africa. Northern from refugees of boats many of arrival the with particularly lens, emergency an through viewed is today Italy in situation immigration The West. the to Europeans Eastern t with pressure this increased has EU the of expansion The organised. nation Westphalian the on pressure putting politi that implicitly and bad; is nomadism that pr today behave many way Roma is inextricably linked to their social stigmatization, legal status. and the century, sixteenth the in them upon enforced laws the of product a was identity constructed expectationthis citizen’, being despite‘respectable of role the play to opportunity an given not frequently are Roma the circumstances, these Under Italy. evicted, are they as officers leave. to them encourage to order in town’, the in vans camper in residing temporarily were Roma of group a where area an on manure spray to town Mr PaoloFrigeriodec

Ibid.,37 See 2000. year Inthe euros 2500 Approximately eoccupation with migration. A migration. with eoccupation cal issues in contemporary society. In a world of increased globalisation, global mobility is mobility global globalisation, increased of world a In society. contemporary in issues cal What the ‘outgroup’ of a society society a of ‘outgroup’ the What mi of choice the Here - 45. mobility,

ers, and certainly not of mobility within the EU, yet the term ‘nomad’ emphasises ‘nomad’ term the yet EU, the within mobility of not certainly and ers,

igiig tl’ bracai dfcece b paig h bae pn the upon blame the placing by deficiencies bureaucratic Italy’s disguising ERRC, "Campland: Racial Segregation of Roma in Italy," 8. inItaly," Roma of Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland: s lo tgaie b lnig t ih pplto that population a with it linking by stigmatized also is

lared thathe lire lared pay Italian would five million 93

which adds to the impossibility of ever legalising their status in in status their legalising ever of impossibility the to adds which snomer is important because it sheds light on the government’s government’s the on light sheds it because important is snomer

scaig th ssociating .

The term ‘nomad camp’ also allows the government to avoid avoid to government the allows also camp’ ‘nomad term The usuall mobility - state system upon which political communities are communities political which upon system state eign feeling of a loss of control over who becomes who over control lossof of a feeling eign e ‘outgroup’ with nomadism with ‘outgroup’ e mobility 19 sgiis s wans i a ytm that system a in weakness a is signifies y

s a. n mblt ad irto ae key are migration and mobility And bad. is oeie ter ouet ae on p by up torn are documents their Sometimes

is not normal. The concept of nomadism, of concept The normal. not is imposed upon them. Just as the Jewish the uponthem.Justas imposed a have been lumped together as one one as together lumped been have a

e eet irto of migration recent he 91

to ‘any farmer willingto ‘any tells broader society society broader tells

r seetpd as stereotyped are sd on ased is ill -

CEU eTD Collection 95 94 creates presence their as happen, to this want security’. and integrity notdo they electorate’s fact in disappear,should Roma thatthe argue publicly may politicians whilst essence, the of protectors the as themselves portray thus can potential device,presenting thegroup’s ofas electoral assumed Roma significant a inherent criminalization Mari Clough As beeninternment. their by peace the keeping actively as seen be can government the that so demonised have Roma identity. criminal constructed their through Roma the of presence the from pop local the by undesirable as viewed it ambiguous, are rights s making of necessity se asylum and immigration the suspends temporarily it law, for thelaw and thepurpose ofupholding In ghettos. it so control, state the that outcomes violent in results which something them, towards hostility public the puts people its of control lost has government the that signifies law the outside Violence la with incompatible are violence terms tolerate never can law the ‘what exclusion explicit its by law the of has ofgovernment optedfor‘zone a thecreation illegalitywithin indistinction’ where is placed a status their legalising by scandal this resolving than Rather community. of Italian incapable broader the are in they participating law, the outside exist they as long as yet, critiqued, perpetually are they nation the what defies behaviour no a in This them us. leaves of one citizens; respectable become; to allowed not are they that something become Italian are even who citizens.indiscriminately, toRoma applied been have policies camp’ ‘nomad culture, homogenous a have to believed group, ethnic

