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List of Contents
1. Introduction to the Assessment Report ...... 4 2. The concept of land degradation processes and its variants ...... 4 3. Land degradation assessment methods ...... 5 4. Report Structure ...... 7 5. Materials and Methods...... 7 5.1. Land degradation assessment in dry lands (LADA Method) ...... 7 6. Collecting data and information ...... 9 6.1. Assessing soil status and trends ...... 9 6.2. Assessing the status and trends of vegetation change ...... 10 6.3. Assessing the status and trends of water resources ...... 10 6.4. Assessing the effects of land degradation on ecosystem services ...... 12 6.5. Assessing the effects of land degradation on livelihoods ...... 13 7. Assessment of land degradation in Razin watershed of Kermanshah ...... 13 7.1. Introduction to the area of study ...... 13 7.2. Climate ...... 14 7.3. Geology ...... 15 7.4. Land Use ...... 15 7.5. Socioeconomic status ...... 16 7.6. Status and trends of land ...... 18 7.6.1. Vegetation ...... 18 7.6.2. Soil ...... 21 7.6.3. Water Resources ...... 22 7.6.5. Status of livelihoods ...... 27 7.7. Factors and pressures ...... 28 7.8. The effects of land degradation on ecosystem services ...... 29 7.8.1. Protective services (supply) ...... 29 7.8.2. Regulatory and Supporting Services ...... 30 7.8.2.1. Hydrologic Services ...... 30 7.8.2.2. Soil Services ...... 30 7.8.2.3. Biodiversity Services ...... 30 7.8.2.4. Climate Services...... 30 7.8.2.5. Socio-cultural Services ...... 30 7.8.3. Impacts on livelihoods ...... 31 7.8.4. Conclusions and recommendations ...... 31
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8. Assessment of land degradation in Hamoun area of Sistan&Baluchestan ...... 32 8.1. Introduction to Study Area ...... 32 8.2. Climate ...... 32 8.3. Geology ...... 33 8.4. Land Use ...... 33 8.5. Socio-economic Status ...... 34 8.6. Status and Trends of Resources ...... 35 8.6.1. Vegetation ...... 35 8.6.2. Soil ...... 39 8.6.3. Water Resources ...... 39 8.6.4. Livelihood Situation ...... 42 8.7. Factors and Pressure ...... 42 8.8. Impacts of Land Degradation on Ecosystem Services ...... 43 8.9. Impacts of Land Degradation on Livelihood ...... 44 8.10. Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 44 9. Land Degradation Assessment in Bahabad Region in Yazd ...... 44 9.1. Induction to the Surveyed Land ...... 44 9.2. Climate ...... 46 9.3. Geology ...... 46 9.4. Land Use ...... 47 9.5. Socio-economic Status ...... 47 9.6. Resource Status and Trend ...... 49 9.6.1. Vegetation ...... 49 9.6.2. Soil ...... 53 9.6.3. Water Resouces ...... 53 9.6.4. Population Livelihood Status ...... 56 9.7. Factors and Pressures ...... 57 9.8. Impact of Land Degradation on Ecosystem Services ...... 57 9.9. Impacts on Community Livelihood...... 58 9.10. Conclusion and Recommendation ...... 58 10. Land Degradation Assessment in Hableh-Roud Watershed ...... 58 10.1. Induction to the Surveyed Land ...... 58 10.2. Climate...... 60 10.3. Geology ...... 60 10.4. Land Use ...... 61
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10.5. Socioeconomic Status ...... 62 10.6. Status and Trend of Land Resources ...... 62 10.6.1. Vegetation ...... 62 10.6.2. Soil ...... 67 10.6.3. Water Resources ...... 68 10.6.4. Population livelihood status ...... 75 10.7. Pressure Factors ...... 76 10.8. Impact of land degradation on ecosystem services ...... 77 10.8.1. Supply services (production) ...... 77 10.8.2. Regulatory and Support Services ...... 78 10.8.3. Socio-cultural Services ...... 78 10.8.4. Impact on Livelihood ...... 78 10.9. Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 78
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List of Tables
Table 1: Methods for the analysis of hydrologic data ...... 12 Table 2: Methods of Analysis of Seasonal Trends ...... 12 Table 3: land degradation /management on ecosystem services ...... 13 Table 4: Scoring impacts on ecosystem services ...... 14 Table 5: The area current land use in the area of study (hectares) ...... 16 Table 6: Results of the analyzes of vegetation changes in Razin-basin ...... 22 Table 7: Results of the analysis of river flow changes in Rezin area ...... 24 Table 8: Results of the trend analysis of water quality parameters of river in Razin area ...... 27 Table 9: extent of irrigated and rain fed gardens based on their products in Razin area (ha)...... 28 Table 10- Scope of lands per use and land coverage in study area ...... 35 Table 11: Results of Vegetation Seasonal Change in Study Area in Zabol ...... 39 Table 12: Analysis results of water quality variables in Chah Nimeh water reservoir ...... 42 Table 13- Economic status of sample villages regarding household annual average income ...... 43 Table 14: Household, population and annual growth rate in Bahabad city: 1966 – 2006 ...... 49 Table 15 – Demographic status, gender ratio, literacy and employment in villages studied (2006) ...49 Table 16: Results of vegetation change trend in Bahabad ...... 53 Table 17: Summary of water resource status in Bahabad region ...... 56 Table 18: Summary of ground water balance of Bahabad ...... 57 Table 19: Economic Status of Sample Villages Concerning Annual Household Average Income Rate 57 Table 20: Features of each strata of the study area ...... 62 Table 21: Results of vegetation change trend in northern Hableh-Roud ...... 68 Table 22: Results of vegetation change trend in southern Hableh-Roud ...... 68 Table 23: Results of river discharge change trend in Benkouh station ...... 71 Table 24: Results of river water quality variables in Hableh-Roud region ...... 73 Table 25: Aquifer change trend in Garmsar plain ...... 75 Table 26: Aquifer change trend in Eyvanaki plain...... 75
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List of Figures
Figure – DPSIR framework diagram ...... 11 Figure 1: Geographical Location of Razin basin ...... 17 Figure 2: Embrothermic diagram (monthly temperature and rainfall change) of basin ...... 17 Figure 3: Land using map of Razin basin ...... 19 Figure 4: Area of Razin basin and its villages ...... 20 Figure 5: Map of Razin Basin Vegetation ...... 21 Figure 6: Time series in NDVI values from 2000 to 2013 ...... 23 Figure 7 - Chart box of NDVI values during different years ...... 23 Figure 8: temporal analysis of NDVI during a year ...... 24 Figure 9: Time series of Daily River flow from 1992 to 2012 ...... 25 Figure 10: Diagram box of the river flow amount during different months ...... 26 Figure 11: Time series flow data, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the river water ...... 27 Figure 12: Time series of the anions, bicarbonate (HCO3), chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO4) ...... 28 Figure 13: Time series of the cations, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na) ...... 29 Figure 14: Geographic Location of Study Area ...... 35 Figure 15: Abroteromic curve (rainfall and temperature change during the year) of the area ...... 36 Figure 16: Land use map in the study area ...... 37 Figure 17: Vegetation Map of Hamoun area ...... 38 Figure 18: Time-scale NDVI from 2000 to 2013 ...... 40 Figure 19: NDVI measure diagram for different years ...... 40 Figure 20: Annual time change of NDVI indicator ...... 41 Figure 21: Annual measures of NDVI changes diagram ...... 41 Figure 22: Water level change in Chah Nimeh Channel ...... 43 Figure 22: Measures of EC, SAR and TDS in Chah Nimeh reservoir during different years ...... 43 Figure 23: Cl level and general water hardness during different years ...... 44 Figure 24: Geographic Location of Bahabad Watershed ...... 48 Figure 25: Geographic Location of Bahabad Watershed on Google Earth ...... 49 Figure 26: Geology Map of Bahabad Region ...... 50 Figure 27: Population Relative Distribution According to Major Age Groups ...... 51 Figure 28: NDVI time series, 2000 to 2013 ...... 54 Figure 29: Box plot of NDVI levels during various years ...... 54 Figure 30: Time changes of NDVI indicator during the year ...... 55 Figure 31: Box plot of NDVI indicator levels during the year ...... 55 Figure 32: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 173 well ...... 57
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Figure 33: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 163 well ...... 57 Figure 34: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 190 well ...... 58 Figure 35 Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 126 well ...... 58 Figure 36: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 127 well ...... 58 Figure 37: Geographic Location of Hableh-Roud Watershed ...... 62 Figure 38: Geographic Location of Hableh-Roud Watershed on Google Earth ...... 62 Figure 39: Geological strata plan of the study area ...... 63 Figure 40: Land use map of Hableh-Roud region ...... 64 Figure 41: NDVI time series indicator for Northern Hableh-Roud from 2000 to 2013 ...... 66 Figure 42: NDVI time series indicator for Southern Hableh-Roud from 2000 to 2013 ...... 66 Figure 43: Box plot of NDVI measures for Northern Hableh-Roud in various years ...... 67 Figure 44: Box plot of NDVI measures for Southern Hableh-Roud in various years...... 67 Figure 45: Annual NDVI time series indicator of northern Hableh-Roud ...... 68 Figure 46: Annual NDVI time series indicator of southern Hableh-Roud ...... 68 Figure 47: Box plot of annual NDVI measures for northern Hableh-Roud ...... 69 Figure 48: Box plot of annual NDVI measures for southern Hableh-Roud ...... 69 Figure 49: Land subunits of the study area ...... 70 Figure 50: Time series of daily discharge of the river in Benkouh station from 1988 to 2009 ...... 71 Figure 51: Box plot diagram of river discharge rate in Benkouh station in various months ...... 72 Figure 52: annual average discharge graph in statistical course of 1979 -2007 of Benkouh station ...72 Figure 53: Time series of discharge data, electrical conductivity and acidity of river water ...... 73
Figure 54: Time series of Anions, Chloride, bicarbonate (HCO3), and sulfate (SO4) ...... 74 Figure 55: Time series of Cations, Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), and Sodium (Na) ...... 75 Figure 56: Location of plains studied in Hableh-Roud region ...... 76
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1. Introduction to the Assessment Report The research project of “Trend Analysis of Land Resources and Land Degradation Effects on livelihoods and ecosystem services in MENARID project sites“, was handed to the performer in late October 2013 and was completed in almost a month with reviewing the existing data and analysis. Purpose of doing this project is evaluating the degradation of land resources (including vegetation, soil and water), causes and effects of land degradation on ecosystem services and farmers livelihoods, in order to reach a sustainable plan to help carrying out the required conservation measures in the area. Because of the lack of time for research studies and the agreement made between the performer and the employer, the collected data during the previous case studies were mainly used. However, in some cases comparisons were made with the satellite images and various analysis results in the geographic information system.
2. The concept of land degradation processes and its variants Before proceeding to the detailed evaluation, it is necessary to explain the concept of land degradation, its definitions, varieties and characteristics. There are different definitions of land degrading in scientific resources. The vast majority of definitions declare that the land degradation is the reduction of the ability of land resources due to a process or combination of different processes such as soil erosion by water or wind, deposition, reduction of the amount and diversity of natural vegetation, loss of soil nutrients, increased drought and salinity, and sodium soil (UNEP, 1992). Recently FAO 2011 has declared the land degradation as reducing the capacity of the land for supplying the ecosystem goods and services and also guaranteeing its functions for the beneficiaries over time.
Land degradation is a gradual process that can be exacerbated by human activities. Because of the progressive nature of this phenomenon, it takes time for the symptoms to become visible on the surface. Therefor it won’t draw attention until it’s not fully developed to an acute condition. Land degradation may lead to many negative consequences. Examples of these harmful consequences includes: declining of water and nutrients in the root resulting in reduced agricultural products, reduced vegetation, range lands and consequently reduced livestock production, changes in the hydrological cycle and increasing of surface erosion and deposition in the surface water channels and water tanks, Destruction of roads and other infrastructures in a result of ditch erosion, mass movements and...These and the likewise reasons could have negative effects on food security, economic prosperity and environmental circumstances. As a result of which a great attention is drawn worldwide towards land degradation, its causes, effects, prevention and controlling of it. Land degradation processes can be divided into three main categories: soil degradation, vegetation degradation and degradation of water resources (FAO, 2011). Soil degradation occurs when the productive capacity of the soil decreases due to unfavorable changes in physical, chemical, biological and hydrological characteristics of the soil and / or soil erosion caused by water, wind or mass movement. Surface erosion, gully and ditch water harvesting and re-deposition of soil by wind and landslides are some of the most important symptoms of soil degradation. However, some invisible forms of soil degradation, such as nutrient depletion and loss of organic matter, are more widespread and sometimes more
8 serious. Salinization is a type of soil degradation that happens in dry regions and needs special attention. Salinization could cause Failure to establish and grow a variety of plants and has negative effects on surface water resources. Vegetation degradation may occur due to natural processes or be caused by humans. Climate change is one of the factors which may cause the loss of some species or habitats by reducing moisture often caused by overcoming of the invasive species. However, the degradation is often caused by human activities such as overexploitation of forests and meadows, mismanagement of farmlands and range lands and spreading of pests and diseases. The main forms of degraded vegetation includes: reducing the quantity of coverage (canopy and mass plants loss), decreased quality of coverage (replacement of more valuable plant species in terms of quality of fodder, fuel, timber, medicines and… with less useful species) and reduced richness and diversity of species. The assessment time of the vegetation in arid regions is very important because it may be highly degraded vegetation during the dry season, and get revived with an astonishing speed during the rainy season. Various processes cause degradation of water resources, most generally, changes in water quality, changes in water quantity and changes in hydrologic regime. Water damage causes threat to marine life, fish and other species, as well as limited access to drinking water and agricultural productivity. Changes in the quantity of surface water resources and hydrologic regime usually appear as extreme flow fluctuations (flooding during rainfall and long dry periods afterwards), which results in reduction of water penetration in soil, reduction of low tables water supply, decreased groundwater levels and also makes rivers, springs and water wells run dry. Increased suspended sediment in river water, groundwater salinization and water pollution are the most important quality changes in water resources.
3. Land degradation assessment methods Since now various methods to assess land degradation are presented. The most important of these methods are: expert judgment, field measurements, laboratory measurements on collected samples from the field, remote sensing techniques and indirect assessment of the changes in fertility and productivity of land (Bai et al., 2008; Evans and Geerken, 2004; Liniger et al., 2008; Oldeman et al., 1991; Omuto et al., 2009; Stocking and Murnaghan, 2001) GLASOD (Oldeman et al., 1991; FAO 2002), is an authoritative source for the assessment of land degradation on a global scale, which despite its limitations, is a very good assessment technique. In this technique, the evaluation is only based on the expert opinion. GLASOD examines only the soil degradation and damages made to other resources such as land, vegetation and water supplies are not considered. GLASOD method considers a limited number of land degradation factors and the effects of some factors such as overgrazing is usually over estimated. Also in this method, the pressures and deterioration factors (population growth, poverty, illiteracy, etc.) are not covered. Taking GLASOD, as a model, other methods for assessing land degradation at regional scale, such as ASSOD (UNEP, ISRIC and FAO, 1995) and SOVEUR (FAO / ISRIC, 2000) are devised, in which some modifications are made on GLASOD . Measuring and monitoring the land resources and changes over time is perhaps the most obvious way of assessing land degradation. Since the early 1990s, efforts were made by the World Bank for monitoring land quality indicators (Dumanski et al 1992; FAO, 1997), which
9 were followed by challenges. Firstly, measurements were purely biophysical (economic and social indicators were not considered), and secondly, the measurement error in most of the testing procedures was more than the change happening in real resources , and at the end of the period of assessment the testing expenses was not much acceptable by managers. GTOS is a sample database that collects information on soil quality: http://www.fao.org/gtos. Monitoring of economic-social indicators are vital for evaluating the causes of land degradation. The information on these indicators are usually collected through field observations and by interviewing the beneficiaries. Using the data and techniques of remote sensing, especially images that are taken at different times from the earth's surface, can evaluate changes (damages) for helping the land. Of course, this method is mostly suitable for detecting the changes in vegetation and water supply, and except for some limited cases, it’s not reliable for detecting and exact determination of soil demolition phenomena. Given the shortcomings of land degradation assessment methods and the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach to land degradation assessment at the local scale, land degradation assessment in dry lands project (LADA) has been performed by the International Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) during the recent years. This project is an attempt to provide a set of guidelines and standard procedures for evaluating the processes of land degradation, its causes, and their effects in partnership with the local communities and beneficiaries. The LADA method emphasizes several aspects of the assessment of degraded land that is mentioned briefly here: - In this method all land resources, including: soil, vegetation and water are evaluated. - In this method not only changes of land resources status, but also the causes and effects of land degradation are considered. - In this method the ecosystem approach is focused and emphasized on assessing the impacts of land degradation on protective, regulatory, supportive and socio - cultural services of ecosystem. - This method is a collaborative approach to some of the most important stages of evaluation (specifically examining the changing procedure of the sources and its causes) that can be considered as the main source of information. - In this method as much as possible the attempt is to use methods and indicators for assessment that are easy to measure and evaluate and does not require time consuming expensive laboratory analysis expenses. More details on LADA and the methodology of the assessment of land degradation and its impacts are provided in the Methodology section. In the present study, the framework of LADA methodology is used for assessing land degradation and its impacts on MENARID international project. It’s vital to be noted that the details are not fully followed as in the guidelines of LADA assessment and in some cases to fit the available data , changes has been made on the assessing methods.
