Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 74 (Ser. B), No. 2, 159-186, 2001

A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation in Samoa

Juliet Mavis BOON Graduate Student, Geography Department, Ochanomizu University, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-8610, Japan

Abstract: Urbanization and monetization systems have contributed to the reclamation and exploitation of mangroves, which have had some significant effects on the livelihood of those who rely on it. Informal uses of mangroves have received very little attention because they do not contribute to national revenue, and the inextricably linked effects of urbanization and monetary systems on mangrove degradation is lacking. The purpose of this study is to examine the socio-economic impacts of development on mangrove ecosystems and those who depend on it in four coastal villages of Samoa. Fifty households' questionnaire-assisted interviews were conducted first, to provide the social, cultural and economic value of man groves to the local inhabitants. Second, to identify activities that have changed mangrove ecosystems, and then, to examine how these activities have changed the local inhabitants' social, cultural, and economic relationships with their environment. Findings suggest that, in two cases, land reclamation has strictly and seriously degraded mangrove resources particu larly in terms of marine food supplies. For two other cases, increased accessibility to town and the monetization of the rural economy are also factors involved in the decline in quantity and size of fish catch due to the increasing reliance on sales of mangrove food resource for cash. This study supports the position that modern developmental initiatives must be carefully monitored to ensure that they do not undermine the social and economic well-being of resident communities, particularly in areas such as Samoa where a large proportion of the population relies on land and marine resources for their survival.

Key words: mangrove degradation, coastal reclamation, socio-economic analysis, Samoa

of urbanization and monetary systems being Introduction conducive to mangrove degradation is lacking. Pressures on mangrove forest areas are often Within the last two decades, the status of great because they may appear to be relatively mangroves has elevated so rapidly that it has low-cost sites for construction through recla gained public attention in the face of a per mation for a variety of facilities as discussed by ceived impending global environmental crisis. Kunstadter (1986). Problem in assessing the Manifestations of this concern include exten costs and damage control in the mangroves sive studies on Southeast Asian mangroves by may be difficult because the consequences are Aksornkoae et al. (1986), Ajiki (2000), Ong often geographically and socially remote from (1982), and in the Pacific by Lal (1983), Thaman the places where the decisions are made and the and Ravuvu (1989), and Thaman (1994). Most environmental interventions take place. In of the studies revealed that mangroves possess effect, development strategies encouraging a very important function, which extends far mangrove destruction through reclamation cre beyond the geographical immediate areas they ates poverty among those who are overlooked occupy, not only in sustaining their physical but whose social, cultural, basic subsistence and environments but also the human populations. economic livelihood is dependent on these eco Contrary to this view, the case studies do not systems. This is what the author regards as reflect the consequences of mangrove degrada inappropriate development. tion in the case of Samoa. Furthermore, infor At the turn of this century, impact studies mal uses of mangroves have received very little concerned with social, cultural and economic attention because they do not contribute to effects due to over-fishing in mangroves or con national revenue, and literature on the effects version of mangroves to other land uses are 160 J. M, Boon

addressed and confined only to public symposi ies on impact on mangrove environment are ums with intentions to discuss sustainable divorced from social and economic theory. Evi measures of mangrove use.1 Recognizing that dently, mangrove literatures are abundant, the impacts of the decrease in mangrove forest from physiological, taxonomical, geomorpho will lead to flooding-affecting development logical nature to biogenic researches exten projects-and a decline in fish catches, timber, sively conducted by Chapman (1976), MacNae firewood and charcoal production, it is not sur (1974), and Saenger et al, (1983), and in the case prising that they are only evaluated as being of Samoa, Nakamura (1992), Liu (1992), and economically devastating to national economic Taule'alo (1993). Studies concentrating on so returns. Redclift (1987: 49) argues that it cio-economic impacts have been limited and should be remembered that those who are con therefore academics' contribution in minimiz cerned with the fixed limits of resources are the ing mangrove destruction has made little pro ' urban bureaucrats' who are more concerned at gress. the cost to the quality of their life posed by On a more optimistic note, attempts at dis flooding, pollution, industrial waste, food pov cussing how ecologically destructive it is to erty, and particularly profit reduction. convert mangroves through aquaculture eco Just recently, in Teruya and Kishimoto (2000) nomic ventures have been conducted in Malay for instance, reafforestation schemes are pro sia by Ong (1982). One attribution to this is the moted because Thailand mangrove forests has reconnaissance of ecological theoretical para decreased due to over-logging for charcoal and digms, which has given rise to environmental, firewood production, and conversions into social, cultural, spiritual, and economic vari shrimp cultural ponds and tin mining. Fleeting ables in relation to the survival of natural eco references were made to those informal socio systems in synergy with humans, likewise, the economic variables without monetary value, importance of mangrove ecosystems to those which are always indiscriminantly misrepre who depend on it. Studies conducted within sented in these formal figures. Furthermore, these parallels include Thaman (1994), Thaman exploitation and conversion of mangroves by and Ravuvu (1989), Olson (1997), and Bird capitalists are promoted by government public (1986) within the Pacific, and Silva (1986) in Sri policy as in the Southeast Asian cases (Aksorn Lanka. An impact research study on particular koae et al. 1986; Ajiki 2000; Ong 1982). Pursu social, cultural and economic aspects in relation ance of economic development poses a contra to the converted land uses of mangroves upon diction to sustainable development as ex the lives of those who dwell in and live from pressed at the symposiums. them is needed to clarify these relationships. In Symposium documents as such, adequately considering the absence of an adequate method review the promotion of economic development ology in the literature reviewed above, it is only through deforestation and conversion of man appropriate that at this point in time an evalua grove forests, which is the principal factor be tion of how mangroves can be recognized as a hind mangrove degradation particularly in beneficial and important ecosystem to the live Southeast Asian countries. Therefore, inade lihood of the coastal communities be under quate studies attribute mangrove destruction taken. Following this, an assessment is pro to be inextricably linked to the forces and the vided on the residents' socio-economic effects global expansion of urban and monetization on areas where development activity has oc systems. As Redclift (1987: 4) puts it `the envi curred, degrading mangrove areas. ronment has suffered more neglect at the hands The basis of this research can be a methodo of social scientists than any other comparable logical means of showing how developers subject.' In the absence of theoretically refined should manage and conserve mangroves for the work on environmental issues, when geogra well-being of the indigenous people who rely on phers enter the field, they have been content them. Cox and Elmqvists (1982) argue that this simply to collect data, and to provide criteria is a way towards sustainable social, economic for land use classification. Thus, available stud and environmental development. The purpose A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 161

of this study is to provide an analysis of man capital of Apia is located (GWS 1991a). Eighty grove degradation in four coastal villages of percent of Samoan land is customary owned, Upolu Island in Samoa: Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, while only fifteen percent is private land. The and Fugalei. Development activities have been remaining land is government owned (GWS undertaken without prior assessment of their 1990). potential impact on the mangroves, therefore Geologically, Samoa is relatively a young vol the author hypothesizes they have effects on canic island country controlled by five distinct the livelihood of mangrove-dependent commu volcanic episodes (Wright 1962). Each episode nities. Mangroves' natural ecosystems will be has produced extensive lava flows cascading proved as an important foundation for the so seaward from high volcanic cones character cial, cultural, and economic activities of coastal ized by Upolu's central highlands, which gradu communities. In transforming mangrove eco ally decline towards the coast. Upolu is densely systems through modern activities, and in pol populated particularly on these fertile and flat luting them, villages' livelihood becomes coastal areas, where swamp and mangrove threatened. Since Samoa is not well endowed communities are a common feature in drowned with mangroves, it is imperative to identify the valleys and barrier impounded river/stream social and economic importance of mangroves mouths. The high population density of about to the Samoans and then to evaluate and under 742 person per sq km, along the coastline, has stand the effects of deteriorating mangrove eco placed increasing pressure on coastal areas for systems so as to minimise further destruction. the destruction and reclamation of mangroves for residential housing, road expansions, build Background to Samoa ings, industries, and businesses (Taule'alo 1993).

