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Cultuling : A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural

Reza Pishghadam1a, Shima Ebrahimi 2a, Ali Derakhshan3b

Abstract The close relationship between language and has been ARTICLE : highlighted by scholars in , sociolinguistics, of communication, psychology, and linguistics. Received April 2020 They postulate that language is a tool to instantiate cultural Received in revised form June 2020 and delineate how individuals perceive the world. Accepted June 2020 Regarding such an outstanding impetus and triggered by the Available online July 2020 conceptualization of cultulings (culture in language),

language structures and expressions can manifest the overt and covert cultural patterns. Not only can the cultuling analysis of a society disclose the cultural patterns entrenched in the language, but also it can unearth the effective and defective cultural memes. To this end, our cultural model, KEYWORDS: underpinned by environmental factors, cultural, emo- sensory, and linguistic differences, can provide a robust Culture model to analyze cultulings of a given society. Therefore, to Cultuling analyze and explain the cultulings, the cultural, emotioncy, Cultuling analysis and SPEAKING models are suggested to be collectively Emotioncy model Euculturing utilized to reflect the participants’ culture. The amalgamation of these models and the underlying environmental factors can delineate people’s specific behaviors and cultulings which can culminate in euculturing. © 2020 IJSCL. All reserved.

1 Professor, Email: [email protected] (Corresponding Author) Tel: +98-51-38802000 2 Assistant Professor, Email: [email protected] 3 Associate Professor, Email: [email protected] a Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran b Golestan University, Iran

18 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

1. Introduction Whorf’s (1956) linguistic and linguistic . Their well-grounded he and transcendence of each theorization has justified that the role of nation might be inextricably bound to its language in culture should not be overlooked T rich and healthy culture, which per se and that culture affects people’s thoughts and plays an indispensable role in the mentality through language. Thus, people’s formation of that society. Therefore, in order to and behaviors hinge on their language develop a society, it seems essential to first and they construct and reconstruct their world develop its culture. In order words, if a culture based on their language. of a society is well-developed and appropriate, it guarantees its progress, and if the culture is As explicated, in addition to the language- undeveloped and inappropriate, it hinders its culture relationship, the issue of people’s progress. Needless to say that exploring the thinking and cognition regarding their healthy culture and diffusing it paves the way surrounding world is remarkably significant, for its development (Pishghadam & Ebrahimi, which is addressed by pioneering scholars such in press). as Vygotsky (1978, 1986) and Halliday (2003). These scholars have considered culture as a Considered as social heredity, culture has that produces language and received a great momentum in diverse fields of plays a decisive role in shaping people’s study such as , sociology, thoughts in society. , and psycholinguistics, each of which has conceptualized culture with respect From another crucial perspective, Pishghadam to its specific domain. For instance, (2013) has considered the role of language to be anthropologists and sociologists define even more decisive and held that “language first ‘culture’ as a symbolic-meaningful or a social led to the technology development and at the system, encompassing , , beliefs, same created culture, this culture again attitudes, norms, artifacts, manners, literature, produces a special in a society art, architecture, customs, etc. (Gill, 2013; explaining how to practice wisdom” (p. 51). As Henslin, Possamai, Possamai-Inesedy, a result, “an accurate analysis of a language can Marjoribanks, & Elder, 2015). In such a reflect the culture that governs the society definition, culture pertains to those customary where it is spoken” (Pishghadam, 2013, p. 52) beliefs and values that ethnic, religious, and and can be well elucidated by investigating the social groups transmit fairly unchanged from linguistic components containing a society’s generation to generation (Guiso, Sapienza, & cultural , the culture governing that Zingales, 2006). It is therefore perceived that society, and their thinking. Thus, like his culture is a means of communication and that ‘Brainling’ (Pishghadam, 2020), which is built interaction among the members of a group, and upon the structure of the brain (constituting the analysis of a culture reflects its people’s cogling (thinking in brain), emoling ( in lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs, and ways of brain), and sensoling (sense in brain)), thinking (Wardhaugh, 2010). Moreover, Pishghadam (2013) coalesced the two words Axelrod (1997) defines culture as the of ‘language’ and ‘culture’ and introduced the individual attributes that are subject to social of ‘cultuling’, that is, ‘culture in influence. This definition is in line what that of language’ in sociological studies of language. Taga’s (1999), positing that culture constructs, Regarding the that cultulings a crucial reconstructs, reflects, and conveys ideas and role in revealing the cultural and linguistic beliefs. It also gives the individuals characteristics of individuals in a society, and information about customs, , through their thorough analysis, in other words, norms, and values which are concomitantly cultuling analysis (CLA, hereafter), one can transferred through language as an inseparable extract cultural roots, raise public awareness entity of each culture (Derakhshan, 2018). toward them, and make suggestions for altering Therefore, many distinguished researchers them if needed. In addition to providing (Agar, 1994; Diaz, 2013; Fantini, 1997; valuable contributions to language planners, Friedrich, 1989; Risager, 2006, 2011) have CLA also lays the groundwork for the focused on the language-culture relationship, assessment of attitudes, feelings, and language the most outstanding of which is Sapir and behavior of different classes of people R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 19