MENARID International Project started from September 2010 in 5 years period basis. The National Executive of the project is Forests, Range, and Watershed Management Organization of The Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture as the representative of the Islamic
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Republic of Iran. This project is implemented in the followed provinces of Sistan and Baluchestan (city of Zabol), Kermanshah (Kermanshah city) and Yazd (Bahabad city). These sites represent a variety of conditions in arid areas, and have a variety of applications.
4. Report Structure In the following report, the first section presented is the methodology outline, in which the land resource assessment techniques, changing processes and evaluation of the impacts of land degradation on livelihoods and ecosystem services will be discussed. Then follows, the evaluation results of the three studied regions, which is presented in three separate sections as follows: - Introduction of the region of study - Evaluation of land resources and their changing processes Assessing the status and trends of vegetation changes Assessing the status and trends of soil changes Assessing the status and trends of water resources changes Assessment of socioeconomic status - Pressures (direct causes) drivers (indirect causes) of changing the status of land resources - Effects of land degradation on ecosystem services - Effects of land degradation on the livelihoods of farmers and local communities - Summary, conclusions and management recommendations
5. Materials and Methods
5.1. Land degradation assessment in dry lands (LADA Method) LADA project is credited with the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under supervision of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and was launched by FAO. As it was mentioned in the previous section, the main objective of this project is to provide a standard set of frameworks for assessing land degradation processes, causes and effects on the local scale with the participation of farmers and local communities. These instructions were made by using information and administrative tasks performed in the years 2006 to 2010 in the six participating countries in the LADA project. The participating countries are: China, Tunisia, Senegal, South Africa, Argentina and Cuba. Land degradation assessment tools and methods were amended and supplemented in workshops and seminars which were held in different countries during the years 2007 to 2010. LADA guidelines were done under the supervision of Land and Water Division of FAO with cooperation of the University of East Anglia in England. LADA approach is based on three main conceptual frameworks as follows: Driving forces - Pressure – State of the land - Impact - Response (DPSIR) framework, ecosystem services framework (ES) and the sustainable livelihoods framework (SL). DPSIR framework is used for analyzing the interactions between (Status and trends of land resources, including soil,
11 vegetation and water resources); direct pressure on land resources; Driving forces (indirect factors that affect pressure) Impacts (consequences of status change) on ecosystems and livelihoods services, reactions and decisions of farmers to reduce land degradation. Interactions between the components of this framework are presented within the DPSIR diagram of (Figure 1).
Figure – DPSIR framework diagram Analysis of DPSIR is the core of the LADA assessment method, since it’s a guide to organize, analyze, synthesize and provide data and help users to link all parts of the assessment together. SL framework helps with the understanding of the interaction of household livelihoods and natural socioeconomic and administrative factors. Within SL, household assets are classified into several categories including: - Natural properties such as land, water, biodiversity, wildlife and other environmental resources - Financial properties such as salary, savings, pensions and other financial resources - Physical properties such as infrastructures for transport, communications, energy, and ... And means of production - Human properties such as knowledge, skills, health and ability to work - Community properties such as groups’ membership Socio - economic factors such as wealth, livelihood activities, gender, ethnicity, and ... are determinant of household properties that could affect sustainable management or land degradation. ES framework discusses evaluation of the effects of land degradation or sustainable management on ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the benefits that people receive
12 from ecosystems. These benefits may be direct or indirect. Ecosystem services are classified into four groups as follows: - Protective services such as water, food, fuel, plant and animal production, land - Regulatory Services such as adjusting the hydrological regime and carbon sequestration - Cultural services such as recreation and ecotourism, educational services, aesthetic, spiritual and religious services - Supportive services, these services are essential for creating and preserving other ecosystem services, such as photosynthesis, soil formation and nutrient cycling In the three conceptual frameworks above, a set of rules and guidelines for a standardized and flexible assessment is developed by the LADA team, in which biophysical and socioeconomic aspects are considered. These instructions could be used for assessing land degradation in arid and semi-arid areas (and even in other ecosystems) in different parts of the world. LADA instructions include relatively simple methods for field evaluation of land resources status (soil, vegetation and water) and their trends. Also in LADA assessment, interviews and discussions with local people, farmers and experts are done to perceive the impact of land degradation on livelihoods and ecosystem services (provisioning, regulatory, cultural and supporting). Public participation, farmers, local authorities and experts and using their knowledge and views is one of the main foundations of LADA methodology. LADA tools and guidelines are consistently evaluated, reviewed and updated in different Agro- ecological areas. Full details and various sources on the LADA methodology including two user manual files of LADA are available on the following FAO1 website address:
6. Collecting data and information
6.1. Assessing soil status and trends To assess the soil, mostly maps and data provided by provincial departments, have been used. Also, for assessing some of the soil parameters, harmonized world soil database (HWSD) was used. These data have been prepared on a global scale and includes information on a number of soil parameters. The following organizations and institutions have been working on preparing this information:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC)
Unfortunately, there was no data available on long-term studies of soil parameters; therefor long-term evaluation of physical, chemical and biological changes of soil was not possible.
1 http://www.fao.org/nr/
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6.2. Assessing the status and trends of vegetation change To assess the status of the vegetation of the areas mainly consisted of different types of range lands and in some cases woodland and similar species, mostly previous data, were used. This data includes the type and density of vegetation and mass plants (dry matter). In order to assess long-term changes in vegetation density, images sent by Terra satellite of MODIS of a 16-day global period from 2000 to 2013 were used. Index data of NDVI (MOD13Q1 product of MODIS sensor) is a sample of MODIS / Terra products on a global scale and are provided with a spatial resolution of 250 meters. This data that is collected on a 16 days average are appropriate to explore the changes in vegetation density. For extraction of NDVI reflection of red and near-infrared bands at 645 and 858 nm wavelengths are used. After receiving the 16 days NDVI MODIS sensor images of the years 2000 to 2013 (from February 18, 2000 to September 14, 2013, a total of 313 pictures), the images were converted from Sinusoidal system to Lambert system and then the areas of study were cropped from the whole image. Then the Zonal Statistics tool was used in the ArcGIS software to calculate the regional NDVI index average and thus long-term series of NDVI indices were calculated for each area. Since a large number of NDVI images are not taken during the growth period, it is vital to choose the best time (month / season) to analyze long-term changes in vegetation. As the climate, ecology and plant species in the three areas of study are different, it is expected that the plant phenology of the areas vary as well. Therefore, to verify the period of plant growth and activities in each of the areas of study, the temporal changes in NDVI values throughout the year (for different years) were considered. Finally, NDVI long-term changes in growing season were analyzed by statistical methods (Mann - Kendall Analysis and Teal-san method). The main causes of loss (degradation) of vegetation in arid areas are rainfall changes, human factors (overgrazing, removing bushes etc.) and in some cases fire (Liang, 2004). Therefore, to separate the effects of human factors on reducing vegetation, effects of rainfall changes should be removed from the NDVI time series factors(Weiss et al., 2001; Evans and Geerken, 2004; Wessels et al., 2007). Statistical modeling of the relationship between NDVI, rainfall and analysis of the time series remaining statistical model (meaning the difference between the NDVI predicted by rainfall and the NDVI taken from satellite images) is a new approach in this field (Wessels et al., 2007; Bai et al. , 2008) which was used in this research.
6.3. Assessing the status and trends of water resources To assess the status of water resources, data and information on quality and quantity of surface waters (rivers) and groundwater (wells, springs and aqueducts) were studied. Part of the data and information used on water resources were collected during previous studies and another part of the information used was raw data taken from regional water companies of different provinces, which were used after initial studies were done. To assess the procedure of water resources changes, according to availability of measured data, graphical techniques and statistical methods were used. The conceptual model of analyzing process of the water quality and quantity data can be presented as follows (McLeod et al., 1991):
Yt Xt St Tt t
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Above: Yt is the observed value of variable quantity / quality of water at time t, Xt external variables that may affect the expected value of Y, St the seasonal component, Tt data procedure and εt are random elements. The main objective of the analysis is the process of taking Xt, St and εt to identify Tt and quantify it with good accuracy. Based on the above model, Helsel and Hirsch (Helsel and Hirsch, 2002) categorized five approaches to the analysis of hydrologic data as follows:
Table 1: Methods for the analysis of hydrologic data
Type of Method Regardless X Taking X
Regression of Y over time Regression of Y on X and Parametric (year) Time (year)
Mann-Kendall test on Mixed ------residuals of the regression ¬ Y and X
Mann-Kendall test on Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test on Y residuals of ¬ (X, Y) LOWESS
External variable (X) is an independent variable that has a significant impact on Y. Generally for the water quantity data (such as rivers), rainfall is the most important external variable and for the water quality data in normal circumstances it’s the lateral flow (non- flood) that has an inverse relation with concentration of elements and compounds in water. By removing fluctuations of external variables, demographic changes (noise) Y reduce and the processing signals will be detected better. The removing of external variable involves modeling the variable effect using regression or LOWESS and then performing the tests on the remains of regression or LOWESS (Helsel and Hirsch, 2002). Residuals are indicative of the changes of Y that go beyond changes of external variables. So in case of stability (no trends) of X, existence of trends implies the long-term trends of Y. Most quality and quantity variables of water have regular seasonal changes during the year. In most cases, even after removing the effects, external variable could be seen in the data series (Hirsch et al., 1982). Since the seasonal variation of Y is a source of its major changes, to identify its long-term trends better, it is necessary to have them removed or consider them in some way. Trend analysis methods of time series with seasonal variations are presented in the following table (Helsel and Hirsch, 2002):
Table 2: Methods of Analysis of Seasonal Trends
Type of Method Regardless X Taking X
Y regression over time Regression of Y on X, the Parametric (year) and season time (year) and season
Seasonal Kendall test on Non seasonal regression of Mixed residuals - regressions of Y on Time (year) Y and X
Non-parametric Seasonal Kendall test on Y Seasonal Kendall test on residuals - the LOWESS
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(X, Y) In this study long-term trends of water quality and quantity variables were analyzed using the methods mentioned above. Before analyzing the process, in order to choose the appropriate methods, normality of outliers and seasonal changes via graphical and numerical methods is investigated.
6.4. Assessing the effects of land degradation on ecosystem services Assessing the Impacts of land degradation /management on ecosystem services (protective, regulatory, cultural and supportive services) is performed through group discussions with local people, interviewing with farmers and experts and expert opinions (based on knowledge gained from the field observations of the area) and based on these information and data, forms and tables available in LADA guide are filled.
Table 3: land degradation /management on ecosystem services
The severity of the Type of ecosystem services Priority Description effect (3 - to 3 +) Protective Services (P) (P1) Production (quantity of plant or
livestock) and risk (P2), water (appropriate quantity and
quality) for humans, animals and plants (P3) land availability (area of productive
land per person) (P4) Other factors (please mention it in
description column)
Regulatory and Supportive Services (E)
A) Hydrological Services
(E1) Setting additional water such as rainfall surplus, Storms, Floods for example affect the permeability, drainage, runoff and evaporation (E2) regulating water availability during the emergency cases such as the dry
seasons and drought for example impacting the evaporation B) Soil Services (E3) the status of organic matter (E4) soil cover (vegetation, mulch, etc.) (E5) surface soil and subsurface soil structure is effective on the permeability,
water and nutrient holding capacity, salinity, and… (E6a) cycling of nutrients (N, P, K) (E6b) carbon cycle (E7) soil formation C) Biodiversity (E8a) scale biodiversity habitat (E8b) interspecific level of biodiversity
(plant varieties, animal breeds and ...) (E8c) Complementary species and functions (control of pests and diseases -
at or below the ground level, pollinator, soil organisms D) Climate Services (E9) greenhouse gas emissions (carbon
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dioxide, methane, etc.) (E10) micro - climate (local climate, wind,
shadow, temperature, humidity) (E11) other factors Social and cultural / welfare human
services (S) (S1) moral values, aesthetic and cultural,
recreation and tourism (S2) training and knowledge (including
local knowledge) (S3) conflict transformation (S4) food security, livelihoods and poverty (S5) health (S6) Net Income (S7) protection / Damages made to public and private facilities (buildings, roads, dams, etc.) (S8) marketing and sales opportunities
(markets access, etc.) (S9) other factors
For each of the types of land degradation on ecosystem services (mentioned in the previous section), the intensity is scored based on the following table. It should be noted that sometimes a process of land degradation may have both the positive and negative effects. For example, soil erosion leads to loss of topsoil on the slopes, but on the other hand it may cause fertility at the bottom of the mountainside or in the river downstream.
Table 4: Scoring impacts on ecosystem services Severe negative impact, degradation of land, negative impact (>50%) in -3 ecosystem services changes Average negative impact, degradation of land, negative impact (10-50%) in -2 ecosystem services changes Low negative impact, degradation of land, negative impact (0-10%) in ecosystem -1 services changes 0 Impact/ Intangible change Low positive impact, degradation of land, positive impact (0-10%) in ecosystem +1 services changes Average positive impact, degradation of land, positive impact (10-50%) in +2 ecosystem services changes Strong positive impact, degradation of land, positive impact (>50%) in ecosystem +3 services changes
6.5. Assessing the effects of land degradation on livelihoods In LADA method, assessing the effects of land degradation on livelihoods is performed through analyzing and interpreting the results of discussions with local people, interviewing the households, families, authorities and the local experts.
7. Assessment of land degradation in Razin watershed of Kermanshah
7.1. Introduction to the area of study Razin basin with an area of 3/14688 hectares is located at the north of Kermanshah Province, in the geographical location of the "45 '01 ° 47 to" 43 '43 ° 47 of Easting and "34 '34 ° 34 to" 27 '42 ° 34 Northing. Maximum elevation of the basin height of Baloch Mountains is 8/2867
17 m and minimum height of the basin is 4/1407 meters from the sea level. Geographical location of Razin basin is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Geographical Location of Razin basin
7.2. Climate Based on Emberger method, climate of the area of study is semi-humid and cold and based on Domarten method, climate of the area of study is semi-arid. Average annual rainfall of the basin is about 670 mm and the average annual temperature of the basin is about 12 Celsius degrees. In Image 2-Monthly changes of temperature and rainfall in the area of study is shown. As it is shown in the image, seasonal changes of the area are relatively high and it generally has a winter rainfall. Rainfall begins from the second half of September and ends in early June.