Location, population, and landf orm Climate, soils, and vegetation

Samoa, which forms part of the Samoan vol Southeast trade winds, specifically dominant canic archipelago, lies in the South Pacific atmospheric circulation features of the South Ocean (Figure 1). The total land area is approxi Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), makes Sa mately 2,800sq km and its two main islands are moa's climate generally hot and wet through Savaii and Upolu. In 1991, Samoa had a popu out the year (Curry 1962). Average annual lation of about 160,000 residing mostly on Sa rainfall varies from 2,500mm to over 6,000mm vaii (45,000) and Upolu (116,000) where the in the highlands, while mean annual tempera-

Figure 1. Location and relief map of Samoa. Source: The contours were quoted from Ward and Ashcroft (1998. 10) 162 J. M. Boon

Figure 2. Vegetation characteristics of Samoa. The vegetation communities represented here are only a schematic sketch of the five vegetation categories from all over Samoa, illustrating that the highlands are affected by southeast trade winds of more than 80 and 50 per cent of the time during the dry and wet season respectively. Lowland vegetation occurs on almost all coastal areas of Samoa including the: (1) Littoral vegetation having four types of plant communities: the herbaceous strand or beach; littoral shrubland; pandanus scrub; and littoral forest. (2) Wetland vegetation includes five communities: coastal marsh, consisting of herbaceous wetland situated on the coast; montane or mountain marsh, occurring in montane craters and depressions; mangrove scrub dominated by 'togo fafine' (Rhizophora mangle) which are small sized trees; mangrove forest dominated by the 'toga tane' (Bruguiera gymnhorriza), which are large trees forming closed canopy forests; and swamp forest situated where fresh water saturates the soil. They occur on the west coast for example Pata, Falelatai, central north and south coasts of Vaiusu and Safata bay, and in Apia coastal regions. (3) Rainforest vegetation has five communities: the coastal, lowland, ridge montane and cloud forests. (4) Volcanic vegetation comprises lowland and upland volcanic scrub. (5) Disturbed vegetation Source: Adapted from Taule'alo (1993: 13). tares range from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius at the sion on reef and lagoon systems, including man coast. A distinctive dry season appears from groves (SPREP/EAJ/OECC 1993). May to October, and two major cyclones within Soils of Samoa are formed from basalt, most the last decade have caused widespread de of which are generally clay in texture, free struction in Samoa in the rainy season. The draining and relatively shallow (Wright 1962). cyclone damages have had disastrous effects on In the coastal areas, marsh soils are not exten loss of biodiversity for some period of time sively found in Samoa, but where they occur within the conservation areas, catchments and they are inundated by sea at high tide, which have resulted in increased soil and coastal ero supports mangrove forests such as those on A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 163

Upolu. The Status of the Mangrove Whistler (1992) categorised six vegetation Environment in Samoa types illustrated as in Figure 2: littoral, wetland, rainforest, upland scrub, volcanic, and disturbed The mangrove ecosystems of Samoa vegetations. Mangrove scrubs and forests are part of the wetland community dominated by Samoa mangroves are at the eastern limit of the Togo fafine (female mangrove) or Rhizo the Indo-Pacific mangrove distribution and are phora mangle and the Togo tane (male man confined to a few suitable places where sand grove) or Rruguiera gymnorrhiza. Although it spits cut off stretches of shore and terrigenous has been stated that much of the mangrove sediments accumulate in swamps, or in shel ecosystems had been disturbed by human ac tered rivers and stream mouths in the coastal tivities, an accurate estimate of the total area areas of Upolu (Lafaele 1993; Park et al. 1992; that has decreased over the last century is un Vodonaivalu (undated); Whistler 1992). There available, which is a manifestation of its negli are two dominant mangrove species-Rhizo gence. phora mangle grows at the seaward edge with canopies ranging from 5 to 10 metres, and Rru Social economic situation guiera gymnorrhiza is more common inland and Like many South Pacific Island nations, Sa grows up to 15 metres or more (Sasaki 1992). moa has endeavoured, since independence, to Other exclusive mangrove related species are develop a modern economy and to diversify appended in detail in Vodonaivalu (undated), from traditional village agriculture and pri Whistler (1992), and Lafaele (1993). mary products. However, seventy to eighty Within the two large mangrove areas of Vai percent of Samoa's population are still rural usu Bay and Sataoa-Saanapu of Safata Bay, based and rely upon a subsistence lifestyle Thollot (1993) found thirty-five species from (GWS 1990). Primary economic resources in about twenty-two families, predominantly mul rural villages include; fish and shellfish caught let catches of Liza melinoptera. In Sataoa in lagoon, reef and mangrove areas; coconuts, Saanapu, there were five dominant species bananas, yams and breadfruit from plantations; Chanos chanos, Therapon jerboa, Caranx papuen domestic animals; and other produce from sis, Upeneus vittatus, and Liza melinoptera. household gardens, with the majority of re These species have also been commonly re sources harvested by villagers becoming part of corded in mangroves of other South Pacific the village subsistence economy (GWS 1990; countries such as Vanuatu, Fiji, New Caledonia, Fairbairn 1993). The balance of the primary and American Samoa. resources is sold in Apia, forming part of the Mangrove utilization and modification cash economy (Zann 1991). The significance of the primary sector is Mangroves provide; food; firewood and char shown by the fact that related activities ac coal; timbers for boats, poles for fish traps, count for 50% of the Gross Domestic Product pipes, and tool handles; dye and tannin; and (GDP), 60% of the workforce, and 80% of export medicinal herbs for the local inhabitants (GWS earnings of the national economy (World Bank 1994; Thaman 1993; Whistler 1996). However, 1991). In this respect, Samoa, since European Samoa's mangrove environments are undergo contact, is no longer a society of self-sufficient ing considerable modification which threaten local units (Meleisea 1988). Imported food and the elimination of mangroves for traditional other items are now established as basic house uses (Nakamura 1992). As early as the 1960s, hold necessities. These changes are reflected in Cumberland and Fox (1962) reported mangrove the way locals use the mangroves for both sub deforestations and reclamation for settlements, sistence and for earning cash. Cash income is while Richmond (1991) recorded the reduction used to purchase some of what are now basic of almost all mangroves due to harvesting by necessities such as soap, sugar, tea, flour and local inhabitants for firewood use. East of Apia, other foodstuffs. at Moataa, a major portion of its mangroves 164 J. M. Boon was also reclaimed in the early seventies for the was ignored. Fugalei region proceeded to be purpose of constructing a major hotel (Polu subdivided and sold with plans to construct a 1994). The area is now barren and deserted, road through Vaitoloa in Vaiusu Bay to serve and in a FAO/UNDP fisheries survey by Zann the anticipated settlers on the new subdivision. (1991), this reclamation resulted in a rapid de Land lying below high water mark, including cline in mullet (anae) finfish catches, which the mangroves is public or government owned land local inhabitants relied upon as a major source and this gives them the authority to halt the of food. A more important effect has been the destruction or construction that is taking place. loss of the mangroves as a barrier from cy Yet, instead of ordering the cessation of large clones and destructive storm surges. scale reclamations in the Fugalei regions, the According to Liu (1992), about five percent of government declared the Sataoa-Saanapu man Vaiusu mangrove area has also been converted groves as a reserve. This region is susceptible to other uses and most of the remaining stands to low levels of degradation whereas the de are severely disturbed by adjacent and on-site struction at Fugalei is intense. In fact, the land use conversion, rubbish disposal and con Sataoa-Saanapu conserved mangrove area is a sequent pollution. Furthermore, the second follow up of a local environment Conservation largest Government expenditure is in infra Area Scheme funded by the Global Environ structure improvement such as road construc ment Facility under the South Pacific Regional tion in which mangroves situated along the Environment Programme in Apia as a South coasts are destroyed to build roads, evidenced Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme. by the main road running from Apia to all This scheme, administered by the Lands and inland areas (GWS 1992; SPREP/OLSS 1993). Environment Department, is to preserve the The destruction has encouraged widespread mangroves' biological diversity as attested by erosion on the coastal areas through direct the World Convention on conserving Biological wave attack, shoreline adjustment, sand mining Diversity at the Earth Summit, in Brazil, 1992. and poorly designed sea walls (Zann 1991). The government, being more interested in fuel In view of the significant role that mangrove ling economic growth, extended this agenda to communities have on coastal productivity, it is capitalise on the project by developing the area clear that one of the main reasons for the low as part of an eco-tourist project for the Samoa fish yield (28kg/ha/yr) of the urban reefs of Visitors Bureau. It was considered that in this Upolu is the indiscriminant development and way, attempts to preserve mangroves could degradation of associated urban mangroves. also generate income for the local inhabitants. Given the small community and limited range Other attempts at inculcating awareness of of species of mangroves, the destruction of the importance of mangroves are already pro these ecosystems will be economically devas gressing. Colourful posters published by the tating, given that seventy to eighty percent of SPREP are available as educational resources the population still rely on fish as a source of for primary and secondary schools, to support protein (Zann 1991; GWS 1991b). environmental education agendas incorporated into the social studies and geography curricula. Growing awareness of mangrove degradation Strangely, despite these concerns, planned and its effects schemes to destroy mangroves are increasing. Despite low population growth of about There is a need to review environmental legisla 0.6%, limited industrial and mining activities tions regarding mangroves otherwise they will on Upolu, signs of mangrove deterioration are always be vulnerable to any form of exploita progressing. Early in 1994, public concern was tion. expressed in a petition signed by over 800 con So far, efforts toward conserving mangroves cerned residents and environmentalists' soci are currently merely token gestures purporting ety, Siosiomaga Society (Polu 1995: 13). The to participate in the international awareness of petition, which called for a halt to the develop the fragility and preciousness of the environ ment and destruction of the mangrove swamps, ment. Genuine efforts at protecting the man- A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 165