Clough Marinaro, "Between Surveillance and Exile: Biopolitics and the Roma in Italy," 270. Italy," intheRoma and Exile: Biopolitics and Surveillance "Between CloughMarinaro, in citied Benjamin1921, –

The benefit of the ghettos for the Italian government is that, along with suspending the suspending with along that, is government Italian the for ghettos the of benefit The situation unique a from suffer Italy in Roma The for crime as the basis for arguing that they must disappear or be punishe be or disappear must they that arguing for basis the as crime for is the existence of a violence outside the law; and this is not because the ends of such a a such of ends the because not is this and law; the outside violence a of existence the is existence of the of existence this space, where the rule of law is suspend is law of rule the where space, this

has sought to contain contain to sought has d obtn seetps n peuie ht nii ter oil oiiy the mobility, social their inhibit that prejudice and stereotypes combating nd ao rus ‘tla pltcas n l sds ae nraigy sd the used increasingly have sides all on politicians ‘Italian argues, naro - man’s land, creating a situation in which integration is impossible. Their Their impossible. is integration which in situation a creating land, man’s

Agamben, Agamben, also law itself into crisis into itself law eker procedures. Yet procedures. eker allows them to be used as pawns in a political game. Although Although game. political a in pawns as used be to them allows

The State of Exception The State – – -

state sees as the so the as sees state in a a in what it feels as a threat with which it is impossible to come to come to impossible is it which with threat a as feels it what , u bcue f is ee xsec otie h law”.’ the outside existence mere “its of because but w, this problem by locking it away, locking by problem this state of exception of state lto, h Iain oenet a atal benefitted actually has government Italian the ulation, preventing potential a . An inability to socially integrate Roma has crea has Roma integrate socially to inability An . a problem which politicians can be seen to ‘solve’. to seen be can politicians which problem a 20 , by placing Roma in a no a in Roma placing by , , 53.

cial responsibility of its citizens, for which which for citizens, its of responsibility cial . As once proclai once As .

ed, inhabitants ed, –

they are perpetually are they sei bracai cags to changes bureaucratic ystemic crisis. through thethrough

are abandoned by the law the by abandoned are med by Walter Benjamin, Walter by med - man’s land where their where land man’s

establishment

told they must they told d. Politicians d. , but it also it but ,

cannot cannot 95

ted

In In of 94

CEU eTD Collection 102 101 100 99 98 Veneto. See 97 96 bio be to citizen’ ‘the of duty emergen children’s experienceofsegregation. camps, in friends Romani visit to children their allow No rights. basic of violation a as citizens by viewed be would and homes, their to visitors bring to allowed not are Roma that means This out. and in goes who over presiding gatekeepers ERRC, life’. the Italian with, by interaction research or to contact even According or in, participation full of Roma depriving to Europe NOMAD CAMP RULES ofBerlusconi’s approval popular decision. caughtbe canthey that monitored,beso to peoplefor allow community. broader the protecting of name the in solve, actively to seen be could he which problem a created he away, locked be somehow all must and criminality to by managed hands. own their into matters all in as Just authority. municipal forcibl been were Rome in settlements unofficial woman. Italian an killing and raping of accused falsely was migrant Romani a which Cross. Red the and army the police, legislation, Emergency the Nomad securityemergency allowing measures to bec support. popular of lot a gained consequently example for the 2008,of electoral campaign maintain the In tool. political a used as be can that ‘outgroup’ an of statusquo they because intentional, sometimes are policies integration Counterproductive

Vivaldi, "The Pursuit of "Happiness"," 57. of"Happiness"," Pursuit "The Vivaldi, Neo Wing "Left Progress? Picker, l and Campania, and Lazio ofLombardy, to theregions applied initially was legislation The 56. of"Happiness"," Pursuit "The Vivaldi,

Ibid.,83. Ibid.,20 17. Italy," in ofRoma Segregation Racial ERRC, "Campland: Drawing on Foucault’s discussion of biopolitics, of discussion Foucault’s on Drawing Centre Rights Roma European the As cy laws allow for individuals who demonstrate behaviour outside the expected role and role expected the outside behaviour demonstrate who individuals for allow laws cy -