Figure 2: Embrothermic diagram (monthly temperature and rainfall change) of basin
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7.3. Geology The understudy watershed is located in the geological zone of Sanandaj - Sirjan and there are different types of limestone outcrops, ophiolitic rocks, igneous rocks and alluvial deposits in this area. There are a total of 18 stratigraphic units in the area of study that belong to three rock units of Sanandaj - Sirjan Bistoon and ophiolitic rock units. Bistoon rock units are located in the southern part of the area of study and form the southern ridge of the plain basin. Ophiolitic units of low irregular hills form the southeast of the area of study. It is to mention that in accordance with the seismicity of the area, the seismic zone is located in Kangavar- Sahneh region and based on the calculations the horizontal acceleration of 3 / 0 should be considered in the structures designing. Rock units are classified in 7 groups considering the erodibility. Units with the curve number model of 9 with an area of 5100 hectares of erosion are the most widespread ones in the area. Stratigraphic rock units are classified in three groups based on permeability: low permeable, Non-permeable and permeable. 5087 hectares of the area has a very low permeability (non-permeable facies), 4229 hectares of the area has a low permeability (low permeable facies) and 5371 hectares of the area has permeable facies.
7.4. Land Use Based on the studies done on the current land uses of the area of study, including agricultural lands, Gardens, forests, ranges, rocky bulge and mixed forests (Figure 3), the area of each land is presented in Table 5.
Table 5: The area current land use in the area of study (hectares)
Rocky Rocky Agriculture Gardens Forests Range bulge bulge+Forests Total (A) (G) (F) (Ra) (R) (R+F) 6085/6 392/1 3895/8 3349/1 240/7 724/7 6085.6
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Figure 3: Land using map of Razin basin
7.5. Socioeconomic status Numbers of the inhabited villages of the area are 22 villages (Figure 4), amongst which 5 villages of Razin, Zamleh, Bolan, Sarab Shah Hussein and Sarzamleh were selected as pilot for MENARID project.
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Figure 4: Area of Razin basin and its villages The main occupation of the people in this area of study is traditional agriculture, animal husbandry and horticulture. The first priority of employment both in terms of time spent and income earned is agriculture. Activities of the employee based on time and income was in the last place of employment in the studies. The second priority of employment in rural regions of the area of study (second job) is animal husbandry and the third priority of employment (third career) is the agricultural and horticultural activities. According to the census- statistics of 2006, members of the area of study were 5355 people with 1096 households. 5/44% of the population of the area are between 0-14 years old, 1/50 % of the population are between 15-64 years old and 4/5 % of the population are 65 years old and more. The overall age structure of the population is youngsters and middle-aged adults. A survey done on the literacy of the population of this area shows that 60 % of the population are literate and the other 40% are illiterate, literacy rate among males is 4/71% and 1/49 % among females. Educational levels was mostly elementary and junior high and among the 1641 farmers working in the region 550 of them were literate and 541 were illiterates and 7/72% of the literate farmers had studied the primary school and bellow, 4/26 % of them had junior and high school degrees and 2/0% had higher education of diploma and more. Razin culture and customs are derived from Islamic and Iranian culture and the local language of people is Kurdish. The religion of the area of study is Islam, people are devout Shiites (only in Pirkashan village people are Sunnis). Studying the social and cultural anomalies found in rural areas indicates that social issues such as tribal disputes between individuals are not very common. One of the most significant characteristics of the people of this area is the sense of competition between the farmers and livestock breeders in increasing the number of their live stocks, raising the income from agriculture, etc. this characteristic could be used for promoting new methods of agriculture, new cultivars seeds - mechanizing
21 methods of planting and harvesting and etc. However, sometimes this sense of competition leads to a feeling of envy and ultimately failure in achieving consensus in joint activities.
7.6. Status and trends of land
7.6.1. Vegetation In Razin basin, range lands and forests have covered an area of 67/6412 hectares (63/43% of the basin) - (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Map of Razin Basin Vegetation In general range lands are one of the economic resources of the population of this region and each year they could harvest about 93/1009 forage and graze around 84/6600 animal units (sheep) of the livestock breeders of this region in a 3 months period using the ranges. Although due to overgrazing in a long time period in these ranges, they are having a weak status and the vegetation is mostly consisted of poor and average species. Although rainfall amount and elevation difference and topographic status of understudy range lands indicate an equal situation, anyhow because of the performed supervision during the past time important changes in species composition are applied, as during the survey 3 types of range vegetation ( almost homogeneous vegetation units) and 3 forest vegetation types in three range stratum levels were separated. Assessing the environmental conditions and facilities and capabilities shows that the corrective actions and appropriate management projects will increase the future product of the range lands up to 2 times more.
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Currently, more than 17 families including 77 species in the range lands are understudy that Compositae and Graminae families have more share of it. Studies show that three types of range-lands vegetation are available in Razin basin area as follows. Astragalus macrostachys-Stachyis inflate type This type with an area of 6/1786 hectares is located at an elevation of 2280-1540 m above sea level. This type has poor status and negative attitude and it has a capacity of 6/1 animal units in 30 days period. This type is severe and very severe in forage quality, palatable range species with low vigor and vitality are available and the vegetation composition is changing in favor of the invasive and non-palatable species. Crown cover of the plant is about 25%, harvestable forage 6/95 kg per hectare, this type is evaluated as poor with a negative attitude. Festuca ovina-Bromus tomentellus Astragalus gummifera type This type with an area of 5/607 hectares and an elevation of 2220-1728 m above sea level is located in the north and northeast of the Sheikh Maleh village. This type has an average status and negative attitude and it has a capacity of 7/2 animal units in 30 days period. This type has good vigor forage quality. This type is filled with bushes, crown cover of this species is about 45%, and harvestable forage 7/148 kg per hectare, this type is evaluated as average with a negative attitude. Taeniatherum crinitum-Poa bulbosa - Medicago rigidula type This type with an area of 7/2108 hectares is located at an elevation of 1720- 1520 m above sea level. This type has an average status and negative attitude and it has a capacity of 4/2 animal units in 30 days period. Crown cover vegetation is about 33%, harvestable forage 7/141 kg per hectare, this type is evaluated as poor with a negative attitude. Surveys done in 2006 indicated that forests of the area of study cover an area of 18/4855 hectares (07/33 percent of the surface of the area). We have 2 different density types of forest in this area. The dominant species in these types are: Types Vegetation type Average density forests Quercus persica +Amygdalus lycioides Low density forests Quercus persica
Most of the forest lands have shallow soils and only a small part of them have moderately deep and deep soils. These forests are evaluated average to poor with negative attitude. In order to evaluate the changes in vegetation of Razin basin the NDVI factor of time series from 2000 to 2013 (Figure 6) were analyzed. Because of the large NDVI fluctuations during a year, visual assessing of the long-term changes was difficult. Thus, a box plot that shows the average and dispersion of data around the average is plotted for different years as shown in Figure 7. This image does not show any specific increase or decrease in NDVI values.
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0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3
0.25 NDVI 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0
Date
Figure 6: Time series in NDVI values from 2000 to 2013
0.4
0.3
NDVI
0.2
0.1
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year Figure 7 - Chart box of NDVI values during different years Since the growth of the vegetation is not available the whole year long, it is better to choose a period of time, in which the vegetation is having active growth for better assessment of long- term changes. In order to determine the best time of the year for analyzing the process, NDVI values of different times of the year were plotted on a graph that is shown in Figure 8. This Image indicates that the growth period and the active time of the plants in Razin area begins nearly at the end of February, reaches its peak in mid-April and ends at the end of June. To assess the long term changing process of the vegetation, the collected data of these months, were used.
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0.5 2000 0.45 2001 0.4 2002 0.35 2003 0.3 2004
0.25 2005 NDVI 0.2 2006 0.15 2007
0.1 2008
0.05 2009 2010 0 1-Jan 1-Feb 1-Mar 1-Apr 1-May 1-Jun 1-Jul 1-Aug 1-Sep 1-Oct 1-Nov 1-Dec 2011 Date 2012
Figure 8: temporal analysis of NDVI during a year
For statistical analysis of long-term changes in vegetation, seasonal Kendall test on NDVI data of February to June in different years were done, the results are presented in Table 6.
Table 6: Results of the analyzes of vegetation changes in Razin-basin
Variable The slope of the process p-value Status Process name NDVI Index - 0/025 % 0/46 Without process
Seasonal Kendall test results showed that changing process of NDVI index is negative (reducing), although this negative trend, at the 5% level, was not statistically significant.
7.6.2. Soil Soil moisture regime of the area of study is based on the rainfall amount, potential evapotranspiration , annual temperature average according to the soil temperature and moisture regimes maps of Iran and other information including Xeric moisture regime. Thermic soil temperature regime of the region is Thermic. Razin Basin is often affected by water erosion under various forms including surface erosion, tracks, waterways and ditches with variable rates that have been observed in this field. Based on detailed - executive studies of Consulting Engineers Company of Zarkesht Paydar: low surface erosion with an area of 513/4983 hectares occupies approximately 93/33 % of the total area of the basin; low surface erosion with an area of 408 / 5914 hectares occupies approximately 63/75 % of the total area of the basin; low surface erosion with an area of 798/6176 hectares occupies approximately 1/42 of the total area of the basin ; low tracks erosion with an area of 234/2868 hectares occupies approximately 53/19 % of the total area of the basin ;average tracks erosion with an area of 588/6836 hectares occupies approximately 54/46 % of the total area of the basin , low waterway erosion with an area of 244/3456 hectares occupies approximately 53/23 % of the
25 total area of the basin , high waterway erosion with an area of 112/620 hectares occupies approximately 22/4 % of the total area of the basin ,low ditch erosion with an area of 759/585 hectares occupies approximately 99/3 % of the total area of the basin ; very low mechanical erosion with an area of 382/1762 hectares, occupies approximately 12 % of the total area of the basin ; low mechanical erosion with an area of 862/3184 hectares occupies approximately 68/21 % of the total area of the basin.
7.6.3. Water Resources According to studies, surface water discharge of the area is about 44/86 million cubic meters a year that gives the discharge average of 992 / 0 cubic meters per second. To assess the quality and quantity of surface water process, flow data and variables of Razavr River (Sarasiab hydraulic station) were used. These variables include calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, sulfate, electrical conductivity (EC), acidity (pH). Daily flow time series data recorded in Sarasiab station is shown in Figure 9. Monthly flow changes are shown in the diagram box in Figure 10. As shown, the river flow reaches its maximum in May and its minimum from late summer to mid-autumn.
300
250
200
150
Discharge (m3/s) Discharge
100
50
0
1995 2000 2005 2010 Date Figure 9: Time series of Daily River flow from 1992 to 2012
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50
40
30
20
Discharge(m3/s)
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month Figure 10: Diagram box of the river flow amount during different months
To analyze long-term changes of the river flow, seasonal Kendall test was used; the results are shown in Table 7. As shown, the river flow has a significant decreasing trend.
Table 7: Results of the analysis of river flow changes in Rezin area
Variable name The slope of the Status p-value process Process River Flow -0/23 % 0/041 Reducing
Long-term time series of surface water quality data are shown in Figures 11, 12 and 13.
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150
100
50
Discharge (m3/s) Discharge
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
600
500
400
EC (µS/cm) EC
300
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
8.5
8.0
pH
7.5
7.0
6.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 Time Figure 11: Time series flow data, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of the river water
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5.0
4.0
3.0
HCO3 (meq/lit)
2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
1.0
0.8
0.6
Cl (meq/lit) Cl
0.4
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
1.0
0.6
SO4 (meq/lit)
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time Figure 12: Time series of the anions, bicarbonate (HCO3), chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO4)
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4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
Ca (meq/lit) Ca
2.0
1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
2.0
1.5
Mg (meq/lit)
1.0
0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.8
0.6
0.4
Na (meq/lit)
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time Figure 13: Time series of the cations, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sodium (Na) Results of the seasonal Kendall test for water quality data trends are listed in Table 8. Based on the results of eight water quality variables, only one variable (EC) has decreasing trend. Three variables (Ca, HCO3 and Na) are having stable trends, other four variables (pH, Cl, SO4 and Mg) have increasing trend. In general, surface water quality in the Razin basin is decreasing.
Table 8: Results of the trend analysis of water quality parameters of river in Razin area
Variable name The slope of the process p-value Status Process EC -0.1108 0.0252 Reducing Increasing 0.0004 0.0440 اpH HCO3 -0.1020 0.0673 Stable trend Cl 0.5140 0.0000 Increasing SO4 0.8405 0.0000 Increasing Ca -0.0981 0.2216 Stable trend
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Mg 0.4110 0.0000 Increasing Na 0.1458 0.0903 Stable trend
Groundwater resources in the area of study include canals, springs and deep or semi-deep wells. Springs of the region are mainly in the mountainous and the wells are dug in central parts of the catchment basin, where there is suitable thickness of alluvium. The canals are mainly in the plains and foothills of the region. To assess the status of groundwater resources, underground water data and information of Regional Water Company of Kermanshah province and previous reports were used. Based on the collected data there are a total of 16 canals in the basin. Maximum flow of the canals is 2/10 liters per second and the minimum flow is of 3 / 0 LPs. The total area drained by aqueducts with 03 / 101 liters per second. Water of the canals are mainly used in in agriculture. In the area of study, there is a total of 111 springs. Their total annual discharge is announced 3335562 cubic meters per year. The major usage of the springs are in agriculture and drinking, drinking - Agriculture and animal husbandry are having the next rates. Total of 46 wells are located in Saman Arafi of Razin, their annual discharge is 315,520 cubic meters per year. The total annual discharge of groundwater resources in the area of study is 3698386 cubic meters. There are Water and irrigation problems such as being low in water resources that in fact are results of poor management of water resources in the area.
7.6.5. Status of livelihoods Survey shows that economy in the area of study is depended on traditional agriculture (49/25 %), livestock (81/59 %) and gardening (68/14 %) and households economy is dependent on natural resources and ranges. Currently the under cultivation area is 71/5867 hectares that 22/1785 hectares of it are under irrigation farming (8/27 %) and 49/4082 hectares are being rain fed ( 2/72 % ) and wheat , barley, alfalfa and clover , beetroot and chickpea are developed in this area . Approximately 214 hectares of the land is in fallow. In total an area of 6081.72 hectares of Razin basin have irrigating, rain fed cultivation and fallow. Average harvest of irrigated wheat is 3600 kg per hectare and the estimated wheat cultivation is 1300 kg per hectare. The highest income of the area belongs to sugar beet cultivation and the lowest income is for Chickpea cultivation. The total cost of crop production in the area is estimated at 863706100 tomans in Razin area. Total gross income of the Razin area from agriculture is 2827321100 Tomans and the net income is 1963615000 Tomans. Gardens of the area of study are mostly traditional or a mix of different tree species, but during the recent past years a new set of grapes, apples, pears and almonds gardens in different rural parts of the area are developed. In general, both traditional and new gardens of the area that according to the statistics is 396 hectares. Area devoted to irrigated and rain fed gardens based on their products are shown in the following table.
Table 9: extent of irrigated and rain fed gardens based on their products in Razin area (ha)
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The total area of Walnuts Pears Apples Grapes Fruitless Irrigated Almonds garden land 396 13 12 58 232 36 45 According to the studies and statistics provided by local sources ( village councils) , Veterinary Department of the city and Census statistics of 2003 , the number of breeding stock is 6551 head of which 5022 are sheep lambs, 176 are goats and kids, 1353 are local and hybrid cows and cattle. Since the number of the sheep and goats in this area is 5198 heads, therefore the gross income of sheep and goats breeding is estimated 145595980 Tomans, which its net income by considering the expenses will be 72044280 Tomans. According to the number of cows in the area of study, cows breeding activities in the area has an income of 148830000 Tomans, with gross income of 182655000 Tomans and net income of 33825000 Tomans. Beekeeping activities are not very noticeable and its productions are mostly for self- consumption of the residents and don't have a significant income. Furthermore, traditional poultry breeding that is done in the area is low in number and doesn’t have a significant benefit for the residents. As for the aquaculture, in this area there is only one aquaculture tank in one of the villages of the area- which is currently closed due to budget issues. Performed studies on infrastructural, cultural, health and medical situation of the field shows that the connecting roads of the rural area are paved. All residential areas (rural areas) are equipped with electricity power. One of the major problems for the residents is the drinking water which, although possessing an adequate pipeline, is unable to produce high enough water pressure resulting in little to no water service. In terms of communication facilities in rural areas there are telecommunication services and private telephone lines available at homes. Major sources of energy including fossil fuels are oil and gas in order to provide heat for the residents especially during the cold season (winter). In addition to oil and gasoline, liquid gas is used for cooking at homes. Due to the climate of the region, the residents use heaters to provide heat for an average period of five months a year. Now, according to surveys done in this region, the average annual consumption of oil for each household of the region is about 2200 liters.