grove environment can be carried out if only Although the dump is closed to further dump those in positions of power empathize with ing, by reclaiming it as shown in Figure 3, those whose lives are dependent on the man secondary growth of different plant species are groves. Making an inventory of the country's currently colonizing and depleting the man mangroves is not enough. Thus, if the elimina grove area, thus changing the breeding tion of mangroves continues, sustainability and grounds for marine organisms that use to grow survival of subsistence societies like Samoa will and live there. Vast swamps have also capti seriously deteriorate and poverty levels will vated the area and settlements have grown spo increase. The importance of understanding the radically. impact of development on the mangrove eco Conversely, Pata is a rural site subjected to system cannot be overstated since it is the first limited degradation but was selected to provide step in working towards minimising their de an assessment of the full potential of an undis struction. turbed mangrove area therefore there are no alterations in terms of the areal extent of man Method of the Study groves in these two areas as depicted by Figure 4. Sataoa mangrove site is an eco-tourist re serve established in the early 1990s. Surveyed locations The respondents and questions The areas selected for this study have the largest mangrove concentration, but ones Interviews in Samoan language and a recon which are susceptible to destruction and exploi naissance survey were conducted on the most tation. Selection of Fugalei and Vaitoloa sites experienced fishers in the village, chosen in the was based on the need to find out if such devel course of casual conversation, during a house opment related projects have had adverse to-house survey about the role mangrove play effects on the local community. They were then in their lives. Selection of the respondents was compared to areas of Sataoa and Pata with acquired from asking 'who are the best fisher relatively limited mangrove destruction. Each men in the village?' Most of those fishermen of these villages has experienced different lev referred to by the contacts were the elderly els of degradation as outlined in Table 1. people and the heads of the households known Fugalei, which lies in the heart of Apia, re as matais or chiefs who were thought reliable in flects mangrove degradation resulting from the provision of the responses. Selection of the land reclamation into increased residential and best fishers is an approach that is deemed ef commercial settlements in the transforming pe fective by other scholars. Johannes explicitly riods from years 1983 to 2000 in Figure 3. Most stated that "for the marine environment of the of the settlements are now turning into shanty tropical Pacific Islands it is the local fishermen towns, and there is flooding due to obstruction who possess this knowledge" (1982: 258). Local of the mangroves through landfill for the new fishermen's traditional knowledge and skill commercial activities. The relocation of the "constitute an encyclopedic reservoir of practi new market recently has led to health hazards cal sea lore of a stupefying richness" (P. ®ttino from the overflow of septic tanks (Polu 1995). and Y. Plessis (1972) quoted in Johannes (1982). According to the leader of the Siosiomaga Soci Kundstadter (1986) also observed that if man ety, an environmentalists' group, these prob groves deteriorate, it will be the fishermen, not lems are evident of improper planning on the the mangrove developers, who suffer directly part of the local authority (To'o 1996). from the loss of spawning grounds of the man In the same vein, Vaitoloa is an area sub groves areas, converted for economic gains. jected to various forms of pollution. In the However, some of the other family members early 1970s, it was a refuse and waste disposal interviewed had some contact with the man site for the urban residents of Apia, and pollu groves through other mangrove-related activi tants flowing from the Vaitele industrial sites. ties. This approach of using traditional knowl A fishpond had started but was abandoned. edge facilitated the identification of appropriate 166 J.M. Boon

Figure 3. Mangrove distribution in the study areas of Vaitoloa and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa in 1983 and 2000. Source: Map 1983 was adapted and compiled from N. Z.M. S 174.3rd edition, May 1983. Published by Department of Lands and Survey, Government of Western Samoa by arrangement with the Surveyor General of New Zealand. Map 2000 was adapted and compiled from Topographic Map Samoa-U1 Upolu West. Published by Lands, Survey and Environment. Apia, Samoa.

Table 1. Activities influencing different levels of degradation in the selected study villages of Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei of Upolu Island in Samoa

a: available na: not available A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 167

Figure 4. Mangrove distribution in the rural study areas of Pata and Sataoa, 2000. Source. Compiled and adapted from Topographic Map 2000 of Samoa-U1 Upolu West. Published by Lands, Survey and Environment, Apia, Samoa. subjects who had either current use of the man Questionnaire-assisted interviewing was con groves, or have had some interaction with the ducted through casual or informal conversation mangroves sometime in their lifetime, even if (on a one-to-one basis) in the vernacular tongue they no longer have the use of it. of the respondents. This study, which was conducted in Decem Section B concerned the respondent's knowl ber 1995 to January 1996, was largely based on edge of the activities relating to the utilisation a survey of the behavioural responses of people of the mangrove and an analysis of the changes in relation to mangrove degradation and other that may have existed in the times devoted to uses. In the sites, fifty households were sur these uses. Information gathered was also veyed and in the urban mangrove villages of based on the knowledge of the finfish and non Fugalei and Vaitoloa a higher proportion of finfish species found in the mangroves. The fifteen households were investigated since they proportion of catches sold or distributed, and were the major mangrove areas affected by changes that have occurred, changes in average urban development, through reclamation, be catch in finfish and non-finfish organisms found lieved to be the main factor causing mangrove in the mangroves, and changes in abundance or destruction. Ten respondents were interviewed size of these products were also collected. De from the rural areas of Pata and Sataoa, as velopment-related activities, which have sumed unaffected by development, and serving affected these uses in a negative or beneficial as a means of control for the purpose of this way as imposed on the people and the man study. The questions asked were categorised in groves were also queried. It was hoped that the the following three sections of A, B, and C de responses to these questions would provide a scribed below. picture of the impacts of mangrove reclamation Section A involved the respondents' sources and other development on the livelihood of the or means of income, investigated to identify the villagers. degree of reliance of the respondents in the Section C included an open-ended query on selected mangrove sites. This represents what any further comments or opinions of the re Walsh (1996) terms 'background information.' spondents regarding the mangroves and devel- 168 J.M. Boon

opment related activities. important function of the mangroves was the reduction of damage to settlement by cyclones, Results and Discussions harsh waves, strong winds and storms. The mangroves' location at the interface of the land and sea protects homes, crops, vegetable gar Residents' awareness of mangroves dens and livestock. This function was strongly Since on average 54% of the respondent no emphasised by all Pata villagers, who claimed longer use the mangrove resource, the focus that they were spared the ravages of cyclones here is to discover the reasons for non-use and and strong winds because of the barrier the extent of these relative to the socio afforded by mangroves. Similarly, at Vaitoloa economic and cultural activities supported by and Sataoa, villagers claimed that it was the an undisturbed mangrove environment. The removal of a large area of mangrove for a major following were the residents' awareness of the road construction that has exposed houses to importance of mangroves elicited through the the destructive forces of cyclones. It can be uses they perceived as beneficial to their envi argued that the perceived importance of such a ronment. function can be influenced by the occurrence of two successive cyclones in the early 1990s. Beneficial functions of the mangrove ecosys The natural resilience of mangroves to func tem tion as a cyclone and wind defence is widely The result in Figure 5 illustrates that the discussed in Chapman (1976) and others. Miya villagers living in and around the mangroves gi (1992) and Mochida (1992) also respectively recognised at least seven distinct functions of demonstrated through illustrations how the mangroves that are beneficial to the commu physical, geomorphic and biogenic factors con nity as a whole in Samoa. Relative importance trol the processes of land and silt succession of a use was estimated by comparing its fre enabling mangrove to act as buffer zones. quency of being cited as important by the total These were supported by comparative studies number of respondents. conducted in Okinawa and Iriomote mangroves Cyclone and wind barrier All the Sataoa of Japan, in relation to mangroves of Microne and Pata rural respondents and some of the sia in Pohnpei and East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Vaitoloa residents (28%) viewed that the most Habitat for marine/terrestrial organisms

Figure 5. Responses on the beneficial functions and the relative importance of mangroves to Samoa from 50 households in Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. Total percentage of 99.9 is rounded to the nearest whole number of 100%. A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 169

