LOCATING PHILADELPHIA JAZZ: THE INTERSECTIONS OF PLACE, SOUND, AND STORY IN THE CLASSROOM
A Thesis Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ART OF HISTORY
by Chelsea C. Reed May 2018
Examining Committee Members:
Hilary Iris Lowe, Advisory Chair, History Seth C. Bruggeman, History Shaquita Smith, External Member, School District of Philadelphia ABSTRACT
This study explores a place based pedaogy of Philadelphia jazz history for K-12 students. While many intersections exist between place based programming and jazz public history both nationally and locally, the Philadelphia jazz public history community does not focus on educational programming. Though centered in Philadelphia, this study includes educational materials and field research for both formal and informal educators to increase critical, interdisciplinary African American musical history content in the classroom. The lesson plans found within exemplify a cross section of social studies educational literature, the history of African American narratives in Philadelphia schools, and place based jazz history in the city.
ii
I dedicate this thesis to my advisor, Hilary, for her years of friendship, guidance, and unwavering support, and the jazz musicians of Philadelphia past and present for keeping history alive in song.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ...... ii
DEDICATION ...... iii
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………..v
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
2. LOCATING JAZZ PUBLIC HISTORY
IN PHILADELPHIA ...... 9
3. CRAFTING A PEDAGOGY FOR
JAZZ HISTORY IN THE CLASSROOM ...... 20
4. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………39
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 48
APPENDICES
A. LESSON PLAN: RESISTING SEGREGATION ...... 52
TEACHER MATERIALS………………………………………………52
STUDENT MATERIALS………………………………………………57
B. LESSON PLAN: QUEEN OF THE ORGAN ...... 68
TEACHER MATERIALS…………………………………………….. 68
STUDENT MATERIALS………………………………………..…… 76
iv LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Musical Lesson Plans: Topics and Sources…………………………..…..…...... 33
v CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Jazz musicians love to talk, and they share a ridiculous and often confusing language. The hip lingo of the 1950s gave birth to gems like noodle, gig, cat, and vibe; and the usage of sad to mean really bad and bad to mean really good. These words and phrases fall in and out of favor, and their meanings often warp depending upon their specific usage. As a jazz vocalist and historian, there are two phrases that stand out as telling examples of this complex vernacular: ‘tell a story’ and ‘know your history.’
Tell a story.
The phrase “tell a story” often denotes a specific musical quality. For singers, it normally means to unearth the hidden meaning behind the lyrics of the song. For a saxophonist soloing over that same song, it takes on a more abstract connotation. A saxophonist tells a story by showing emotion in their playing, building their solo to a musical arc and helping the audience follow them through the chord changes. While these musical meanings are used commonly amongst jazz musicians, the actual telling of stories, passing down musical and cultural knowledge, is also essential to an understanding of jazz. Jazz culture thrives on the telling of stories since the community grows with every retelling. By knowing about past clubs or obscure musicians in your area, you become part of the musical culture. The sharing of stories is essential to and inseparable from a knowledge of the music itself.
Know your history.
Musically, ‘know your history’ is often used as a warning against singing or playing jazz without a knowledge of ‘the Tradition.’ The Tradition encompasses the
1 musicians, records, improvisational solos, and specific tunes that form the foundation of jazz’s musical heritage. In the spirit of learning the Tradition, every professional jazz musician is an amateur historian. In Philadelphia and beyond, when they share stories about their favorite musicians with audiences and one another, they tell the histories of their art and their city.
While musicians and fans share these stories, Philadelphia archives and catalogues them within its intersections, buildings, and empty tracts of land. The places of Philadelphia and Philadelphia itself collect jazz culture within the city limits.
Preservation theorist Ned Kaufman brands this phenomenon a “storyscape:” sites that collect interesting stories, meaningful memories, or intense feelings of attachment become story sites.”1 Every single site in Philadelphia contains stories important to community history, and in many cases, these story sites can mean different things to different people. However, the interesting and important untold stories stored in the city’s landscape often require expertise or the proper funding to “mine” them: sites do not speak for themselves, so we must speak for them.
Of course, this proves difficult when your storyscape is located in fast gentrifying neighborhoods or “aesthetically invaluable” locations. Maintaining storyscapes in neighborhoods of color is especially difficult because “powerful forces of destruction have long been directed at African American neighborhoods: railroads, interstate highways, mortgage redlining, abandonment of property, urban renewal.”2 How do we
1 Ned Kaufman, Place, Race, and Story: Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation (New York, NY: Routledge, 2009), 3.
2 Ibid., 114.
2 preserve cultural resources before their demolition? How do we protect and cement the importance of the places that matter more for their stories than their architectural merit?
Karl Webster Barnes, chairman of Georgia's African American Historic Preservation
Network terms the systematic destruction of historic African American neighborhoods a
“removal of cultural memory” that threatens the stability of urban black communities.3
Story places, though often not formally designated as national landmarks or registered as heritage sites, have the power to connect disparate groups of people and ground communities within their city. Urban renewal’s demolition of African American storyscapes destroys far more than buildings.
Unsurprisingly, this issue extends far beyond commercial interests buying up property. The national public history sector has also historically devalued sites of African
American heritage. In 2001, the National Park Service’s Management policies in regards to Education and Interpretation stated that, “The National Park Service will present factual and balanced presentations of the many American cultures, heritages, and histories.”4 However, in 2004, out of 77,000 listings included in the National Register of
Historic Places, only about 1300 were explicitly associated with African American heritage, 90 with Latinx American, and 67 with Asian American.5 Unsurprisingly, the
3 Karl Webster Barnes, "Your Vision, Your Memory, Your Challenge: Preservation is Good for Your African American Neighborhood Revitalization," Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Historic Preservation Division, Reflections 2, no. 4 (September 2002): 6.
4 National Park Service Policies 2001, sec. 7.5.5. “National Park Service Policies Regarding Native Americans, Park-Associated Communities, Public Participation, and Community Relations,” January 2003.
5 Kaufman, 76.
3 Education and Interpretation policies have not been updated, and as of 2018, the representation statistics remain similarly unchanged: of the 90, 535 sites currently listed within the National Register database, only 1,819 represent African American history.6
Looking at Pennsylvania’s historic sites, the numbers are even more grim. While the
Pennsylvania Museum and Historical Commission launched an initiative to identify more sites of African American history in 2009, the PHMC currently does not operate any sites devoted to the interpretation of African American history. At all.7
When compared to the national and state averages, African American narratives are better represented in Philadelphia—a fairly easy distinction to achieve. Philadelphia boasts the nation’s first museum dedicated to African American history and the Charles
L. Blockson collection of over 500,000 materials documenting the global black experience; however, on the city streets, out of 1500 monuments, there are exactly two statues dedicated to African American historic achievements.8 Nearly one third of all
Pennsylvania Historical Markers in Philadelphia County stand outside sites of African
American history, but many of these sites have already been demolished and most of them are not interpreted or marketed to the public with the same intensity and funding
6 The online database for the National Register of Historic Places does not include files for the states of: Arkansas, Illinois, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, and Virginia. https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP
7 This information was confirmed in an email exchange with the author and Amy Fox, a museum educator at the Bureau of Historic Sites and Museums within the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, November 2017.
8 Stephen Salisbury, “Philly’s big new art project asks, who deserves a monument anyway?” Philadelphia Inquirer. 14 Sept. 2017. http://www.philly.com/philly/entertainment/arts/phillys-big-new-art-project-asks- who-deserves-a-monument-anyway-20170914.html
4 afforded to sites of Revolutionary Era white male history. This discrepancy in interpretation proves especially true for sites of African American music history in
Philadelphia.9
Using the Preservation Alliance of Greater Philadelphia’s 2009 index of African
American historic sites, I found 22 buildings related to Philadelphia’s music history.10 Of the 22 sites, ten do not have any kind of historic landmark protection or even a historic marker, and twelve have been demolished or are currently in dangerously severe disrepair. Additionally, this list is far from exhaustive. It fails to include nearly all of the former jazz clubs that once dotted Philadelphia’s landscape, or the homes of Dizzy
Gillespie, Jimmy Heath, Bessie Smith, Shirley Scott and many other musicians who once called Philadelphia home. These sites’ obscurity and probable demolition makes them unlikely candidates for a city walking tour, and thus, further pushed into irrelevance in the city’s public history landscape. However, to modify Kaufman’s phrase, the songscape of Philadelphia holds immense potential to not only increase representation of African
American narratives, but also to deepen citizens’ and tourists’ understanding of
Philadelphia history. The military and political aspects of the Revolutionary Era are just one small part of the story.
Forgotten or invisible stories alter how people view the city, and it proves especially harmful to Philadelphia’s K-12 students of color. Again, comparatively,
9 “Pennsylvania Historical Marker Search,” Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/apps/historical-markers.html Accessed 27 February 2018.
10 The 439 site list was compiled mainly through the work of Dana Dorman and Emily T. Cooperman. Note: Not all sites are accurately indexed within the database. The author used the the terms music, jazz, and theater in addition to scanning the list manually.
5 Philadelphia’s educational system represents African American narratives far better than most cities in America and has integrated African American history into the curriculum for decades. In November 1967, over 3000 students walked out of their classrooms to protest the lack of African American history content in schools outside the former Board of Education building at 21st and Benjamin Franklin Parkway. Almost forty years later,
Philadelphia became the first school district to mandate an African American history course for high school graduation. However, a mandate to teach African American history does not ensure that the curriculum centers the black struggle and resistance in equal measure. Philadelphia teachers of color founded the Philadelphia Black History
Collaborative to fight for more critical, radical Black history and most importantly, the continued decentralization of white narratives in social studies education. They provide lesson plans and other resources about black activist history that connect to modern social justice movements and other issues facing students of color. In 2018, teachers of African
American history, especially black teachers, still face push back from fellow educators, parents, and administrators when daring to venture beyond the slavery and the Civil
Rights Movement in the classroom.11
In order to address the lack of representation afforded to black history within the city’s landscape and expand upon the work of the Philadelphia Black History
Collaborative, I researched and crafted lesson plans geared toward Grades 8 through 12 that center the city’s black music history. These lesson plans can fill curricular gaps in both content and connections to the modern Black struggle in this city and beyond. With
11 Amy V. Simmons, “The Philadelphia Black History Collaborative holds its first annual conference,” The Philadelphia Sunday 17 Feb 2017 http://www.philasun.com/diaspora/philadelphia-black-history-collaborative- holds-first-annual-conference/
6 an historically activist population of musicians and fans, Philadelphian jazz history has the unique ability to tell stories of both racial violence and resistance. The people of the jazz world—musicians, fans, theater owners, radio hosts, and others—encountered explicit segregation, police brutality, gentrification, redlining, gender discrimination, and a whole host of other atrocities relevant to students’ understanding of the modern world.
However, the jazz community also resisted racism in 20th century America via actions like overt protests, benefit concerts, and more commonly, music that criticized their oppressors. Aside from providing relevant, critical content, lesson plans centering Black music engage students who might ordinarily find social studies fairly boring. Jazz history necessitates the usage of interdisciplinary resources like musical recordings, album covers, and live video performances. It gives students the chance to expand their historical and cultural literacy by communicating beyond visual and written sources.
Additionally, by using public history methodology within the lesson plans, I hope to further build students’ historical skills and inspire them to action. Good public history is reflexive, community based, socially relevant, and more often than not, an active redressing of historical inaccuracies or underrepresentation. By working with neighborhoods to uncover hidden stories, public historians become community activists.
By engaging students in the intricacies of community memory and the creation of historic narratives, my hope is that they, too, will fight for African American music history. For students outside of Philadelphia, the lessons guide classrooms through the thought processes of critical public historians. For those students within Philadelphia, the lesson plans also allow students to locate their educational experiences within their own communities. The lesson plans provide a foundation in how to fight the invisibility of
7 African American history in their own neighborhoods. When allowed the chance to explore place in the social studies classroom, to examine the where of history, students better understand the people of the past. Mapping history contextualizes stories and allows them to take better shape in students’ minds. Given the threat posed to African
American historic places, place based lessons also encourage conversations about whose history matters.