(Pishghadam & Ebrahimi, in press), within the brain. They may be perceived by the culminating in the euculturing (bettering sense organs of other individuals, and they may culture) of any society. Bearing this in mind, so imprint themselves on the brains of the we seek to provide a comprehensive analytical receiving individuals that a copy of the original model for CLA. Accordingly, we conjecture is graven in the receiving brain. “The that in order to analyze a cultuling, one must new copy of the meme is then in a position to describe and explain the culture well. To this broadcast its phenotypic effects, with the result end, in this study, we elaborate on memes as a that further copies of itself may be made in yet unit of cultural transmission, cultuling, CLA, other brains”. (Dawkins, 1982, p. 109). different cultural models (CMs), the emotioncy Consequently, memes are living (Distin, model, factors underlying CLA, and our 2005) which are informative in and are a comprehensive model. It is believed that a clear combination of biological and mental factors picture of a nation’s culture and the linguistic intertwined with social and cultural factors. expressions they use (cultuling) can be provided Patterns, concepts, and ideas are stored in the by considering these factors simultaneously. memes. Clothing styles, music, common idioms, etc. are examples of cultural memes 2. Meme as a Unit of Cultural Transmission (Dawkins, 1989). Many scholars have been searching for a base Dawkins (1976, 1989) expounded that we can for culture, and they have tried to explore its identify people’s ideas and beliefs in a society th evolutionary . In the late 20 century, through memes which are considered as inspired by Darwin’s postulations and genetics subunits of culture transmitted by copying and which argues that genetic information imitation because they are ideas, symbols, and is transmitted from one generation to the next, cultural acts which are transmitted in various Richard Dawkins (1976) propounded the term forms such as language (oral and written), ‘meme’ and established the science of behavior, customs, architecture, music, art, etc. ‘memetics’. ‘Meme’, rhyming with the word Therefore, memes have the ability to construct ‘gene’, means the cultural gene. According to and can be considered as a base for this , memes are considered as units of cultural (Aunger, 2002). They are not information in the brain, just like genetic only characterized as self-replicating but also information that resides in the DNA (Dawkins, known as contagious (Taecharungroj & 1982). “Imitation is key to Dawkins’ notion of Nueangjamnong, 2014). Traditions, beliefs, the meme because imitation is the means by customs, values, etc. are stored in the which memes propagate themselves amongst individual’s which are transmitted or members of a culture” (as cited in Chandler, copied from one individual to another, but the 2013, p. 8). Therefore, it is understood that adaptability of memes to the environment is memes like genes undergo transmission, different. Therefore, in different environments, mutation, as well as replication, and can be we have different cultures (Blackmore, 2010). spread and proliferated. Blackmore (1999) If a cultural characteristic engages and concurred with Dawkins, highlighting that influences many individuals in a society, it whatever is learned through imitation is becomes a localized and stable feature of that therefore called a meme. society, and that characteristic is reproduced Regarding genes and memes, Dawkins through imitation and transmission. Brodie compares the process of genes spreading (2009), embarking on the term ‘viruses of the themselves in the gene pool, “leaping” from mind’ as a simile to introduce memes, body to body, to the process of memes explicated that memes are particles of culture spreading through the “meme pool” by leaping that spread like a virus quickly and can infect from brain to brain via imitation (as cited in all members of a society and can parasitize the Chandler, 2013, p. 8). Its phenotypic effects, in host. contrast, are its consequences in the outside In line with Dawkins, Lynch (1996) compared world. The phenotypic effects of a meme may memes to germs that are contagious and be in the form of words, music, visual images, mentioned that they are ‘thought contagion’. He styles of clothing, facial or hand gestures, cogently argued that similar to Darwin’s architecture, etc. which are the outward and evolutionary theory, some ideas and beliefs visible (audible, etc.) manifestations of memes

20 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

have survived throughout history and have been lexicon can undergo a change, and individuals passed on from one generation to the next, play a determining role in facilitating or while others have been lost. Some thoughts are debilitating the language expressions and words strong and some are weak, and those that from one generation to the next. Consequently, survive are the ones most people tend to like. it is explicated that we can instantiate the Needless to say that people can transmit culture of a society by exploring its language. cultural memes, and they play significant roles in transmission, reproduction, and balancing Consolidating the interconnectedness of and eradicating some memes, and changing language and culture, Pishghadam (2013) some other memes to the cultural norms. In persuasively accentuated that by scrutinizing general, we can argue that since the common the language of a society, one can discover its norms, beliefs, customs, and behaviors in a people’s cultural patterns, hidden , culture are shaped by its cultural memes, it can beliefs, customs, , etc. which all make the be said that culture is a gene that can be passed cornerstone of what he conceptualized as on from one generation to another and has a “culturology of language” (p. 52). He great influence on the lives of individuals. In foregrounded that structures and expressions of other words, memes can be regarded as the a language can manifest people’s attitudes, behavioral codes, playing an important role in beliefs, customs, and ideas which, in turn, help their transmission through communication, us explore the culture of a society. Enlightened which can determine and explain people’s by the premises put forward by Halliday (1975, culture (Dawkins, 1989). If the genes are good, 1994), Vygotsky (1978, 1986), Sapir-Whorf we see good behaviors, so people will have (1956), and Agar (1994), Pishghadam (2013) social and and we will have intermingled language and culture, and ‘euculturing’, and if the genes are bad, we will expounded the concept of ‘cultuling’, or witness inappropriate and abnormal behaviors, ‘culture in language’. Cultuling entails the and people will malfunction socially and structures and expressions of language that mentally. In other words, “a healthy culture instantiate the cultural background of a nation creates rational behavior that can cause its and includes a reciprocal relationship between people to grow. An unhealthy culture, on the language and culture. Simply put, “language other hand, by producing mental illness makes can represent the culture of a society” pathogenic behavior, which slows down the (Pishghadam, 2013, p. 47). Finding these process of human development” (Pishghadam, cultulings requires careful scrutiny of language 2013, p. 48). It should be born in mind that within the context of history and society. In memes can be balanced, mixed, influenced, and other words, investigating the language of a changed by others’ beliefs. Inasmuch as the fact society can reveal its hidden culture. It is, that language and language norms develop and therefore, axiomatic to realize that cultulings change in the society, moods, patterns, and are hidden in the language expressions which norms of a society can develop and change are frequently negotiated and exchanged in our (Dawkins, 1976). Therefore, eradicating and daily interactions and transactions. Not only balancing unpleasant cultural behaviors, as well can the identification and scrutiny of these as exploring these cultural memes remain a cultulings unearth the hidden cultural desideratum. manifestations and beliefs, but also they can reveal the dominant thoughts and cultural 3. Cultuling patterns of the society. As envisaged, language and culture are Multifarious cultulings can culminate in what is indubitably inseparable whereby culture called ‘meta-cultulings’, the analysis of which influences people’s ideas and beliefs through gives a thoroughgoing picture of a country’s language, and language, in turn, determines cultural system. “Meta-cultulings depict the people’s thoughts. Distin (2005), expounding general outline of a culture and also manage the “memes-as-words hypothesis”, characterizes their sub-cultulings” (Pishghadam, 2013, p. language as a “representational system” (p. 58). In other words, the cultulings of a speech 142), drawing on cultural memes to disseminate community are subsumed under a larger their content to the individuals of the society. category called a meta-cultuling, and each From this vantage point, the meaning of a meta-cultuling encompasses more subtle but R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 21