2. Clough Marinaro and Daniele, "Roma and Humanitarianism in the Eternal City," the in Humanitarianism and "Roma Daniele, and Marinaro Clough

os a ytmtc pbil ognsd n sosrd ewr o gets ie at aimed ghettos of network sponsored and organised publicly systematic, a boast , Berlusconi promised ‘zero tolerance against Roma, criminals and clandestines’, and clandestines’, and criminals Roma, against tolerance ‘zero promised Berlusconi , thejudicial

system

that - Nationalism and theCas and Nationalism , however, by framing the argument that all Roma are predisposedareRoma thatall framing the argument by however, ,

99 - oiiie. E politicised.

their own freedom of movement is restricted, something restricted, is movement of freedom own their h rpn ad iln o a oa could woman a of killing and raping The tts f exception, of states

In part, this decree was in response to the ‘Mailat case’ in case’ ‘Mailat the to response in was decree this part, In 101

hr i rsrce acs isd te camps, the inside access restricted is there xamp 96

21 has noted has

Then,

y relocated to 'nomad camps' run by the local the by run camps' 'nomad to relocated y e of Romani Migrants in Italy," 5. Italy," in Migrants ofRomani e e o booiia cnrl n oa c nomad in control biopolitical of les

h lw a ssedd n ofcas took officials and suspended was law the 102

after Berlusconi was elected, he enacted he elected, was Berlusconi after

we can see how how see can we , Italy is currently ‘the only country in country only ‘the currently is Italy , something which further amplifies the amplifies further which something before n - Romani parents usually do not do usually parents Romani

committing a crime, hencethe crime, committinga authorised camps and camps authorised ater to Piemonte and and to Piemonte ater

624.

have Fenced off areas off Fenced arried outbythe

aiy be easily 98

Roma in Roma which amps

then with with en 100

CEU eTD Collection 104 103 new indefinite their are ghettos these and live, to place safe a for looking people sedentary residence temporary for erected outside. longer the no on are They experienced often persecution and attacks face they do nor evictions, forced previous movementis their restrictedwhere their from different so space, finite not a in fences, or walls behind concealed is are they now that only settlements, unofficial housing their of nature ‘makeshift’ the Thus mud. in covered either is ground The shack. months to inthewinter hotduring summer,just which turns getsextremely dirt which or asphalt a build or caravan own their buy to afford can they housi this with provided water. running to access insufficient and systems sewage defective with sometimes trailers, old or containers barracks, makeshift in live inside people The warrant. the to away taken be can Roma and look, police that no with often morning, the in early or warning. night at late usually camps, the in frequently occur round and curfews surveillance, hour 24 fingerprinting, include

Clough Marinaro, "Between Surveillance and Exile: Biopolitics and the Roma in Italy," 278 Italy," intheRoma and Exile: Biopolitics and Surveillance "Between CloughMarinaro, Ibid.,23. h ol bnft o te oa s ht hy o o eprec te osat het of threat constant the experience not do they that is Roma the for benefit only The 103

period oftime.

When crimes in the region are committed, ‘nomad camps’ are usually the first place place first the usually are camps’ ‘nomad committed, are region the in crimes When on the run, run, the on

g a otn ecmr ut oe n ih xsig naiat until inhabitants existing with in move must newcomers often as ng,

they are there to stay. to there are they -

and they can they be and controll easily s s uh f msoe a te em nmd. hs are These ‘nomad’. term the as misnomer a of much as is 22

For this reason the reason this For

police station and questioned without a without questioned and station police - ed the . 104 -

clock pol clock

They are not necessarily necessarily not are They

term ‘camp’ ‘camp’ term - 9. icing. Police raids Police icing.