In order to combine place based education with the interpretation of Philadelphia jazz history, my investigation examines and highlights the many intersections between place based programming and jazz public history, both nationally and locally. Faced with a lack of programming geared toward students, I assessed local African American history initiatives and social studies educational literature, specifically scholarship devoted to teaching liberational black history. This research, in addition to a study of pedagogical methods centering primary sources, frames the resources, instructional methods, and student assessments found within the following lesson plans.
8 CHAPTER 2
LOCATING JAZZ PUBLIC HISTORY IN PHILADELPHIA
In a city that lays claim to countless jazz legends and a rich musical legacy, the
John Coltrane House represents one of very few examples of Philadelphia Jazz History interpreted for the public. Well, it used to, anyway. As of this writing, the ownership of the house is in flux, and it remains closed to the public with no general visiting hours posted. However, 1511 N. 33rd Street’s connection to local and national African
American musical history proves more powerful than its current preservation and interpretation struggles. After graduating high school, jazz tenor saxophonist John
William Coltrane (1926-1967) moved from his home in North Carolina to Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, along with a wave of other African American families looking for factory work in the North. He purchased the three story rowhouse in the Strawberry Mansion neighborhood of North Philadelphia from Matilda Konrad in 1952 to provide a proper home for his mother, aunt, and cousin Mary Alexander. He lived, shed, jammed, and became a professional musician in that house until moving to New York City in 1958. He lived in this house longer than any other in his musical career, and it was in Philadelphia that Coltrane developed his sound and identity as “Trane.”12
In memory of that sound, the John Coltrane House boasts a history of preservation and interpretation spanning three decades. Since the 1984 founding of the John William
Coltrane Cultural Society (JWCCS) by “Cousin Mary,” the house’s physical and historical survival has been managed primarily by dedicated Philadelphia women. Mary
12 Donna J. Riling,” John Coltrane House,” Historic American Building Survey HABS No. PA-6670, Library of Congress, 4.
9 Alexander, Coltrane’s first cousin and resident of the house, led the fight for registry on the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places in 1985 and eventually also helped the house achieve distinction as a National Historic Landmark in 1999.13 In 1998, the JWCCS established a Community Center in the adjacent property, just south of the Coltrane
House. In 2004, Alexander sold the house to Strawberry Mansion resident and jazz aficionado Norman Gadson on the condition that the house remain a monument to
Coltrane’s life and Philadelphia jazz history. After Gadson’s sudden death in 2007, his widow Lenora Early took up that mantle and founded the John Coltrane House, Inc. in
2011 with the mission to “raise money to restore the property and establish the house as a memorial that honors the life of John Coltrane and educates people about jazz.”14
Through Early’s work with JCH, Inc., the Preservation Alliance of Philadelphia began to aid the now dilapidated structures, placing both houses on its Endangered
Properties List in 2009. They received a planning grant from the Pew Center for Arts and
Heritage in 2012 “to develop programmatic ideas and rehabilitation plans for the house.”15 The $71,825 went entirely towards conducting multiple focus groups, a charrette, and community center discussion about how to best utilize the site. The four focus groups included historians, musicians, community leaders, and interpretation specialists who eventually revealed five potential uses: Performance Space, House
13 Lynda Lane, “The John W. Coltrane Society Celebrates 10 years of living the legacy,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 28, 1995.
14 About Us, The John Coltrane House Philadelphia, accessed Nov. 10, 2017, http://www.johncoltranehouse.org/
15 “The John Coltrane House, Philadelphia: Recommendations for Its Preservation and Revitalization,” Coltrane House Report, PEW Center for Arts and Heritage, 2013, 4.
10 Museum, Archives, Community Center, and an Artist-Residency Work site. In regards to the site’s use as a house museum, an option most favored by then owner Lenora Early, the Preservation Alliance’s report stressed that the “John Coltrane House could not survive as a house museum alone.”16 17 The charrette group pushed the need for relevant community programming and emphasized the parallels between aspects of Coltrane’s life from 1952 and 1958 and that of the surrounding Strawberry Mansion neighborhood.
Furthermore, the report continuously stressed how a Coltrane House museum should center “the Great Migration and African American families including African American historical issues with the property as context.”18
While I will return to the John Coltrane House saga later in this section, I want to take a moment to highlight this aspect of the Preservation Alliance’s report. The theme of national and local historical connection is common to many efforts to interpret and promote jazz history around the country. Rather than present purely biographical or musical history, jazz interpreters and museum professionals map their interpretation on to the neighborhoods and specific buildings associated with jazz history, combining jazz history with place based interpretation steeped in urban and social history methods. Two cities in particular use local jazz history to connect to wider historical narratives: New
Orleans, LA, and Kansas City, MO.
16 Ibid., 11.
17 Lenora Early preferences gleaned from author’s phone conversation with Patrick Grossi, Director of Advocacy at the Preservation Alliance of Greater Philadelphia on November 3, 2017.
18 Coltrane House Report, 11.
11 The daily free walking tour provided by a ranger at the Jazz National Historical
Park in New Orleans combines music and social history with an emphasis on sounds developed in specific neighborhoods by specific communities: enslaved Africans and
Native Americans in Congo Square in the early 1800s; ragtime in Storyville in the 1880s performed by Creole musicians of color; brass bands of color performing on river boats in the 1920s for all white audiences. In addition to this walking tour, the park’s website offers six brochures for self-guided jazz neighborhood tours throughout the city and a defunct link for an audio tour that was last updated in 2015.19 In Kansas City, MO, the first and currently only American Jazz Museum might be more aptly named a Kansas
City Jazz Museum because its exhibitions and artifacts emphasize locally renowned musicians and the city’s African American community. Upon entering the museum complex, visitors encounter an exhibit of “documents, clothing, and even a printing press to learn about the African American experience in general and Kansas City in particular.”20 Not only does the museum feature exhibits on past and present Kansas City music venues, the location of the museum within the 18th and Vine District provides a direct connection to the city’s African American musical history and cultural life. A place based interpretation of jazz history allows for a direct connection to local and national relevance beyond the development of musical styles.
19 Observations on New Orleans from author’s own experiences during fieldwork in January 2016. You can find the walking tour PDFs at “Places,” New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park New Orleans, last modified November 17, 2017. https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/places.htm
20 Delia C. Gillis, “American Jazz Museum,” The Public Historian, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Fall 2005), 108.
12 In Philadelphia, place based interpretation of jazz history also aids in the reclamation of African American histories and social justice initiatives. Historians and non-profit music advocacy groups in Philadelphia combine place based interpretation with community activism to combat urban development, demolition, and gentrification.
As stated previously, the John Coltrane House, Inc., founded in 2011 to uplift the neglected legacy of jazz history in Philadelphia for the benefit of the Strawberry Mansion neighborhood and historic African American neighborhoods throughout the city. In a further effort to revitalize and promote Strawberry Mansion’s jazz history, in 2015, the non-profit Philadelphia Jazz Project partnered with the Fairmount Park Historic
Preservation Trust to draw plans for a Philadelphia jazz park in the East Fairmount Park
Reservoir, along the neighborhood’s western boundary. Similar to Louis Armstrong Park near New Orleans’ Treme, the park would border an African American neighborhood vital to the city’s jazz history and feature a performance space, interpretive historical plaques, and topiary in the shape of jazz musicians from the city. Fighting to save the entire city’s jazz history, Faye Anderson, a Philadelphia based preservation activist, manages the website All That Philly Jazz, a community sourced public history project mapping Philadelphia’s built jazz history. In an essay on jazz historic preservation as social justice, Anderson writes:
Who decides what gets saved and whose story gets told? The built environment reflects racial inequalities. Given African Americans’ socioeconomic status, few of the buildings associated with black history meet preservation standards regarding architectural significance Although unadorned, they are places that tell a more complete American story… Historic preservation is about the power of public memory to instill neighborhood pride.21
21 Faye Anderson, “Praxis Dialogues: Historic preservation and social justice,” Plan Philly, February 28, 2017,
13 By combining place based interpretation of jazz history with the reclamation of
African American history, the jazz public history in Philadelphia is relevant and radical historic activism—a far cry from the static house museum we were warned against in the
Preservation Alliance’s Coltrane House report.
Unfortunately, despite the radical activism driving them, two of these projects are at a complete standstill. The death of Lenora Early in 2015 left the John Coltrane House without an immediate caretaker and advocate, so it remains empty, dilapidated and unable to implement the programming suggested by focus groups and community members. In fact, when asked about future plans for the house, Homer Jackson, the director of the Philadelphia Jazz Project said: “We’ve got nothing.”22 Similarly, the
Philadelphia Jazz Park proposed by his organization also has no immediate plans for implementation. Faye Anderson continues to update All That Philly Jazz regularly with new and archived blog posts and runs a Twitter feed for the site that calls attention to daily struggles in African American historic preservation. Most recently, she co-hosted the rededication of the John Coltrane Mural designed by Ernel Martinez located at 29th and Diamond Streets, near his homestead. However, the site’s proposed mobile app All
That Philly Jazz Heritage Trail is still perpetually “in production.” Eventually, the app will be a self-guided walking tour of Black music history in Center City Philadelphia
http://planphilly.com/eyesonthestreet/2017/02/28/praxis-dialogues-historic- preservation-and-social-justice. 22 Bruce Klauber, “Coltrane Crumbles: The jazz legend's neglected house in Philly,” Philadelphia Weekly, November 2, 2016, http://www.philadelphiaweekly.com/news/coltrane-crumbles-the-jazz-legend-s- neglected-house-in-philly
14 starting at 11th and Market, the former location of the Earle Theater, and ending at Broad and Christian, the former location of Union Local 274, the Black musicians’ union.23
Without this key element, the website lacks relevancy beyond the digital and thus a connection to jazz history for both tourists and community members.
Additionally, and perhaps most importantly for the next generation of
Philadelphians, none of these sites have a clear K-12 educational mission. The Coltrane
House and the Strawberry Mansion Jazz Park are currently non-operational and can’t be accessed by educators. And, despite drawing attention to the city’s hidden jazz history,
All That Philly Jazz does not have any specific educational materials or programming that can be used in the classroom. Though these projects call for placed- based interpretation, they do not specifically utilize the strategies outlined by advocates for place based education. These strategies provide a clear in road to inspiring dynamic educational experiences, community engagement, and more authentic historical learning for students.
We can tell better stories as public historians and jazz musicians if we look to the decades of scholarship connecting classrooms to urban place. Educational programs and collaborations with the Philadelphia school district would not only generate an audience to keep the history alive, but also provide a pedagogy which, keeping in line with the mission of other place based jazz public history projects, emphasizes a connection to wider historic narratives and social justice initiatives.
Place Based Education:
Jazz culture and place rely upon stories and the sharing of those stories for their survival. Places, whether they be existing buildings or empty lots, hold memories and
23 “About Us,” All That Philly Jazz, accessed December 1, 2017, https://phillyjazz.us/about/
15 cultural meaning far more complex than the structures themselves. This “place based epistemology” as termed by Michelle McClellan is “the faith that being in a particular location bring us closer to events that happened there, that we can know and understand experiences from the past better if we can go to the places where they occurred.”24
However, “place matters” scholars have long documented arguments centering on communities in monographs or photographic anthologies.25 These types of publications do not often register with the communities who these places matter to, and certainly not with their children. Additionally, if historic places are inaccessible or nonexistent, if the public cannot physically stand in a particular location, can children in particular still connect to a place’s past? Place based pedagogy and document based lessons can remedy this disconnect and transform the “city into a living museum through which we can collaboratively remake our understandings of place and community identity.”26
The phrase Place Based Education emerged in the 1970s, but the concept originated in the late 1890s when educational scholar John Dewey examined the isolation of schools from daily life. Dewey wanted to ground learning in all disciplines within real world issues, a concept that the environmental science education community expanded in the 1970s. Faced with unbridled industrial growth and unregulated water and air
24 Michelle McClellan, “Place based epistemology: This is your brain on historic sites,” National Council on Public History, May 25, 2015, http://ncph.org/history-at-work/place-based-epistemology/
25 For more information on place based scholarship that empowers communities, see the foundational work of Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place (MIT Press: Cambridge), 1995.