interrelated cultulings. Hence, each meta- linked cultulings (Pishghadam, 2013). Figure 1 cultuling can be envisioned as a set of deeper- illustrates these relationships.

Figure 1 Cultuling and Meta-Cultuling (Adapted from "Introducing Cultuling as a Dynamic Tool in Culturology of Language", by R. Pishghadam, 2013, Language and Translation Studies, 45, p. 58. Copyright 2013 by the Journal of Language and Translation Studies)

Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (in press) articulate Attaran, 2016), ‘I don’t know’ (Pishghadam & that identifying the cultulings and meta- Firooziyan Pour Esfahani, 2017), ‘coquetry’ or cultulings of a society can help us determine ‘naz’ in Persian (Pishghadam, Firooziyan Pour cultural memes and differentiate healthy genes Esfahani, & Tabatabaee Farani, 2018), from malfunctioning and unhealthy genes, cherophobia and death-seeking (Pishghadam, which in turn shed light on our understanding Firooziyan Pour Esfahani, & Firooziyan Pour to modify and eradicate the inappropriate Esfahani, in press). All these studies have cultural behaviors of society and substitute corroborated that the scrutiny of these them with appropriate habits, culminating in cultulings can disclose thoughts and prevailing euculturing. As succinctly put forward by cultural patterns. Pishghadam (2013) “cultulings are transformative tools, which can be used to bring 4. Cultuling Analysis (CLA) about cultural change and reflection” (p. 58). Premiered in a seminal work on cultuling by Cultuling Analysis was first put forth by Pishghadam (2013), many studies have been Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (in press), who conducted on different cultulings, including eloquently spell out that many lexicons and ‘swearing’ (Pishghadam & Attaran, 2014), language expressions are constructed as a result ‘cursing’ (Pishghadam, Vahidnia, & Firooziyan of social activities and interactions which Pour Esfahani,2015) ‘praying’ (Pishghadam & embody humans’ characters and cultures, Vahidnia, 2016), ‘Haji’ (Pishghadam & Noruz transmitted from one generation to the next. Kermanshahi, 2016), ‘fatalism’ (Pishghadam & One analytical approach to have a