home -

a place a for an an for CEU eTD Collection – deviants the is it today nation whereas the siege, of under survival was Church Catholic Roman the century sixteenth the sove instance each In when survival. own its was controlled, protecting really was it be what could behaviour their where facilities correctional in away them locking p the situations, these of both in so, the ritualistic their through disease and death for responsible be to an prejudiceof veil a under disguised broughtstate, be back thelaw could within through exclusion its explicit violatin behaviour, deviant their of illegality the where and institution special a of establishment the required it integrated, nor expelled be neither could ‘outgroup’ this since cases, both In state. the of stability and economy the strengthen to order in force labour the and become to people its wants government and arrangements living unruly the whereas apostasy, encourage might and Christians on influence bad a were Jews that behaviour bad their by majority the threatened group minority the that cases citizenshi or law religious that be law, of rule the uphold to intended were that laws emergency sparked people ‘problematic’ of influx large a where crisis, w Rights Human on Convention European the nece were Jews ha would this as expelled, second the in Christianity, t threatening as seen cas each in ‘outgroup’ The policies. these of creation emerges that pattern a is There Roma. the with time this only ago, years hundred five had it policy a repeating is government Italian the studies, case these from see can we As

ould be in violation of Italy’s international obligations international Italy’s of violation in be ould emergency laws emergency Roma are blamed for crime and theft that supposedly stems from their deviant lifestyle. And And lifestyle. deviant their from stems supposedly that theft and crime for blamed are Roma h ra reason real The at

a critical time upset the system’ the upset time critical a ssary for economic survival, economic for ssary – –

to ensure social stability and control.to ensure stability and social S a ‘zone of indistinction’ where they could be both included and excluded, and included both be could they where indistinction’ of ‘zone a he EGREGATION - state

oie ednis f h Rm ebde te poie f ht the what of opposite the embodied Roma the of tendencies mobile es n Roma and Jews ooeet o te nr’ eie b te tt; n h frt case first the in state; the by desired ‘norm’ the of homogeneity ve had detrimental consequences. consequences. detrimental had ve

ae h ‘epcal ctzn. Y citizen’. ‘respectable the case that

is at threat threat at is d false stereotypes.false d ublic –

s balance, and so the sovereign used drastic measures drastic used sovereign the so and balance, s

sedentary citizens who engage in the housing market housing the in engage who citizens sedentary in modern times, states are bound bound are states times, modern in ee iwd s hetnn t te oeeg was sovereign the to threatening as viewed were

P huh te oenet a poetn te by them protecting was government the thought . Suddenly issuing Suddenly . from 23 OLICY OLICY

e exists in a peculiar limbo, because they arethey because limbo, peculiar a in exists e lbl oiiy A aue nlx f social of influx acute An mobility. global . In each situation we see an immigration an see we situation each In . that way same the In p responsibilities. It was feared in both both in feared was It responsibilities. p R g the law of God and the laws of the the of laws the and God of law the g EVISITED While in the sixteenth century the century sixteenth the in While t ete cud hy ipy be simply they could neither et

an expulsion order for all Roma all for order expulsion an murders and spiritual pollution, spiritual and murders reignty was in crisis in was reignty –

in in a stateof exception

– Jews were believed were Jews

by treaties by the Papacy feared Papacy the prior to prior such as as such

– . the the

in -

CEU eTD Collection 106 105 settlem those within living communal authority of distrust a and povert stigmatization, social as such Issues citizens. are they when situations behaving in by even citizens secondly yet refugees, or stateless being by firstly ways, two in citizen crisis’. to sovereignty of fiction original human the between nation the of order the in element this and intocrisis. throwsthe blue, sovereignty n pill, red the took people these ‘ThefromMatrix’, analogy an useTo subjects. its of standards nation they what defying contro bureaucratic outside communities nation the strengthen to and economy the to contribute citizens its of responsibility the as sees state today’s in participating not are documentation, legal of bureaucracy the even or force, labour the market, housing the with engage not do who and la a of presence visual the but order, social and stability threaten not do Judaism as such minorities religious today, Italy In lives. our live we how with is obsession the today people, its of salvation peculiarlimbobetweenin a exclusion theJews inclusion and like order, and nor religious law the stability of un as seen being to due expulsions of serious a suffered They religion. with associated weren’t they and Jews, the than minority smaller a both business. state become have lives private people’s t of birth the with only is it Foucault, by argued As concerned. been have not would century sixteenth the in Republic Venetian the which with something arrangements; pecu as being discourse in presented are camps Nomad threat. paramount today’s constitutes nomadism with associated “other” internal an thus weakest, its at is state the where currently is migration the was religion Whilst now? ghettoized ANSWER rge group of people who establish their own communities in the form of unofficial settlements, unofficial of form the communitiesin own their establishwho people of group rge