26 Mark Tebeau, “Listening to History: Oral History and Place in the Digital World,” The Oral History Review, Volume 40, Number 1, Winter/Spring 2013, p. 25.
16 pollution, environmental science teachers combined their units with local eco-activism involving field studies and field trips to make nature a central feature of the curriculum.
At the same time, civil rights activists and educators in American cities pushed for urban place based education, though not by name. Writing as early as 1970, legendary civil rights leader Grace Lee Boggs in Detroit expressed a desire to situate learning in the communities of students of color. Teacher educator Stephen Haynes expanded upon
Boggs’ mission in 1995 to include a “pedagogy of place” that would allow students to map and learn from sites of Black oppression and resistance within urban space. The urban place based pedagogy uses city space to uncover not only minority histories, but systems of oppression and resistance as evidenced through place.27
The Teaching with Historic Places initiative within social studies education uses place based pedagogy, but it does not usually link to social justice or critical minority history. As early as 1912, historian Lucy Maynard Salmon advocated for place in the classroom with her essay, “History In a Back Yard,” but Teaching with Historic Places did not gain foothold as a methodology in social studies classrooms until after World War
II. In Pennsylvania specifically, legislation in 1945 created the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission to “preserve the Commonwealth’s natural and cultural heritage as a steward, teacher, and advocate for the people of Pennsylvania and the nation.”28
27 For an exploration of urban place based education historiography, see: John Dewey, School and society, in Dewey on education: Selections, ed. Martin Dworkin (New York: Teachers College Press, 1959); Grace Lee Boggs, “Education: the Great Obsession,” Monthly Review, Volume 63, Issue 03, 2011; Stephen Haymes, Race, culture, and the city: A pedagogy for black urban struggle (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
28 Seth C. Bruggeman, “A Century of Teaching with Pennsylvania’s Historic Places,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol.
17 Seventy years later, historic site interpretation and classroom resources on a state and national level still overwhelmingly represent white historical narratives. The National
Park Service partnered with the National Register of Historic Places in the early 1990s to create materials that “enable teachers and students to learn from places without leaving the classroom.”29 However, a look at their website reveals that their ten lesson plans about Pennsylvania’s Historic Places are primarily about industrial or military history, and only the Liberty Bell’s lesson plan mentions African American presence in the state.
The wealth of place resources evident in Philadelphia can address these grievances, and by tapping into the social activism of existing jazz public history in the city, lesson plans about jazz public history sites can embolden and empower students with the knowledge that “history, whether written in books or in buildings, is always constructed for us.”30
Beyond Biography
Place based education provides a well suited framework for looking at jazz as a cultural product of Philadelphia. Jazz communities and culture developed in the small clubs of Center City demolished to make way for skyscrapers; in the white owned joints of Columbia Avenue burned and gutted in the riots of 1964; inside the segregated union halls of Local 77 and 274; or in the living rooms of young jazz musicians in Strawberry
Mansion. Typically, however, jazz has been told as a story of names, dates, and musical developments. Place based epistemology does not factor into most any mid-twentieth
139, No. 1, A Special Collaborative Issue: Teaching Pennsylvania History (January 2015), 9.
29 “Teaching with Historic Places and the "Power of Place": Using Places to Teach,” NPS.org, accessed December 12, 2017, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/teachingwithhistoricplaces/using-places.htm
30 Bruggeman, 4.
18 century analyses of jazz music within professional scholarship. Biographical monographs or shallow, broad documentaries form the basis of jazz history today. Very few texts position music as a product and catalyst of race relations, urbanization, and community formation through jazz spaces. However, in focusing on jazz through place, students will be able to analyze and problematize the music within the city, and go beyond the timeline of discographies or band personnel.
In addition to a lack of jazz place analysis, traditional jazz historiography also shies away from using the music itself as a way to explore intersections of sound, community, gender, and race. Many jazz histories continue to pursue narratives that track stylistic changes or repeat the same progression of historical events, and since jazz historians are primarily white men in academia, biases and omissions abound within their musical analyses. It seems as if there is a consensus among jazz historians to only talk about jazz in relation to other jazz or other jazz musicians. Critical jazz history has developed in the past two decades to combat this trope, using social, urban, and intersectional history methodologies to situate jazz music within culture. In its reliance on music theory and biography, traditional jazz historiography does not inspire authentic historical learning in the classroom.
19 CHAPTER 3
CRAFTING A PEDAGOGY FOR JAZZ HISTORY
IN THE CLASSROOM
In an effort to combine critical jazz history with primary source pedagogy in the classroom, I explored the teaching methods tangential and related to Philadelphia jazz history. Since no extensive research or specific pedagogy for K-12 jazz history exists, I crafted my own, cobbling elements from critical race theory, primary source pedagogy, and public history methodology. In the two sections of this chapter, I outline two areas that inspired the content and methods used in my lesson plans on Philadelphia jazz history: 1. the history of activism for increased African American narratives in
Philadelphia schools and 2. the ideological and practical educational scholarship surrounding primary source pedagogy.
From Walk-Outs to Teach-Ins
The professional and public history of the Civil Rights Era tends to be located in the South, but Philadelphia has a legacy of civil rights activism that reaches back to the mid-nineteenth century. Additionally, the civil rights movement in Philadelphia centered radical black nationalism, self-reliance and grassroots tactics decades before these methods were nationalized by the Black Power Movement in the late 1960s. By the
1960s, the Civil Rights liberalism exhibited by the city’s wealthiest African Americans no longer resonated with the wider black community. Community leaders like Leon H.
Sullivan and Cecil B. Moore advanced a “protest strategy rooted in black consumer
20 power, rather than the liberal civil rights policy of bureaucratic, legislative change.”31
Successful boycotting campaigns and work training programs taught Philadelphians that they could combat racial discrimination without the help of white allies or government agencies.
Early Black Power initiatives also included projects to raise awareness and promote community educational programs for African and African American history and culture. Interestingly, these projects were largely spearheaded by black students and young people of Philadelphia. At 23 years old, John Churchville opened and incorporated
The Freedom Library at the intersection of Ridge Avenue and Jefferson Avenue in North
Philadelphia. Churchville and other activists who gathered at Freedom Library formed
Philadelphia’s first Black Power political organization, the Black Power Unity Movement
(BPUM), in 1965.32 In 1967, after a year of careful planning, over 3000 students walked out of schools across Philadelphia to protest racial discrimination in the district. Though police officers clubbed middle and high school students assembled around the School
District building, a group of students still presented a list of 25 demands to the Board of
Education; one of those demands called for black history classes taught by black teachers.33
31 Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 103.
32 John Elliot Churchville, interview by Joseph Mosnier, Civil Rights History Project, Library of Congress, July 15, 2011.
33 Kristen A. Graham, “These Philly schoolkids marched against injustice 50 years ago, and police responded with nightsticks. Today, they inspire a new generation,” Philly.com, November 18, 2017, http://www.philly.com/philly/education/philly-schools-1967-walkout-racial- injustice-police-riot-20171117.html
21 The fight for more culturally relevant curriculum waged on, but alas, the students’ demands for African American history would not be met until 2005--nearly forty years later. Despite backlash from white constituents and some Republican lawmakers, the
School Reform Commission voted to require African American history courses in the city’s high schools, making Philadelphia the first city to mandate black history for graduation.34 Commission member Sandra Dungee Glenn, the main force behind the mandate, urged the District to renew its efforts to “infuse” African and African American history in the classroom starting in February of 2005.35 On February 16, 2005, the School
Reform Commission unanimously passed SRC-1, which mandated an African and
African American history course in all high schools by September 2005.36 Additionally, the ruling mandated increased African American curriculum throughout Philadelphia’s
K-12 classes, renewed commitment to closing the “achievement gap,” and more diverse hiring in the School District.37
However, African American history educators and activists still see many disturbing gaps in the curriculum. Ismael Jimenez, M.Ed., an African American history teacher at Philadelphia’s Kensington Creative and Performing Arts High School, retools
34 Michael Janofsky, “Philadelphia Mandates Black History for Graduation,” The New York Times, June 25, 2005.
35 Yulanda Essoka, “New course grew out of years of struggle,” Philadelphia Public School Notebook, November 24, 2005, http://thenotebook.org/latest0/2005/11/24/new-course-grew-out-of-years-of- struggle Accessed March 14 2018.
36 Ibid.
37 SRC-1, African and American History Curriculum, February 16, 2005.
22 his syllabus to fill the holes in the district sanctioned textbook: African civilizations, the
Reconstruction Era, and post-Civil Rights narratives.38 According to Jimenez, the unit plans designed by the Philadelphia School District’s social studies curriculum specialists provide lesson plans and other materials to fill these gaps, but most first time teachers only rely upon the textbook: “Most of these people never took a course or read a book on
African American history.”39 Though school and district administrators offer ample freedom to teach outside the textbook, a practice encouraged in most all social studies teacher training programs, many African American history teachers in the Philadelphia
School District do not know where to begin. Additionally, the course, while meant to be a higher level class for older children, is now often being taught in ninth grade by first year teachers. Jimenez notes that most teachers do not want to teach the class, and it is considered “the first assignment you get because you’re a new teacher.”40 Thus, a course designed to introduce and center underrepresented narratives and expand historical understanding for children of all backgrounds is often being taught by people who have no background or desire to teach it.
It seems the SRC’s mandate did not reverse decades of misrepresentation in history education as initially intended. In order to re-commit the city’s education system to the core mission of the 2005 mandate, teachers of color and allies within the
Philadelphia School District stress the need to incorporate more societal systems analysis
38 Darlene Clark Hine et.al, Prentice Hall African American History, 2nd Edition, (New York: Pearson, 2011)
39 Ismael Jimenez, in discussion with the author, October 2017.
40 Ibid.
23 within the high schools’ curriculum. Additionally, Jimenez spoke of the need for a pedagogical balance between teaching both the dehumanizing truths of racial systems and black cultural “resistance tactics.” In terms of educational scholarship, the call for balanced societal systems analysis falls within a pedagogy based in critical race theory
(CRT). CRT first emerged as a counter to the positivist, liberal legal discourse of civil rights, and when invoked in the classroom, it frames the American historical narrative via race and economy.41 In their seminal 1995 essay, Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F.
Tate identify three central propositions that form the basis of CRT in education: “Race continues to be a significant factor in determining inequity in the United States; U.S.
Society is based on property rights; and the intersection of race and property creates an analytic tool through which we can understand social…inequity.”42 By framing history through the dehumanizing effects of racial and economic systems and the subsequent resistance tactics of African American communities, modern day activist teachers in
Philadelphia connect their curriculum to the walk out demands of 1967.
To organize and bolster that connection, the Philadelphia Black History
Collaborative (PBHC) formed in 2017. Ismael Jimenez, M.Ed., Yaasiyn Muhammed,
M.Ed, and Stacy Nzinga Hil, M.Ed. started PBHC to continue the “legacy of self-
41 The scholarship exploring critical race theory in education rests upon the intellecutual groundwork laid by Carter G. Woodson’s The Miseducation of the Negro (Washington, D.C.: Association Press, 1933); and W.E.B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folks (New York: Penguin Books, 1989; originally published in 1903). For more recent scholarship, see: Adreienne D. Dison et. al., Critical Race Theory in Education : All God's Children Got a Song: 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Routledge, 2017.