22 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

comprehensive understanding of the cultural analytical tool to divulge the cultural contents, patterns embedded behind language constructs, and patterns, identify defective expressions of a society is CLA. In CLA, the genes, and promulgate healthy cultural unit of analysis includes words, phrases, or standards. CLA seeks to identify the memes sentences embedded in different contexts that that are transmitted through language in the contain cultural information conveyed through form of conversations, stories, poetry, and an interactive relationship between the proverbs so as to eradicate defective genes and cultuling and the context of its occurrence. In raises people’s awareness of them (Pishghadam other words, the social conditions, contexts, & Ebrahimi, in press; Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, types of communication, and relationships Naji Meidani, et al., in press). If needed, CLA among individuals which influence the makes suggestions for the modification of these formation of cultulings are all important genes which can pave the way for language (Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, Naji Meidani, & planning to delve into people’s behavior Derakhshan, in press). In CLA, like discourse through the acquisition, structure, and functions analysis and unlike traditional types of of language (Cooper, 1989; Pishghadam & analyses, linguistic structures and expressions Ebrahimi, in press). Language planning or are not merely construed in terms of their language engineering has become one of the lexical and syntactic roles in the text, but rather most influential fields of interdisciplinary beyond the text, that is, cultural, situational, in recent years which has drawn great social, political contexts, etc. can play attention from socio-cultural planners and significant roles. Therefore, CLA delves deeply policymakers in different contexts. In this into how linguistic meanings are entrenched in interdisciplinary area, researchers seek viable relation to culture, , and thinking. Given strategies to make progress and ameliorate that, the attitudes and thoughts of the people in social and cultural problems of their own a speech community can be analyzed through society in which language functions, language their language to discover and interpret their attitudes, as well as overt and covert behaviors prevalent cultulings. Through their analysis and of language, so individuals can be analyzed, interpretation, CLA analysts make an endeavor evaluated, and interpreted to have a better to identify social, cultural, political, contextual, society. To do so, factors such as objectives, and communicative characterizations and motifs, attitudes, social contexts, etc. are meanings of these overt and covert cultulings. consequential to alleviate some of the Thus, the overt features, frequently contingent problems of a society. In a nutshell, characterizing people’s behaviors and it can be recapitulated that CLA can expedite discourse, can be considered as a cultuling the identification of the origins of the defective which can be represented through specific cultural memes and achieve a healthier culture words and expressions. One of the centerpieces, which per se leads to a logical behavior and making the foundation for the analysis of promotes the collective growth of a society cultulings, lies in the language context, (Pishghadam, 2013). Consequently, one of the occurrence, and frequency of cultulings to ways to obtain cultural transcendence and better visualize and construct their social euculturing is to analyze cultulings in different process. CLA illuminates how cultuling societies, and it is stipulated that CLA is one of structures can influence people’s discourse the consolidated analytical tools to change and which per se can lead to the maintenance, promote the culture in a given society. eradication, and mutation over time (Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, & Derakhshan, in 5. Cultural Models (CMs) press). As it is unequivocal, the culture of a society is CLA is done on two layers. At the surface layer not confined to humans and one individual’s of CLA, the overt and conspicuous features of mind, but rather it is determined by visible and high-frequency words and expressions are invisible cultural patterns which are instantiated analyzed. Conversely, the deep level reflects through social interactions at the societal level the cultural patterns and values of people in a (Markus & Hamedani, 2007). These constructed society. Above these layers are embedded patterns are related to the values, behaviors, social and cultural structures of the individuals norms, ideologies, and attitudes of individuals in a society, so CLA can be utilized as a robust in a society, manifesting their cultural R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 23

characteristics (D’Andrade & Strauss, 1992). In a given context and to the extent to which such conditions, membership in the community individuals can tolerate this inequality. In such requires constituting organized collections of societies, it is often observed that the less cultures, ideas, attitudes, norms, and social powerful members are ruled over by more which are enculturated during our powerful members who make the important childhood through enculturative routines and decisions in a society. The societies with high become internalized as cultural models. conform to an autocratic of Therefore, cultural models are discernable management and accept a hierarchical order, instances of organization of collectively shared while the democratic style of management is knowledge inextricably bound to our social life observed within societies with less power (Zerubavel, 1999), and indigenous individuals distance where individuals can contribute in the are interpreted based on these cultural models process of decision making, express their which are cognitive maps of the mental objections against the authorities, and strive to landscape inhabited by the group members equalize the distribution of power (Minkov & (Maltseva, 2017). Put it succinctly, CM can be Hofstede, 2013). The fundamental concern of defined as the “presupposed, taken-for-granted this dimension is how a society deals with knowledge shared within a society” (Quinn, & inequalities among people. Holland, 1987, p. 4). CMs abound across cultures which are descriptive and explanatory Uncertainty Avoidance: This dimension in nature and can explain the cultural represents the degree to which the members of differences in diverse societies. In the a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty, following, we have elaborated on some of the threats, as well as ambiguity, and whether they most outstanding CMs to shed light on our are threatened in such conditions. The societies understanding by providing the comprehensive with a high level of uncertainty avoidance feel of CMs, based on which we can get unconformable about the uncertainties, familiarized with the behavioral and cultural show unpredictable reactions toward these characteristics of different societies as well as ambiguities, and are intolerant of unorthodox dominant cultural orientations in Eastern and behavior and ideas. On the other hand, societies Western societies. with a low level of uncertainty avoidance maintain a more relaxed attitude and show Hofstede is one of the distinguished scholars resilience toward uncertainties and future who has conceptualized a comprehensive ambiguities. The key issue here is how a society category of cultural models and values, deals with the fact that the future can never be pinpointing the influential role of cultural known (Ilagan, 2009; Minkov & Hofstede, diversities in different societies. Hofstede 2013). (1991) defined culture as “The collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the /: This demarcation members of one group or category of people refers to a loosely-knit social framework in the from others.” (p. 5) He further draws an analogy society in which each individual is expected to that culture is like a character for human beings. take care of himself or herself. In such a The group or category can be a national society, society, ‘me’ or ‘I’ is prioritized to ‘we’, ‘us’. but Hofstede recounts vividly that his definition That is, individuals’ decisions are of paramount applies also to other , such as importance, and if individuals succeed, they regions, ethnicities, occupations, organizations, relate their triumph to their own perseverance. or even age groups and genders. The six Given that, individuals have more dimensions of national culture, making the emancipation in what to do and how to do. By quintessential elements of the model are the way of contrast, collectivist societies prioritize result of extensive research by Hofstede, their collective decisions to those of Hofstede, and Minkov (2010), are as follows: individuals’ because of a tightly-knit framework, and the concept of ‘self’ is Power Distance: This dimension pertains to the perceived with respect to other members of the fact that inequality of power and wealth is group. As a result, ‘we’ plays an essential role expected and accepted in a given society by and relations count more than practices. In such subordinates. It relates to power, status, and societies, people usually give credence to authority that you command from individuals in others’ ideas and thoughts, and most often

