Social Education 75(5), pp 245–249 ©2011 National Council for the Social Studies Roosevelt and Civil Rights Toni Fuss Kirkwood-Tucker

Eleanor Roosevelt’s support of African American rights was one of the highlights of of the Jim Crow laws that established a her activities as first lady. Her fearless advocacy for justice pulled her into political relentless regime of segregation, and had controversies that were unprecedented for the wife of a president. The first lady’s encouraged extensive migration to the initiatives in support of the rights of offer students an excellent more economically developed northern window into the society and politics of the United States in the 1930s and 1940s. states. The failure of Reconstruction left African Americans in the South widely deprived of the right to vote as a result of poll tax regulations or “literacy tests,” and subject to violence if they organized political protests. visits Lucy D. Slowe Since the Civil War, African American Hall, a women’s voters had traditionally supported the dormitory for Republican Party as a result of its aboli- African American tion of slavery; yet as the Roosevelt era war workers, in Washington, D.C., began, the Republicans were closely 1943 identified with business interests and seemed little concerned with the poorer (Photographer: Roger segments of the population, in which Smith; Courtesy of the Library of Congress) African Americans were disproportion- ately represented. Meanwhile, the core basis of the Democratic Party’s support was the South, as can be seen in the map on the next page, which presents the distribution of electoral votes in the Eleanor Roosevelt was passionately situated to have the ear of the president, 1924 election, the closest presidential committed to the ideals of social justice. and she was fully prepared to use this contest between the end of World War She viewed racial discrimination as a access to promote a cause in which she I and Roosevelt’s victory in 1932. Even blatant form of injustice that had been believed. though the Democrats were increasingly tolerated for too long. She actively culti- interested in putting together the alli- vated relationships with civil rights lead- The Political Context of Eleanor ance of workers and ethnic and religious ers, and was at the center of major events Roosevelt’s Initiatives minorities that later became the core of in civil rights history, among them the The period between Reconstruction and the Democratic Party coalition, and controversy that arose in 1939 when the the was one of great frustration included most African Americans, the Daughters of the American Revolution for the African American community. leaders of the Party in the 1930s were refused to allow to It was an economically depressed com- unwilling to alienate the strong segre- sing in Constitution Hall. Through munity with high rates of poverty, low gationist bloc of southern Democrats her activism, she hoped to rally public access to a good education, and subject in Congress. opinion in favor of civil rights. As first to discrimination in all aspects of life. In In the early years of the Roosevelt lady, she also knew that she was uniquely the South, the community bore the brunt era, the difficulty of promoting civil