The second most frequently cited function is as midum) shellfishes; and the ua, (Scsarma erythro a habitat for marine and terrestrial organisms dactyla), tupa (Cardisoma carnifex) and paali (22%), illustrated by the variety of finfish, shell mago (Scyllar paramamosian) mangrove crabs. fish, and crab species cited by the respondents The Siphonosoma australe worm or ipo, which in Table 2. Of particular importance are the was uniquely reported in Vaitoloa was not re alogo (Acanthurus lineatus), pone (Ctenochaetus ported by the other respondents. striatus), tuna (Anguilla marmorata) lupo (Alectis Finfish of a similar Family have been found ciliaris), malauli (Carans ignobilis) anae (Liza me in Okinawan mangroves such as the Lutjanus, linoptera, Mugil cephalus, Valamugil engeli spp.), Mugil cephalus, Siganus and Therapon family to (Siganus fuscescens), and avaava (Therapon although the particular species varied (Shokita jarbua) finfishes; tugane and pipi (Gafrarium tu 2000), In contrast to the Thai finfishes, Aksorn-

Table 2. Composition of finfish, shellfish, and crab species identified by the respondents in the local study areas Finfish and eel species

Shellfish species

Crab species

Location: P=Pata; S=Sataoa; V=Vaitoloa; F=Fugalei 170 J. M. Boon

koae et al. (1986) stated that the most common pigs like to burrow in the mud swamps. one is the Chanos chanos, surprisingly identified Presence of fish eating birds such as egrets, mainly by the rural villagers of Pata and Sa cormorants, storks, sea gulls, herons and kites taoa. Crabs of a similar family species (Scyllar have been also reported as far afield as the serrate) have been also noted as far as Dar es mangrove areas of the Indus delta and the Ka Salaam in Tanzania, Africa by Hartnoll (Mai rachi area of Pakistan (Qureshi 2000: 33). This noya et al. 1986), in Okinawa, Japan by Shokita is an interesting finding despite the vast dis (2000), and also again by Aksornkoae et al. tance of these places in the far east of the Asian (1986) in Thailand. Particularly in Thailand, borders from Samoa. where the mangrove genera of about 27 species Shades for domestic animals Mangroves, in exist, more diverse marine organisms of fi the provision of shade (15.3%) was also seen as nfishes, crustaceans and molluscs have been vital for sheltering and protecting these terres identified from fishing trips in the surrounding trial livestock and poultry animals not only for mangrove villages of Ko Lao and Had Sai Khao, domestic use but also as a source of local con Ranong Province, southern Thailand (Aksorn sumption and income for the dwellers. On occa koae et al. 1986). Interestingly, the presence of sions, neighbouring families would come to buy Helice leachi crab species, proven through ex these products but the sales are very informal, periments by Shokita (2000) most commonly and were most significant in Vaitoloa and Pata. found feeding on the Bruguiera gymnorrhiza This is a significant observation because in the mangrove leaf, was not identified by any of the 1989 Agriculture Census of Samoa, 91% of all respondents or of the studies that have been households keep some type of livestock, that is, undertaken in Samoa, despite the vast growth 42% have cattle, 83% have pigs and 86% rear of the B. gymnorrhiza. The importance of man chickens (GWS 1990). Taule'alo (1993) en groves in offering an area of refuge and spawn dorses that livestock is primarily raised for ing ground for marine organisms has been ex home consumption and for ceremonial occa tensively recognised in Kunstadter (1986), sions. Hamilton and Snedaker (1984), MacNae (1974), Use of mangrove areas for shade is also recog Saenger et al. (1983), and many others. In the nized by the Australian Aborigines. In associa case of the ipo, the only other two areas that a tion with the terrestrial animals of the Samoa worm has been evident is the latju (Teredo spp) villagers, it is the Aboriginal people of the reported by the Australian Aborigines in Bird Yolngu tribe in Arnhem Land north of Austra (1986), and the Sipunculid worm of the Thai and lia, who move to the cool, shady environment of Malay mangals in Shokita (2000). the mangroves particularly in the dry season. With regard to terrestrial birdlife organisms, This is most common when strong southeast only two Sataoa and a Vaitoloa respondent ac trade winds bring heat and dust to the coastal knowledged that three types of birds were com plains enabling Aboriginal people to escape and monly seen feeding on fish from the mangroves. seek refuge in the mangroves (Bird 1986). At Sataoa, these are the toloa (Areas superciliosa Other beneficial uses Mangrove mud and or 'grey duck'), matu'u (Egretta sacra or 'Pacific litter was also noted as an important food pro reef heron'), and the seu (Rhipidura nebulosa or vider for the organisms depending upon it in fantail). At Vaitoloa, glimpse of the gogosina the case of Vaitoloa and Sataoa. Mud obtained (Sterna sumatrana or Black-naped tern) was re from the swamps above the high water mark ported. The toloa, seu and gogosina have cul provides soil for farmland improvement in the tural significance in some of the Samoan prov case of Vaitoloa and Pata for the growing of erbs and songs (Taule'alo 1993). In the three crops and vegetables. Landfill, including the villages of Vaitoloa, Sataoa and Pata, most of prevention of front and backyards from erosion the families rear domesticated pigs and chicken. and natural disaster, in the form of a paepae They also reported that mangroves are where (landfill), were particularly reported by the some of their pigs and chicken roam to find Fugalei and Vaitoloa residents. The mud food like earthworms for the chickens while the swamp is also stated to have healing properties A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 171

for the pigs that roam in the mangrove areas of nipa shingles for roof thatching and sold while Vaitoloa, Pata and Sataoa as reported earlier. the younger nipa leaf sheaths are used for ciga rette-wrapper manufacturing (Chan 1986). As Socio-economic and cultural uses of mangrove for Thailand, mangrove forest wood is proc products essed for charcoal, timber and lumber, and the As expected, the significance of the functions marine organisms form the basis of the fishing reported above of mangroves in its physical industries, which in turn form the primary em state influences socio-economic and cultural ac ployment sectors providing a formal income tivities, therefore it is not surprising that the (Aksornkoae et al. 1986). Conversely, Samoa data in Figure 6 showed that mangroves had a mangrove uses are more on a small scale, serv range of socio-economic and cultural impor ing only the local coastal communities and the tance. Villagers residing in and around the town market (in terms of selling marine man mangrove area use mangrove trees for their grove products and leis). basic subsistence, cultural and socio-economic Construction uses Specific constructional living in the form of three most important uses usage involved the provision of mangrove tim for construction (19%), decoration (14%), and ber for posts to build houses, kitchens, and pig fuel and fishing equipment (12%) materials. Co sty(s) while thinner wood is used for roof raf incidentally, in the village of Ko Lao, Thailand, ters. This is most common in the rural areas of with the exception of decoration, mangrove for Pata and Sataoa and to some extent in Vaitoloa. ests are predominantly a source of wood for Most of the dwellings in Samoa have kitchens fuel, house construction, fishing gear, and for or umukuka separate from the main house, catching marine animals (Aksornkoae et al. which is usually made of commercial timber. 1986). Yet, in contrast to Samoa, in the South The traditional rural housing or Samoan cot east Asian countries, particularly the peninsu tage (fale Samoa) is open and has no walls so lar of Malaysia and Thailand, mangrove prod the poles are those from the mangroves. This ucts are manufactured on a large scale. In type of dwelling is common in the villages and Malaysia for instance, nipa fronds from the is commonly used only for leisure or relaxation mangrove areas are cut and processed to make because of its coolness. The separate kitchens have similar architect attributes of a Samoan cottage but are enclosed with fences and sometimes with a built-in com partment to keep animals from entering. How ever, poles for posts and thinner wood for fences are also extracted from the mangroves. Even in the urban villages these housing styles and kitchens do exist as evident in Vaitoloa. Pig sty(s) are also located separately outside the housing compounds, and the fences are con structed from either the Rhizophora or Bru gueira woods. The woods are hard, according to the respondents and therefore such a use is very convenient, particularly in the case of the Bruguiera since they are taller. Fish traps in all three areas of Pata, Sataoa and Vaitoloa, which are installed further out into the sea in a circu Figure 6. Responses on the socio-economic and lar fashion, are made of mangrove wood sticks. cultural uses of mangroves from 50 Using mangrove wood for house construction households at Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, is also a common practice in Laut villages of and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. All percentage figures were rounded off to Java except that they do not have separate their nearest whole numbers. kitchens (Mantra 1986). In a similar fashion 172 J. M. Boon