24 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

change their preferences in favor of others America, and the Middle East as high context (Hofstede & Bond, 1984). cultures, but the German, Swedish, Scandinavian, and North Americans are Masculinity/Femininity: This dichotomy refers categorized as low context cultures (Nam, to the individuals’ preferences for cultural 2015). Furthermore, regarding the significant values with respect to their masculine or role of time in cultures, Hall (1983) classified feminine attitudes. The masculine society cultures as polychronic and monochronic. He represents a preference for achievement, elucidated that countries with a low context heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards culture pay a lot of attention to time and are for success. Such societies give credence to the monochronic in which planning and men, and the important political and social individuals’ activities are based on time and positions are assigned to men. On the other , and different activities are not done hand, femininity illustrates values of modesty, simultaneously. In such cultures, people’s courtesy, cooperation, and caring for the weak delays in their appointments are important and and of life, trying to be more consensus- they have plans for their future. In contrast, oriented and expressive (Hofstede, 2001). people with high context cultures are polychronic who can perform different Long Term Orientation/Short Term Orientation: activities concomitantly, pay more attention to Long term relates to rewarding responsibility the present activities, and do not pay much with an intention in mind, and such societies are attention to their own planning, and they pine more concerned about the future. In contrast, that time management is under their own societies with short-term orientations control, so they do not believe in a waste of time their own present endeavors while dealing with and show up late for their appointments. They the challenges of the future (Hofstede, 2001). do not get exasperated if they are distracted or Indulgence/Restraint: This distinction refers to disturbed, and they can easily accommodate the amount of indulgence and restraint of and change their plans. Moreover, these people societies. Indulgent societies characterize a prioritize past events, traditions, and customs, relatively free gratification of basic and natural so it can be said that they are not futuristic human drives related to enjoying life and (Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, & Tabatabaeian, 2019). having fun, while restraint societies have a Another distinction for CMs has been made tendency to work, control, and suppress between ‘coconut’ and ‘peach’ cultures with gratification of needs, and regulate it by strict regard to how individuals treat and interact with social norms. Minkov (2009) asserted that each other (Levin, as cited in Meyer, 2014, pp. indulgent societies are more optimistic and 103-104). In coconut cultures such as Russia sanguine, while restraint societies are pessimistic and Germany, individuals protect their and have no penchant making friends. friendship, do not allow others to be intimate As was observed, Hofstede (1991, 2001), with them, and are initially closed off from laying the foundation for the CM, has tried to those they do not have friendships with; manifest different cultural features in diverse therefore, these people manifest different social societies. In addition to this comprehensive conducts in public and private contexts and CM, other researchers have introduced other rarely do they make acquaintances with CMs. Hall (1976), for instance, made a strangers since they preserve their own privacy, demarcation between high context cultures and and it requires time to behave friendly with low context cultures, in which high context unfamiliar individuals. But, over time, as cultures are inclined to pay attention to coconuts get to know you, they become collectivist activities, do not express their gradually warmer and friendlier, and once the intention explicitly, and their messages are friendship is built up, they have the penchant to usually ambiguous because the interrelation continue a long intimate friendship. On the between individuals depends on individuals and contrary, in peach cultures such as the USA and the context. They value interpersonal relations Brazil, people tend to be friendly ‘soft’ just like and reciprocal understanding. In low context the surface of the peach. They have no problem cultures, however, people’s communication with strangers, smile frequently, interact with and relations are crystal clear and explicit. Hall others cheerfully, and share information with categorized people in Asia, Africa, Latin them. These individuals are resilient, behave R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 25

amicably, and are sociable, but after a little and sociolinguistic studies. The ethnography of friendly interaction with a peach, you may communication (EOC), originally called the suddenly get to the hard shell of the pit where the ethnography of speaking, is predicated on the peach protects his or her real self and the premise that language and social interaction are relationship suddenly stops (Meyer, 2014). inseparable, seeking to explore the cultural peculiarities of communication within a wider According to Fukuyama’s (1995) classification context of social and cultural practices and of CMs, societies are divided into low- and beliefs of a particular culture or speech high- cultures. He stipulated that in high- community. Hymes (1971), dwelling on the trust societies, such as Japan and Germany inseparability of language and culture, individuals trust each other, and such a high persuasively argued that communication, level of trust directly boils down into their high language, and social interaction are inextricably investment, prosperous, and sustainable bound to cultural patterns, encompassing economic growth. It is argued that high-trust analytical and philosophical assumptions of societies take advantage of their lower values, ideologies, thoughts, and wisdom. transaction costs in building large private Consolidated by the assumptions of EOC, business organizations. Conversely, in low- Hymes (1971) conceptualized that a speaker’s trust and familistic cultures, the exemplars of communicative competence encompasses four which include China, Italy, France, and Korea, types of knowledge which can take account of the degree of trust is low, cultural values are their ability to assess whether and to what often neglected, individuals do not trust each extent an utterance is a) grammatically other confidently, and the primary focus of possible, b) cognitively feasible, c) socially and loyalty in these societies is directed to the culturally appropriate, and d) actually , rather than to organizations outside it. performed. By comparing different cultural models and Communicative competence, exploring social patterns in different countries, we can language not just as a formal system of discern their similarities and differences, some grammar but as something culturally grounded of the most outstanding of which have already in the contexts of social life, pertains to the fact been discussed above. Pedantic scrutiny of that individuals should realize how socially and various dimensions of CMs in different nations culturally the discourse is appropriate within a deepens our understanding and perspicuously specific context. Such a realization determines depicts the distinctive features of collective the novelty and contingent occurrence of the conducts in family, school, work, politics, and discoursal interaction, leading to more social public (Hofstede, 1991). In other words, the and cultural interactions. Communicative association between values and behaviors, and competence also deals with how individuals the impact of cultures on the social values are need to identify the setting, participants, end, picturesquely illustrated in the CMs and their instruments, key, and speech sequence within a dimensions. Therefore, in order to analyze and particular context. These eight influential and interpret the cultural and social problems of systematic components were encapsulated by societies, we can refer to their cultural values Hymes utilizing the mnemonic device and their dimensions (Pishghadam & Ebrahimi, SPEAKING. “Such a model enables the in press). To deeply examine the similarities, researchers to explore different and differences, and their impacts on the cultuling analyze the effective factors in the interaction analysis of a society, it is of utmost prominence among individuals” (Pishghadam et al., 2015, p. to explain the linguistic and cultural features; 51). Below you can see a succinct description hence, in the following section we elaborate on for these components. Hymes’ (1967) SPEAKING Model as an influential model which has shed light on the (S) Setting or Scene: Hymes (2003) considered analysis and description of cultulings. setting as ‘time’ and ‘place’ of a speech event. This component explores two aspects of 5.1. Dell Hymes’ (1967) SPEAKING Model context: the physical setting in which it takes The investigation of cultural differences with place, and the scene. Analyzing the setting and respect to the contextual language use has scenic qualities of the practice helps ground the gained considerable momentum in sociological analyses in a specific context. Saville-Troike