October 2011 245 U.S. presidential election 1924 Administration was characterized by a Republican well-publicized series of appointments La Follette of leading African Americans to high government positions. In the presi- dential election of 1936, for the first time since the Civil War, the African American vote went predominantly to the Democratic Party, as African Americans responded to the accom- plishments and promise of the New Deal, and the initiatives taken to reduce discrimination in federal government Davis programs. Coolidge La Follette The Appeal to Public Opinion Democratic Faced by the obstacles in Congress to civil rights legislation, Eleanor Roosevelt concluded that it was important to rally rights through Congress became pain- maintain national unity during World public opinion to the cause. A very sig- fully clear. The first lady believed in War II. Despite the fact that the Roosevelt nificant part of her contribution to the the advancement of African American presidency marked the period during cause of African American rights lay in rights as a vital social and moral issue; which African Americans changed their her use of the first lady’s role to high- yet to her chagrin, it was impossible even allegiance to the Democratic Party, it light the injustice of racial discrimina- to pass an anti-lynching law through did not produce any significant civil tion and the problems it caused, and Congress. More than 3,000 blacks had rights legislation. also to promote public recognition of been lynched since the Civil War, and it The winds of change that gave African African American organizations and was extremely rare for any perpetrator of Americans hope during the Roosevelt leaders who worked to improve the lot a lynching to be arrested and convicted.1 Administration emanated from actions of their community. Both Roosevelts The frequency of mob killings increased taken in the executive branch of govern- were fully aware of the new opportuni- in the first year of Franklin Roosevelt’s ment, where the president had the power ties presented by the development of the presidency. Lynchings were not limited to take action on his own initiative with- media for the to reach the to the segregated South, but had spread out recourse to Congress. Here, the influ- American public. Franklin Roosevelt’s to states like Maryland and California. ence of Eleanor Roosevelt on her hus- fireside radio chats were the most her- In one of his first public statements via band and senior administration officials alded example, but Eleanor Roosevelt a national radio broadcast, FDR con- was formidable. The first lady accom- was also fully conscious of the impor- demned lynching as murder. Despite plished one of her major goals when the tance of winning public opinion, and her an initial commitment by the president president signed executive orders that ability to influence it. One commentator to anti-lynching legislation, when the barred discrimination against African noted that “Eleanor Roosevelt emerged Costigan-Wagner anti-lynching bill Americans in New Deal Programs as the most influential woman of her day was submitted to Congress, he reversed during the Great Depression—a vital largely because she was able to utilize course and decided to pursue a “south- concern for the African American com- the media both to advance the causes in ern strategy” to keep peace with the munity, in which widespread poverty which she was interested and to realize white supremacists in Congress who, existed, and the impact of the Great her own potential.”2 Her counterpart to with each effort to introduce favorable Depression was especially devastating. FDR’s was her syndicated laws for African Americans, threatened At Eleanor Roosevelt’s urging, FDR column titled “,” which began in to vote against any of the president’s also established the Federal Council 1936, and was published in newspapers bills which were designed to keep the of Negro Affairs, an advisory group of across the country. Her vocal opposition nation from economic collapse during distinguished African Americans, some- to racial discrimination gave the cause the Great Depression. The fear of the times known as the “,” who a vital move forward in the theater of Southern veto continued throughout made recommendations to the president public opinion. the later years of the Roosevelt presi- on policies that would improve the situ- The first lady took many public dency as the urgent need to combat the ation of African Americans. Partly as actions that were powerful symbols of Depression was followed by the need to a result of its influence, the Roosevelt her support for civil rights. Although