with regards to pig sty(s) and fish traps, Mai reported that the Ko Lao and Had Sai Khao noya et al. (1986) reported that coastal people of villagers of Malaysia and Sri Lanka are also Tanzania also use mangrove products for their suffering from the decline of mangrove timber pig pens and fish traps. On the other hand, attributed to felling and logging for forest tim wood is mass produce and exported to other ber commercialisation. countries or even on the local market, as men Making decoration Decorative flowers are a tioned earlier, in Southeast Asia. For instance, popular form of personal adornment with some in the case of Malaysia, a Rhizophora pole is families having made it a source of income in felled and sold for US$0.40 for those near the Vaitoloa and Sataoa. The use of the mangrove river. The rate increases progressively to flower for decoration and long flower necklace US$0.60 per pole inland. The worker can cut is quite unique since none of the studies have and transport about 30 to 40 poles a day and reported such a use. In general lei (ula) made normally works 15 to 20 days a month. Yet at from mangrove flowers and other flowers are the jetty, poles are sold to consumers at a price sold by a number of families, since it is seen as of US$0.70-$1.50 each (Chan 1986). At the mo an important facet of Samoan celebrations in ment there are signs of deterioration yet still village feasts, ceremonial activities, school these mangroves are exploited on a macro level. graduation or prize giving, or any other func Therefore, their sustainability level cannot tion. meet the exploitative measures. Even around Christmas, Vaitoloa dwellers of In Samoa, changes of a different nature are ten improvise by extracting branches or young evident. All of Sataoa, for example, has been plants of mangrove to substitute for a Christ restricted in that their mangrove area is being mas tree. Flowers and ferns are also used for strictly allocated for preservation. Many had church decorations for Sunday services as in used other forests inland to obtain posts par the case of Sataoa. Ferns obtained from the ticularly for housing and kitchen surroundings. mangrove, are also potted and sold. According Lands are mainly communal or customary land to the respondents, pot plant sale is a recent and so the families also have access to forests activity, which came about with the establish inland. Conversely, all of the residents in ment of the Sataoa-Saanapu eco-tourist reserve Fugalei and 14 out of 15 residents of Vaitoloa project. None of the Fugalei respondents stated that these uses have been replaced to claimed to rely on the mangrove for their deco some extent by commercial timber. The rative needs, besides their mangroves were lit change, according to the Fugalei respondents, tered with broken glasses and hence, dangerous was not by choice, as the reclamation of man to enter. groves had removed their traditional timber Firewood Fuel in the form of firewood, and supply. However, in some cases, for those who the provision of material for making fishing cannot afford commercial timber, the rubbish equipment, are perceived as equal in impor dump has become their source of timber, hence tance. Pata and Sataoa respondents all relied the condition of housing in Fugalei is very poor on the mangroves for firewood, as the main and reflects the poverty of the region. source of fuel for cooking. Sometimes, women A similar situation has been acknowledged in and children are involved in gathering and col the coastal village of Segara Anakan, southern lecting firewood. At Vaitoloa, although some Java, Indonesia, where large areas of man depended on mangrove firewood, many pre groves have been lost to land reclamation and ferred charcoal and kerosene bought from the there is obviously a decline of timber resources shops out of convenience rather than necessity. (Mantra 1986). In Thailand, the destruction of Fugalei respondents bought firewood from the mangrove trees has led to decline over a 10 year nearby market because mangroves were al period by concessionaires, whom the villagers ready demolished but for those available, it was called "the owners of the charcoal kilns", for unbearable to enter. Firewood is a prerequisite charcoal production (Aksornkoae et al. 1986). for the performance of the Sunday umu or In a similar vein, Chan (1986) and Silva (1986) ground oven traditionally held every Sunday, A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 173 or preparation for a big feast or celebration that being planted with digging sticks, and sur involves food giving, hence the importance of rounded by garden stakes to protect the crops firewood as one of the socio-economic and cul and gardens from pests such as dogs, pigs and tural importance. chickens. The growth of crops in the front and The use of mangrove wood for charcoal espe backyards of Samoan houses is a terminology cially for commercialisation, commonly re that was referred to as 'garden crops' by Tha ported in Southeast Asian countries, is not a man and Ravuvu (1989), common in Tongan practise among the Samoan mangrove resi and Samoa front and backyards. Hence the dents in this study or any other study con importance of garden stakes and digging sticks ducted in Samoa. However, the use of man manifested in the rural dwellers responses. Vai grove for firewood fuel namely the Rruguiera toloa had garden crops to a small extent but and Rhizophora species is being reported in the Fugalei respondents had limited space for mangrove dwellers of Thailand although no planting, reflected in the lack of responses. data on the amount of firewood consumed is Extracting marine food For those engaged available (Aksornkoae et al. 1986). Whilst the in fishing, one or more of the following prod Samoans did not distinguish the effectiveness ucts are extracted from mangrove swamps: fi of the species for firewood, people in Thailand nfishes including eels, shellfishes and crabs. In as well as Fiji (Lal 1983) recommend the Rhizo this survey, extraction of marine food products phora as an effective firewood and source for from the mangrove swamps ranks fifth in im charcoal production. Similar changes are oc portance, serving as an important source of curring in using kerosene as an energy source protein. Fnnfishing and non-finfishing, like for cooking and lighting, along with fuel wood flower collecting and making leis, have similar and charcoal from the mangroves evident in characteristics in the division of labour regard the homes of Tanzanian people in a study con ing who is involved in which activity. With ducted by Nkonoki (Mainoya et al. 1986). reference to the fishermen counterparts of Vai Making fishing equipment Fishing equip toloa, Sataoa and Pata, finfishing usually takes ment made from mangroves includes crab and place at night and it requires greater physical fishing traps, fences, and lines, as expected strength because of the net-fishing method. mainly from the rural mangrove dwellers. The This often excludes women who also have the respondents from Vaitoloa and Fugalei respec responsibility of looking after the children and tively said that they did not make fishing attending to domestic duties at night. At times, equipment anymore, partly due to its replace crabs are caught or collected by men, particu ment by modern fishing equipment. Yet, they larly in Sataoa, and also Pata at night, but also chose not to fish in the mangroves for fear collecting shellfish is predominantly a female of food poisoning from garbage pollution at activity. Women are seen to collect crabs when Fugalei and discarded industrial machinery the need is there to obtain cash for children's waste at the former rubbish dump at Vaitoloa. school fees or to meet other immediate obliga Making tools Tool making is an integral tions such as paying electricity bills before the part of sustaining a livelihood and ranks fourth deadlines. in terms of cultural uses of mangroves for mak Conversely, in Vaitoloa and Fugalei, the fear ing digging sticks and garden stakes. This was of food poisoning has been the deterrent to most common for Pata and Sataoa respondents. fishing in the mangrove swamps. Fugalei pos Pata and Sataoa residents were also farmers in sessed the added disadvantage of distance that they also cultivated land for subsistence (about one hour's walk) from the shoreline, a and commercial means. This is quite significant result of the reclamation of land from the man in that about 80% of land in Samoa is custom groves. Tinned fish, corned beef, frozen meats ary owned. The villagers had customary land and chicken from the market and general stores cultivated for growing banana, taro, yams, and have become substitutes. other staple crops. Even surrounding their tra In contrast to the coastal mangrove villages ditional housing were evidence of similar crops of Thailand (Aksornkoae et al. 1986), Malaysia 174 J. M. Boon