26 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

(2003) believed that setting refers not only to underscored by the view that, where the two are the physical context, but also to time, days, in conflict, the manner of an act overrides the seasons, and whatever is related to the content to specify its true significance. The communication act. Hymes considered setting signaling of key may sometimes be a part of the as the psychological setting, and cultural message-form itself, but maybe nonverbal such definition of the setting as a certain type of as a wink, gesture, attire, as well as musical scene, which may be applied here, as when and accompaniment, or linguistic features such as whether the speech event is appropriate for the aspiration which can make the intention of the context. “A frequent type of rule is one in which communicative act explicit (Wardhaugh, a form of speech act is dependent on an 2010). Pishghadam and Noruz Kermanshahi appropriate scene; of equal importance is the (2016) highlighted that key is dynamic and can use of speech acts or the choice of code to change as other components of the speech event define scenes as appropriate.” (Hymes, 1967, p. change. 21). In general, setting includes time, physical context, and act sequence, and the scene (I) Instrumentalities: Instrumentalities of pertains to the appropriacy of content and place speech events refer to the channel and code. which can be further subdivided into Those of channel include medium of public/formal and private/informal (Pishghadam transmission which can be oral, written, & Firooziyan Pour Esfahani, 2017). telegraphic, semaphore or other medium of transmission. By choice of code is understood a (P) Participants: The identity of the choice at the level of distinct languages. participants in speech events can be evaluated based on their age, gender, , and (N) Norms of interaction and interpretation: interpersonal relations (Farah, 1998). Based on Norms of interaction pertain to the normative these features, the relationship of the character that attaches to all rules for choice participants of a speech event can have four among components, but specific behaviors and categories, including equal and formal (two proprieties that may accompany acts of speech, university professors), equal and intimate (two implicating the social structure. friends), unequal and formal (head of the (G) Genres: Genres are the categories or types department and the faculty member), as well as of speech act and speech event, encompassing unequal and intimate (Pishghadam, Firooziyan conversation, curse, blessing, prayer, lecture, Pour Esfahani, et al., in press). imprecation, sales pitch, and the rest. (Hymes, (E) End: In addition to the participants’ goals 1967). and purposes in a conversation, each speech All in all, these factors permit formal treatment event has some cultural ends which can be of many of the functions served in acts of manifest or latent. These ends are dynamic and speech. The conventional means of many such can change in different contexts (Fasold, 1990). functions can indeed be analyzed as relations (A) Act sequence: The act sequence gives us among components. With respect to these information about the sequence and order of components, we can identify participants’ interaction which includes both content and goals, needs, as well as levels of satisfaction, form (Sarfo, 2011), and drawing on the act and how language is used in the context sequence maxim, the participants of a speech (Hymes, 1972). As was observed in Hymes’ event pave the way for the communication act CM, the emphasis has been placed only on the during which act seems to play an important socio-cultural information in the speech role in the sequence (Pishghadam & Firooziyan interaction, and the psychological dimensions Pour Esfahani, et al., in press). of interaction are overlooked. Pishghadam and Ebrahimi (in press) righteously conceptualize (K) Key: This component is introduced to emoling (emotion + language), elucidating that distinguish the tone, manner, or in which the mere socio-cultural knowledge and an act is done. Key can be depressing, serious, information in interactions is not sufficient to meticulous, kind, friendly, mockery, perfunctory, have a thoroughgoing analysis and interpretation satirical, amicable, threatening, animositous, of cultulings due to the fact that cultulings and violent, etc. Hymes (1967) pinpointed that the language expressions can vary depending on so communicative significance of key is many factors that individuals experience R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 27