Means withoutMeans Agamben, In m early the in sovereign the Whilst being they are why and century, sixteenth the in ghettoized Roma the weren’t Why ING Means Without End, End, Without Means liar to a population predisposed not just to crime and theft, but also uncivilised living uncivilised also but theft, and crime to just not predisposed population a to liar Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life Bare Power and Sovereign Sacer: Homo

End: Notes on Politics on Notes End:

THE

PUZZLE n te iie ad ht ewe ntvt ad ainlt, t rns the brings it nationality, and nativity between that and citizen the and - state sees as its responsibility to ensure the health, education and living and education health, the ensure to responsibility its as sees state la te t cos ifra stlmns n te eeis of benefits the and settlements informal choose to them lead ,

(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 20. 2000),Press, Minnesota of University (Minneapolis: Agamben argues that ‘if the refugee represents such a disquieting a such represents refugee the ‘if that argues Agamben

- tt, hs s o rmrl bcue y raig h identity the breaking by because primarily so is this state, ents,

106 l, they exist entirely beyond the reaches of biopolitics, biopolitics, of reaches the beyond entirely exist they l, ‘hot topic’ of the early sixteenth century, mobility and and mobility century, sixteenth early the of topic’ ‘hot

were they useful to the economy, so they did not exist didnotexist they so economy, usefulto they the were

, 119. The Roma break this identity between human and and human between identity this break Roma The dr pro ws tl cnend ihte spiritual the with concerned still was period odern over over desirable, but they were not seen as threatening to threatening as seen not were they but desirable, 24

–

prison o anan oml sdnay ie ad to and lives sedentary normal, maintain to 105

system. In the sixteenth century, the Roma were were Roma the century, sixteenth the In

- r life a or state. In fact, in establishing their own own their establishing in fact, In state.

They ar They .

n h streets the on dfig htte nation the what defying e he modern state that that state modern he

–

hr most where

non ot y, - - CEU eTD Collection Totalitarianism 108 107 not is It acts. criminal Romani alleged of result a as or settlements, Romani informal of existence most decades, were two camps past nomad the over least at Italy, day modern In outside. the on law the uphold Agambe in as Just maintained. be to space this outside law the for allowed that live, could they which in space territorial a created Republic Venetian the so economy, the of survival the to necessary were that b community, Christian the taint would they that thefearof in Venice because year per fifteendays than more reside Jewsforto illegal been had it a of creation the through law, the within law of rule outside people places ghetto’ ‘the Firstly, authority. sovereign defy that deviants social with ‘the asspecifically ghetto’ must institutionwhat an bedone tothe of provides solution problem a the is it why and century, THE c being still justnon citizens, aswere they to accommodate are state, the within state, the outside spaces space. political a structureas state the of weakness a demonstrated War FirstWorld the after crisis refugee the that argued she when Arendt, Hannah by discussed been already has state system people toaccommodate certain may be, it itswithin borders. short This nation the of incapacity the is highlight, ultimately hu being simply for us to granted reality in are 1789, of Citizen and rights citizenship Man of Rights the of Declaration French the in ascribed an sacred the that shows refugees, of presence the like presence, Their protection. than rather persecution state suffered have many past the in since surprising, agree in imposed soverei are for exchange responsibilities certain which in people, its and sovereign a between contract surv will they together stick they if circumstances, all under that years the over proved have they as protection, sovereign need they up end people homeless unemployed