(Chap 1986), Java in Indonesia (Mantra 1986), sanitary conditions of the mangroves streams and Sri Lanka (Silva 1986), fishing, like char due to rubbish pollution, Fugalei respondents coal and wood production, from the mangrove said that the reclamation has been so extensive forests is a significant primary resource indus that areas once suitable for swimming disap try contributing to the national revenue in peared. Even at Pata, some of the respondents come. In the local region, shrimp and prawns refrain from using the mangroves for swim are a major high-price income earner for the ming. The deterrent in this case is the fear of mangrove dwellers. However, Samoa, like Tan the supposed effects of 'ava Niu Kini' (Derris zania (Mainoya et al. 1986), does not commer malaccensis) natural poison used for fishing. cially exploit mangrove marine resources on a From a different viewpoint, recreation of large scale but only for local consumption and mangroves is manifested in tourist conserva to periodic sale in the local market only when tion attraction as in the case of Okinawa be cash is required. In fact in Sri Lanka, the re cause it is regarded as an exotic ecosystem ported high average income varies with the according to Miyawaki (1986). This function is prawn season, whilst fishing is regarded as a offered not to the local dwellers but to the more stable income throughout the year in the national tourists. This is a function that has mangrove fringed lagoon communities of been recently developed as a formal use of the Rekawa and Kalametiya, Sri Lanka (Silva Sataoa mangroves known as a Community 1986). Prawn and shrimp was more of a fresh -based conservation project with the assistance water organism found in the head river of the local government departments such as streams, not in the mangroves, as considered by the Lands and Environment and Conservation some Samoan respondents. section in Samoa. Due to this, local dwellers of Other socio-cultural uses Mangrove wood Sataoa mangroves abstained from using the is also used for outriggers and connectives of mangrove resources abundantly and exces canoes. Canoe timber itself is obtained not from sively. the mangroves but carved from other trees The use of mangroves for medicine is indirect found along the inner margins of the man since most of the medicinal plants are non groves such as the fau (Hibiscus tiliaceus), talie -exclusive species such as laugasese, pualulu or (Terminalia catappa), mosooi (Cananga odorata), lauauta (Phymatosorus scolopendria), fueselela tamaligi (Samanea saman), and niu (Cocos (Hoya australis), nonu (Morinda citrifolia), mati nucifera). Interestingly, Tanzania also uses (Ficus tinctoria), fuesina (Vigna marina), matalafi mangrove wood for boat hulls, masts, and oars (Psyuchotria insularum), togotogo (Cantella asia (Mainoya et al. 1986). Respondents who did not tica) and milo (Thespesia populnea). Only a few rely on the mangrove for outrigger material respondents utilized these in their remedies, were no longer engaged in finfishing, such as a and used their knowledge as a means of earning hundred percent in Fugalei. money. Streams flowing through the mangroves This finding suggests limited knowledge of were of little use for domestic activities, such as the mangrove dwellers in Samoa in using man bathing, washing clothes and dishwashing be grove species in healing and treatment in con cause of the reliable supply of reticulated water trast to the residents of Thailand, where Bru and stored rainwater. However, in the event of guiera mangrove plant species is used to relieve a prolonged interruption in the domestic water constipation, the Acanthus species for treating supply most claimed that they would fall back kidney stones, while the Avicennia species is to on mangrove stream water. Awareness of pol treat thrush in children and others for men lutants in the swamps has discouraged respon strual fevers (Aksornkoae et al 1986). Beyond dents in using mangroves for recreation and Asia in the continent of Africa, the Rhizophora domestic use. In fact, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and species is well recognised by the Tanzanians as Fugalei respondents reported that they did not a remedy for hernia (Mainoya et al. 1986). swim in the mangrove streams anymore. While Last, but not least, the tannin from the bark Vaitoloa respondents blamed this on the un of the Bruguiera was once important as a dye A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 175 used on bark or tapa cloths. Only a few of the socio-economic and cultural needs. The re respondents still obtain dye or tannin from the search provided the following general picture mangroves. This has been replaced with mod of the level of affluence among the inhabitants ern artificial dyes, screen-printing, tie-dyes, and in the four locations studied. is no longer popular. On the other hand, the Residents' socio-economic status bark cloths are seldom worn these days despite Yamamoto's (1990) discussion, and in ceremo Figure 7 shows that 37% of the respondents' nial exchange they have been substituted with income derives mainly from semi-subsistence modern cloth obtained from the stores. Yama means. This involves living off the land and sea moto (1997) proposed in her analysis that the and selling part of the products of their efforts introduction of western imported material is -for instance, selling of staple crops, handicrafts, supposedly the reason for this transformation. poultry, pigs, flowers and pot-plants, finfish, Like Samoa mangrove dwellers, Aksornkoae et shellfish and crabs-in order to obtain cash for al. (1986) observed that the practise of obtain the purchase and satisfaction of other needs. ing tannin is also becoming rare in the case of Half of this percentage proportion (18.5%) is Thailand, although the reason for their usage derived predominantly from selling marine differs. With modern equipment available, dy products and crops. This aspect, suggesting a ing of fishing nets with tannin is rare since transition from subsistence to cashing in on traditional nets are now substituted with nylon marine and land resources, is a significant trend nets. also acknowledged and supported by Yama moto (1990), Meleisea (1988), and GWS (1990). Residents' evaluation of mangrove reclama As such, 30.4% of the respondents' total in tion come is also obtained from remittances abroad, This evaluation attempts to provide a picture 27.2% from wages, and 5.4% from self of the four study communities' degree of reli -employed ventures. Those who had incomes ance on their respective mangroves. It aims to from wages were found predominantly in examine how the destruction of mangroves has Fugalei and Vaitoloa because of their proximity affected the villagers in terms of the time spent to Apia whilst the incomes from self-employed in the mangroves for the satisfaction of their activities were found only at Fugalei. Many

Figure 7. Sources of incomes of 50 respondents from the villages of Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. 176 J. M. Boon

respondents had multiple sources of income, Vaitoloa respondents are better off economi which was quite common among the house cally than those in Fugalei because most of the holds. residents are white collar, therefore more Of the four study areas, Fugalei's economy is highly paid. Others had additional incomes the least. Although there were incomes derived from semi-subsistence means from fish, garden from wage employment those employed were crops, poultry, and pig sales. None of the re involved in blue collar jobs with incomes of spondents are self-employed and a few also re $90-$60 tala2 per week, but not from selling ceived remittances. mangrove fish or related products. In retro The general economic status of Pata is similar spect, those who received cash from abroad had to that of Sataoa, and being rural communities, a monthly remittance of $200 tala, which was the pattern of sources of income is very differ the only source of income for a mother of five. ent from either their Vaitoloa or Fugalei coun Others who received less had remittances of terparts. None were self-employed and the ma $100 tala only twice in a year. There were very jority received regular remittances from over few food gardens or 'garden crops' in the area. seas. Only a couple were also wage earners and Self-employment in Fugalei invariably in all were semi-subsistence farmers. Everyone at volved petty trade such as operating a barbecue Pata and Sataoa sold marine food products (in stand, a flea market stall or a small general cluding finfish, shellfish and crabs), as well as store selling daily basic food and sundry neces other products such as crops, handicrafts , poul sities. According to a Fugalei respondent who try, livestock, and pot plants. Added to this, is operates a barbecue stand, the income derived the claim by all respondents at Pata and Sataoa , is meagre, and "the monies from day to day sales that need of extra cash to meet personal, family , goes back into purchasing the goods for the barbe village or community obligations known as cue stand. If we get $150 talc, $100 alone would fa'alavelave 3 beyond daily needs is satisfied be spent on meat and $30-40 will go into buying through the sale of fish from the mangroves as other ingredients. So we save about $10 or $20 if in Figure 8. All families at Pata and Sataoa (10 were lucky..." The same family, make ends each) and 9 respondents from Vaitoloa satisfy meet by receiving remittances additionally their extra cash needs from the mangroves . from relatives abroad. Parallel to this, many of Thus we see the heavy reliance of Pata and the families could barely have any supplemen Sataoa on their mangrove environment relative tary income left for any means other than try to Vaitoloa, and the comparative absence of ing to meet sufficient basic necessities. mangrove-derived income at Fugalei. Pata and

Figure 8. Responses on the special occasions or ceremonies for which respondents would make more than the normal use of mangroves from 50 households at Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa , and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. The responses were those identified by the respondents. A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 177

Sataoa villagers for instance, enter the man stuffs. Respondents said that the pressure for groves every day, especially for firewood and increased monetary income to satisfy newly food. Yet when it is mangrove marine products required needs and traditional family and com for income, it is about 4 to 5 times a week. This munity obligations has been the cause of this. is a higher average compared to Vaitoloans. Generally, the sale of finfish and shellfish infor They only enter the mangroves during the mally occurs by the roadside or door-to-door, weekends 'when they have time,' or if they whereas crabs are usually transported to the really need extra income particularly for imme fish market in Apia, where they fetch a higher diate fa alavelave. The heavy reliance of the price. This is most pronounced in Pata. two rural areas on income from mangrove ma Changes in residents' life rine products is further supported by the in crease in the proportion of fish sold at present with the exception of Pata, all respondents compared to earlier, as reported by the survey. experienced impacts and therefore a change in A significant fact is that whereas about ten their relationship with their mangroves as a years ago, no respondent sold 100% of his total result of development-related activity. The catch, today, 20 of them do so. Similarly, those beneficial effects may be summed up as im who reportedly sold 75% of their finfish catch proved accessibility to Apia, since all lauded earlier were only about 5. This has increased to improved accessibility to urban services such about 18. Consequently, the percentage of as banks, airports, hospitals, post offices, and those who sold 25% and 50% of their catch has especially markets to sell their marine products, declined. Figure 9 respectively supports the food crops and handicrafts. Respondents also allegation made by rural respondents (Sataoa said that improved accessibility has allowed and Pata) that in recent years, there has been an them to take advantage of cheaper basic food increase in fishing effort and a very significant stuffs in town. increase in the sale of mangrove marine food Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei respondents re ported four development-related activities: road constructions, commercial activities, eco tourism, and industrial expansion. The per ceived negative effects in Figure 10 by the re spondents were: destruction of the habitat and spawning grounds for marine organisms on which the local inhabitants were once reliant or are still reliant for their dietary protein and income; relocation or displacement of homes; restriction/deprivation of use to a freely avail able resource; and land alienation. Although not common to all areas, other less frequently cited negative effects were; unsanitary environ ment, retreat of shoreline, noise and air pollu Figure 9. Number of responses on the changes tion, and increased flooding. The following in the proportional percentages of elaborates the four most common negative the total catches sold from 50 effects of development related activities at Sa households in Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa, taoa, Vaitoloa and Fugalei. and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. Past responses were extracted from a Habitat destruction survey conducted by Zann (1991) in 1990 and compared to the responses given in when respondents were asked about their the current study. The proportion of the awareness of changes in the duration of time catches 0%, 25%, 75%, and 100% were they spend in the mangroves compared to the options provided to the respondents, Respondents were asked to circle more days prior to their area's particular develop than one option if appropriate. ment-related activity, they reported an increase 178 J. M. Boon