including sense, amount of frequency, and kind Relationship-based (DIR) model, consisting of of emotion. Consequently, the roles of three components of the development of , senses, and frequency of sensing the emotions in children, individual differences in language expressions cannot be neglected. In children’s way of experiencing the world, and fact, emotions and senses can unquestionably relationships of children with their mother or and directly impact the individuals’ cognition, caregiver, Pishghadam (2015) conceptualized understanding, thoughts, and interaction the emotioncy model which puts premium on (Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, et al., in press). emotional, social, and discursive interactions. Pishghadam and Mirzaee (2008) pointed out Pishghadam, Ebrahimi, et al. (in press), that differences in sensory emotions not only reconceptualizing Hymes’ SPEAKING model could lead to different achievements but also by adding Emotions, posit E-SPEAKING make individuals more enthusiastic to take part model. They cogently contend that lexicons, in interactions, culminating in a higher level of language expressions, and all components of learning which lasts longer. Pishghadam, Hymes’ model are indubitably influenced by Adamson, and Shayesteh (2013) also emotions which per se the participants’ emphasized that learners’ emotional and intentions, end, key, and orientations. In other sensory experiences facilitate language words, the emotions hidden behind words and learning. They accentuated that, individuals expressions can affect all components of maintain varying degrees of emotions which are Hymes’ model including setting, participants, primarily instilled by senses, technically called end, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms emotioncy (which is a kind of sensbination of interaction, and gender, so the participants’ (sense + combination)), towards various items emotions can change their attitudes and of a language depending on whether they have positions in the communication act, and these heard, seen, smelled, touched, experienced, or emotions can determine and control the way done research on that item. Indeed, emotioncy participants interact. Thus, we believe that the claims that “individuals can construct their amalgamation of the Hymes’ SPEAKING model, idiosyncratic understanding of the world its revised model, that is, E-SPEAKING, and through their senses” (Pishghadam, Jajarmi, & the Emotioncy Model can lucidly and Shayesteh, 2016, p. 14). In order to have a comprehensively pave the way to analyze and thorough understanding of the role of interpret the cultulings. In the next section, we emotioncy, Pishghadam (2015) proposed a will elaborate on the emotioncy model. hierarchical model for different levels of 5.2. Pishghadam’s (2015) Emotioncy Model emotioncy ranging from null, auditory, visual, kinesthetic, inner, to arch emotioncies”. Table Inspired by Greenspan and Shunker’s (2004) 1 illustrates the different levels of emotioncy. Developmental, Individual-differences,

Table 1 Emotioncy Types Experience Kind

When an individual has not heard about, seen, or experienced an object or a concept. Null emotioncy When an individual has merely heard about a word/concept. Auditory emotioncy When an individual has both heard about and seen the item. Visual emotioncy When an individual has heard about, seen, and touched the real object. Kinesthetic emotioncy When an individual has directly experienced the word/concept. Inner emotioncy When an individual has deeply done research to get additional information. Arch emotioncy

Note. This table is adapted from Pishghadam, Jajarmi, et al. (2016, p. 14)

28 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

As can be seen, this hierarchical categorization touched the real object. The next stage, Inner encompasses six levels labeled with different emotioncy, happens when individuals have kinds and varying frequencies of emotioncy, directly experienced the word or concept. starting from Null emotioncy and culminating Ultimately, Arch emotioncy, during which in the most comprehensive level, which is, individuals are fully involved in the process of Arch. In the Null stage, an individual has not learning, takes place when they have deeply heard about, seen, or experienced an object or a done research to get additional information. concept. In the Auditory emotioncy stage, an individual has only heard about a word or Moreover, Pishghadam (2016), regarding three concept. When it comes to the Visual components of sense, emotion (quality), and emotioncy level, individuals have the frequency (quantity), classifies these six levels experience of hearing and seeing the item. The of emotioncy into five qualitative and 5 fourth stage deals with Kinesthetic emotioncy quantitative levels depicted in Figure 2. where individuals have heard about, seen, and

Figure 2 A Metric for Measuring Emotioncy (Adapted from “Emotioncy, Extraversion, and Anxiety in Willingness to Communicate in English”, by R. Pishghadam (2016, May). Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on Language, and Innovation. London, England.)

We can measure the emotioncy toward emotioncy (0) refers to Avolvement, Auditory something as follows. The quantitative (1), Visual (2), and Kinesthetic emotioncies measurement of exposure has five levels deal with Exvolvement, and Inner (4) and Arch ranging from a little to a lot. Based on the emotioncies (5) pertain to Involvement individuals’ experience in doing something, the (Pishghadam, 2015). The extended model of frequency of 1 (the lowest frequency) to 5 (the emotioncy was conceptualized by Pishghadam highest frequency) will be assigned. In the five et al. (2019) who added Mastery to the qualitative phases of emotioncy, all six levels of emotioncy model and included Metavolvement emotioncy can be measured based on the very to explicate that an individual who reaches this negative emotion (1), negative emotion (2), climax has thoroughly mastered the materials neutral emotion (3), positive emotion (4), and and is able to produce and teach those materials very positive emotion (5). to others. Needless to say that metavolvment entails the maximum level of emotioncy that an As can be seen in Figure 3, the levels of individual has experienced with all of his or her emotioncy include Avolvement, Exvolvement, senses and emotions. and Involvement. It is vividly observed that Null R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 29

Figure 3 Emotioncy Levels (Adapted from "A novel approach to psychology of language education" by Pishghdam, Ebrahimi, & Tabatabaeian (2019, p. 219))