42 Billings and Tate, “Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education,” Teachers College Record Vol. 97. No. 1: Fall 1995, 48.
24 determination” set forth by those students and to create a curriculum focused on the past fifty years of African American history.43 They accomplish this through an open Google
Drive of lesson plans and resources for African American history teachers focusing on
“liberatory” pedagogy that moves “student knowledge into action.”44 Instead of teaching events on a timeline with little relevance to student life, the PBHC advocates for action based critical history lessons that force black history into conversation with the present. It is not enough to include black narratives in the classroom; in the eyes of PBHC, students should grapple with issues like why black narratives needed a mandate in the first place.
The PBHC also centers student voices within their programming and collaborates with other teacher and black history organizations in the city.45 Partnering with the Caucus of
Working Educators and several other Philadelphia educational organizations, they co- sponsored the Black Lives Matter Week of Action in the city’s schools. Joining the nationwide movement to centralize racial justice in education, they created curriculum
43 Philadelphia Black History Collaborative’s Facebook page, accessed March 14, 2017, https://www.facebook.com/groups/BlackhistoryPHL/
44 Julie Zeglen, “These Philly educators are calling for a more action- focused teaching of Black history,” Generocity.com, February 17, 2017, https://generocity.org/philly/2017/02/10/philadelphia-black-history-collaborative- conference/
45 In terms of student centered programming, the 2017 Philadelphia Black History Collaborative conference featured a breakout session entitled, “Contextualizing the Course: African American History from the Student Perspective,” and the second conference in 2018 focused on the theme, “Youth- Driven Solutions: Student Ownership of Education and Community Issues.”
25 resources for teachers in a variety of subjects and planned a week of events culminating in their second annual conference.46
With conferences dedicated to audience (student) voices and collaboration with other cultural institutions, this group of full time teachers embodies public history methodology and ideology. In the absence of historical institutions fighting for critical, radical African American history in the classroom, I instead found guidance in the decades of activism within Philadelphia’s student body and teacher community. Upon learning there were no lessons on local music history in the PBHC Google Drive, I crafted instructional plans to fill that content hole while utilizing a pedagogy of liberation to guide my student activities and assessments. In writing lesson plans that center African
American music as rebellion, I hope to enter into conversation and collaboration with the decades long struggle for increased African American narratives in Philly schools.
Songs as Sources
In order to write clear and concise lesson plans, I examined several different pedagogies for teaching history with primary sources. Many social studies educators use primary sources in their middle and high school classrooms. In fact, most archives and museums sponsor programs to provide teachers with both primary sources and lesson plans based upon their holdings. However, the practice is relatively new in the history of social studies education. The New Social Studies Movement (NSS) of the 1970s introduced the usage of primary sources in the history classroom, but due to ineffective
46 “In Its Second Year, Black Lives Matter Week of Action Goes National,” Caucus of Working Educators, January 5, 2018. http://www.workingeducators.org/in_its_second_year_black_lives_matter_week_ of_action_goes_national
26 implementation, the practice did not take hold until almost three decades later. NSS was initially a partnership between the history academy and working K-12 history teachers, though the lofty goals and methods developed within this partnership often ignored the realities of teaching in the average classroom. The advanced and complex research techniques of history scholars did not translate to student learning modes.47
Exacerbating the program's initial failure, a deep, politically charged divide halted the usage of primary sources in the history classroom for almost thirty years.
Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush both placed improved history curriculum at the center of their education policies during their tenures. In 1992, Bush’s administration sponsored the National History Standards Project, an initiative to establish nationwide content standards for social studies education while simultaneously introducing curriculum that would utilize primary sources to model historical thinking.
While the project began with bipartisan support, it soon after devolved into a bitter standoff between conservative and liberal voices fighting over what narratives to include.48 In the following decades, the national educational environment further hindered history
47 For more information about the New Social Studies Movement, see Edwin Fenton, “Reflections on the ‘New Social Studies,” The Social Studies 82:3, 29 July 2010, 84-90; Byron G. Massialis, “The ‘New Social Studies:’ Retrospect and Prospect,” The Social Studies 100:6, 7 August 2010, 246-250; William Russeland Jeffrey Byford Valdosta, “The New Social Studies: A Historical Examination of Curriculum Reform,” Social Studies Research and Practice 2, No. 1, )Spring 2007), 38-48.
48 For more information about the National History Standards Project, see: Gary B. Nash and Charlotte Crabtree, National Standards for United States History: Exploring the American Experience, National Center for History in the Schools, California: 1994 and Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, Ross E. Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997).
27 educators through programs that narrowed curriculum and advanced standardized testing.
Programs like GOALS 2000 passed in 1994, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, and the Common Core passed in 2009 link teachers’ success to student testing scores, inevitably pressuring them to focus on test material.49 With respect to social studies education, these national initiatives and testing do not promote the usage of primary sources and creative historical thinking in the classroom. To help teachers combat national mandates, several social studies educational theorists developed pedagogical solutions to promote authentic historical learning in the classroom.
Authentic learning is a pedagogical approach that uses a project based curriculum emphasizing practical skills and real-world relevance, encouraging students to think beyond the classroom walls. The pedagogical method of authentic historical learning encourages this same line of thinking by modeling the usage of primary sources and the historical research process for students. Frustrated by the lack of research regarding how students learn history, Linda Levstik and Keith Barton analyzed the ways in which students perceive history during this type of learning. Drawing upon the theory of mediated action, their research conceptualizes historical knowledge as “enacted, transmitted, resisted, and transformed,” by students in the classroom:
Instead of establishing a priori definitions of what it means to “think historically” or “do history”--and then detailing the extent to which children or teachers conform to those definitions--a mediated action approach seeks to establish what people actually do with the past...In essence, it treats them as agents, rather than as passive objects of
49 This information can be gleaned from any conversation with a working educator, but for specific evidence of the pressure faced by teachers, see the 2006 Education Leadership forum’s discussion of No Child Left Behind, http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational- leadership/nov06/vol64/num03/NCLB@-Is-There- Life-Beyond-Testing%C2%A2.aspx
28 instructional policies or as pawns of broad social forces. Historical thinking, then, becomes a matter of committing acts of history.50
According to Barton and Levstik, students need to feel empowered as actors in the history classroom not only so they connect to the content, but so that they learn the content more effectively.
Sam Wineburg echoes this sentiment in his suggested pedagogy for incorporating primary sources. He insists that students must be clearly instructed on how to act historically, an unnatural process that “goes against the grain of how we normally think.”51 In a study examining the research process of a high school student, Wineburg highlights how the iterative qualities of historical research challenge students to “navigate the uneven landscape of history, to traverse the rugged terrain that lies between the poles of familiarity and distance from the past.”52 In the familiar past, students connect and compare historic narratives with their own, but in the distant past, students learn to reconceptualize humanity and embrace the strangeness of historic communities--a loftier learning objective far more difficult to achieve. In order to develop mature historical thought, students need to learn how to be both empathetic and detached throughout the historical process: a thorough comparison of texts, an examination of context, and the application of their own analysis to create historical research inferences. Primary source
50 Keith Barton and Linda Levstick, “Committing Acts of History: Mediated Action, Humanistic Education and Participatory Democracy,” in Critical Issues in Social Studies Research for the 21st Century ed. W.B. Stanley (Boulder: Information Age Publishing, 2001), 122.
51 Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 7.
52 Ibid., 5.
29 based lessons should thus have two objectives: 1) student creation of a new historical product and 2) student understanding that studying history does not necessarily render it knowable.
In practice, this style of teaching requires far more preparation than simply compiling primary sources about a topic. Wineburg and colleague Avi Reisman suggest a three step process for successfully teaching the historical process via primary sources: 1) pose a central historical question, 2) modify the texts, and 3) provide multiple opportunities for practice.53 For this project, dissecting the free, downloadable lesson plans on Wineburg’s popular Stanford History Education Group website has helped me understand the importance of specificity, clarity, and repetition when teaching the historical process.
First, the central historical question of each lesson plan guides which sources I choose, which discussion questions I write, and how I frame each primary source. The central question also dictates how I modify each text, so that the excerpts “simplify the document sufficiently to allow students to engage with the true nature of its complexity.”54 With the central question guiding my choices, I edited almost every source into an excerpt that best captures its key phrases and authorial tone. In terms of providing multiple opportunities for practice, both lesson plans are based upon at least five primary sources. Iterative “pair and share” activities and discussion questions put sources and students in conversation with one another. Learning through this process is reinforced by having students synthesize and compare texts or by having them ask
53 Avishag Reisman and Sam Wineburg. ""Text Complexity" in the History Classroom: Teaching to and Beyond the Common Core." Social Studies Review 51 (2012). 54 Reisman and Wineburg, 25.
30 questions of the texts and plan their own hypothetical independent research. In other words, lesson plans model the historical research process by providing questions and activities that reinforce the historical thought process.
I also explored different methods to incorporate public history methodology into the lesson plans. As they learn how to think and write like historians using the system advanced by Wineburg and Reisman, public history methods will encourage students to continuously question that system and themselves as researchers. Self-reflexive historical practices will make the process more meaningful for students, and by exposing the human influence on supposed “facts,” teachers can spark discussions about the cultural biases and prejudices that have shaped and continue to shape the nation’s history. Within the classroom activities, students use primary sources and teachers’ lectures to dissect historical memory. For example, in the lesson plan about Shirley Scott, students discuss the underrepresentation of women in popular jazz history by analyzing the language historically used to talk about women musicians. In the lesson plan about segregation in
Philadelphia’s theaters, students discuss the underrepresentation of African American narratives by analyzing maps and designing their own historical markers. Not only do the lesson plans draw attention to public historical memory, but students also discuss and design ways to combat underrepresentation or misrepresentation of minority voices.
In addition to traditional primary sources, I have also incorporated song recordings into my lessons on Philadelphia’s musical history. This presented a challenge since there are no specific pedagogies or comprehensive studies regarding the use of music in the social studies classroom. To research the usage of audio in the history classroom, I consulted three of the most widely known and commonly used lesson plan
31 databases for social studies education to find examples of lesson plans centering music history: the Stanford History Education Group, DocsTeach, and the Library of
Congress’s Education Resources digital archive.55 In the National Archives’ lesson plan database, DocsTeach, using the search terms “music” and “jazz” resulted in only five lesson plans. None of these lesson plans use any kind of musical primary sources; in fact, four of the five merely mention the word music in instructional text rather than centralize its analysis in the lesson. Fortunately, the Library of Congress’ twenty results center music as a tool for cultural analysis; however only eight of the lesson plans use audio despite the Library’s massive recorded music collection. The Stanford Historical Group’s lesson database proved the least helpful with zero results for either search term. Most notably, none of the databases contain any lesson plans related to jazz history, and only one musical lesson plan in the Library of Congress focused on African American history.