7.7. Factors and pressures The major pressures (direct causes) of land degradation in using the Razin basin are discussed below. In Agricultural lands: - Inappropriate use of land, not considering the potentials and limitations of the land - Low efficiency of per unit production and increasing the cultivation area by farmers to have a larger production - Reduced fertility of soil due to erosion and loss of organic matter and organisms of the soil - Lack of proper management of water resources and high rate of water loss - Traditional methods of farming and gardening, and lack of inputs, quality seeds and improved seeds
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In Ranges: - overgrazing (imbalanced livestock numbers with range capacity) and lack of suitable grazing systems - over-plowing the range lands and turning them into rain fed farms - Removing the range bushes - Conflict on land utilization between villagers and nomads - Low and uneven distribution of water resources In the forest: - Sparse forest destruction - Cutting shrubs and trees for fuel uses Major causes (drivers) of land degradation include: Population growth of the country and the region during the past decades has resulted the raise of farming lands number, in order to supply the livestock food and therefore the degradation of the natural vegetation and the soil. Low levels of household income and unemployment (Due to seasonal agricultural jobs) has caused inability to invest on sustainable approaches of land and natural resources degradation. Low level of knowledge and skills of beneficiaries (farmers and livestock breeders) on principles of proper utilization of land, for example, part of the area of the land is devoted to rain fed agriculture that results in gradual reduction of the soil fertility. Lack of public awareness on negative effects of land degradation Natural factors such as semi-arid climate (lack of proper distribution of rain fall, high evaporation) and drought
7.8. The effects of land degradation on ecosystem services
7.8.1. Protective services (supply) The main impacts of land degradation on providing services are observed in agricultural lands and ranges. Erosion and soil degradation on step agricultural lands leads to low agricultural productivity which leads to low -income of the residents and thus household poverty. As mentioned, the relation between these causes this phenomenon to be both cause and effect. Rangeland degradation due to overgrazing, results in reduction of growth and breeding ability of the species and also dominance of the non- palatable species that reduces livestock products. Degradation of water resources that were observed in the basin in forms of reduced river flow and low water quality results in water reduction with appropriate quantity and quality for people, animals and plants .
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In general due to the degradation of soil, vegetation and water resources the per capita land area for production will be significantly reduced.
7.8.2. Regulatory and Supporting Services
7.8.2.1. Hydrologic Services Due to degradation of vegetation and soil in the basin, high rainfall causes runoff formation and immediately leaves the area in form of flood. There’s no opportunity for water infiltration, so underground aquifers don’t have enough water. On the other hand, farmers are seeking more water during the irrigation season and there’s more demand for using the groundwater aquifers. Therefor the under groundwater reduces and farmers demand to use this water increases more and more. This causes a fundamental problem in the area of study. Reduction of groundwater leads into the reduction of river base flow. As observed, the river flow was significantly negative in the last two decades which together with the reduced water quality will have a negative impact on ecosystem functioning.
7.8.2.2. Soil Services Long-term overgrazing has caused soil compaction in the ranges, reduced water infiltration, intensified soil erosion. As a result of erosion, soil particles are moved into undesirable places. In agricultural lands, surface soil loses its fertility due to erosion. In this case, water or air permeability in the soil reduces due to loss of organic matter or other factors, grades of soil get separated, therefore soil structure will become dense. In such a case an unfavorable environment occurs during the wet season in the soil. However, the soil loses its ability to store water for the dry season. In such an environment, humus is gradually lost and soil micro-organisms get destroyed.
7.8.2.3. Biodiversity Services As mentioned in the analysis of the vegetation status and trends, all types of range lands and forests of the basin have negative trends. Overusing of the lands, especially overgrazing of livestock in range lands has affected the ecosystem balance and thus reduced the growth and breeding ability of the range important species. Major palatable range species with low vigor and vitality are available and vegetation composition has changed in favor of the invasive and non-palatable species.
7.8.2.4. Climate Services One of the major functions of vegetation and in general photosynthesis plants is carbon sequestration. Regarding the area of forests and rangeland types in MENARID Razin area of study and dry forage yield and growth rate of trees within a year based on their photosynthesis relation, the rate of carbon sequestration by forests and rangelands in Saman Arafi region is estimated 9/622 tons per year. Of course, in case of continuing the current vegetation degradation may lead to severe reduction of carbon sequestration. Agricultural ecosystems carbon sequestration in the area of study is estimated 1/2991 tons per year. The efficiency of the amount of carbon sequestration of the crop is directly related with their production. As a result, land degradation reduces crop yield and therefor carbon sequestration.
7.8.2.5. Socio-cultural Services Traditional agriculture and livestock husbandry is part of the heritage of the resident communities in the Razin basin. It is necessary to pass on this heritage and indigenous knowledge to the new generations. However, land degradation causes reduced production,
34 low income, and large migrations from rural to urban areas that breaks the relation between the two generations and causes the loss of this meaningful heritage. Also, the aesthetic value of the landscapes of the area is reduced as a result of land degradation.
7.8.3. Impacts on livelihoods Traditional methods of utilization of land resources, increases pressure on resources and ultimately led to poor vegetation, degradation and erosion of the soil. Normally, resource degradation causes economic and social damages in short term and long term periods of time, which is in contrast with sustainable development and use of the resources, since sustainable development means favorable and proper use of natural and productive resources of the area, in order to increase the income and develop the economic situation of the residents of the area.
7.8.4. Conclusions and recommendations The results of the analysis of the status and trends of Kermanshah Razin watersheds, indicates a decline in the status of vegetation, soil and water in this area during recent years. It seems though if the causes of land degradation won’t be controlled, by continuing the current trend, life of the ecosystem will be put in danger and the residents’ livelihoods will become vulnerable. Therefore, the parallel monitoring of land resources, conservation and management activities in this watershed is necessary. Due to the ecological status of Razin watershed following activities are recommended, in order to prevent the degradation of land resources: 1 - Prevent the destruction of forests and rangelands and converting them to agricultural lands, especially on the margins of streams and rivers. In order to prevent degradation of range lands activities such as abandoning the overgrazing, modifying the operating procedures, rangeland management projects, range restoration by seeding...is recommended. Also, by changing the traditional livestock breeds with indigenous breeds, further developments could be made. 2 - Organizing training courses for farmers and local communities, to explain the importance of preserving natural resources and ways to preserve these resources 3 - Modifying the land operations and restoration and strengthening the capabilities of permanent vegetation in the area 4 - Management and the operation on agricultural lands must be modified by proper crop rotation practices, farming prevention on agricultural lands with high slopes, constructing new gardens and agroforestry reform .Based on agriculture by assessing the data in hand and the modified data, which corresponds with the regional climate may increase the per capita operation amount. This helps with the sustainable development plan in agriculture and is indirectly involved in the preservation of natural resources. 5 – Performing actions for efficient use of water such as constructing stone and mortar dams, for artificial groundwater aquifers recharging, building canals and irrigation networks, developing new methods of irrigation especially drip irrigation and others are needed. 6 – Developing continuous monitoring and regular indicators to measure the health of the land
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8. Assessment of land degradation in Hamoun area of Sistan&Baluchestan
8.1. Introduction to Study Area The study are covers 20,070 acres, 4 kilometers south-west of Zabol, located in geographic coordinates of 61 degree, 11 minutes and 13 second to 61 degree, 29 minutes and 41 seconds east longitude and 30 degree and 55 minutes and 19 seconds to 31 degree and 1 minute and 35 second north latitude. The area ends to Sistan River (Nahrab) in north, Zabol – Zahedan road in east, No. one water slope cement canal in the south and rangelands of Hamoun Hirman Lake in the west.
Figure 14: Geographic Location of Study Area
Except for Khajeh Mountain, the study area is plain with minor elevations of approximately 11 meters. Minimum land elevation is approximately 467 meters from sea level in west and riparian of Hamoun Hirman Lake and marsh lands and maximum elevation reaches 478 in east in Firouzeyi and Baghak areas. Khajeh Mountain, elevated 590 meters from sea level with a difference of 112 meters from its bed, is the only elevation in the territory under study.
8.2. Climate The study area is located in the periphery of Monsoon region of South-East Asia, and during monsoon seasons usually the sky is clear without clouds, the reason of which is lack of humidity and high divergence along with sensible reflow of the air above the atmosphere. Average rainfall in the area is approximately 60 mm and average annual vaporization is 4798 mm. Minimum and maximum absolute temperature registered in this area is 49 and -12 centigrade. 120-day monsoon winds with an intensity of 110-170 Km/h along with heat and dust start from Khordad and continue to Shahrivar, which is the key climate feature of this
36 area. The abrotheromic curve represents the seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature as indicated in figure 15. As the figure shows, in general the rainfall regime of the area is in winter. Most rainfalls happen during January to April. The diagram also indicates that temperature, during the year, stays above the rainfall curve stating that dry seasons govern most of the year (almost the whole year) in this area.
Figure 15: Abroteromic curve (rainfall and temperature change during the year) of the area
8.3. Geology In study area, evidence of upper Cretaceous, Paleogence flysch, Eocene, Miopliocene, Pleistocene and igneous formations and alluvials is obviously present. One of the key features of these formations is calcareous sediments which can be traced in most of them. Alluvials, which cover almost whole of the lands in the project area, constitute of fine-grained delta and lake sediments which usually have low porosity and permeability levels. Frequent flooding of Hirmand River, which in some cases covered a vast area of the plain and also increasing and decreasing water level in Hamoun Hirmand, during years, has left behind a thick layer of alluvials over plain lands. Coarse-grained sediments at the beginning and fine-grained sediments have settled at the end of plains around Hamoun. There is no evidence of rock protrusions are not evident is the area and it is entirely covered by fine-grained sediments. Geological structure of the project area include: A- Young sediments (along Sistan plain) (Basaltic unit (Ngb), fine-grained sediment unit of Hamoun Lake (NQts)); B- Lake sediments QLS (Clay unit, silt and grained sand, clay silt unit of grained sand and micro conglomer, silt-clay and sand units); C- River sediments (WQal) (sand unit).
8.4. Land Use General land vegetation and use of the study area is as follows: Established and fallow farm and garden lands, abandoned farmlands and tamarisk areas, lands covered in hills and sand areas, Sistan river peripheries and bed, Hamoun Lake bed with tamarisk, Hamoun Lake, constructed lands, residential areas and infrastructures. Land use map of the area under study is demonstrated in figure 16. The scope of areas per usage is indicated in table 10.
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Figure 16: Land use map in the study area
Table 10- Scope of lands per use and land coverage in study area
Land Coverage and Use Scope Abundance (Acres) (Percent) Established farmlands 8576 42.8 Abandoned farmlands & tamarisk lands 1830 9.1 Lands covered in hills and sand areas 45 0.2 Khajeh Mountain 412 1.2 Sistan river periphery and bed including tamarisk lands 1669 8.3 Hamoun bed and tamarisk lands 596 3.0 Hamoun river 6485 32.4 Residential areas, villages and infrastructures 376 1.9
8.5. Socio-economic Status Study area includes 23 village habitats and one town, where 4 villages of Sanchuli, Deh Boland, Keykha and Dah Pudineh (Abbas Kur) are selected as pilots of MENARID project. According to 1391 (2012) census, the study area has a population of 11355, divided in 3149 households, with a male population of 5624 and 5731 female. The sex ration of the area is 102 women to 100 men. Population growth rate in the area over the past 5 years is 3.7 percent and unemployment rate is 19.2 percent of active volunteer work force and literacy rate is 81 percent in men and 76 percent in women. The language is Farsi and Zaboli dialect. The whole population in the area is Muslims and Shia Ithna Ashari. Population intensity in the area is 62.2 individual per square kilometer, the most populated area is Ali Akbar residential town
38 with a population of 4551. The main livelihood of the heads of household is agriculture and livestock and aside that they are involved in public service affairs.
8.6. Status and Trends of Resources
8.6.1. Vegetation Difficult environmental condition has wiped out massive scope of the study area from vegetation. The existing species are those resilient against drought and salinity and tolerate the dominate climate of the area. Most species present in the area are types of vegetables being pollinated through wind and water and their seeds remain in the soil for a very long time and at the time of flooding or irrigation, they grow and create an intense and mass coverage. Their growth form is bush or shrub. In the study area, 12 plant families, including a total of 32 species (except for farmlands and non-farm lands) have been identified, most of which belong to Chenopodiaceae family with 13 species and the second group is Graminex with 7 species. The existing vegetation types in the area include Ta.st-ph.co-Ae.li, Al.ca–Sa.cr–Ta.st, Sa.cr– Ta.st. Figure 4 is the vegetation map in the study area.
Figure 17: Vegetation Map of Hamoun area
Ta.st-ph.co-Ae.li Vegetation Type
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This type grows in parts of Hamoun river bed. In this area, the vegetation coverage in this area has less diversity and higher intensity and Phragmites, Tamarisk and Aeluropus grow and spread very quickly upon water receding. Dominant species include Tamarix stricta, Phragmites communis and Aeluropus littoralis. The other species growing along are Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon and Arunda donax. Average vegetation mass in this type is estimated to be 85 percent. Tamarix covers 45 percent, Phragmites 20 percent, Aeluropus 12 percent and the remaining 8 percent includes other species. Considering a scope of 596 acres, the type capacity equals to 570 livestock head per month and production of forage is estimated to be equal to 43 kilograms per hectares. At present, the status of this type is fine and the trend is stable. Alhgi Camelorum, Salsola Crassa, Tamarix Stricta Plant Types This type includes a very thin and dispersed coverage of trees and bushes in abandoned lands and moors and lands seriously eroded by wind. Their habitat area is saline and bloated areas with tough clay ground, hills and sand. The dominant types include Alhgi camelorum, Salsola crass, Tamarix stricta along with other types such as Butomus umbellate and Typha minima. Average canopy coverage of this type is estimated to be 13 percent. Alhgi camelorum covers 13 percent, Salsola crass 4 percent and Tamarix stricta 2 percent of the area and remaining 1 percent is covered by other types. This type doesn’t contain usable forage, its status is poor and the trend is negative. This plant type, with a scope of 1929 acres in the area is studied. Salsola and Tamarix Plant Type This type is mostly in Hamound bed and low lands and has a thin and dispersed coverage of Salsola, tamarix and Phragmites. The vegetation is weak to a level that it can be considered as no coverage. Saline and bloated lands with a tough clay ground are the habitat of this plant type. The area covered by this type of plant has a tough and clay crust which is destroyed easily during dries seasons and moves around. Dominant plan types are Salsola crassa and Tamarix stricta along with other types such as Cyperus lomgus, Typha minima and also Cyperus rotundus. Average intensity of the canopy in this type is one percent and in fact the area is stripped of any vegetation. This plan type (in other words this nude and stripped area) is significantly wide and fit within the study area. This type plant type covers a scope of 8153 acres. Usable forage is not observed in this type and currently the status is very poor with a negative trend. In order to review vegetation coverage trend, time-scale of NDVI indicator of the area has been analyzed for a period of 2000 to 2013 (figure 18). It is observed that generally measures of NDVI is very small, which indicates poor vegetation in the area. Annual regular fluctuations representing seasonal change of vegetation is not to be traced in this diagram. Box diagram indicating the average and transmittal of inputs around the center, is drawn for various years as in figure 19. Review of this figure, doesn’t indicate any tangible ascending or descending change in NDVI measures.