Vaitoloa was the dangers posed by broken glass, rusty nails stuck on boards, and metal waste dump in the mangroves. However, it is important to recognise that the decline in the use of mangrove resource at Vai toloa and Fugalei is not solely due to the de struction of mangroves. Increasing urbanisa tion of Vaitoloa and Fugalei also plays a major part in this decline. Vaitoloa respondents, for instance, attributed the decline in mangrove use to a change in their lifestyle, such as prefer ences for modern conveniences like kerosene oven, tinned fish and frozen meat, coupled with the lack of time because working parents, work ing young adults and schooling children have less time for obtaining food and non-food re sources. Added to this is the relative lack of manpower. The average household size in Vai toloa and Fugalei was 6.2 and 6.3 respectively compared to 8.2 and 8.8 at Sataoa by national Figure 10. Responses on the perceived nega statistics (GWS 1991a). tive effects of development related Respondents were also very aware of the de activities by 40 households from Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei, Upolu cline in the size of finfish and non-finfish Island, Samoa. catches. Estimated catches are based on figures Pata was unaffected by development, most frequently cited by respondents including therefore omitted in this part of the those at Fugalei who estimated their catch sizes analysis. in Samoan units of measure. The quantity of fish for example was measured in tauia. A tauia in hours of finfish and nonfinfish fishing but a is a string of about 12 medium-sized fish (22 reduction in finfish and non-finfish catches, and cm), 10 if large (28cm), and 15 if small (18cm). longer hours spent in obtaining the same quan A taupaa is a string of 10 small crabs. Shellfish tity of firewood, timber for posts, and wood for was measured in terms of baskets or ato making tools and equipment. Figure 11 depicts (equivalent to about 2 to 3kg in weight). the changes in time taken to satisfy these socio Table 3 illustrates the changes reported by economic and cultural needs. respondents. Surprisingly, declining catches The figure portrays that at present an addi were also reported at Pata, despite the undis tional two to three hours are spent in obtaining turbed state of its mangroves. The largest food from the mangroves either in the form of change was reported in Fugalei. Prior to land finfishing (including eels) or non-finfish catch reclamation, the average catch per fishing trip ing of shellfish and crabs. The time required to of finfish was 4 tauia and 6 eels, 4 taupaa or locate the suitable size of timber for kitchen strings of crabs, and 5 ato or baskets of shellfish. and pig-sty fences has also increased by about These were also usual when compared to the two hours, and an hour in fuel collection. Note absolute zero now because of the destruction of also, the decline in the time spent on collecting Fugalei's mangroves. material for decorative purposes. This is due to Overall, it appears that fish catches decreased the restriction imposed by the Land and Survey by 43% at Pata, 33% at Sataoa, 80% at Vaitoloa Department on this activity because of the eco and 100% at Fugalei. Eel catches had a re tourism project at Sataoa. markably decline of 67% in Pata and 100% in A commonly cited reason for refraining from the other three areas. Crab catches decreased collecting decorative material in Fugalei and by 57% at Pata, 50% at Sataoa, 75% at Vaitoloa A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 179

Figure 11. Responses on the changes in hours spent on mangrove related activities from 40 households at Sataoa, Vaitoloa, and Fugalei, Upolu Island, Samoa. Pata was unaffected by development, therefore omitted in this part of the analysis.

Table 3. Responses on the changes in average catch per trip from the mangrove areas now compared to the past from 50 households in Pata, Sataoa, Vaitoloa and Fugalei of Upolu Island, in Samoa Q. B9. Has there been a change in average size or abundance in the catches now compared to the past?

-: not cited and 100% at Fugalei. Shellfish catches de as a local delicacy. This corresponds with creased by 50% at Pata, 70% at Sataoa, 77% at Zann's (1991) finding on stock depletion of fin Vaitoloa and 100% at Fugalei. Interesting too fish and non-finfish in the urban mangroves is the complete disappearance of the peanut attributed to the destruction of their habitat worm or ipo (Siphonosoma australe) cited from and spawning ground. only Vaitoloa, where it was formerly collected 180 J, M, Boon

fore the mangrove was cleared, their daily con Relocation and land alienation sumption was primarily free marine products Relocation of homes coincides with land al obtained from the mangroves. However things ienation. Development related activities such have changed, and food and firewood had to be as road construction required re-location of bought everyday to sustain themselves, with families, which in turn separated families from money which could be used in assisting with their customary-owned lands. This was most their children's educational expenses. pronounced at Sataoa where villagers are now Mangrove Degradation and its sandwiched between a road and an area of man Impacts in Samoa groves for which clearance for settlements or any other destructive activity has been prohib The results presented here are indicative of ited by the Lands and Environment Depart three processes-first, the effects of urbanization ment, Comments from respondents at the vari on mangroves and the well-being of the local ous areas illustrate the resentment felt about residents'; second, the influence of a monetary this change in their relationship with their system on the cultural aspects of the local resi mangroves. According to a Vaitoloa respon dents; and third, the effect of Conservation pro dent, a road constructed leading up to the man jects on the rural residents' livelihood. Re groves encouraged rubbish dumping from the gional disparities are inevitable, as the degree urban residents, and "has created unhealthy con of urbanization and monetary system affects ditions, destruction of habitats for the marine life the nature of the socio-economic backgrounds that was once our sole means of protein." A of the residents in relation to the utilization of grandmother at Sataoa, whose grandson was mangroves through existing sources and means killed on the road, also expressed her bitterness of income, and way of life, and the resulting with regards to the changes resulting from road changes. A discussion of these causes of man development. grove degradation is imperative. Relocation is also encouraged by environ Progress of mangrove degradation mental disasters such as flooding, and unsani tary conditions resulting from obstructed Proceeding degradation of mangroves is evi drainage due to land reclamation. dent through reclamation, and to an extent, rubbish dumping, particularly in the urban ar Restriction and/or deprivation of resource eas of Fugalei and Vaitoloa due to rapid urbani use zation. Although Samoa has environmental The impact of alienating customary owners legislation enacted by the Lands and Environ from their lands and mangroves is profoundly ment Act of 1989 to protect forests such as felt in the restrictions regarding resources use. mangroves, efforts to cease reclamation of man Complaints on this restriction were most evi groves particularly in Fugalei have not been dent at Sataoa because of the Sataoa-Saanapu enacted, since the Environment Impact Assess region having been declared by the Lands and ment regulation is still in its final stages of Survey Department as an eco-tourism reserve preparation. Due to government negligence, project. A Sataoa respondent expressed that mangroves, which should have been govern ginger farming, proposed as an income ment-owned land had been subdivided and sold - generating project to restrain them from using to promote reclamation for commercial activi the mangroves, was time consuming. For in ties. Just recently, residents have been relo stance: "... The disadvantage of ginger farming is cated and only commercial activities are pro that you have to wait for it to grow before you can gressing by the new anticipated landowners. harvest it, After that you need money for some bus This is mainly the case at Fugalei, where signs fare to go and sell it in the markets and stores or of urban expansion are in line with road devel to a businessman who exports it in Apia. Finally, opments on the reclaimed areas. what you get will only last you a day or two." In regards to Vaitoloa, the rubbish dump has Similarly, Fugalei respondents said that be beenn reclaimed and secondary forest and A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 181