55 DocsTeach. Accessed March 08, 2018. https://www.docsteach.org/activities; "History Lessons." “Education Resources from the Library of Congress,” Library of Congress. Accessed March 08, 2018. https://www.loc.gov/education Stanford History Education Group. Accessed March 08, 2018. https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-lessons.l
32 Table 1
Musical Lesson Plans: Topics and Sources Does this lesson utilize Database Does this lesson use other musical resources Name Lesson Plan Name Historical Topic musical recordings? beyond audio? Making Connections: Primary sources regarding the Pilgrim DocsTeach experience Colonial NO NO Prequel to DocsTeach Independence Revolutionary War NO NO Thomas Edison - Science and DocsTeach Various Inventions Technology NO NO Food Will Win the War-What Will Be WWI; Social DocsTeach your sacrifice? History NO YES Cultural Diplomacy and the Smith-Mundt DocsTeach Act Cold War NO NO Music and U.S. Reform Library of History: Stand Up and Congress Sing Progressive Era NO YES Family Customs Past Great Depression; Library of and Present: Exploring WWII; Culture and Congress Cultural Rituals Folklife YES NO Rise of Industrial Library of America; Art and Congress Mark Twain's Hannibal Culture; Geography NO YES World War I: What Library of Are We Fighting For Congress Over There? WWI YES NO
Library of Westward Expansion: Immigration; Congress Links to the Past Frontier History YES YES
Labor Unions and Library of Working Conditions: Progressive Era; Congress United We Stand Labor History NO YES Progressive Era; Great Depression; WWII; Arts and Library of Natural Disasters: Culture; Congress Nature's Fury Technology YES YES Progressive Era; Great Depression; Library of The American West: WWII; Culture and Congress Images of Its People Folklife NO NO
33 Library of African American Rise of Industrial NO YES Congress Identity in the Gilded America; African Age: Two American History Unreconciled Strivings Progressive Era; Twentieth Century Culture and Library of Entertainment: When Folklife; Urban Congress Work is Done History NO NO Unit Plan: Personal Stories and Progressive Era; Primary Sources: Great Depression; Library of Conversations with WWII; Culture and Congress Elders Folklife YES YES Thomas Jefferson's Library: Making the Library of Case for a National Government, Law Congress Library & Politics NO YES Progressive Era; Library of Child Labor and the Labor History; Congress Building of America Urban History NO NO Library of Oral History and Social Great Depression Congress History and WWII NO YES Doing the Decades: Progressive Era; Group Investigations in Great Depression; Library of Twentieth Century U. WWII; Immigration Congress S. History and Ethnic Heritage NO NO Geography; Urban Marco Paul's Travels History; National Library of on the Erie Canal: An Expansion and Congress Educational Voyage Reform, 1815-1860 NO YES The Grapes of Wrath: Great Depression Library of Scrapbooks and and WWII; Arts Congress Artifacts and Culture YES YES
The Grapes of Wrath: Great Depression Library of Voices from the Great and WWII; Arts Congress Depression and Culture YES NO Science and Technology; Rise Thomas Edison, of Industrial Library of Electricity, and America; Congress America Progressive Era YES NO Science and The Conservation Technology; Rise Movement at a of Industrial Library of Crossroads: The Hetch America; Congress Hetchy Controversy Progressive Era NO NO
34 In addition to analyzing how lesson plans incorporate audio, I also turned to the pioneering work of Dipti, Hamlin, and Mattson on incorporating art in the history classroom. Their research draws upon the work of cultural historians, visual theorists, and educational scholars to craft a new pedagogy for using visual resources. Within it, they cite historian David Jaffee’s concept of intertextual reading that allows students to “move between historical, literary, and visual materials” when interpreting visual sources. By curating mini-archives of material, Jaffee guides students away from shallow observations of images and toward “historically contextualized seeing” in their analysis of visual resources.56 This same concept can be applied to recorded songs and musical video clips, and students can learn likewise to critically analyze these musical texts in context with other resources. When framed contextually, teachers can introduce music as a tool for cultural analysis rather than just as supplementary listening material.
To incorporate this new way of using music as a primary source in the history classroom, I set these nontraditional sources within the framework of teaching fundamental historical skills. Within each lesson plan that follows, educators will be presented with three overarching goals: 1) to introduce students to the process of doing history and thinking historically with music 2) to guide students’to an understanding of how music is both a symptom and critique of culture, and 3) to demonstrate to students how music is nearly always tied to a specific place and historical era. Drawing from
Barton, Levstik, Wineburg, Reisman, Dipti et. al, and Jaffee, I have devised five different methods to meet those goals:
56 Rachel Mattson, “Using Visual Historical Methods in K-12 Classrooms: Tactical Heuristics,” in History as Art, Art as History: Contemporary Art and Social Studies Education. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 27.
35 1. Intertextual Reading: Borrowing heavily from Jaffee’s methods for using visual sources, all songs are set within the context of their cultural origin. Recorded music is presented within an “archive” of liner notes, album covers, newspaper articles, and photographs to contextualize the music and make it easier for students and teachers to discuss music as a piece of history. Students and teachers should not be expected to analyze the musical structure of the compositions themselves. The songs are meant to be used as cultural artifacts.
2. Critical Listening: When speaking of primary sources, educational theorists often use the phrase “close reading” or “critical reading” when dealing with written resources. Since these lessons center black music history, students also have the opportunity to write about the music as it plays. Discussion questions guide students toward a more informed listening by having them answer a range of observation and analysis related queries: identify instrumentation, place it within a historical era, compare it to other styles of music, relay any emotions they associate with the music, and even to discuss the reason behind the recording.
3. Historical Transparency: This guideline deals more with process than with content. Leaning on the teachings of Wineburg, the lesson plan lectures, activities, and assessments reveal history as a craft. Teachers are encouraged to discuss the process and its inevitable biases with classrooms. Students thus engage in a more self-reflexive historical process, challenging and questioning both sources and themselves as historians.
4. Critical Writing: The lesson plans provide plenty of opportunity to write historically, but , keeping in line with Dipti et.al., students also have the opportunity to write within different genres and create something new. They craft walking tours,
36 historical markers, or album liner notes to creatively reflect their understanding of the central historical questions and other objectives of the lessons.
5. Public History Ideology: Examining minority history and place forces students to contend with the critical issues of whose history we remember as communities and how/where we remember it. Students discuss the lesson plan topics in terms of how histories are made public, while also doing the work of public historians
(creating walking tours, writing historical markers, and planning exhibits and public programming). These public history centered assessments offer the opportunity for students to be empowered to interpret history in more creative ways relevant to their communities. My hope is that even students outside of Philadelphia will be inspired to investigate and advocate for the untold narratives in their own neighborhoods.
The lesson plans use these five different methods interchangeably, but both of them feature Essential Questions and clear Objectives listed at the top of each instructional plan. The Essential Questions let teachers know the overarching historical questions the lesson plan addresses. These will help them fit the plans into their curriculum or broader discussions more seamlessly. The Objectives list the concrete knowledge students will learn and activities they will perform within the lesson. They not only guide teachers when adapting the lesson plan to their own instructional style, but they also are required by any administrator observing the classroom. Additionally, I have provided multiple assessment ideas for teachers to use that are listed at the end of the lesson plans as optional. Since the efficacy of the assessment will depend upon the learning style of that particular class, I designed many different options to give the
37 teacher more flexibility. The instructional plans, additional teacher resources, worksheets, and primary sources used for each lesson plan can be found in Appendices A and B.
38 CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION
This project began as a love affair with Philadelphia’s jazz scene and its history; however, oddly enough, it found its true purpose after one particularly obtuse comment at an academic conference—how all good stories start. In March 2017, I co-organized
Temple University’s Public History Community Forum. Specifically, I initiated and scheduled a panel of students, educators, and public history professionals of color to discuss better partnerships between Philadelphia schools and museums. After an important discussion about offering more relevant content, subsidizing admission, and other solutions to engage the school community, one man raised his hand and without a hint of irony, said “I send out my emails to teachers each month, and I just don’t know what else I can do.”
Of course, the obvious response to that comment is: so much more. Looking past the preceding discussion that had provided plenty of solutions, this public history professional considered a monthly newsletter to be the only form of school outreach. His comment displays public history’s disconnect with educators. In response to this, a thesis emerged that would not only address Philadelphia’s lack of black public history, but also provide relevant and easily accessible content for teachers. However, throughout the research process, my vision shifted, and I began to understand both the difficulties of lesson planning and the barriers collaboration between formal and informal educators.
Within this section, I will reflect upon my research, dissect its weaknesses, and provide suggestions for incorporating this project into Philadelphia’s public history community.
39 Reflection
Within both lesson plans, I struggled to connect aural primary sources with the same complexity and clarity as visual or written resources. Primary source based lessons require constant reflection back to a central historical question, but oftentimes, the letter or photograph or newspaper article become supplementary to the lesson, rather than central to it. Despite the initial interest students might show when using music in the classroom, if not taught how to listen critically, the song serves little purpose in teaching students to do history. In addition to meeting student skill level, the lesson plans also needed to be accessible to a wide range of teachers. Most social studies teachers do not use music as a primary source and are most likely not trained musicians. As mentioned within Section III, no pedagogy currently exists to incorporate critical listening skills within a standard history curriculum.
So, guided instead by both primary source and place based pedagogy, I experimented with two different techniques to promote critical listening and musical cultural analysis in history classrooms. Within the Queen of the Organ lesson structure, I use several instrumental (non-vocal) Shirley Scott recordings as key primary sources. In contrast, the Resisting Racism lesson plan only uses one song, and rather than focus on the music, the song serves as a way to further contextualize a photograph. While the lesson plan does not centralize aural resources, music still functions as a historical resource to better understand the time period. In hindsight, a textual analysis of lyrics may have been easier to incorporate into the history classroom; however, many jazz recordings do not contain lyrics, and additionally, the vast majority of lyrics for jazz standards were written by white men and women. To use music as a tool for cultural
40 analysis and introduce social studies classrooms to jazz history more specifically, I hope to further develop the concepts of both critical and contextual listening of instrumental music in the future to help teachers and students with limited musical training.
Initially, I intended for the project to include additional lesson plans: one about the Golden Mile of jazz clubs once located on Cecil B. Moore (formerly Columbia)
Avenue and the other on the importance of the John Coltrane House within
Philadelphia’s jazz community. However, two barriers prevented me from achieving this goal. Firstly, lesson planning is incredibly time consuming. Each primary sources needs to be edited for learning ability and time constraints; because jazz is a niche musical genre, I needed to write additional materials for teachers unfamiliar with particular musical styles; and in the interest of clarity, every single procedural transition and activity needed to have a distinct connection to the lesson objectives and central historical question. In other words, writing lesson plans for other educators slowed down my process.
Secondly, I did not feel comfortable telling these stories on my own. I am white, and I know that place based jazz public history is already being done within this city. I want to promote jazz history in the classroom, but not without the guidance and criticism of jazz historians and advocates of color. I ideally wanted the lesson planning process to be a collaborative effort that helped connect not only jazz public history, but jazz public historians to classrooms. However, this was not the case. My continued attempts to communicate with Philadelphia’s small, disconnected community of jazz public historians proved fruitless. While I feel confident that my relationship to the jazz musicians of Philadelphia may one day bridge that gap, I need more time to cultivate
41 trusted partnerships with organizations like All That Philly Jazz and the Philadelphia Jazz
Project. The longevity of jazz public history in Philadelphia depends upon the ability of our small group of history activists to collaborate and support one another.
Hopefully, these lesson plans can further build a community of African American public history activists among the students of Philadelphia. The lesson plans guide students to think like public historians. They answer questions relatively foreign to the traditional social studies classrooms: Where is history located? Whose history is remembered? How does place factor into historic memory? The lesson assessments allow students to create public history by writing walking tour scripts and editing existing historical markers. By engaging in self-reflexive and practical applications of history, I hope to inspire students to community activism. These lessons not only make African
American music history more visible in the classroom, but also draw attention to the disparity between white and black narratives represented on the streets of Philadelphia.
Of course, these lesson plans alone will not remedy the lack of local, jazz history in the classroom, nor its underrepresentation in the city’s built environment. To that end,
I propose the following next steps to further the multi-part mission of this thesis: to build connections between middle and high school history educators and jazz public historians; to increase the visibility of African American music history in Philadelphia; and to encourage student activism and community engagement through local history.