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Figure 18: Time-scale NDVI from 2000 to 2013
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Figure 19: NDVI measure diagram for different years In order to determine best time of year to analyze vegetation trend, NDVI measures for different years are drawn in a diagram which is demonstrated in figures 20 and 21. Analysis of these diagrams, it is possible to understand the pick of plan growth and activity in this area to be approximately mid-November to February. Hence, in studying the trend of long term changes of vegetation, the inputs of these months are considered.
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Figure 20: Annual time change of NDVI indicator
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Figure 21: Annual measures of NDVI changes diagram In order to undertake a statistical analysis of long term vegetation changes, seasonal Candle Test was conducted on NDVI inputs for months of November to February during different years, the results of which are reflected in table 11.
Table 11: Results of Vegetation Seasonal Change in Study Area in Zabol
Variable Name Trend Slope P-value Trend Status
NDVI Indicator 0.015% 0.0001 Additive
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The results of Candle Seasonal Test indicate that the changes in NDVI indicator measures are positive (additive), which shows improvement in vegetation status during the recent years. The positive trend of vegetation has been due to implementation of natural resources projects in the area.
8.6.2. Soil Sistan plain lands, physiographically, are usually in alluvial plains of Hirmand river which has a mild slope towards north and north west of Hamoun Lake. The study area is a delta with a very light slope towards Hamoun and the soil is fine-grained. According to American classification method, of twelve soil taxonomy, the soil in this area fits within two categories of antisol and aridisol. According to Iranian taxonomy method, the soil in this area fits within three groups of alluvial (sediment) and saline alluvial and basilica alluvial. In general, this area contains a fine grained alluvial level, with very low permeability and limited to crust level. This alluvial has no capacity to absorb and store hence is very poor with underground resources. Due to low permeability of the soil in these areas, water reserve capacity in agricultural soils is limited. A great proportion of the water evaporates from plots and the plant is exposes to water shortage tension. Flooding irrigation is another cause and sediments left from flood in the farmland, the restrictions increase. A collective of factors, increase the risk of soil erosion (as wind erosion). These factors are: presence of fine-grained alluvial soil, constant 120-day winds in Sistan, paves lands of the area, poor vegetation, periodical drought, high population and presence of imbalanced livestock and rangelands. During recent dry years, the incident of erosion has been very high and annually the normal erosion which was usually internal and around Sistan plain, upon lack of water flow into the bed of the river and dryness of the bed due to evaporation, has stepped out of internal borders. Parallel to this fact, smaller particles of the soil (silt and clay) are suspended in heights by wind and bigger particles in lower heights and move towards residential areas periphery to Hamoun Lake.
8.6.3. Water Resources The only constant water current in Sistan area is Hirmand River. This river, with its vast catchment, has its spring origin from Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan. Hirmand river regime is snowy-rainy. Hirmand River, in the border of Iran and Afghanistan is divided into two streams, the two of which are called Sistan and Paryan River, collectively. Sistan River flows towards Zabol and eventually upon passing the study area ends in Hamoun Hirmand. Diversion dams of Kahak, Zahak and Sistan are built over this river, providing required agricultural water. There are channels and waterways in the study area through which surface water is used. The main channel is Shib Ab (Water slope) (major part of the study area is in block one of Shib Ab) on the left bank of Sistan river, diverting from Sarab dam of Sistan and continues for 19 kilometers. This channel is designed to provide irrigation water of Shib Ab lands in sistan. Excess agricultural water reaches Hamoun Hirmand through natural and artificial drainage. Some parts of Sistan River, neighbor's north east corner of the study area. Chah Nimeh resource, located in the mounds of Hirmand river left bank, is one of the vital water supply resources in the study area. This source is filled into channels and connects to Sistan River through another channel. Reserved flood water in this resource is used during seasons of water scarcity. To review qualitative and quantitative trends of surface waters, previous reports on qualitative and quantitative inputs regarding the water reserved in Chah Nimeh reservoir.
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Change of water level in Chah Nimeh channel is presented in figure 9. This figure shows reduced water level during past years.
Figure 22: Water level change in Chah Nimeh Channel Change in quality variables of water is demonstrated in figures 23 and 24.
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Figure 22: Measures of EC, SAR and TDS in Chah Nimeh reservoir during different years
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0 1374-75 1376-77 1378-79 1380-81 1382-83 1384-85 1386-87 1388-89 Year
Figure 23: Cl level and general water hardness during different years Results of Candle statistical test to define the trend of water quality inputs are shown in table 12. According to these results, of five water quality variable, one variable (SAR) has meaningful additive trend. Three other variables (Cl, TDS and EC) have meaningless additive trend and one variable (general hardness) has a meaningless descending trend.
Table 12: Analysis results of water quality variables in Chah Nimeh water reservoir Variable Trend slope p-value Trend status
EC 3.40 0.32 No trend
SAR 3.93 0.03 Additive
TDS 3.24 0.22 No trend
Cl 0.71 0.84 No trend
General hardness - 0.28 0.66 No trend
In Zabol plain, as the study area, there is no evidence of spring or aqueduct. A review of the geological characteristics of the area shows that due to presence of marine clay and calcareous sediments, this area has no capacity for aquifer and underground water resource formation. In crisis situations, it is possible to exploit cortical waters reserved in a depth of 2 to 12 meters in some areas, especially peripheries of canals and the river. Digging sumps is a method to reach sub-cortical waters. Indeed, sump water quality changes in a short period of time and turns saline and bitter; also, the sumps fall and lose effectiveness. Considering that
45 the water level fluctuates during the year, the figures indicating the number of sumps varies as well. According to the last reports provided by Water Organization during agricultural year 1385-86, of 7500 wells constructed in the area only 4500 were functional in Sistan area and the rest had dried out during time due to long term drought and shortage of river water. The sump depth is between 10 to 14 meters and the water volume is 1.2 – 1.5 liters per second and presuming 2500 hours of water supply during the year, the volume of water supplied by every sump is approximately 10800-13500 square meter annually. Along with decreasing level of water during dry years with low rainfall, especially during summer and beginning of autumn, when the level of underground water is reduced due to lack of rainfall during dry seasons, the water level in sumps reduce as well and in some cases it is not possible to exploit water.
8.6.4. Livelihood Situation The first occupation of heads of households in the study area is agriculture (47 percent) and their second livelihood option is agriculture-livestock. Totally 49 percent of the population is active in the field of agriculture and livestock. 7 percent work in service sector and other fields. 43 percent of the population of heads of households have seasonal jobs and do simple labor, suffer temporary and permanent unemployment and require various assistance choices for livelihood. In general, 40 percent of the households in the area are covered by Imam Assistance Committee and Welfare Organization and other such bodies. A review of women’s employment indicates that 40 percent of rural women in the study areas are active in agriculture and 39 percent have direct involvement in livestock. Average income weight of the household in sample villages is IRR 46209777 per year provided from agricultural, livestock, handicraft and different services rendered and also receiving assistance from public and charity organizations. Income resources of the household in sample villages are demonstrated in the table below.
Table 13- Economic status of sample villages regarding household annual average income
Annual average Annual average Annual average Annual average Annual retirement Total annual agricultural livestock income service income carpet weaving settlements and household income income (IRR) (IRR) (IRR) income (IRR) other assistance (IRR) 13628560 6465809 4923749 - 21191661 46209777 Source: Socio-economic characteristics’ questionnaire of sample villages The villages covered in this study, relatively enjoy all infrastructures in other areas and almost all residential villages in the area enjoy water pipeline, electricity, telephone communication, and road and are located 3.5 kilometers from health houses, village corporations and market places to provide their needs. All villages with a population of above 20 households have a primary school and pre-high school and high schools are within 5 kilometer reach of every village. In general, considering the average ratio of villages nationwide, these villages have better infrastructure and education and health services.
8.7. Factors and Pressure Land degradation in the study area varies vastly from other regions. Absolute dependency upon Hirmand river, on one hand, sever wind and wind erosion, mostly resulting from dried Hamoun river, on the other hand, has distinguished this area from other regions in the province and countrywide. Key elements of pressure (direct reasons) and factors (indirect reasons) of land degradation in the study area link to natural factors. In this area, natural factors and processes impose difficult condition on the land which enhances the scope of resource destruction; indeed, human activities and function aggravate the destructive impacts of natural factors. Following are key elements of pressure (direct reasons) of land degradation.
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- Low rainfall, reduces water resource quality and quantity, destroys vegetation and increases salination and capacity of the soil due to lack of water. Moreover, consecutive droughts aggravate destruction of land resources. - High temperature and vaporization and transpiration, imposes tension on natural vegetation and agricultural lands in the area. This factor also has resulted in increased water intensity and reduced its quality (water resource destruction). - 120-day winds which cause serious storms, soil erosion, sand run and enhancement of deserts, the former, in turn, destroys vegetation and water resources in the area. - Eco hydrologic condition of the area, highly, depends on Hirman river which has turn into a very tiny stream due to long drought and also disputes with Afghanistan and dried out in 1387 and consequently Hamoun dried out and transformed into a desert area. - Soils in the area, mostly, have medium to light context with limited salination and high basilica capacity and weak drainage which play a crucial role in reinforcing wind erosion impact in degradation of the land. - Although, the results indicated that vegetation of the area have had a positive trend in general however long term fallow of lands sensitive to erosion, removing bushes and unregulated lands use are key human factors contributing to land erosion. Factors (Indirect reasons) As observed, natural factors, especially the climate, have created difficult living condition and considered as key ecosystem degradation in the area. Of course, along with natural factors, poverty of resident populations in rural areas has made them unable to invest and take initiatives in agriculture and adopt conservation methods and their approach is more focused on quick profit traditional and livelihood agricultural methods. Also, lack of sufficient knowledge, attitude and local community awareness regarding the factors and impact of land degradation causes problems as well. Lack of knowledge regarding the importance of the environment and natural resources has caused local communities to be unaware of issues such as soil erosion by wind, the necessity to combat erosion, revive vegetation and reserve rainfalls, which reinforces resource destruction in the area.
8.8. Impacts of Land Degradation on Ecosystem Services Due to natural and climate condition of the study area, the ecosystem in the area is fragile and unsteady and suffers high sensitivity and vulnerability. In general, land degradation through wind erosion, reduced productivity, salination and soil contamination, reduced water resources’ quality and quantity, at the end destroys vegetation, which has undesirable socio- economic and environmental impacts. Destruction of water and soil resources reduces biological production of rangelands and farmlands and affects local beneficiaries’ income. Destruction of water resources in the form of quantitative drop and reduced quality of water observed in the region, causes reduced water resources with desirable quality and quantity for human, animal and vegetation. Threats such as salination of ground water caused by intervention of sweet and salt waters in peripheries of Pelaba and rivers and salination of lands due to use of underground water resources with undesirable quality are other effects of water resource destruction. Soil degradation in the form of wind erosion has resulted in removal and movement of surface soil elements such as humus which seriously affects carbon level of the soil and hampers productivity. Wind erosion also increases dust in the air. Negative and destructive impacts of erosion over vegetation seriously reduce carbon sequestration. Reduced biodiversity including plants and wildlife are other negative impacts of land degradation.
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From social and cultural point of view, the output of land degradation is unemployment, poverty, reduced social and public health and eventually evacuation of residents.
8.9. Impacts of Land Degradation on Livelihood High dependency of local communities to agricultural and livestock activities, the efficiency of which is directly linked with water, soil and vegetation resources, land degradation has deep impact on local community livelihood. Obvious form of land degradation in study area is wind erosion and sand run. Of other outcomes of resource degradation, directly affecting local community life and livelihood are: villages of the area exposed to invasion of running sand, farmlands and gardens buried under sand, destruction of water supply channels, obstruction of roads, damages to energy transfer routes. The scope of crisis is so huge that all social, economic and political activities are affected and hampers sustainable development.
8.10. Conclusions and Recommendations Results of an analysis over the dominant situation and trend of natural resources in the area, indicate slight improvement in vegetation; however, a deteriorating situation of water and soil in the area during past years. It seems that in the future, measures shall be taken to control land degradation, otherwise, continuation of the above trend, threatens the life of the ecosystem and livelihood of exploiting communities in this area is exposed to a serious risk. Considering the ecologic situation in the area, the following measures are recommended to prevent land degradation: - Main resource and capacity of the area is presence of a hydrologic source from Hirmand River which provides required water and is a relative support for agriculture. Guarantee of continued water flow from this source within international and regional framework with the government of Afghanistan based on the capacities of Sistan plain has high priority. - Hamoun Lake and the Stream of Sistan River in the study area, is a source of sand moved by wind; to stabilize soil, conservation and enrichment projects for existing vegetation in the area are priority programs. In this way, it is possible to prevent transfer of dust to other areas. - Refraining and reserve of flood water for maximum use to increase water humidity and vegetation to prevent degradation trend of the land. - Presence of sumps in Sistan as the source of water provision, is a key factor to refrain people in the area; however, continued drought, caused significant growth in people’s need to water provided from sumps. Other method to provide water during drought is to dig sumps in the area to provide irrigation water for agriculture.
9. Land Degradation Assessment in Bahabad Region in Yazd
9.1. Induction to the Surveyed Land Bahabad area being studied (major Bahabad area) is a part of watershed region of Lut Desert, which is located in the east of Yazd province between east longitudes of 55° 42' to 56° 16' and northern latitudes of 31° 33' to 32° 42'. Total area of the surveyed land is 178190 hectares. The highest altitude of the area is 3035 meters from sea level and its deepest elevation point is 1251 meters from sea level. In general, average altitude in this area is approximately 1400 meters from sea level. Geographic location of Bahabd region is demonstrated in figures 24 and 25.
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Of the villages in the area, four villages of Asfij, Kamkuyeh, Bonestan and Karim Abad are pilot villages of MENARID project. Asfij village from north to Bahabad is located in a distance range of 32 kilometers. This village is located in 56 degree and 13 minute geographic longitude and 31 degree and 41 minute latitude and is 1821 meters from see level. Kamkuyeh is a foothill village, approximately 25 kilometers from Bahabad with geographic coordinates of 56 degree and 9 minute longitude and 31 degree and 41 minute latitude, 1862 meters from sea level. Bonestan is a foothill village, approximately 30 kilometers from Bahabad, with geographic coordinates of 56 degree and 4 minute longitude and 31 degree and 44 minute latitude, 1799 meters from sea level. Karim Abad is a village located in a plain area, approximately 14 kilometers north of Bahabad with geographic coordinates of 55 degree and 58 minute longitude and 31 degree and 58 minute latitude, 1365 meters from sea level.
Figure 24: Geographic Location of Bahabad Watershed
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Figure 25: Geographic Location of Bahabad Watershed on Google Earth
9.2. Climate Based on Ombrege method, this area has dry climate. Average annual rainfall registered in Bahabad weather station is approximately 68 millimeters, average annual temperature is 18.5 degree centigrade and relative humidity is 32.5 percent. Maximum and minimum absolute temperatures registered in this area are 45 and -17 degree centigrade and number of frost days is 51 annually. Evaporation is most severe in this area. Bahabad area in west and south has countryside and desirable climate which are used during spring and summer for recreation and as resorts by people coming from different areas.
9.3. Geology Geologic plan of Bahabad is demonstrated in figure 26. Formations of Quaternary period (alluvial hills and sedimentary terraces) shape most of the area which are highly erosion susceptible. Shale, sandstone, conglomerate and limestone also covers a major proportion of the region and are moderate to highly susceptible to erosion.
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Figure 26: Geology Map of Bahabad Region
9.4. Land Use According to surveys conducted, current land use in the study area includes rangeland, farmland, arboretum and residential areas.
9.5. Socio-economic Status Bahabad consists of two sections which in whole includes city of Bahabad and three villages of Jolgeh, Asfij, and Banestan. The current population residing in this area is 15891 or 3564 households, of which 1609 households reside in Bahabad city and 1955 are habitants of rural areas. Of the total population residing in the county, 7986 are male and 7905 female. 26.8 percent of the population is under 15, 67.3 percent in the age range of 15 to 64 and 5.9 percent in the age group of 65 and above.