Hannah Arendt, "The Decline oftheNation Decline "The Arendt, Hannah Life Bare and Power Sovereign HomoSacer:

APPEAL OF THE GHETTOAPPEAL OF THE to an arrangement of rights and responsibilities in exchange for state protection. It is not not is It protection. state for exchange in responsibilities and rights of arrangement an to The argument above demonstrates why it was the Jews being segregated in the sixteenth thein segregated being Jews the was it demonstrates why above argument The

(New York: Harcourt, 1976). Harcourt, York: (New ’ ‘ap aaim, nie h get te ue f a i ssedd n re to order in suspended is law of rule the ghetto the inside paradigm’, ‘camp n’s , 107

and that the idea of ‘human rights’ rights’ ‘human of idea the that and gn protection. Roma often do not do often Roma protection. gn rae i rsos to response in created

oa en sgeae nw I de nt hwvr epan why explain however, not, does It now. segregated being Roma

, 126. man

v. o svriny o ok hr nes o e social a be to needs there work to sovereignty For ive. . They don’t engage in citizenship responsibilities, nor do nor responsibilities, citizenship in engage don’t They .

- State and theEnd and State –

is simply a fallacy. What ghettos, like refugee camps, refugee like ghettos, What fallacy. a simply is

public complaints, protests and riots regar riots and protests complaints, public - 25 Christians period. modern inthe early

ut suddenly a mass influx of refugees arrived refugees of influx mass a suddenly ut - state system, or feudal system, or whatever whatever or system, feudal or system, state state of exception. of state

of the Rights of Man," in oftheMan," Rights – engage in a soci a in engage

the notion that we have inherent rights inherent have we that notion the ntutd o comdt non accommodate to onstructed d inalienable rights of man, as man, of rights inalienable d

In sixteenth In al contract in which they they which in contract al The Origins of Origins The - fall ofthefall nation - century Venice Venice century

108 ding the ding

Today, Today,

the - - - CEU eTD Collection 109 become indistinguishable private. is what and public is make to right the ghetto’, ‘the Inside private one’s hour. about decisions any at homes people’s inside raids conduct to haverightto criminality,the controlling thepolice as actively and seen be musicians to order in instability, public doctors, of times during camps, as nomad In papacy. the for served financers they Rome in whereas slump, economic Christ of the times for in shops needy pawn manage to and rates interest low with usury practice to forced were Jews Venice, In ghetto. to ghetto from procedures of diversity a in resulting police, the or law of rule normal protecting thesafetyof community. broader th ensure to imposed were w Roma as just t rather ghetto, houses the outside live to allowed were Christianity to converted h official of lack (i.e. mobility or Jews, of case the in time the at state the to threatening as seen was that characteristic one that embodied they not or whether to according rather but citizens, or stateless Levantines, or Marranos were their monitor to entrance there placed regardless were people indiscriminately, andgoings. Inside, comings ofwhether the at posted were guards and constructed was fence or wall large a rules, ghetto breaking from them preventing confine, territorial this within remain they that ensures which something the state in lacuna fictitious a as acts ghetto the situations, both in Thus, outside. the on law of rule Roma law the outside violence created which backlash, public the rather but themselves, Roma of acts the

Agamben, Agamben, –

were oehn ta te a cno hnl. o a t a So, handle. cannot law the that something Finally, inside this ‘zone of indistinction’ is is indistinction’ of ‘zone this inside Finally, T ,

his creat

Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life Bare Power and Sovereign Sacer: Homo forcibly relocated forcibly confined confined ed for thepurpose and order. ofprotectinglaw han unofficial settlements can settlements unofficial han

allows . 109

ertra sae los o constant for allows space territorial

d loig hm o e bio be to them allowing nd

f or

supposedly night, at away locked were deviants social these at Ghetto rules become ghetto law, or as put by Agamben, Agamben, by put as or law, ghetto become rules Ghetto new rules to be created according to the wishes of local authorities local of wishes the to according created be to rules new life is disrespected through a through disrespected is life –

clearly a violation of their human rights human their of violation a clearly , 170.