Social Education 246 the Costigan-Wagner anti-lynching by the 1938 Southern Conference The outcome of the controversy over bill was doomed to fail in Congress, for Human Welfare in Birmingham, Marian Anderson’s performance was she continued to publicly support it Alabama, where she defied segrega- that the Roosevelt Administration through her activities as first lady—for tion laws against sitting with African invited Marian Anderson to give a example, by being very visibly present Americans. She and Bethune provided concert on government property at the at an art exhibit hosted by the National a powerful national image of interracial Lincoln Memorial on Easter Sunday, Association for the Advancement of cooperation. Their joint appearances 1939. The event was attended by a large Colored People (NAACP) in 1935 were revolutionary in the 1930s when multi-racial crowd of about 75,000 entitled “A Commentary on Lynching” virtually no Caucasian political leader people and broadcast to millions of that focused on the suffering of African collaborated with African American Americans by radio. The high quality of Americans in the Jim Crow South. At leaders. Marian Anderson’s singing was greeted other public events, she gave clear and One distinguished African American by tumultuous applause by the attendees, enthusiastic support for the ideals of whom Eleanor Roosevelt admired was and received critical acclaim in news- civil rights. Participating in a fund-raiser Marian Anderson, whose extraordinary paper reviews. Later that year, Eleanor for the NAACP’s magazine, The Crisis, contralto voice made her one of the most Roosevelt presented the Spingarn in Harlem’s Mother AME Zion Church celebrated singers of the time, and who Medal to Marian Anderson in a much- in the late 1930s, she proclaimed: “We had performed at the White House by publicized ceremony in Richmond, the should all have equal rights, and minori- invitation of the Roosevelts. When the capital of the Confederacy during the ties should certainly have them exactly NAACP awarded Marian Anderson its Civil War, when the NAACP held its as majorities do.”3 Eleanor Roosevelt prestigious Spingarn Medal, Eleanor National Convention there in July. called for the integration of Southern Roosevelt invited the renowned One effect of the controversy was that hospitals and professional schools. She singer to perform in Washington’s it revealed the increasing opposition of took a special interest in the education of Constitution Hall, which was a venue many white Americans to segregationist black children, demanding that funding owned and operated by the National policies. A petition objecting to the deci- for segregated black schools be equal to Society of Daughters of the American sion of the Daughters of the American the funding provided to white schools. Revolution, an organization of descen- Revolution was signed by Chief Justice Always mindful of the benefits of dants of participants in the Revolution. Charles Evan Hughes and his wife; being visible to public opinion, Eleanor Embarrassingly, the Daughters of the Supreme Court Associate Justice Hugo Roosevelt sought to raise the profile of American Revolution refused to rent out Black (formerly a Senator for Alabama) African American leaders by meeting the hall for that purpose, because the and his wife; New York Mayor Fiorello and publicly befriending some of the organization adhered to a segregationist La Guardia; and a number of senators.6 most distinguished members of the policy prohibiting African Americans A New York Times editorial accused the community. As first lady, she repeatedly from performing in the Hall. Daughters of the American Revolution held White House receptions for black Eleanor Roosevelt, who was a mem- of departing from the ideals of that leaders and representatives of African ber of the Daughters of the American Revolution, and stated that “It is hard to American organizations. Among the Revolution, resigned from the organiza- believe that any patriotic organization in African American leaders for whom she tion amid great publicity. The document this country would approve of discrimi- had special respect were Mary McLeod on page 248 presents her letter of resig- nation against so gifted an artist and so Bethune, the educator and founder of nation. She explained her reasons to the fine a person as Miss Anderson. In fact, the National Council of Negro Women, American people in newspapers distrib- no organization could do so and still and Walter White, executive director uted throughout the country, through merit the adjective patriotic.”7 Public of the NAACP. The first lady deliv- her widely syndicated My Day column opinion polls were still relatively new, ered the keynote address in 1937 at of February 27, 1939. After stating that but the Gallup organization, which had the Conference on the Problems of the she had weighed the possibility of work- been gaining a strong reputation for reli- Negro and Negro Youth organized by ing for change within the Daughters of ability, found that 67 percent of the U.S. Bethune. According to Bethune, the first the American Revolution, she had con- public supported Mrs. Roosevelt’s stand lady’s presence was the first time in the cluded that she would not be able to do on the issue.8 Eleanor Roosevelt’s public lengthy struggle of African American sufficient active work inside the orga- stand on behalf of Marian Anderson citizens for equality that the federal nization. “They have taken an action suddenly made hopes for ending racial government had demonstrated such which has been widely talked of in the discrimination seem realistic. interest in their plight.4 The first lady press. To remain as a member implies Eleanor Roosevelt continued to take a also helped initiate and integrate the approval of that action and therefore I stand for civil rights in the period leading call for a Second Reconstruction ignited am resigning.”5 up to World War II and during the war

October 2011 247 Eleanor Roosevelt’s letter of resignation from the Daughters of the American Revolution

Discussion Questions What was Eleanor Roosevelt’s purpose in writing this letter? Who supported the position of the Daughters of the Why did an invitation to Marian Anderson to sing in Constitution American Revolution? Hall create a controversy? What was the outcome of the dispute? Who supported Eleanor Roosevelt’s position? What impact did the controversy have on African Americans?

itself, as the role that African Americans was willing to take a strong stand against White and A. Philip Randolph threat- would play in the war effort brought the discrimination, even in wartime, and ened to march on Washington if the issue of civil rights to the fore. Ignoring one of her most influential essays, pub- president did not desegregate defense growing antagonism by Southerners, lished in 1943, was titled “Abolish Jim industries and armed forces, the first Eleanor Roosevelt equated American Crow,” and called for the establishment lady intervened. Appealing to civil racism with fascism, proclaiming that of four simple equalities between the rights leaders not to march, she per- “America could not fight racism abroad races: equality before the law, equality suaded the reluctant president to agree while tolerating it at home.”9 She inves- of education, equality in the economic to issue an executive order banning dis- tigated claims of harsh treatment and field, and equality of expression.10 crimination in federally-funded defense blatant discrimination in the barracks Despite her personal commitment industry programs and establish the Fair of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps to ending discrimination, Eleanor Employment Practices Committee to and training programs. Roosevelt was still willing to broker monitor compliance. The segregation of In 1941, she visited the Tuskegee Air agreements between the president and the armed forces, however, was allowed Field insisting to take a ride with African civil rights leaders that gave those lead- to continue. Although the integration of American pilot Charles Anderson. She ers less than they sought. When Walter the armed forces was only implemented