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Figure 27: Population Relative Distribution According to Major Age Groups
Table 14 demonstrates the number and size of households and annual growth rate of Bahabd city during 1966 – 2006. As reflected in the table, the population growth rate in this county is increasing. Table 14: Household, population and annual growth rate in Bahabad city: 1966 – 2006
Title 1966 1976 1986 1996 2006 Number of households 360 396 738 958 1609 Population 1486 1738 3565 4826 7387 Household size 4.13 4.39 4.83 5.03 4.6 Population growth rate - 1.58 7.45 3.07 4.3 (%)
In table 15, variables of the villages in Bahabad are presented.
Table 15 – Demographic status, gender ratio, literacy and employment in villages studied (2006)
Title Household Population Household Male Female Gender Literate Student Employed Unemployed size ratio Bonestan 484 1523 3.1 763 760 100 969 217 840 50 village Asfij 526 2077 3.9 1023 1054 97 1464 532 836 157 village Jolgeh 946 3785 4 1931 1854 104 2908 881 1233 227 village Source: Directory of Villages of Bafgh, 2006
Average age of head of households in sample villages is 53 years. 95 percent of the heads of households are male and 5 percent female and average household size in villages studied is 3.6. Heads of households are mostly involved in farming, livestock, service and other fields. An assessment of women’s role in agriculture and livestock system indicated that 30% of women in the villages studied are involved in agriculture and 45% have direct involvement in livestock. Dominant agricultural crops in Asfij village in priority order in agriculture include wheat, alfalfa, millet, barley, lentil, saffron, cumin and beans and in some proportions they also cultivate sunflower and corn which are mainly for livelihood and do not include any significant income value. Horticultural products of this village in priority order include almond, walnut, grape and apricot. Total arable, fallow, arid and garden lands in Asfij village
52 are approximately 304 hectares of which, during the recent years, almost 150 hectares are being cultivated and the rest are preserved under long term fallow.
Dominant agricultural products of Kamkouyeh village include wheat, lentil, barely, alfalfa, millet, beans and forage maize, saffron and horticultural products are walnut, almond and apricot. Other trees such as grape and plum and apple are merely for livelihood purposes. Total arable, fallow, arid and garden lands in the area of this village is 31 hectares and in Haji Abad it is 35 hectares making a total of 66 hectares, where in recent years approximately 35 hectares have been cultivated and the rest are preserved under long term fallow. Agricultural crop of Bonestan village in priority order include saffron, wheat, barely, millet, alfalfa, turnip, sorghum, forage maize and from horticultural products almond, apricot, pomegranate, walnut and pistachio and grapes in little proportions shall be named in order of priority. However, main and income generating products of this village are saffron and almond and apricot; although, almond, in recent years suffers Eurytoma amygdali and consequently its income has reduced. Total arable, fallow, arid and garden lands in Bonestan village area are approximately 37 hectares in the form of 3 farms of which 35 hectares are being cultivated recently. These areas are mostly gardens farming is integrated in them. Dominant products of Karim Abad village also in order of priority are pistachio, wheat, barely, alfalfa, cumin, cucurbits (watermelon and melon) and sunflower.
9.6. Resource Status and Trend
9.6.1. Vegetation Considering that rainfalls are limited in this area and the life of this season is short, its vegetation is relatively weak. However, in case of sufficient rainfall, plant diversity growing in this area is vast. Based on Pääbo classification, the flora of this area is classified under climate region of Iran-Turanian and sub-regional semi steppe. According to studies conducted, in this region, topography is the key effective element in the type of vegetation. Including topography, the elements of soil and its depth are also decisive in the formation of plan species and prevailing vegetable types in the area. In plain areas and valleys, where proper edaphic condition dominates and there are no limits considering soil texture and depth, density and diversity of vegetation is massive. Studies indicated that over 97 percent of the area has natural and self-propelled plantation where 5 distinct flora types are to be distinguished in the area. Main flora types in this area are:
Plain sagebrush species (Artemisia sieberi)
Plain sagebrush species have transmittance in low-lying areas along with other species such .Salsola spp forming a type و as Scariola orientalis, Launea acantodes, and Ptropyrum aucheri The canopy percentage level of this type is 6.3 percent and its production level is 55 kilograms per hectare. Due to successive droughts there is no plant regeneration in this type and the range status is weak and the tendency of this type is negative.
Mountain sagebrush type (Artemisia aucheri)
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Mountain sagebrush can be seen in the elevation range lands of 2300 to 3050 meters above sea level. The canopy percentage of this type is 8 percent and its production level is 84 kilograms per hectare.
Mountain sagebrush-wild almond type (Artemisia aucheri-Amygdalus scoparia)
Tree and shrub coverage of the area is mainly wild almond (Amygdalus scoparia), Persian turpentine tree (Pistacia atlantica), fig (Ficus johannis), and barberry (Berberis integerrima) and in some occasions Juniper (Juniperus excelasa). This type usually has transmittance in relatively elevated areas. The canopy coverage percentage of this type is 14.45 percent and its production level is 127.7 kilograms per hectare.
Mountain sagebrush-milk vetch (Artemisia aucheri-Astragals Spp)
Dominant milk-vetch type in the area forming a type with mountain sagebrush is Astragals myriacanthus. The canopy coverage percentage of this type is 10.8 percent and its production level is 99 kilograms per hectare.
Mountain sagebrush- Pteropyrum aucheri (Artemisia aucheri - Ptropyrum aucheri)
Canopy coverage percentage of this type is 11.9 percent and its production level is 60 kilograms per hectare.
According to assessments conducted, due to successive droughts, regeneration of vegetation coverage is dispersed and range status of the area is average to weak. Range trend in mountain sagebrush, mountain sagebrush- milk vetch, mountain sagebrush- wild almond, and mountain sagebrush-Pteropyrum aucheri types is static and the trend in plain sagebrush is negative. Due to emigration of people and reduced population, there is less livestock pressure on the range lands and there is no surplus livestock population in the area. Observations and studies conducted in the area indicate that in not too distant past, valuable species of wild almond, Persian turpentine tree and wild fig massively existed in the form of a forest in the area; however, due to cutting trees to provide fuel and prepare coal; currently mentioned species are limited and exist in low density in mountainous areas. As stated by locals, approximately 50 years ago, these trees were cut and destroyed to provide fuel for local communities and prepare coal to start coal-burning engines for 40 water wells existing in this area and surrounding areas.
In order to study the trend of change in vegetation during recent years, NDVI time series of Bahabad region for a period of 2000 to 2013 (Figure 28) was analyzed.
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Figure 28: NDVI time series, 2000 to 2013 The box plot indicating the average and transmittance of inputs around the mean was drawn for different years which are reflected in Figure 29. This figure reflects a tangible reduced level of NDVI in years of 2008 to 2012 compared to previous years.
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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Figure 29: Box plot of NDVI levels during various years To determine the best time of the year to analyze the vegetation coverage, NDVI levels of various years were reflected on a single diagram which are reflected in diagrams 30 and 31. Considering these diagrams it is observed that the period of growth and plant activity in the area is beginning of November to mid-February. Hence, in studying long term change trend of vegetation, the inputs of these months were used.
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Figure 30: Time changes of NDVI indicator during the year
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NDVI
0.090
0.085
0.080
1 Jan 2 Feb 6 Mar 7 Apr 9 May 10 Jun 12 Jul 13 Aug 14 Sep 16 Oct 17 Nov 19 Dec
Time Figure 31: Box plot of NDVI indicator levels during the year To conduct data analysis of long term changes of the vegetation, Candle Seasonal Test was conducted on NDVI data of February to June in different years, the results of which is reflected in table 16. The results indicate that the change level of NDVI indicator is negative (decreasing).
Table 16: Results of vegetation change trend in Bahabad Change Title Trend Slope P-value Trend Status NDVI Indicator -0/013% 0/001 Decreasing
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9.6.2. Soil Unfortunately, detailed geological studies have not been conducted in this area. The data available used to assess the land status in the area are those collected through 4 factor methodology to define the range status. One of the factors used in this methodology is the soil condition.
According to this data, in the area covered by mountain sagebrush and mountain sagebrush- milk vetch types, soil erosion is not seen. Soil surface remains untouched and the soil has full coverage of plant remains. In the areas studied, in the areas with mountain sagebrush-wild almond and mountain sagebrush- Pteropyrum aucheri type coverage, minimal soil erosion exists; however it is difficult to see. Although, leaching of surface soil is minimal but it can be observed. Proportions of soil sediments accumulate at the end of small streams or near the plants or around plant remains. Usually, after heavy rainfall, shallow grooves emerge on soil surface. Plant remains are at average level and do not have full transmittance. In areas covered by plain sagebrush type, soil erosion is observed. Soil around the boulder is moved in a way that the boulders remain on a pillar of soil. After heavy rainfalls, signs of shallow grooves appear on the surface. Plant remains are minimal and have weak transmittal. Areas with no vegetation of plant remain coverage are dispersed in the rangeland.
9.6.3. Water Resouces Salt River (Jafar Abad) is the main source of surface water in Bahabad area. Discharge regimen of Salt River is torrential, meaning that heavy showers in the area cause flooding for couple of hours. In Bahabad plains, due to invasion of agricultural drainage in approximately 5 kilometers upstream of Jafar Abad, the river has constant but low flow which is almost static and ultimately reaches the desert. A hydrometric station is built on salt river of Bahabad. 10-year statistics of this hydrometric station in Jafar Abad indicates that average flow of the river is 3 liters per second and its annual runoff volume is equal to 2.3 million square meters per year. The maximum mean surface flow of the river is 113 leiter per second which is during February – March and its minimum monthly discharge is 48 liters per second during September – October. Maximum flood flow in second registered in Jafar Abad station is 26.6 square meters per second and flooding volume is approximately 980 thousand square meters.
According to Salt River water chemical analysis in the hydrometric station of Jafar Abad, average EC of Salt River water is 10313µmhos/cm, and the volume decreases during flooding. Maximum EC of sampled water equal to 12946µmhos/cm was in April 2, 2000. Average water chlorine of the river is 2170 milligrams per liter. The results of river water quality analysis shows that it is highly salty and might be used only for Halophytes and plant types resilient to salt water.
In Bahabad, due to limited surface water resources, water consumed in agriculture, drinking and sanitation and industry is provided from ground water resources, which results in reduced levels of ground water and decrease of aquifer resources. In this study, using the data on the groundwater depth (acquired from Water Organization of Yazd province), the trend of changes of groundwater levels (fluctuations of water table) for a number of wells were measured in Bahabad. To fulfill this purpose, for a number of shallow and deep wells of the
57 area, monthly fluctuation diagrams of groundwater table since 2003 to 2009 were prepares which are demonstrated below. In the equation as stated on the diagram, coefficient of x reflects the slope of the trend line and decrease of drop table in meters per month. In general, the average of drop table of underground water for wells under study was 6 centimeters per month (72 centimeters per year).
15 y = 0.0624 x + 16.049 16
17
18
19
(m) 20
21
22
Figure 32: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 173 well
40 40.5 y = 0.0459 x + 41.047 41 41.5 42 42.5
43
(m) 43.5 44 44.5 45
Figure 33: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 163 well
77 y = 0.1081 x + 77.714 78 79 80 81 82
83
(m) 84 85 86 87
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Figure 34: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 190 well
115 y = 0.0432 x + 117.26 116
117
118
119
(m) 120
121
122
Figure 35 Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 126 well
147 y = 0.0422 x + 148.12
148
149
150
(m) 151
152
Figure 36: Fluctuation of drop table depth for Bahabad’s 127 well
According to the latest data available, ground water resources to be used are 293 sources including 7 semi-deep wells, 89 deep wells, 49 springs and 148 aqueducts with a total discharge of 46 million square meters per year. Number of sources and level of discharge from alluvial aquifers and hard structured reservoirs in Bahabad in 2011 are stated in the following table. Table 17: Summary of water resource status in Bahabad region
Number of semi-deep wells 7 Discharge of semi-deep wells (million square meters 0.083 Number of deep wells 89 Discharge of deep wells (million square meters) 35.677 Total number of wells 96 Total discharge of wells (million square meters) 35.760 Number of springs 49 Spring discharge (million square meters) 2.341 Number of aqueducts 148 Aqueduct discharge 7.888 Total number of water resources 293 Total discharge of water resources 45.981
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Agricultural Use (percent) 74.9 Industrial use (percent) 16.3 Drinking water consumption (percent) 8.7 Total consumption (percent) 100 Summary of ground water balance of Bahabad is reflected in table 18.
Table 18: Summary of ground water balance of Bahabad
Feeding Level (MCM) Total Discharge Level (MCM) Total Balance Underground Water Others feeding Use of Underground Others discharge deficit entrance reverse * level water exit ** (MCM) (MCM) flow (MCM) resources *** 24 19.95 5.47 49.42 50.442 5.92 1.477 57.839 -8.39 *: including rainfall and runoff infiltration
**: including evaporation and drainage of the aquifer
***: Balance deficit is calculated in the area of Tysen network and based on the hydrograph unit drop.
The results of chemical analysis of water in 5 wells being used in the study area indicate that the water quality of none of the wells is suitable for drinking. Also, assessment and classification of water resources for agriculture using Willcox diagram the level of EC in three wells was above 5000 µmhos/cm and is outside the range of the diagram indicating low quality of water in these wells. Test results of water samples of two agricultural wells show that the water of these wells is in C4-S4 class and is only suitable for irrigation of some crops. In general, most suitable ground waters in this area is aquifer formations and alluvial fans.
9.6.4. Population Livelihood Status In Bahabad region, primary occupation of the heads of households is agriculture with abundance of 43% and the second occupation of heads of households is related to agriculture and livestock. It is to be said that 30% are active in the field of agriculture and 23% in livestock and remaining 47% in the field of service and other occupations. Average weight rate of household income in sample rural areas is IRR 56,155,350 per year. This income is from agriculture, livestock, handicraft and other service activities and also assistance provided by public institutions and charities. The share and rate of each in every village is indicated in the following table.
Table 19: Economic Status of Sample Villages Concerning Annual Household Average Income Rate
Village Annual Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Total Name Income from Income from Income from Income from Average Household Agriculture Livestock (IRR) Service Carpet Weaving Income from Annual (IRR) Provision (IRR) (IRR) Pensions and Income Assistance (IRR) Asfij 3208518 1884615 21361538 - 38000000 64454671 Kamkouyeh 3575000 1535000 9000000 300000 27500000 41910000 Bonestan 1277087 666600 24380555 110000 25000000 51434242 Karim 23600000 10525000 38725000 - 21600000 71600975 Abad
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9.7. Factors and Pressures Considering that the area is ecologically in an arid area, key pressures (direct causes) and factors (indirect causes) of land degradation in the area are natural factors such as drought and famine. However, human activities play their role in resource degradation and in general natural and human factors aggravate destructive impacts of one another.
Following are key pressures (direct causes) of land degradation in the area.
- Low annual rainfall rate, high temperature and evaporation and excessive sweating causes reduced quantity and quality of water resources and impose tension on natural vegetation and also farmlands. Besides low rainfall, successive droughts exacerbate resource degradation in the area. - Excessive and abusive exploitation of underground water resources results in negative balance of ground water table, sever drop of ground water level and reduced quality. - Digging plants and excessive grazing during past year are of key human factors resulting in degradation of vegetation in the area. Factors (indirect causes)
As stated, natural factors, especially drought, are key factors degrading resources of this area. Besides these natural factors, traditional structure of exploiting farmlands and range lands causes land degradation as well. Lack of awareness, ignorance and low income of local communities in these areas is the cause of sustainable agricultural principles including proper irrigation methods not being adopted, which results in water and land resources’ destruction. Improper use of resources in this area, lack of precise planning and providence, low environmental culture and income of the local communities are other factors involved in land degradation.
9.8. Impact of Land Degradation on Ecosystem Services Land degradation results in reduced biologic production of range lands and farmlands. Under such circumstances, in case the system of exploiting water and land and vegetation resources are not adopted with the prevailing situation, instability in ecosystem and consequently economic and social situation might occur. Degradation of water, land and vegetation results in reduced income of local communities and consequently poverty of households.