live outside the camps. In both instances, curfews instances, both In camps. the outside live 26

- a place of legal ambiguity. ambiguity. legal of place a ousing) in the case of the Roma. Jews who Jews Roma. the of case the in ousing) politically controlled. In both situations a a situations both In controlled. politically erritorial space space erritorial

blurring of distinction between what between distinction of blurring

arrest people without a warrant and and warrant without a people arrest the uvilne of surveillance was –

in order to uphold the the uphold to order in

rae i wih the which in created S its sedn the uspending

inhabitants, law and fact and law o live ho –

Judaism Judaism

they they side

ian ian in

CEU eTD Collection 110 stereotypes prejudice, and butthey given been have who Those system. the within live and status, legal jobs, houses, have many and nomadic, not are instances woul they two these between were they that somethingbecause of threat a constitutedJews the that isminorities difference One process. the in happening is what recognise to important r about sentiments modern our to due ghetto, the outside banned were Jews all as just camps, nomad outside living other’. the of nation the and rights human of fates the that claim Arendt’s consider seriously must ‘we Agamben, by is problem the fact in a when systemic, excluded, socially the or upon segregated placed are is who blame those often of traits too cultural All today. Italy in happening really is what understand public and life private life indistinguishableare whom for and citizenship, to attributed normally rights the lacking law, the by abandoned are question bi and secular, modern, the to The threatening as perceived are state. Roma the whereas sovereign, papal religious the from, perio excluded time two nor the in, between included difference be neither could they because fate, similar a suffered century sixteenth the in Jews The ghetto’. ‘the of Th phenomenon the witnessed system. the into back settlements unofficial in live who unres public caused government Italian and system the destabilised Roma of influx acute an Italy, nation the some therefore in and sovereignty, and puts system; This law. biopolitical the outside modern instances the outside themselves find they Hence, market. who Roma,

opolitical state. In each case, g case, each In state. opolitical

Ibid.,134. - state are bound together such that the decline and crisis of on of crisisthedeclineand that boundtogethersuch are state This thesis does not not does thesis This s a of reflective are camps’ ‘nomad that argued has thesis This . The . d have had to renounce their religion in order to escape the ghetto. The Roma in most most in Roma The ghetto. the escape to order in religion their renounce to had have d nd until the system changes, those who can’t be can’t who those changes, system the until nd

110 o raos eod hi cnrl ae nbe o ces h huig n labour and housing the access to unable are control, their beyond reasons for

effect of ‘the ghetto’ on the inhabitants is the production of of production the is inhabitants the on ghetto’ ‘the of effect

Whether nomad camp policy will reach the stage of all Roma being banned from from banned being Roma all of stage the reach will policy camp nomad Whether

create a fictitious lacuna within the state, in order to incorporate Roma incorporate to order in state, the within lacuna fictitious a create

an opportunity an

en et oiy was policy hetto ae n problem in gage

are notconfinedare tothe ghetto C ONCLUSION ds was that Jews were perceived as threatening to a a to threatening as perceived were Jews that was ds acial segregation, I do not think it is likely. But it is is it But likely. is it think not do I segregation, acial

. opriiae n h sse may system the in participate to

sparked by a mass influx of the of influx mass a by sparked - ovn ter; ahr its rather, theory; solving

made to live to made s s o te is tm Iay has Italy time first the not is is .