Next Steps
In order to build connections between formal educators and public historians, public historians need to re-imagine and revamp their current outreach strategies. While
42 some public historians seem to believe that emails are the best (and only) solution, Social
Studies administrators within the Philadelphia School District realized the benefits of more tangible partnerships. For example, from August 2017 through April 2018, the
Philadelphia School District sponsored a professional development series in collaboration with several different cultural institutions in order to integrate 19th century African
American activist, Octavius V. Catto, into the Social Studies curriculum. The series included guest speakers, museum visits, and access to a wide range of primary sources from local museums and libraries meant to increase historical literacy and further contextualize contemporary struggle and resistance in the city of Philadelphia. A professional development series about jazz history would help similarly help educators introduce underrepresented narratives in Philadelphia’s African American history.
Teachers would learn skills to incorporate aural resources in conversation with textual and visual in order to further expand students’ historical literacy, while simultaneously challenging the traditional curriculum of 20th century Black History. Additionally, a partnership with relevant cultural institutions would unite the scattered and disconnected resources of Philadelphia’s Jazz Public History community.
Educators and public historians could also connect and collaborate through an iTAG or Inquiry to Action Group. These discussion-based working groups bring together parents, students, educators, and other area professionals to focus on topics related to social justice in education. The topics for 2018 include addressing Islamophobia in schools, building anti-racist white educators, social justice for elementary schoolers, and one iTag is even dedicated to leveraging museums as allies and agents within social justice initiatives. Focusing on social justice through music education and public history
43 methodology, there are several possible ways to develop my research into a monthly discussion with local education activists. While there are many ways to frame and initiate discussions, here are a few examples of possible iTags:
● Missing Narratives: In a discussion of the city’s public history representation imbalance, this iTag would debate different ways to use “invisible” history in the classroom both to draw attention to missing narratives and to inspire student action to resolve these issues.
● Philadelphia Jazz History: The Music of Dissent: This iTag would discuss and develop curriculum to integrate jazz history into Philadelphia’s African American history courses. The lesson plans would ideally frame the music via its connection to cultural revolution and resistance to racism.
● Mapping Philadelphia Jazz: This iTag would be a combination of the previous two wherein students, teachers, and local public historians discuss how to engage sites of African American music history in the classroom. Discussions would center around community control of local history and gentrification’s effects on jazz history and its built memory.
However, professional development series and iTags are teacher programs, and teachers cannot and should not be facilitating all of these initiatives. The city’s public historians need to address these narrative disparities, as well. Existing place based initiatives such as the Historic Society of Pennsylvania’s Landmark Lesson series can easily incorporate sites of black musical memory. The Charles L. Blockson Collection could exhibit their extensive jazz holdings within the context of place, perhaps interpreting neighborhood musical history for community or schools groups.
44 Additionally, many sites of African American musical history remain unmarked and often in danger of demolition. The John Coltrane House in Strawberry Mansion needs massive repairs as its ownership remains in flux; The Royal Theatre on South Street will soon be reduced to nothing more than a replicated façade and still lacks any kind of historical marker; and Philadelphia International Records has been replaced by high end housing, the historic studio commemorated only by a ceremonial “Gamble and Huff
Way” sign on Broad Street. These sites of national and local importance deserve integration into the city’s public history community.
Several organizations within Philadelphia’s jazz public history community already focus their efforts directly towards place based programming that could be incorporated into school outreach. Most notably, the robust online content of All That
Philly Jazz should be converted to regularly scheduled walking tours of Philadelphia’s neighborhoods and marketed to both school and tourist groups. The Philadelphia Jazz
Project’s well attended, well-funded annual Celebrating Coltrane festival could host a pop up museum of Strawberry Mansion’s jazz history to further publicize their plans for a jazz park in the neighborhood. Currently, just one of the many jazz advocacy nonprofits in the city, Jazz Lives Philadelphia, staffs an education department. Given the devaluation of most cultural institutions’ education staffs, this is not surprising. However, partnerships with teachers ensure not only the building of future audiences for jazz music, but also future community history activists. The disparate advocacy groups in the city need some kind of educational focus to ensure their own longevity and that of the city’s musical legacy.
______
45 You may have noticed that brick and mortar museums do not factor heavily into my research, nor within the future projections for increasing the visibility of activist
African American history. Honestly, museums are just not doing this work—teachers are.
As exemplified by the Philadelphia Black History Collaborative and the national Black
Lives Matter Week of Action, teachers know the holes in the curriculum, and rather than wait for better content, they decided to create it. In both the local and national public history sector, interpretation and programming neglects the history of African American resistance, lagging far behind their educator colleagues. Libraries and museums in the
Philadelphia area boast robust collections of African American history, but with very little representation of minority voices on the institutions’ payroll, the message is mixed to say the least.
However, I hesitate to call for more diversity because the word diversity, promised and legislated in many professional public history circles, has lost its meaning.
The key to true diversity and inclusion is about more than just hiring or exhibiting minority voices. Within that model, those already in power dictate which minority voices and stories matter. True diversity and inclusion requires a complete overhaul of current public history practices, and a transparency with the public we serve: Who decides what narratives are shared? Whose voices ring loudest when crafting the public history landscape? How are we working to remedy representational imbalance? By partnering with local schools and communities, public historians can begin to rectify the extreme lack of representation by building a new generation of public history activists within a diverse student body. Show students that history is a public service, a craft and an artform—something to be done, not just to be taught. By revealing the stories hidden
46 along Philadelphia’s streets, public historians have the ability to empower students to uncover narratives and transform their own communities.
47 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Secondary Sources
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Barnes, Karl Webster. "Your Vision, Your Memory, Your Challenge: Preservation is Good for Your African American Neighborhood Revitalization," Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Historic Preservation Division, Reflections 2, no. 4 (September 2002). 4-6.
Barton, Keith and Linda Levstick, “Committing Acts of History: Mediated Action, Humanistic Education and Participatory Democracy,” in Critical Issues in Social Studies Research for the 21st Century ed. W.B. Stanley (Boulder: Information Age Publishing, 2001), 119-147.
Bruggeman, Seth C. “A Century of Teaching with Pennsylvania’s Historic Places,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 139, No. 1, A Special Collaborative Issue: Teaching Pennsylvania History (January 2015), 3-21.
Countryman, Matthew. Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
Essoka, Yulonda. “New course grew out of years of struggle,” Philadelphia Public School Notebook, November 24, 2005, http://thenotebook.org/latest0/2005/11/24/new-course-grew-out-of-years- of-struggle Accessed March 14 2018.
Gillis, Delia C. “American Jazz Museum,” The Public Historian, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Fall 2005), 107-111.
Graham, Kristen A. “These Philly schoolkids marched against injustice 50 years ago, and police responded with nightsticks. Today, they inspire a new generation,” Philly.com, November 18, 2017, http://www.philly.com/philly/education/philly-schools-1967-walkout- racial-injustice-police-riot-20171117.html
“In Its Second Year, Black Lives Matter Week of Action Goes National,” Caucus of Working Educators, January 5, 2018. http://www.workingeducators.org/in_its_second_year_black_lives_matter _week_of_action_goes_national
48 Kaufman, Ned. Place, Race, and Story: Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation (New York, NY: Routledge, 2009).
Ladson-Billings, Gloria and William F. Tate, “Toward a Critical Race Theory of Education,” Teachers College Record Vol. 97. No. 1: Fall 1995, 47-68.
Mattson, Rachel. “Using Visual Historical Methods in K-12 Classrooms: Tactical Heuristics,” in History as Art, Art as History: Contemporary Art and Social Studies Education. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 15-35.
McClellan, Michelle. “Place based epistemology: This is your brain on historic sites,” National Council on Public History, May 25, 2015, http://ncph.org/history-at-work/place-based-epistemology/
Reisman, Avishag and Sam Wineburg. ""Text Complexity" in the History Classroom: Teaching to and Beyond the Common Core." Social Studies Review 51 (2012), 24-29.
Rudinow, Joel. “What Is Soul? (And What Is Soul Music?)” In Soul Music: Tracking the Spiritual Roots of Pop from Plato to Motown. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010, 8-29.
Salisbury, Stephen. “Philly’s big new art project asks, who deserves a monument anyway?” Philadelphia Inquirer. 14 Sept. 2017. http://www.philly.com/philly/entertainment/arts/phillys-big-new-art- project-asks-who-deserves-a-monument-anyway-20170914.html
Simmons, Amy V. “The Philadelphia Black History Collaborative holds its first annual conference,” The Philadelphia Sunday 17 Feb 2017 http://www.philasun.com/diaspora/philadelphia-black-history- collaborative-holds-first-annual-conference/
Tebeau, Mark. “Listening to History: Oral History and Place in the Digital World,” The Oral History Review, Volume 40, Number 1, Winter/Spring 2013, 25-35.
“Teaching with Historic Places and the "Power of Place": Using Places to Teach,” NPS.org, accessed December 12, 2017, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/teachingwithhistoricplaces/using-places.htm
Wineburg, Sam. Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001.
49 Zeglen, Julie. “These Philly educators are calling for a more action-focused teaching of Black history,” Generocity.com, February 17, 2017, https://generocity.org/philly/2017/02/10/philadelphia-black-history- collaborative-conference/
Primary Sources
Churchville, John Elliot. Interview by Joseph Mosnier, Civil Rights History Project, Library of Congress, July 15, 2011.
“The Dunbar Theatre,” Philadelphia Tribune. March 16, 1918.
Gardner, Barbara. “Shirley Scott: A Woman First,” Downbeat. October 1962.
“Georgie Woods Vows to Learn True Facts of Slain Singing Pals Death,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 15, 1964.
Grossi, Patrick (Director of Advocacy at the Preservation Alliance of Greater Philadelphia) in discussion with author. November 2017.
Janofsky, Michael. “Philadelphia Mandates Black History for Graduation,” The New York Times, June 25, 2005.
Jenkins, Joyce. “As You Like It.” Philadelphia Tribune. Philadelphia, PA. June 2, 1951.
Jimenez, Ismael (educator at Kensington Creative and Performing Arts High School) in discussion with the author, October 2017.
Klauber, Bruce. “Coltrane Crumbles: The jazz legend's neglected house in Philly,” Philadelphia Weekly, November 2, 2016, http://www.philadelphiaweekly.com/news/coltrane-crumbles-the-jazz- legend-s-neglected-house-in-philly
Lane, Lynda. “The John W. Coltrane Society Celebrates 10 years of living the legacy,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 28, 1995.
"Local Theatre Manager Held in $300 Bail." Philadelphia Tribune, April 20, 1933.
“Lone Woman Holds a Mod of 500 White Brutes at Bay.” Philadelphia Tribune. Aug 03, 1918.
50 McPartland, Marian, interviewer, “Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz with Guest Shirley Scott: Conversation & Music as Heard on National Public Radio.” Concord, CA: Jazz Alliance, 1993.
Mosley, John W. “Duke Ellington,” January 13, 1939. John W. Mosley Photograph Collection. Charles L. Blockson Afro-American Collection. Philadelphia, PA.
National Park Service Policies 2001, sec. 7.5.5. “National Park Service Policies Regarding Native Americans, Park-Associated Communities, Public Participation, and Community Relations,” January 2003.
“Pennsylvania Historical Marker Search,” Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/apps/historical-markers.html
“The John Coltrane House, Philadelphia: Recommendations for Its Preservation and Revitalization,” Coltrane House Report, PEW Center for Arts and Heritage, 2013, 1-82.
Riling, Donna J. “John Coltrane House,” Historic American Building Survey
HABS No. PA-6670, Library of Congress.
Scott, Shirley. Great Scott! Prestige 7143, 1958, vinyl.
---, Hip Soul. Prestige 7205, 1961, vinyl.
---, Shirley Scott & The Soul Saxes, Atlantic 1532, 1969, vinyl.
---, Something, Atlantic 1561, 1970, vinyl.
Shields, Del. “Taking Care of Business,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 6, 1963.
SRC-1, African and American History Curriculum, February 16, 2005.
“The New Colored Theatre,” Philadelphia Tribune. September 7, 1918.