Degradation of water resources observed in the form of decline in ground water level and also reduced quality of surface and ground water resources in the area are, causes reduced potable and agricultural water resources of proper quantity and quality. Risk such as salination of ground water resources and farmlands as a result of using water resources of low quality are also impacts of destruction of water resources. As stated in the section on situation analysis and vegetation trend, vegetation coverage in the area has a negative trend. Due to destruction of vegetation in the area, immediately after rainfall, runoffs are formed and exit the area as flood water. Water doesn’t have enough time to infiltrate into the ground and consequently ground water resources are not nurtured. Land humidity is reduced which affects the microclimate of the area at earth level and drought resilient and wooden plants (especially prickly plants) substitute valuable herbaceous and pasture species. Vegetation degradation causes land bareness, increases wind and water erosion, reduces farmland productivity and severe reduction of carbon sequestration rate.
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From social and cultural point of view, the results of land degradation are unemployment, poverty, immigration and eventually depleted habitats.
9.9. Impacts on Community Livelihood Due to the fact that majority of the local community depend on agricultural and livestock activities, the efficiency of which is directly related to water and land resources and vegetation, land degradation severely affects the livelihood of these communities. Resources degradation is associated with economic and social damages in short and long term in the area and this contradicts sustainable development and proper and correct exploitation of resources.
9.10. Conclusion and Recommendation The results of assessing the situation and analyzing the trend of resources in Bahabad region, indicate decline in vegetation coverage, land and water situation in this area during recent years. It seems that in case measures are not taken in the future to control land degradation factors, continuation of the above trend threatens the life of ecosystem in this area and livelihood of beneficiary communities shall be exposed to serious damage. Considering the ecologic situation of the area, the following measures are recommended to prevent the trend degrading land resources:
- Considering severe drop of ground water level and the fact that approximately 81 percent of water is used in agriculture and irrigation efficiency is 33 percent, hence, to compensate reduced water level it is essential to plan cultivation and irrigation more precisely to remedy this shortcoming. One of these plans is to change cultivation in this area from annual farming to agriculture of crops in less need of water and pistachio gardens which can reduce agricultural water consumption to a massive extend without any harm to farming areas and employment and income of the local community. - Planning measures for proper water consumption including construction and exploitation of underground dams, development of new irrigations methods, especially drip irrigation, construction of tanks and water reservoir pools, reform of water channels and tabulating water transfer pathways outside farmlands, prevention from evaporation from gardens and farmlands during the days after irrigation and other similar measures are necessary. - Training on methods of saving water in farming, methods of reinforcing soil productivity through non-chemical methods, prevention from land salination - Management and control of sewage and exploiting them to increase soil humidity, vegetation coverage and feeding underground water resources - Regeneration of vegetation through cultivation of local and adapted species
10. Land Degradation Assessment in Hableh-Roud Watershed
10.1. Induction to the Surveyed Land Hablehroud watershed in political subdivision is a part of Tehran and Semnan provinces, which cover Firouzkouh County and parts of Damavand in Tehran province and some parts of Garmsar and Eyvanakie, are located in Semmnan province. From geographic perspective it
62 is located in 51° 39' 52" to 53° 8'46" eastern longitude and 34° 26' 54" to 35° 57' 31" northern latitude with a total area of 1266153 hectares. Geographic location of Hableh-Roud is demonstrated in Figures 37 and 38. Minimum elevation of the region is 733 meters from sea level and maximum elevation is 3878 meters and average elevation of the region is 2301. Average weight slope of the region is 8.5 percent.
Figure 37: Geographic Location of Hableh-Roud Watershed
Figure 38: Geographic Location of Hableh-Roud Watershed on Google Earth
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Considering the differences in environmental and natural and also economic and social features of the region, Hableh-Roud is divided into two different northern and southern regions. Land division of Hableh-Roud is based on Tehran- Semnan connection line. In this way the lands in the northern side of the connection road are named northern Hableh-Roud region and lands in the south of the road are Southern Hableh-Roud region. Most of the Northern Hableh-Roud region is covered by highlands and mountains while most of the Southern Hableroud region is covered with ranges.
10.2. Climate Based on Ombrege method, the northern side has semi-humid and cold climate and based on DeMrtin method it is dry. Average annual rainfall in the region is approximately 470 millimeters and average annual temperature is 11 degree centigrade. The southern Hableh- Roud , based on Ombrege method is dry. Average annual rainfall is approximately 122 millimeters, average annual temperature is 18.1 degree centigrade and potential for evaporation and sweating is 1536.0 percent. Average maximum and minimum registered temperature in the region si 24.7 and 10 degree centigrade and there are 45 freezing days per year. Evaporation is high in this region. In general, rainfall regimen in the region is winter precipitation. Rainfall seasons are January to April.
10.3. Geology Geological division of Northern Hableh-Roud is located in Central Alborz construction unit and it southern part is in Central Iran zone and it has diverse lithology and 117 types of rock units from lithological perspective and various type periods are identified. The construction of the region from lithology, susceptibility to erosion, function of tectonic elements, presence of solutes, type of effect on ground water resources point of view shall be divided into 15 main groups (strategic studies of Hableh-Roud region: geologic and geomorphologic reports). Figure 39 represents the geologic strata plan of the region and table 20 indicates the features of each stratum.
Figure 39: Geological strata plan of the study area
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Table 20: Features of each strata of the study area
Geology Class Code Features of geological strata 1 Alluvial deposits 2 Marlstone, clay and shale, locally containing calcareous 3 Mudstone, shale, marlstone, sand stone, conglomerate and evaporate stones 4 Marlstone, marly limestone, limestone tuff, Calcareous tuffs 5 Siltstone, shale, lichen, mudstone, sandstone and conglomerate 6 Sandstone, marlstone, shale, conglomerate, tuff, volcanic rocks and pyroclastic 7 Conglomerate and sandstone 8 Igneous rocks 9 Breccia, volcanic rocks and pyroclastic 10 Shale, lava and pyroclastic rocks 11 Various types of tuff along with sandstone, shale, conglomerate and lime 12 Dolomite and calcareous with Alternating layers of calcareous, shale, marlstone, sandstone and siltstone 13 Calcareous and dolomite 14 Calcareous, marl, limestone marl, tuff and marlstone
10.4. Land Use
According to studies, current use of the lands in the study area includes rangeland, farmlands, woodlands and residential areas. The map of land use in Hableh-Roud region is demonstrated in the figure below. ک ر ری ر ض
Figure 40: Land use map of Hableh-Roud region
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10.5. Socioeconomic Status Hablehroud region is located amongst two provinces of Tehran and Semnan, includes 6 counties, 9 districts and 17 rural districts and covers 643 villages and 7 cities. 333 villages in this area (52%) have residents and 232 villages (36%) have a population above 5 people (310 villages are out of population and 101 villages have a population under 5 people). Of the 232 villages with a population above 5 people, 84 are in Garmsar, 65 villages are in Firuzkouh, 47 in Damavand, 24 in Varamin, 8 in Semnan and 4 in Pakdasht. Most of the villages are in sub- region of Garmsar plain, scope area of Hableh-Roud , Namrud, Kilan, Goursefid and scope of Marzdaran. Main villages located in this region are Lazor and Aro, Seleh Bon, Hesarin and Garmabesard and Shahbolagh Bala, Hossein Abad Kordeh, Farvan, Davar Abad and Kohan Abad, Deh Namak, Abdollah Abad, Ghalibaf, Fameh Payin, Rameh Balan, Ich, Jovein and Imamzadeh Abdollah. Rural population of the region is approximately 70221 and its rural population is 86947 which form the total population of 157168 of the region. Average population of villages with a population density above 5 households is 303 people. Considering the population density, relative population density in 2006 in this area was 12 per square kilometer. Comparison of this figure with the total population density at country level (approximately 43 people per square kilometer) indicates low population density in this area. Population of the region in 1996 compared to 1986, had 20 percent growth and in 2006 compared to 1996 it indicates a growth of 18.5 percent. Taking the annual growth rate for 1996 to 2006 into account and considering the trend of the last few decades, total population of the region in 2011 was 170 thousand and in 2016 (project termination) it shall reach to 184 thousand. Of 64681 rural- population above 6 years, 48574 are literate and 13909 are students. Literacy rate is 75% in rural areas, 87% in urban areas and 82% in the whole region. Lowest rate of literacy in rural areas, in order of priority are in sub regions of Abdollah Abad, Ich, Sangab, Garous, in the regions of Eyvanaki, Kilan and Delichay. Of 60533 people above 10 years in rural areas in 2006, 21707 are employed and 2456 are unemployed. The main income source of the people in the area is through agriculture and livestock. Studies conducted in 2009 in 45 sample villages in this region with 3219 households indicated that 2627 households (81.6% households) are involved in agriculture. 965 households (34.7% of households) are involved in livestock production. Moreover, in 37 villages (82%), there are garden owner households.
10.6. Status and Trend of Land Resources
10.6.1. Vegetation Due to climate, topography and soil diversity in the region under study, vegetation of the area is of high diversity. In Hableh-Roud region there are 255 vegetation types and 322 plant types have been identified, 27 types of which are shrubs and trees. In order to obtain more information on the types and species, refer to range management studies provided in three volumes by Rouyan Company in 1996. Presence of various plant types indicates their adaptation with the dominant climate of the region and proper climate provides the
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opportunity for growth of various plant specially species with high palatability, which in some areas are damaged due to improper exploitation. Despite serious pressures, rangelands of the area still have relatively high productivity rate. In most of the southern areas, rangeland trend is negative and estimated to have poor or very poor status. Production in these areas is usually less than 100 kilograms per hectare which is not suitable for grazing and requires preservation and reform and regeneration measures; however, the northern areas of the region, due to good climate and environmental condition has better rangelands. In order to study the changes in vegetation during the current years, NDVI time series indicator of Hableh-Roud for years 2000 to 2013 was analyzed (Figure 41).
0.25
0.2
0.15 NDVI 0.1
0.05
0
Date
Figure 41: NDVI time series indicator for Northern Hableh-Roud from 2000 to 2013
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.1
0.09 NDVI 0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
Date
Figure 42: NDVI time series indicator for Southern Hableh-Roud from 2000 to 2013 Box plots indicating the average and transmittance of inputs around the mean were provided for different years, represented in figures. These figures reflect small increase in NDVI measures for Northern Hableh-Roud and reduction in Southern Hableh-Roud .
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0.20
0.15
NDVI
0.10
0.05
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year
Figure 43: Box plot of NDVI measures for Northern Hableh-Roud in various years
0.12
0.11
0.10
NDVI
0.09
0.08
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year
Figure 44: Box plot of NDVI measures for Southern Hableh-Roud in various years
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In order to identify the best time of the year to analyze vegetation coverage, NDVI measures for various years were reflected in a diagram which is demonstrated in figures 45 and 46. Review of these diagrams, indicates that plant growth and activity period in northern region is from beginning of April to mid- September0 and in southern region it starts from March to the end of June. Hence, in review of long term vegetation chang [e trend, the data of these months were adopted.
0.25
0.2
0.15
NDVI 0.1
0.05
0 1-Jan 1-Feb 1-Mar 1-Apr 1-May 1-Jun 1-Jul 1-Aug 1-Sep 1-Oct 1-Nov 1-Dec Date
Figure 45: Annual NDVI time series indicator of northern Hableh-Roud
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.1
0.09
NDVI 0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05 1-Jan 1-Feb 1-Mar 1-Apr 1-May 1-Jun 1-Jul 1-Aug 1-Sep 1-Oct 1-Nov 1-Dec Date
Figure 46: Annual NDVI time series indicator of southern Hableh-Roud
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0.20
0.15
NDVI
0.10
0.05
1 Jan 2 Feb 6 Mar 7 Apr 9 May 10 Jun 12 Jul 13 Aug 14 Sep 16 Oct 17 Nov 19 Dec Time
Figure 47: Box plot of annual NDVI measures for northern Hableh-Roud
0.12
0.11
0.10
NDVI
0.09
0.08 1 Jan 2 Feb 6 Mar 7 Apr 9 May 10 Jun 12 Jul 13 Aug 14 Sep 16 Oct 17 Nov 19 Dec Time
Figure 48: Box plot of annual NDVI measures for southern Hableh-Roud
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For statistical analysis of long term vegetation change, seasonal Candle test was conducted on NDVI data and the results are presented in Table 21 and 22. The results show that in the northern areas the slope of the trend is positive and in southern area it is negative; however in both northern and southern regions, the rate of NDVO indicators, statistically, at 5% range is not meaningful hence the vegetation coverage during recent years has had no trend.
Table 21: Results of vegetation change trend in northern Hableh-Roud Change Title Trend Slope P-value Trend Status
NDVI Indicator 0/041% 0/1669 No trend
Table 22: Results of vegetation change trend in southern Hableh-Roud Change Title Trend Slope P-value Trend Status
NDVI Indicator -0/004% 0/29 No trend
10.6.2. Soil To analyze the soil status the data collected previously by Rouyan Company and other relevant sources were adopted. Based on geological data, the region under study contains 9 types of land which is divided into 23 land units. Then, the 23 land units stated above are classified based on general form, slope, land bulge, pebbles, depth and type of soil, vegetation and erosion and hydrologic groups of the soil into 77 sub-units. The subunit map is provided in figure 49.
Figure 49: Land subunits of the study area
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From geological point of view in general, based on American soil classification, 3 groups of soil is observed in the area including Inceptisols, Entisols, aridisols which considering the dominant climate features in the region, the soil in northern areas with semi-humid and semi- arid and cold features, have Xeric humidity regimen and more southern areas with arid climate have Aridic or Torric humidity regimen.
10.6.3. Water Resources In order to analyze surface water, qualitative and quantitative data of rivers and to analyze ground water, data on wells and aqueducts were used. This data was obtained from Water Resources’ Management Department of Ministry of Energy and accordingly primary assessments were conducted on them.
As stated above, northern Hableh-Roud area is usually covered with mountainous steep lands with shallow soil which basically deprives the area from the possibility of forming aquifers. In these areas, main water resources are Hableh-Roud River and springs which exist in terrace of the river with mountainous lands. Hableh-Roud River collected in hydrometric station in Benkouh (located at the end of northern Hableh-Roud ) was adopted. The variables include calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, sulfate, electric conductivity (EC), acidity (Ph). Time series of discharge data were registered on a daily basis in Benkouh station which is reflected in figure 9. Monthly changes of the discharge are also demonstrated in box plot diagram 10. As observed, river discharge in March/April reaches its highest rate and in mid- summer (July/August) reaches to minimum. In figure…., indicates annual changes as registered in the station which indicate and decreasing trend.
80
60
40
Discharge (m3/s) Discharge
20
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 Date Figure 50: Time series of daily discharge of the river in Benkouh station from 1988 to 2009
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30
20
Discharge(m3/s)
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month
Figure 51: Box plot diagram of river discharge rate in Benkouh station in various months
Figure 52: annual average discharge graph in statistical course of 1979 - 2007 of Benkouh station
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In order to analyze the long term change of river discharge, candle seasonal test was used and the results are demonstrated in table 23. As observed, the river discharge has meaningful decreasing trend.
Table 23: Results of river discharge change trend in Benkouh station Change Title Trend Slope P-value Trend Status
River discharge -2/92% 0/000 Decreasing
Long term time series of river water quality data is reflected in figures 53, 54, and 55.
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50
40
30
20
Discharge (m3/s) Discharge
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
8000
6000
4000
EC (µS/cm) EC
2000
0 50 100 150 200
8.5
8.0
pH
7.5
7.0
0 50 100 150 200
Time Figure 53: Time series of discharge data, electrical conductivity and acidity of river water
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50
40
30
20
Cl (meq/lit) Cl
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
14
10
8
6
HCO3 (meq/lit)
4
2
0 50 100 150 200
20
15
10
SO4 (meq/lit)
5
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time Figure 54: Time series of Anions, Chloride, bicarbonate (HCO3), and sulfate (SO4)
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15
10
Mg (meq/lit)
5
0 50 100 150 200
25
20
15
Ca (meq/lit) Ca
10
5
0 50 100 150 200
50
40
30
20
Na (meq/lit)
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 Time Figure 55: Time series of Cations, Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), and Sodium (Na) The results of Candle seasonal statistical test of water quality data is reflected in Table 24.