e necessarily implies theend implies necessarily e

will be will ystemic problem. Many problem. ystemic bare life bare - tt it cri into state left to die to left is hard to say to hard is

still suffer from from suffer still purpose is to to is purpose – t, –

people who people minority Jewish,and leading . As stated stated As . i. In sis. , and and ,

the

in CEU eTD Collection 2015) January 27 Lecture, Special 114 113 112 (2015). 111 people certain state, the within resides it which in state the to relation in box black a is t Thus, exist Citizenship not them. do to rights apply that rules fluctuating to subjected thus law, the by abandoned are agen relations outside. community the to relate they way the and other each together, community argued seeks toconceptualize. Agamben what exactly is which state, the of citizens the and ‘campzens’ between relationship camp. the outside experience they prejudices the to compared inside the on security and safety of sense a feel and life camp to adapt quickly shock, periodof initial an after Roma, many conditions, camp discover he years, ten of period a over out carried fieldwork of result citizenship of experiences inhabitants’ camp describe to residents’ ‘campzenship’ as well as camps around pr and everyday in relations social of ambivalence the and of investigation complexity sociological a for purchase ‘limited has theory Agamben’s that states He space political and social conceptualiz a as camp the Reimagining article his In subject. the on take different rather a had author the However, camps. Agambe of application the is explored previously been has that thesis this of aspect one The ago. years hundred five not were and now ghettos to confined are Roma why ask to or two, the link to made been previously has attempt no activists, rights a academics by both camps, segregation Roma on written being currently is much and

David B. Ruderman, "The Cultural Significance of the Ghetto in Jewish History," (Central European University: University: European (Central History," in Jewish oftheGhetto Significance Cultural "The B. Ruderman, David Ibid.,8 Ibid.,1. Space," Political and Social a as theCamp Reimagining "Campzenship: Sigona, Nando cy exists, but what is significant is that is significant is what but exists, cy

he argument that ghettos protect the inh the protect ghettos that argument he The ghetto, like the camp, is not is camp, the like ghetto, The ghettos, Jewish modern early on published been has work historical of breadth a Whilst ht the that -

11. ol only could 113

cie ad xeine o pltcl membership’. political of experiences and actices

ation of the camp do camp the of ation hs a ide b te ae bt s d is but case, the be indeed may This

within itswithin borders. hto Novo Ghetto hc highlights which –

114 e netkn ihn h ram f get rls, o sae a. n y And law. state not rules’, ‘ghetto of realm the within undertaken be

hence the quality of their life depends upon the whims of local officials. local of whims the upon depends life their of quality the hence

but there is a disjuncture between the way ghetto inhabitants relate to to relate inhabitants ghetto way the between disjuncture a is there but .

rmtd utrl n pltcl ie y ocnrtn te Jewish the concentrating by life political and cultural promoted

s h icpct o te nation the of incapacity the

no t account for the possibility of agency within the camp. the within agency of possibility the for account t

a self a

inside the ghetto, in a a in ghetto, the inside 28 - abitants is a dangerous one to make. to one dangerous a is abitants sufficient political terrain. Some historians have have historians Some terrain. political sufficient

, 111

e nt ae no con te political the account into take not oes Nando Sigona Sigona Nando –

a negative space outside the state the outside space negative a n’s camp paradigm to Italy’s nomad nomad Italy’s to paradigm camp n’s A 112 -

state system to accommodate accommodate to system state

state of exception of state sociological a sociological Sigona then coins the term term the coins then Sigona s

that despite that argues that Agamben’s Agamben’s that argues within within Citizenship Studies Citizenship nalysis of ghetto of nalysis , the inhabitants the , h cm. s a As camp. the

impoverished

Campzenship: T nd human nd he ghetto he

1 9, no. 1 9, no. ,

yet yet es, CEU eTD Collection 115 agency, whicpolitical within of vacuum a denotes ghetto a of existence very the thus, and inhabitants, the for result may that temporaryadvantageany of regardlessdecision,voluntary a not ghettoisa to be confined to that sovereign of nature changing the of product a as development its and community, political broader the to relationship ghetto’s the understand can we which

Agamben, Agamben, with framework a provides camp’ ‘the of conceptualization Agamben’s summary, In Homo Sacer: Sove Sacer: Homo

reign Power and Bare Life Bare Power and reign h, we find an findan ofh, we eclipse inalienable rights thesacred and ofman.

, 126. 29

power. It must be remembered remembered be must It power. 115

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