Transcript, “Max Martin’s Second Interview,” Interviewed by Charles Hardy. Goin’ North, West Chester University. Online: https://goinnorth.org/max- martininterview-2.
51 APPENDICES APPENDIX A: RESISTING RACISM LESSON AND MATERIALS
Resisting Racism in Philadelphia: Segregated Theaters and the First Great Migration Materials: ● Great Migration PowerPoint ● Copies of Documents A-F ● Copies of Worksheets (Group 1 and 2) ● Laptops (optional for Group 2)
Essential Questions: ● How did segregation and racism manifest in the North? ● How did African Americans in the North (specifically Philadelphia) fight for equality before Brown v. Board of Education? ● How did the First Great Migration change the landscape and culture of American cities?
Lesson Objectives: ● Students will learn about the causes and effects of the First Great Migration (1916-1930) in Philadelphia through the lens of the city’s theater industry. ● Students will annotate and analyze a variety of primary sources to engage in critical reading and thinking skills. ● Students will craft a historical argument in the form of a paragraph answering the lesson’s central historical question: How and why were theaters centers of resistance against segregation during the First Great Migration in Philadelphia?
Plan of Instruction 1. Students will answer the prompt written at the front of the classroom: Consider the concept of segregation. What are the key events, time periods, people, laws, or locations that come to mind? Write down 5-7 items in a bulleted list. a. Teacher will ask call on student volunteers to share their answers, the assumption being that most students will locate segregation in the South during the 1960s. Transition to the PowerPoint: Ex “Today’s lesson will deal with segregation in the North and more specifically, the African American fight against segregation and racism during the Great Migration in Philadelphia” 2. Teacher will present the Great Migration Powerpoint to provide historical context and present the central historical question.
52 a. Slide 2: The First Great Migration is the term used to describe the time period between 1916 and 1930 when a steady influx of Southern African American migrants relocated to cities in the North. Labor shortages during World War I forced Northern factories, farms, railroads, and other industries to open their hiring to African American workers. Hundreds of thousands of people fled the Jim Crow laws of the South for the jobs, better wages, educational opportunities, and the right to vote not offered below the Mason Dixon Line. By the time the Great Depression ended the First Great Migration, some 1.6 million African Americans had fled the South. This photograph depicts a group of people who had travelled up from Florida to work on a farm in New Jersey. b. Slide 3 and 4: Hundreds of thousands of southern men and women chose Philadelphia, the third largest industrial city, not only because of the many industries looking for workers, but also because the city had a large and established African American community. Since the decades after the Revolutionary War, Philadelphia had been an epicenter of Black religious life, political activism, culture, and industry. This is an 1899 map sketched by black scholar and activist W.E.B. DuBois of the Seventh Ward in South Philadelphia, home to the oldest black community in the city. (All colored squares represent black residents and white squares represent white residents. Prompt students to discover that the neighborhood was interracial to lead you to the following slide.) c. Slide 5: While white and black people had lived together in the Seventh Ward for decades, new migrants renting and buying homes in traditionally white neighborhoods aroused tensions and rampant violence. The white working poor felt threatened by the presence of new workers and new tenants who they believed would push them out of their own jobs and neighborhoods. In many cases, white landlords, seeing an opportunity to raise rents for the new black migrants, had kicked out their white tenants and only deepened the hatred between the two groups. The violence erupted in July 1918 after a white mob attacked Adella Bond, a black woman attempting to move into her new home on 29th and Ellsworth. Five people died and many more were injured. Black leaders in Philadelphia spoke out against City Hall and the police force for not doing more to protect and serve Black residents.
53 d. Slide 6: However, racism and prejudice did not always show themselves as fighting in the streets. Philadelphia did not have any official laws segregating public spaces, but there were also no Civil Rights Laws stopping discrimination against black customers or patrons. This was especially true for most of the city’s theaters and other music venues in the early 1900s. The Walnut Street Theatre on 9th and Walnut Streets (shown on the right) opened in 1809 and maintained segregated balcony seating for African American patrons. The Forrest Theater on Broad and Sansom Streets (shown on the left) refused to seat a wealthy black lawyer in the city even after he had bought his tickets. That man, Andrew F. Stevens, would end up building his own theater a few years later! e. Slide 7: In fact, as you can see, Philadelphia’s most prominent black owned theaters were all built around the same time. (Prompt students to answer why and lead them towards a connection to the timing of the First Great Migration). The city’s wealthy black men built theaters that served a growing black population in Philadelphia and also provided a home for both local and touring black musicians, actors, comedians, and dancers. (Click mouse) They were all within blocks of each other in the heart of the Seventh Ward--the city’s largest and oldest black neighborhood. f. Slides 8, 9, and 10: Today, we’re going to look at documents that will reveal more about the black theater owners of Philadelphia and how they pushed back against the segregated spaces in the city. Before we do that, I want to give you some background on each of the three theaters: Gibson bought the Standard Theatre in 1914 from white owners who had discriminated against black paying customers for years. It was the first black owned theater in Philadelphia. Next, the Dunbar Theatre opened in 1919 and was the first black built, owned, and operated theater in Philadelphia. The Royal Theater, built in 1920, was the first black owned movie theater in the city. g. Slide 11: Our central historical question is: How and why were theaters centers of resistance against segregation during the First Great Migration? As you look at these documents today, we’re going to collect evidence to help us answer this question. 3. Document Analysis a. Teacher will separate class into groups of 4. One half of the class will analyze the documents from Group 1 and the other half will
54 analyze the documents from Group 2. Students will work together to answer the questions on the worksheets, but write their paragraphs separately. i. Teacher will explain to students in Group One: Using these documents, you will be researching and collecting evidence about how black theater owners themselves fought against segregated spaces and other forms of racism. ii. Teacher will explain to students in Group Two: Using these documents, you will be researching and collecting evidence about how and why civil rights activists in Philadelphia used theaters to fight segregation. iii. Students will share their paragraph with another peer from the opposite Group at the end of the class period or the following day. Peer pairs will discuss their findings and share out their discoveries about the opposite group member’s conclusions. 4. Suggested Final Discussion Questions a. What did you learn from your peer that wasn’t revealed in your sources? What other kinds of information do you want to know about the First Great Migration? How kinds of sources would you research first? b. Segregation was not mandated in the North like it was in the South with Jim Crow Laws. However, it still occurred in many different kinds of public spaces: theaters, housing, jobs, restaurants, etc. c. How does this still occur today? To fight it, would you use the tactics of the NAACP or the black theater owners? In other words, would you expose and challenge the white owned spaces, or would you create spaces of your own? Another form of resistance? Why? 5. Alternative Assessments a. Have students create a virtual walking tour picking four of the locations discussed in this lesson plan. They can either present a powerpoint in class or write up a tour script. Encourage students to visit the sites to take modern day pictures of the locations. b. Have students write alternate historical marker texts for the black owned theaters of Philadelphia to better represent the history learned in this lesson (segregation of public spaces, resistance to white racism, and black entrepreneurship during the First Great Migration). Have the students:
55 i. Research the text on the existing historical markers for the Standard, the Dunbar, and the Royal. Note: the Royal Theatre does not have a historical marker. ii. Write a new historical marker for 2 of the 3 theaters. Match the writing style of traditional historical markers: informative 3-4 sentences. iii. Write 1-2 pages explaining what they changed, why they changed it, and how their text better represents the civil rights history of the theater.
56 Group 1 Worksheet:
Document A:
When: ______What: ______
1. Who is the intended audience for this newspaper article? Cite at least one example from the text to support your claim. (1-2 sentences) 2. Why does the author want more businesses owned by people of color? Cite two examples from the text to support your claim. (1-2 sentences) 3. According to this article, how did Black theater owners fight against segregation in Philadelphia? Cite two examples from the text to support your claim.
Document B:
When: ______What: ______1. Why is Stevens meeting with the Police Superintendent and the Department of Public Safety? Cite at least one example from the text in your answer. (1-2 sentences) 2. Why did the newspaper report on this meeting? What do you think is the purpose of this article? (1-2 sentences) 3. According to this article, how did Black theater owners fight against segregation in Philadelphia? Cite two examples from the text to support your claim.
Document C:
When: ______What: ______
Please listen to Duke Ellington’s song “East St. Louis Toodle-oo” by searching the song on YouTube before answering the following questions.
1. In your own words, explain what is happening inside the image. Be descriptive and specific. (1-2 sentences) 2. Now, explain what is happening outside of the image, outside of this theater. Reflecting back on the evidence found in Documents A and B, explain the historical context of this photograph. (2-3 sentences) 3. Write a paragraph that cites all three sources at least once and answers the following question: How did Black theater owners resist segregation in Philadelphia? (5-6 sentences)
57 Group 2 Worksheet:
Document D:
When: ______What: ______
1. Who is the intended audience for this advertisement? Cite at least one example from the source to support your claim. (1-2 sentences) 2. What argument is the advertisement making about the Stanley Theatre? How do you know this? Cite two examples from the source that support your claim. (2-3 sentences) 3. Write down one or two questions that you have about this advertisement. What does the source NOT tell you?
Document E:
When: ______What: ______
1. Why does the article mention Jewish people who fight for equal rights? Cite two examples from the text to support your claim. (2-3 sentences) 2. According to this source, how did the NAACP use white owned theaters to protest and fight against segregation? Cite examples from the interview to prove your claim. (2-3 sentences) 3. Did this source answer any of your questions from Document D? What questions do you have after reading this article? What does the article NOT tell you?
Document F:
When: ______What: ______
1. “Of course, we were told to go upstairs, and Paul Binford went downstairs. I mean, he was swarthy complexion.” What does Martin mean by this sentence? Cite examples from the interview that prove your explanation. (2-3 sentences) 2. Did this source answer any of your questions from Sources D or E? What does this source NOT tell you? 3. Write a paragraph that cites all three sources at least once and answers the following questions: How and why did the NAACP use white owned theaters to protest and fight against segregation? Was this effective or no? (5-6 sentences)
58 Document A This newspaper article reports on the future opening of the Dunbar Theatre on Broad and Locust Streets (Citation: “The Dunbar Theatre,” Philadelphia Tribune. 16 March 1918.)
59 Jt ·1s not: t'hrough any• - • a.nistance• o• n- .. ♦ • .. • • • . their. part. tor'. they would have • put 'hhn out•ot business long o.go Sf Jt ha.d been In their power. . . · · We.. . would like to,·see ·soino of our ' , capltattst take .advo.ntage of ·some ot 1 the many.:,rolden bualnee· opportunl• tles 'here ·a.ad �open up �some- blialneas .. �·n��rpr�ae:s. · · •. � �4te_a, · -�0(1 �o�eis. 't"eacly ,made ololhlng,;w .'�llllntry. dry· ' gq�d•• . gro9ery� · · a-nil other : . 1 lnea: . I -knoJV:s��•-�U.1 ay that we 'hav,e them· · now� yes •. but ·what are ·they compal"ed wltti tbo�e of tbe·� o\her rac• wttn ' whom most. of us ·ap-end our money? · :. . .We: want up�to:·aate busln�as· 11ke .. looking· places· .that ·wut_ compare fay:,· . orably_ with any· other. -We c&ll bulld1 . the finest 'churches ·1n th&. world : and .they are necessary, but there a.tr& ·but · a few ·who :_draw any aalal'Y outs,de of· Jhe minlste·r.· ·.We-want.some buain6U •' enterprises- ' ao :that ,ve shall ..be able ..· to ·atve more work to our own so tbat· ··· they In .tu�n can· eupport our pTorea� :-elonal claue&.· , •.. . . . · ......
60 Document B
This newspaper article recounts a meeting between the Director of Public Safety, acting Superintendent of the Police, and Dunbar Theater owner Andrew F. Stevens. LONE WOMAN HOLDS A MOB OF 500 WHITE BRUTES AT BAY." Philadelphia Tribune. Aug 03, 1918.