According to these results, of eight water quality variables, three variables (HCO3, SO4 and Ca) have no trends and five other variable (EC, pH, Cl, Mg, and Na) have increasing trend. In general, quality of surface waters in Hableh-Roud region is decreasing.
Table 24: Results of river water quality variables in Hableh-Roud region Change Title Trend Slope P-value Trend Status
EC 0.094 0.001 Increasing
pH 0.015 0.000 Increasing
HCO3 -0.032 0.063 No trend
Cl 0.162 0.000 Increasing
SO4 0.0104 0.76 No trend
Ca 0.000 0.61 No trend
Mg 0.1413 0.000 Increasing
Na 0.1374 0.000 Increasing
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In order to obtain an image of ground water resources’ status in northern area, there are summary of information provided below (Manouri, 2009). Annual discharge of the springs is 18 million square meters and aqueduct discharge is 7.1 million square meters. Hence, big volume of ground water flows off through springs. These water resources are used in different sectors as indicated below:
A: Wells: More than 95% is used to irrigate farmlands and gardens, over 4% as potable water and for health, less than 1% for industries
B: Aqueducts: 100% for agriculture C: Springs: Over 83% is used to provide water for agriculture, 16% as potable water and health, a very insignificant amount for industries
In southern areas of Habehroud, there is a wide area of connected plains. In this region, ground water is the key and mostly the only water source used in different sectors. The region is also the health of agricultural activities. In the area studied covers plains of Garmsar, Firouzkouh, Houmand Absard, Eyvanaki, Mobarakeh and a part of Sorkheh plain (Figure). Then, a summary of latest results of studies on ground water conducted by Water Management Company of Iran is presented.
Figure 56: Location of plains studied in Hableh-Roud region
Study of change trend of ground water (fluctuations above still water) indicates decrease of aquifer level in the study region and the major decrease in order of priority concern the plains
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of Houmand absard, Eyvanaki, and Garmsar. In tables 25 And 26 decrease trend of ground waters in Garmsar and Eyvanaki plains are presented as examples. Ground waters, considering their salination and chlorine level, do not have good quality. Expansion of salinating formations, presence of floor stone prairie which includes marlstones and sandstones and gypsum and Oligocene salt layers and their eroded elements in formation of alluvium damage the quality of ground waters. Review of ground water quality change in Garmsar plain by the chemo graph indicates quality drop in time. Table 25: Aquifer change trend in Garmsar plain
Water Year Average change of Average aggregate Average Average Aquifer Average Area Aquifer name static surface of changes in water aquifer aggregated aquifer extent storage code aquifer (meter) table aquifer volume volume change (square coefficient (meter) change (million sq/m) kilometer) (percent) (sq/m) 1993 94 -2.05 -2.05 -54.53 -54.53 532 0.05 4705 Garmsar 1994 95 -1.49 -3.54 -39.63 -94.16 Average aggregate change diagram of ground waters 1995 96 1.51 -2.03 40.17 -54.00 since the establishment of the measurement network 1996 97 -2.05 -4.08 -54.53 -108.53 1997 98 -0.70 -4.78 -18.62 -127.15 1998 99 -1.47 -6.25 -39.10 -166.25 1999 00 -1.48 -7.73 -39.37 -205.62 2000 01 -2.27 -10 -60.38 -266.00 2001 02 -1.39 -11.39 -36.97 -302.97 2002 03 -0.44 -11.83 -11.70 -314.68 2003 04 -2.45 -14.28 -65.17 -379.85 2004 05 -0.56 -14.84 -14.90 -394.74 2005 06 -0.80 -15.64 -21.28 -416.02 2006 07 -0.89 -16.53 -23.67 -439.70 2007 08 -1.21 -17.74 -32.19 -471.88 2008 09 -0.79 -18.53 -21.01 -492.90 2009 10 Annual -1.16 -30.81 Average
Table 26: Aquifer change trend in Eyvanaki plain
Water Year Average change Average Average Average Aquifer Average Area Aquifer of static surface aggregate aquifer aggregated extent storage code name of aquifer changes in water volume aquifer volume (square coefficient (meter) table aquifer change change (million kilometer) (percent) (meter) (sq/m) sq/m) 1989 90 -2.58 -2.58 -15.74 -15.74 122 0.05 4708 Eyvanaki 1990 91 -1.74 -4.32 -10.61 -26.35 1991 92 -1.07 -5.39 -6.53 -32.88 1992 93 -1.13 -6.52 -6.89 -39.77 1993 94 -2.34 -8.86 -14.27 -54.05 1994 95 -1.85 -10.71 -11.28 -65.33 1995 96 -0.86 -11.57 -5.25 -70.58 1996 97 -1.51 -13.08 -9.21 -79.79 1997 98 -0.89 -13.97 -5.43 -85.22 1998 99 -0.33 -14.30 -2.01 87.23 1999 00 2000 01 2001 02 -1.25 -15.55 -7.63 -94.85 2002 03 -2.53 -18.8 -15.43 -110.29 2003 04 -1.57 -19.65 -9.58 -119.87 2004 05 -0.77 -20.42 -4.70 -124.56 2005 06 -1.94 -22.36 -11.89 -136.40 2006 07 -0.96 -23.32 -5.86 -142.25 2007 08 -1.63 -24.95 -9.94 -152.20 2008 09 -1.92 -26.87 -11.71 -163.91 2009 10 -2.08 -28.95 -12.69 -176.60 Annual -1.52 -9.29 Average
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10.6.4. Population livelihood status As stated before, the main income source of the local population is through agriculture and livestock production. In northern areas, farming and gardening activities are varied. Alluvial and plain areas enjoy rich farming and gardening activities and the combination of cultivation is more varied and technical. However, in highlands and countryside is more familiar with livestock production and sheep handling. Agricultural and industrial activities are more attractive to the residents of southern areas.
Extent of farmlands in northern region is 29958 hectares including 77/4% irrigated and 22/6% rain-fed farmlands (dry farming). In dry farmlands mostly wheat and barley are cultivated in limited areas. In southern region, the farmlands and gardens cover and areas of 41730 hectares mostly located in Garmsar plain (61/2%). Only a few of the villages in Garmsar area are involved in dry farming and the extent of these areas compared to Firouzkouh and Damavand is limited. Considering gardens, following the dominant climate, combination of gardens have changed from north to south and gradually turned into cultivation lands for products such as pomegranate. In sample villages in northern region, 58/6% of the beneficiary households, on average have minimum 2 hectares of irrigated farmlands. In southern region, 35/7% of rural households, on average have 5/01 to 7 hectares of irrigated farmlands. Also, average garden area of sample villages in northern region is four times more than southern region. In other words, not only the ratio of villages benefiting from gardens in northern areas is more than the southern region, but also the average of garden area is higher. In cultivation sample of the region, a good combination is observed providing the livelihood need of the local community and winter stock required for livestock exploiting the natural and geographic situation of the area to provide the need of the market in urban areas, exploiting natural and topographic situation in extending the gardens and production of dried fruits and other similar possibilities. In northern area, traditional agricultural system is dominant and agro-industrial enterprises or large agricultural complexes do not exist in the area. However, in southern area, despite prevalence of traditional cultivation system, Public farming company is established in Garmsar plain and through it exploitation of new technology and betterment of exploitation in agricultural activities is facilitated. This company reforms infrastructures and farmlands through investment and development and introduces new and proper crop. It seems that this unit has been inactive for a while and the flow of benefits for the local community has been interrupted. Agricultural condition in five years till 2009 has been weakening. Factors such as aggravated winter cold and summer heat, increasing population of immigrants, decreasing water in wells and springs, air pollution and soil erosion have been effective in this process which naturally reduces the rate of agricultural crop, horticultural products, livestock and beekeeping.
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For most of the households in Hableh-Roud areas, livestock production is second source of income. Combination of existing livestock in the area is mainly sheep and goat, cows and calf and is maintained in semi-traditional manner. It means that part of livestock need is provided through grazing in the rangelands and other part is through hand feeding and pasture of farmlands. Primary estimates indicate that in selected villages of Firouzkouh, there are 4965 head livestock and in selected villages of Garmsar 3770 head of sheep and 352 head of cow and calf exist. The main livestock production include sales of live and slaughtered animals, meat, dairy, wool and … part of which is saved from domestic use and the surplus is sold in local markets. Livestock production status in selected villages in Damavand, Firouzkouh and Garmsar in five years till 2009 has been decreasing. Key problems in livestock production are: lack of fodder, increase of fodder price, workforce wages, reduced economic efficiency of livestock production activities, volatility of livestock product prices in the market, lack of primary capital required to reform livestock production system, low transportation facilities to transfer perishable products to the market, drought and lack of water, degradation and increasing poverty of rangelands, and legal restriction in increasing livestock in rangelands. In northern areas, 207 job opportunities have been provided through 10 industrial units including two traditional slaughter houses, 2 industrial canneries, one dry fruit packaging factory, one company producing starch and gluten, a factory manufacturing laminated wood and two freezing facilities. Processing and complementary industries in southern region includes 25 industrial units mainly in the field of agriculture and 9 main groups have provided job opportunities for 534 individuals.
10.7. Pressure Factors Study of land degradation factors in Hableh-Roud region is not different from other watershed regions in other parts of the country and general overview in the whole country can be generalized to include all watershed regions. What makes this region more important compared to other areas is its close proximity to the capital and the second reason is that this area serves as a study model for reform and regeneration measures and economic activities in collaboration with the local population. And eventually, it is due specific condition of the region which ecologically starts from high mountains and reaches low lands and flora and vegetation changes are very diverse and its growth condition varies.
Below, main pressures (direct causes) of land degradation in northern and southern regions of Hableh-Roud are stated. In northern areas: - Seizure of lands considering their economic value and turning them to farmlands and gardens and village development - Rangeland use change in countryside and steep areas to dry farming with low efficiency. Such changes in the past have been with the aim of production, however upon nationalization of forests and range lands the main target has been occupation and ownership of the land. - Priority of agriculture to livestock and pressure of grazing on rangeland still exists
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- Lack of proper grazing system and incompatibility of livestock population to rangeland capacity - Collective exploitation and obsessive exploitation of rangelands - Cutting trees to provide fuel and energy in the past which has deforested most of the areas. - Reduced soil fertility due to erosion and perish of nutrients and live organisms - Influx of hunters from the capital to periphery highlands of Tehran and southern plains which has relatively destroyed the fun in the area. In southern regions: - Uncontrolled development of agriculture in the lands in Garmsar area towards Semnan and even Eyvanaki which has led to massive and over exploitation of water resources, negative balance of ground water level, severe decrease of ground water table and reduced water quality. - Use of surface water passing salty lands which causes soil salination in the region. - Transforming the forests of tararix and haloxylon forests to grain farmlands in southern areas of Garmsar which has exposed the land to sever erosion and sometimes sand flow and Bad Lands are massively observed in the region. - Low annual rainfall, high temperature, evaporation and seating reduce water quantity and quality and create tension in natural vegetation and farmlands. Besides low rate of rainfall, successive droughts have aggravated land degradation. Main factors (indirect causes) of land degradation are: - Population growth in the country and in the region during the past few decades which has increased the need to farmlands and livestock to provide required food and has damaged natural vegetation and degraded the land. - Lack of awareness and no regard to long term benefits of natural resources as environmental infrastructure of the country and enhanced culture of exploitation towards quick efficient economic benefits. - Exploiting land without considering its capacity - Legal problems in creating change in rangeland management system after nationalization of forests and ranges - Close proximity of the region to the capital which has resulted in invasion of natural resources. - Natural causes such as arid and semi-arid climate (lack of rainfalls and its time imbalance, high rate of evaporation) and the phenomenon of drought.
10.8. Impact of land degradation on ecosystem services
10.8.1. Supply services (production) Water and land degradation in recent years have been introduced as the main causes of reduced farmland fertility, qualitative and quantitative drop of crop, desertification of lands
81 and eventually destruction of agricultural sector. Land salination in flood plains in the southern areas of the region will gradually pushed the area off agricultural space and consequently expose relevant industries to complications. Vegetation degradation due to excessive grazing has weakened the growth and regeneration capacity of important plant species and non-palatable species have taken over which indirectly reduces livestock production. Due to low rainfall, increased evaporation and drainage contaminating surface and ground water, the quality of surface of ground water has changed in recent years which is associated with dangers such as water resources and land salination due to use of such resources and also reduces the volume of potable and agricultural water.
10.8.2. Regulatory and Support Services Vegetation degradation in the northern area is associated with water erosion and rainfall loss and in southern regions with desertification and wind erosion which technically limit access to land and water simultaneously. Changes in the southern areas of Garmsar and transformation of tararix and haloxylon forests to grain cultivation farmlands have exposed the lands to serious erosion and a sustainable ecosystem is now a tottery ecosystem. Rangeland degradation through excessive and early grazing will deprive the plant from the capacity of restoration and reproduction. Hence, plant stands are weakened and due to this type of exploitation more resilience species take the place of reducing species and biodiversity of the rangeland shall fall. Sabotaging vegetation of the region will lead to reduced carbon sequestration by plants and consequently increase greenhouse gases. Illegal hunting of wild animals leads to extinction of species and reduce the biodiversity in the area.
10.8.3. Socio-cultural Services Land degradation results in low production, less income and excessive immigration of rural population to metropolitans. Increasing immigration of rural population to large cities in the area or even the capital means that major work and production force from villages and they shall be involved in illegal occupations or non-production activities which on one hand reduces production and on the other is associated with social adversity. Aesthetic value of natural scenery in the region will reduce due to land degradation.
10.8.4. Impact on Livelihood Land degradation leads to weal vegetation, degradation and erosion of soil and quantitative and qualitative damage of water. Obviously destruction of such resources shall seriously affect agricultural and livestock production activities and livelihood of the local population and bring economic and social damages in short and long term.
10.9. Conclusion and Recommendations The results of assessing the situation and trend of land resources in Hableh-Roud region indicates weakening water, land and vegetation condition during recent years. It seems that in case measures are not taken in the future to control land degradation factors, continuation of the above trend threatens the life of ecosystem in this area and livelihood of beneficiary communities shall be exposed to serious damage. Considering the ecologic situation of the area, the following measures are recommended to prevent the trend degrading land resources: - Training on proper agricultural methods, land levelling, advocating use of organic fertilizers and observation of crop rotation by farmers.
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- Holding training courses for beneficiaries and local communities to define the importance of preserving natural resources and relevant methods. - Water production and nurturing ground water tables through snowfall in the northern region and storage of seasonal rainfalls in the southern areas and refraining and reserving flood water for maximized use to increase soil humidity and vegetation index and preventing land degradation. - Considering serious drop of ground water tables in southern plains and the fact that a major proportion of water is used in agriculture, to remedy and compensate the above mentioned decline, careful cultivation and irrigation planning is required to overcome this shortcoming. One of these programs is to change cultivation system from annual farming to low-water framing and gardens which shall reduce the need for water in agriculture without harming cultivated areas and employment and income of the local population. - Considering touristic areas including antiquities and natural attractions, it is possible to properly invest and contingently plan and provide primary needs of the local population in these areas to promote the income of the locals and rural population in watershed region to reduce excessive exploitation and land degradation. - Considering that carpet weaving is an ancient tradition in the country and there are very few carpet weaving and tailoring factories in the region, advocating this industry and other similar industries such as jajim and kilim, tricot to create job opportunities and promote income and avoid immigration of the local population. - Wind in the southern region shall be perceived as a blessing by God and wind energy might be used through proper measures to provide electricity required for industries and in agriculture. Also, thermal energy in the southern area is one of the key factors in reducing fossil energy use.
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