It is also hypothesized that the more emotioncy indicate individuals’ experiences, thoughts, and involvement through our senses and emotions, mindsets. That is, the higher the level of the more intelligible the word or concept is for emotioncy, the more exact the language individuals, and individuals will have a deeper expressions and cultulings, confirming that understanding, which per se leads to the individuals have a higher level of understanding maximum utility of the word and ease of of the concepts. Consequently, the retrieval (Pishghadam et al., 2018). Moreover, thoroughgoing analysis of emotioncy and Pishghadam (2016) articulated that there is a language e expressions can determine and direct relationship between Willingness to specify why a cultuling gains momentum or Communicate (WTC) and levels of emotioncy. fades away. In other words, it can be noted that the higher the level of emotioncy, the more willing 6. The Suggested Model for Cultuling individuals are to communicate because Analysis (CA) individuals show more willingness in the With respect to the outstanding contributions of involvement than evolvement phases of different factors in the analysis of cultulings, we emotioncy which leads to more learning as encapsulate the determining factors as well. illustrated in Figure 4. It is axiomatic that in As explicated, senses, emotions, and the order to discover cultulings in a language we frequency of encountering of something need to take all these factors into account.

30 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

Figure 4 The Factors Underlying the Cultuling Analysis

As clearly delineated, the environmental example, those people, living in a desert, may demands such as the geographical location of a just have the auditory or visual (pictures, films, country, amount of wealth, national resources, etc.) experience of the word ‘snow’, and economy, etc. can play a decisive role in the because they do not have the inner feeling and acculturation process and cultuling analysis of experience of ‘snowing’ in their city, their a society, and we should admit that these emotions and emotioncy differ from those cultural behaviors can be affected by the societies in which people consider ‘snowing’ a individuals’ cultural environment (Pishghadam natural phenomenon. As a result, depending on & Ebrahimi, in press). In other words, the the sensory and emotional involvement, environment in which the individuals of a different cultulings emerge. society live is a determining origin of cultuling differences and a focal element in the cultuling In another example, if an infection is spread in construction and interpretation which per se an area where certain mosquitoes are determines the amount of emotioncy, cultural, reproduced, it can cause fear in people in that and linguistic differences regarding words and area and become unconsciously collective, so expressions. they eat certain foods to protect themselves against the disease. If that mosquito bites Succinctly speaking, climatic and weather people, they will behave differently, which is conditions of a society contribute to a change in defined as cultural differences, and in the the individuals’ moods and habits, which, in confirmation of Sapir–Whorf’s theory, cultural turn, affect their cultural patterns and behaviors. differences will cause linguistic and For instance, living in a desert and tropical communicative differences. climates necessitates some requirements to survive, so people should behave accordingly Based on the aforementioned conceptualizations, and the amount of sensory and emotional taking into account the proposed models and involvement and the frequency of encountering the set of underlying factors, we can analyze objects and phenomena in such places are and interpret cultulings with a systematic and different from those of a person living in a cold holistic view, so we suggest the following region, which could lead to the different model as the comprehensive model of CLA. habitual construction. With respect to the Evidently, the consideration of factors such as amount of exposure to something, they either senses and emotions as psychosocial factors do it frequently or avoid doing it, so the completes the sociological and cultural patterns vocabulary repertoire of these individuals are which concomitantly leads to cultuling analysis different, and they may have positive or in a systematic and holistic way. Thus, referring negative feelings toward these lexicons. For to the importance of cultural models, the R. Pishghadam et al. / International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 2020, 8(2) ISSN 2329-2210 31

SPEAKING model, as well as the emotioncy the following comprehensive model, as model in the CLA and their meticulous scrutiny depicted in Figure 5, is suggested as a robust and interpretation in the linguistic community, framework.

Figure 5 The Conceptual Model of the Cultuling Analysis

Based on this model, we stipulate that in order dissect language to reveal the cultulings. These to analyze cultulings, we need to realize the tools are required to analyze language from underlying culture of a language community, social, emotional, and sensory perspectives. To and then to describe that language, we need to this end, a new comprehensive model has been embark on the emotioncy model (exposure proposed to analyze cultulings. level, sensory involvement toward the generated phrases, and emotion types) and the The conceptual model of the CLA proposed in SPEAKING model. Cultural patterns also this study rests on the assumption that these explain language, all of which are inherently cultulings should be both identified and rooted in the environment and environmental justified in the context of a culture. To this end, factors that may lead to the formation of these the conceptual model analyzes language in particular habits, behaviors, and cultulings of a communicative, emo-sensory, and cultural region. Therefore, considering all these factors ways. Thus, it is suggested to use the will provide an accurate picture of the people of SPEAKING and emotioncy models to identify that society to punctiliously scrutinize and cultulings and to use cultural models to construe its cultulings. explicate and justify the findings. Taken together, it is our hope that this new model of 6. Concluding Remarks analysis can help researchers discover cultulings and provide the necessary Granted that culture plays a crucial role in information for policy makers and planners to human development, identifying the healthy or improve the quality of life in a society. unhealthy culture is of utmost importance in guiding individuals’ behaviors. To determine References appropriate or inappropriate behaviors, one first needs to discover the cultural memes, Agar, M. (1994). Language shock. Understanding embedded in linguistic expressions. These the culture of conversation. New York, linguistic elements can show the cultulings in a NY: William Morrow. society, emanating from the memes. Thus, researchers need to employ some tools to

32 Cultuling Analysis: A New Methodology for Discovering Cultural Memes

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