Social Education 248 by Roosevelt’s successor, Harry S. civil rights legislation. By encouraging Truman, Eleanor Roosevelt’s strong African Americans to move their sup- opposition to discrimination played port to the Democratic Party, it also an important role in moving the issue played a role in a long-term cycle that forward to the point where integration transformed American party politics, would be possible. in which the Democratic Party moved north to create a new political coali- The Impact on Democratic tion, and the Republican Party even- Politics tually moved south. By articulating the cause of civil rights, Eleanor Roosevelt helped to bring Notes about a dramatic change in the voting 1. This information was obtained from estimates provided in the Tuskegee University Archives patterns of African Americans, who Online Repository, accessed at had traditionally voted Republican. http://192.203.127.197/archive/bitstream/han- dle/123456789/511/Lyching%201882%201968. Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal poli- pdf?sequence=1 cies appealed to African Americans, 2. Maurine H. Beasley, Eleanor Roosevelt and the who had been especially hard hit by Media: A Public Quest for Self-Fulfillment (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, the Depression, by offering the hope 1987), 2. for economic survival in the present 3. Roy Wilkins and Tom Matthews, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York: and economic improvement later Viking Press, 1982), 130. on. It would be wrong, however, to 4. Maurine H. Beasley, Holly C. Shulman, and attribute the African American move Henry R. Beasley, eds., The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood into the Democratic Party as simply Press, 2004), 51. driven by economic reasons. Eleanor 5. Rochelle Chadakoff, ed., Eleanor Roosevelt’s My Roosevelt rallied African Americans Day: Her Acclaimed Columns, 1936–1945 (New York: Pharos, 1989), 113. by her clear belief that civil rights was 6. James R. Kearney, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt: The a moral cause, and that social justice Evolution of a Reformer (Boston: Houghton required the improvement of African Mifflin, 1968), 88. 7. Ibid. American conditions and the intro- 8. Chadakoff, op. cit., 113. duction of equality of rights. Roy 9. Doris K. Goodwin, “Eleanor Roosevelt,” Time Wilkins, who led the NAACP from (April 13, 1998): 4. 10. The essay was written for the August 1943 issue 1955 to 1977 contrasted Eleanor with of New Threshold. See Allida M. Black, ed., her husband, saying that President What I Hope to Leave Behind: The Essential Roosevelt was: Essays of Eleanor Roosevelt (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishing, 1995): 161–163. 11. Quoted by Tamarak K. Hareven, “Eleanor A friend of Negroes only inso- Roosevelt: Humanitarian Reformer,” in Jess Flemion and Colleen M. O’Connor, eds., Eleanor far as he refused to exclude the Roosevelt: An American Journey (San Diego, Negro from his general policies Calif.: San Diego State University Press, 1987): that applied to the whole coun- 165. try, whereas Mrs. Roosevelt was Source of document: National Archives. The the Negro’s true friend. The per- document can be accessed at: sonal touches and the personal www.archives.gov/global-pages/larger-image.html?i=/ historical-docs/doc-content/images/eleanor-roosevelt- fight against discrimination were letter-dar-l.jpg&c=/historical-docs/doc-content/ Mrs. Roosevelt’s. That attached images/eleanor-roosevelt-letter-dar.caption.html to Roosevelt also—he couldn’t get away from it—and he reaped the political benefits from it.11 Toni Fuss Kirkwood-Tucker is associate professor Emerita at Florida Atlantic Univer- Eleanor Roosevelt’s advocacy of sity, and is currently visiting associate professor rights for African Americans gave the of social studies and global education in the cause a vital move forward in the the- School of Teacher Education at Florida State ater of public opinion and helped to University in Tallahassee. She can be contacted at [email protected]. bring closer the eventual enactment of

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