swamps had spawned across the area. In effect, change to purchase the necessities for their sur the spatial extent of mangrove has declined. In vival. The stalls and those without means of contrast, rural mangroves of Sataoa-Saanapu employment are supported by remittances area have been protected under environmental while some of the remittances are used to set up promoted programmes as a concomitant to these low income enterprises. Spatial disloca global actions to preserve natural ecological tion of residents has also resulted. The socio areas. Surprisingly, these have had some effect economic situation in urban Fugalei area is on traditional fishing patterns and uses of man analogous with the perceived situation in grove environments as expressed by the resi Southeast Asian cities where urban immigrants dents in the research survey results. Road de of squatter settlements have established vend velopment is also evident as in the case of Pata. ing stalls to make ends meet (Hugo 1992). In regards to Sataoa-Saanapu, traditional Socioeconomic effects house construction, firewood collecting, mak Road construction and relocation of new ur ing of fishing equipment, and fishing patterns ban facilities have irreversibly affected the lo have been altered not because of mangrove de cal ecosystem and the social and economic as struction but because of the constraint imposed pects of the residents in the form of various by the government agency. However, low fish transitions. Reclamation of mangroves is not catches have been reported because respon substituting mangroves, but a permanent de dents attribute this to the influence of the struction is resulting in the loss of a freely monetary system on the traditional cultural available resource and habitat for marine practices. A term coined by Yamamoto (1990) spawning grounds, and the relocation of resi to describe this process is 'acculturalization.' dents. In effect, the decline in mangrove uses This is where the personal, family, village and for house construction, decoration, fuel and church fa alavelave or obligations have been mangrove marine food products is continuing. transformed by substituting money valuables Traditional fishing pattern and practice, which with some of the traditional goods needed for was the primary local livelihood, have changed ceremonial exchanges. Paying electricity, and other mangrove related activities have de school fees, and purchasing soaps, sugar, flour clined with the depletion and loss of mangrove and other modern necessities have required habitats and resources. Exemplars are evident cash, which can be obtained from making more by limited mangrove-related activities evinced than the normal use of mangrove marine prod by all the respondents in Fugalei who stated ucts. While the residents are extracting more that they no longer use the mangrove re out of the mangrove marine areas, low fish, sources. In line with this, is the depletion of shellfish and crab catches and sizes have been mangrove food product through null fish, crab reported. In the case of Fugalei, fishing or crab and shellfish yields, and decline in wood for catching or even shellfish collecting is non construction, firewood, and for making fishing existent and the market has been their means of equipments and canoes. Cessation of fishing marine food especially for the Sunday lunches activities affected eating habits and local im or toanai as is the tradition in Samoa. Like the ported foods have been obtained as substitutes. Fugalei counterparts, population relocation is Degradation of mangroves has also led to a directed inland, and this is supported by the modified social and economic livelihood by en national census where Sataoa-Saanapu uta (in gaging in various forms of employment. In the land) has increased by 0.8% while Sataoa case of Fugalei, some residents have taken up -Saanapu tai (coast) has become depopulated low-income jobs, while others who had a source (GWS 1991a). of remittance entered low skilled, free entry but Road development had assisted in providing labour intensive activities such as small mar accessibility to the local markets convenient for ket, barbecue and sundry item stalls. Without a transporting fish but particularly crabs because freely available resource, residents are forced they are high cost products for cash. Tourism into a livelihood that entails monetary ex had also developed initiatives of selling leis to 182 J. M. Boon

assist the rural families with an additional ecosystem, and in turn affecting livelihoods of source of income. With the exception of selling the local people concerned. This is particularly leis, Pata is similar to Sataoa-Saanapu in this evident in the urban mangrove areas. case. This paper also concludes that mangrove In Vaitoloa, availability of modern conven degradation is not solely due to development iences, limited time because of an active work related activities. Local communities, espe ing group, and the rubbish dump has contrib cially those in rural areas, increasingly overex uted to less involvement with mangrove related ploit their mangrove resources to meet increas activities, although some do maintain some de ing cash needs which appeared to be stimulated gree of reliance on the mangrove for sustaining because of increasing access to the urban cen their livelihood. The vanishing of the Siphono tre, facilities and products afforded by im soma worm, reliance on imported food from the proved roads and transport, and a monetization stores, according to some residents is because of of personal, traditional family, church, and vil the fear of being poisoned by the aftermath of a lage obligations. Thus, mangroves are in need rubbish dump being recently removed and re of protection as much from overexploitation by claimed. Unlike Fugalei, the impression given traditional users as by destruction through de by the majority of Vaitoloa respondents was velopment related activities. Alternative meas that the loss of the use of the mangrove re ures have to be found as a means for Pata sources were not seen as catastrophic, since villagers to obtain cash. people had adapted to this loss or change in Nevertheless, conservation measures, as in their mangrove environment by adjusting their Sataoa, may be necessary for all mangrove eco lifestyles to the modern conveniences. systems in Samoa. While that of Vaitoloa and This transformation from a traditional to Fugalei may be too late to save in view of the modern livelihood was expected. Residents of speed at which development related activities 12 households out of 15 interviewed were eco have been allowed to proceed, others in the nomically stable through well off jobs mainly country should be carefully monitored. Only within the Mormon Church compound, an insti then, can mangroves be used in a sustainable tution that paid well. Hence, they could afford manner. material goods for domestic cooking and freezer foods and only entered the mangroves Acknowledgement during weekends to seek fuel and fish for the Sunday umu (or ground oven) for the tradi I am most grateful for the residents' effort, time and tional toanai (lunch). For Fugalei residents, contribution, in making this research study possible. I am also indebted to the funding provided by the since they could not enter the mangroves for New Zealand Overseas Development Assistance such commodities, the nearby market is their (NZODA) scholarship award, which has enabled me to source of food and fish for their Sunday toanai. pursue master studies. This study was originally presented as a master thesis to the University of the Conservation Measures South Pacific (USP), Laucala Campus, at Suva, in Fiji on December 1997. I would also like to thank my supervisors-Professors Randolf Thaman and A. Cros This impact study of mangrove degradation bie Walsh, and tutor Mrs Vijaya Walsh of the Geogra is the first study undertaken in Samoa and is a phy and Development Studies in the Social Science useful means of assessment in evaluating social, Economic Department (SSED), for their time and con economic, cultural and environmental costs of structive comments in assisting me with the comple tion of this thesis. environments undergoing certain degradation. (Received 30 May 2001) The findings of the survey suggest that devel (Accepted 13 October 2001) opment related activities have brought about both positive and negative effects. The nega tive effects, however, appear to be more numer ous, illustrated by the arising of problems de veloping from an irreversibly changed local A Socio-Economic Analysis of Mangrove Degradation 183

tem is operational, which is organized and de Notes cided by the village council or fono. Church obligations (fa'alavelave a le lotu) in clude alofa or donations for the pastor or priest 1. Socio-economic profiles are evident in sympo of the village parish. This is a fortnightly -sium presentations as in Kunstadter, et al. affair. Another donation, which is an annual (1986). Recent ones include UNU (2000) and event, involves the contribution for the devel Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology opment and administration of the church Annamalai University in India 2001. affairs as in taulaga. 2. talc is the Samoan currency unit for dollar. $1 US dollar is equivalent to a little more than References $3 talc even up to now. 3. Obligation is ambiguously referred to fa'alave -lave and Yamamoto (1990 and 1997) confines Ajiki, K. 2000. Socio-economic study on the utiliza the definition of fa alavelave as the ceremonial tion of mangrove forests in Southeast Asia. In exchange taking place at life crisis occasions Asia-Pacific co-operation on research for conserva and house or church dedication ceremonies. tion of mangroves. Proceedings of an Interna She categorized four aspects of a fa alavelave tional Workshop 26-30 March, Okinawa, Japan matrimonial ceremonies, title inauguration pp. 129-138. International Society of Mangrove ceremony, funeral, and church dedication cere Ecosystems (ISME), United Nations Educational - monies. In this survey, the author defines fa'a Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), lavelave in the context of the research partici Man and the Biosphere (MAB), United Nations pants. This includes reasons for the respon University (UNU). dents making more of the normal use of ex Aksornkoae, S., Priebprom, S., Saraya, A., and Kong tracting mangrove products to obtain cash for: -sangchai, J. 1986. Mangrove resources and the Personal obligations (identified as la'u fa'a Socio-economics of dwellers in mangrove forests lavelave-my obligation) involve paying: electric in Thailand. In Man in the mangroves: A socio ity bills; school transport, uniform and station economic situation of human settlements in man ery and tuition fees; grove forests, ed. P. Kunstadter, E. C. F. Bird, and S. Family obligations or fa'alavelave (identified Sabhasri, Tokyo: United Nations University. as mo le fa'alavelave a le matou aiga-for our Bird, E. C. F. 1986. Human interactions with Austra family obligations) including contributions to: lian mangrove ecosystems. In Man in the man weddings; funerals; chief or matai title settle groves: A socio-economic situation of human settle ments or saofa'i; graduation or fa'auuga of a ments in mangrove forests, ed. P. Kunstadter, E. C. member of the family from a Theological col F. Bird, and S. Sabhasri, Tokyo: United Nations lege (whether it is an ordained Catholic priest, University. London Missionary Church pastor or Method Chan, H. T. 1986. Human habitation and traditional ist pastor or fesoasoani), or even from a tertiary uses of the mangrove ecosystem in peninsular institution, a family visit to a relative from Malaysia. In Man in the mangroves: A socio overseas or asiga as a formal recognition of a economic situation of human settlements in man visitor from overseas especially if the visitor grove forests, ed. P. Kunstadter, E. C. F. Bird, and S. has been the source of financial remittance, or Sabhasri, Tokyo: United Nations University. fa'amomoli as in a box of clothing or food. Chapman, 1976. Mangrove vegetation. Jamaica: J Cra Village obligations (known as fa'alavelave a mer Vaduz. le nu'u) involve contributions to village pro Cox, P. A., and Elmqvist, T. 1982. 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