61 62 Document C
This photograph shows Duke Ellington and His Orchestra playing at Nixon’s Grand Theatre, a black owned concert hall formerly located at the corner of Broad and Montgomery Streets in North Philadelphia. Citation: Mosley, John W. “Duke Ellington,” Jan. 13, 1939, John W. Mosley Photograph Collection. Charles L. Blockson Afro-American Collection. Philadelphia, PA.
63 Document D This is an advertisement for the Dunbar Theatre. Citation: “The New Colored Theatre,” Philadelphia Tribune. Sept. 7, 1918.
Transcription: Advertisement for African Americans to buy stock in a Philadelphia theatre where "you need not fear 'Jim Crowism' as the theatre will be controlled entirely by members of our own race." Shares at $10 each had to be purchased in blocks of five, but it was possible to pay $5 down and $5 per month.
64 Document E This newspaper article details the arrest of Stanton Theater manager William Lafferty. Citation: "Local Theatre Manager Held in $300 Bail." Philadelphia Tribune, Apr 20, 1933.
65 66 Document F
This is an excerpt from a 1987 interview conducted by Dr. Charles Hardy, a history professor at West Chester University, with Isadore Maximillian “Max” Martin Jr. (1910-1992). Martin’s family came to Philadelphia during the First Great Migration, and here, he discusses his work with the N.A.A.C.P. to integrate Philadelphia's movie theaters and hotels in the 1930s. I Citation: Transcript, “Max Martin’s Second Interview,” Interviewed by Charles Hardy. (Goin’ North, West Chester University. Online: https://goinnorth.org/max-martin- interview-2)
Isadore Martin: When I was a boy there were two theaters in West Philadelphia. One was known as the Knickerbocker and the other, the Eureka. I never went in either one, because they discriminated. The Negroes would go upstairs or on the side, and I was taught you cannot maintain your self- respect and knowingly do this. We would go downtown to the Royal Theater on South Street. We would go to the Gibson or the Dunbar Theater, or there were one or two theaters in Center City which did not segregate their places, and that was it. Or usually, about four times a year, my father would take us over to New York, and we would see a movie over there...
Charles Hardy: One of the things we mentioned last time was the Equal Rights bill that Hobson Reynolds introduced, in 1934, I guess. And that's something that I find fascinating, that at last, belatedly, Pennsylvania does get an equal rights law...Now when the Equal Rights Bill was passed in 1935, I know there was a good deal of testing of that legislation in Philadelphia: sit-ins by interracial groups, through the Quakers. Raymond Pace Alexander going with his friends to different tearooms and restaurants around the city. Did you participate in any of these restaurant bustings?
Martin: Yes, mine was in the theaters…. The Stanton Theater was owned by the Stanley Company of America, and it originally was the flagship of the group. It was originally known as the Stanley, and then when they built a new one at Nineteenth Street this became the Stanton. And they had a practice of Negroes would sit in the gallery. So together with two friends I went there. One was George Evans, who was the brother of Orrin Evans, the newspaper reporter. George was an art school student. I was just finished Penn, I think, or going to Penn. And we went there, and right behind us was a friend of mine, Paul Binford, who was a dental student.
Of course, we were told to go upstairs, and Paul Binford went downstairs. I mean, he was swarthy complexion.
So I got a warrant out. George and I got a warrant out for the manager of theater. We got his name, and they had a hearing...that stopped the theater segregation, right then and there. Hardy: Just in those theaters, or throughout the city?
Martin: All their theaters. See, they owned most of the theaters.
67 APPENDIX B: QUEEN OF THE ORGAN LESSON AND MATERIALS
Queen of the Organ: Shirley Scott and Soul Jazz
Materials ● Projector with Audio capabilities ● Documents A-E ● Copies of Worksheets 1 and 2
Essential Questions ● How do text, image, and sound work together and against each other to convey messages to the audience? ● Why was the word “soul” important to the Black Power Movement? ● What does “gendered language” mean, and how is it used in the music industry?
Objectives ● Students will critically listen to instrumental resources as historical evidence. ● Students will discuss and debate the cultural meanings of the word “soul” within the Black Power Movement and its relation to the musical culture of Philadelphia. ● Students will analyze gendered text in relation to visual and aural primary sources in order to answer the central historical question of: How did the Black Power Movement positively or negatively affect black women soul musicians?
Plan of Instruction 1. Warm Up a. Have the students listen to “Hip Soul,” the title track from Shirley Scott’s 1961 album. Display the name of the song and the year it was written clearly, but do NOT provide the artist’s name. Write/project the following questions on the board for the students to answer while the song plays: b. What does the term soul music mean to you? Does this song sound like soul music? Why or why not? Cite specific elements from this song (“Hip Soul”) and other songs or resources to make your argument. (3-4 sentences) c. Teacher will monitor student progress to know when to fade the song out. Ask for student volunteers to share their answers. Teacher will draw attention to the elements they cite from the song, and transition into the lecture. 2. Round One: Historical Context and Gendered Texts a. Teacher will lecture on the history of the word ‘soul’ in music of the Civil Rights and Black Power Movement; the lecture will focus on the power of 68 the word as it denotes authentic blackness and also provide a brief description of soul jazz in Philadelphia. ( 5-7 minutes, See Soul and Civil Rights in Philadelphia) b. Teacher will then project album cover of Hip Soul, provide a brief bio of Shirley Scott (See Shirley Scott Bio), and show this video. c. Teacher will ask students to write down the main argument the video is making about Shirley Scott as they watch it. What does the video say about Shirley Scott and why, try to cite specific examples and quotations from the video? d. After watching the video, teacher will ask students to share their answers with a partner sitting next to them and discuss. e. Teacher will allow students to share their answers and eventually call students’ attention to the line “People stopped saying lady organist or girl organist. They just said organist when they talked about Shirley.” Teacher will lead discussion about the implications of “lady” or “girl” organist and define gendered language for their students. (5 minutes) 3. Round Two: Document Analysis a. To provide an example and analysis of gendered language and imagery, teacher will project Document A and provide a brief explanation of what it is and what year it was written. Teacher will model how to use text and image together, and then proceed to prompt students to make similar statements about the document. i. Ex: “They’ve dressed her in a tight, sequined gown, I’m assuming to emphasize and highlight her gender in a stereotypical way. What other elements of the photograph support the phrase ‘A Woman First’? Why do you think this magazine would have wanted to emphasize Scott’s womanhood? b. Teacher will next allow students to analyze gendered text and images on their own. Distribute copies of Document B and project Document C at the front of the class. (Great Scott!) c. Students will complete the Worksheet 1 for Documents B and C in pairs. d. Share out responses. 4. Teacher will distribute copies of Document D and project Document E, the cover art for Shirley Scott and the Soul Saxes on the board. a. Teacher will explain: In 1967, Scott signed with Atlantic Records, a move that firmly solidified her as a soul artist. With well-known soul musicians like Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Ruth Brown, and Otis Redding, Atlantic Records specialized in recording and promoting black music to black audiences. In addition to the soul heavy musical roster, the producers, engineers, and executive board were also very diverse during
69 this time period. In fact, unlike all of her earlier recordings, two of Scott’s Atlantic releases featured liner notes written by black men. b. Students will complete Worksheet 2 for Document D and E. c. Share out responses. 5. Suggested Final Discussion Questions a. Based on these documents, how did the record companies’ portrayal of Shirley Scott change from 1957 to 1970? b. How do you think the Black Power Movement positively or negatively affected black women musicians? c. What other sources or pieces of evidence do you need to explore the portrayal of women in soul? How do you think you’d find these sources?
70 Shirley Scott Biography
Shirley Scott, an internationally recognized innovator of the Hammond B-3 organ, was born in Philadelphia, PA, on March 14, 1934 to a very musical family. They lived near the campus of Temple University on North 11th St., and in 1947, they moved farther north to the Strawberry Mansion neighborhood at 28th and Glenwood Avenue. To hear her tell it, it seemed as though everyone lived around the corner: Red Garland, John
Coltrane, Philly Joe Jones--a welcoming and vibrant musical community.
Scott’s first mention as a professional piano player in the local newspaper appears in 1951 at the age of 17.1 As a student of Philadelphia High School for Girls, she played piano and sang with several different bands throughout the city, and eventually, dropped out the last week of her senior year to tour with drummer James “Coatesville” Harris. She eventually received her GED through the mail at the request of her parents, but in the early 1950s, the jazz industry supported Scott financially despite being a high school dropout. Most importantly, one popular Philadelphia jazz club facilitated her switch from piano to Hammond B-3 organ. In 1955, the owner of Spider Kelly’s on Mole Street rented an organ for Scott to practice, and after a few years of regional fame, she went on tour with Eddie “Lockjaw” Davis, a nationally known tenor saxophone player.2
She recorded her first solo album in 1957 on a soul jazz label, but within her career, she recorded with big band orchestras, small groups, funk bands, and was an
1Jenkins, Joyce. “As You Like It.” Philadelphia Tribune. Philadelphia, PA ,June 2, 1951.
2 McPartland, Marian, interviewer, “Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz with Guest Shirley Scott: Conversation & Music as Heard on National Public Radio. Concord, CA :Jazz Alliance, 1993.
71 incredibly versatile musician. In a career spanning four decades, Scott recorded over fifty albums, played jazz around the world, and also taught jazz history and performance at Cheyney University outside of Philadelphia.
72 Soul and Civil Rights in Philadelphia
The themes of protest and black liberation can be seen in music throughout the
20th century. Folk and blues musicians like Odetta, Pete Seeger, Lighning Hopkins, and
Woody Guthrie penned songs arguing for everything from labor rights, environmental justice, and civil rights. In the early 1960s, many jazz musicians, especially those identified with the Nation of Islam, used music as an expression of radical black empowerment in the development of free jazz. The songs had overt lyrics or song titles identifying them with the movement for civil rights, and musicians like John Coltrane,
Yusuf Lateef, and Ornette Coleman worked to create a new kind of music separate from white culture.
With a well-established, politically organized African American community, unapologetically black music thrived in Philadelphia. The civil rights movement in
Philadelphia centered radical black nationalism, self-reliance and grassroots tactics decades before these methods were nationalized by the Black Power Movement in the late 1960s. By the 1960s, the Civil Rights liberalism exhibited by the city’s wealthiest
African Americans no longer resonated with the wider black community. Community leaders like Leon H. Sullivan and Cecil B. Moore advanced a “protest strategy rooted in black consumer power, rather than the liberal civil rights policy of bureaucratic, legislative change.”1 Successful boycotting campaigns and work training programs taught
1 To learn more about the history of black nationalism in Philadelphia see: Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 103.
73 Philadelphians that they could combat racial discrimination without the help of white allies or government agencies.
Starting in the mid-1960s, the term soul music became synonymous with black music. Among white music industry executives, it was a “racially specific marketing category label,” replacing the term “rhythm and blues” which had itself replaced “race.”2
However, within the black community, despite the capitalist appropriation of the term, jazz historian Amiri Baraka asserts that soul denoted an essence: “the necessary and sufficient condition of authentic blackness.” In Philadelphia, soul musicians participated in massively successful fundraisers for Civil Rights organizations. In Spring of 1964, a fundraiser at Convention Hall for the NAACP Freedom Fund with headliner Sam Cooke raised $30,000.3 The money also went to charitable organizations of the local black media: the WDAS and Philadelphia Tribune Charities. “Freedom Shows” at the Uptown
Theater on Broad Street also raised money for various civil rights organizations. These shows had a much younger crowd and mostly featured soul acts, like 1963’s Jackie
Wilson show that raised $5,000.4
The popularity of soul music and black self-assertion in Philadelphia also influenced how other styles of music were played in the city. Soul jazz, a subgenre with heavy pop, blues, and gospel influences, was incredibly popular and the Hammond B-3
2Joel Rudinow “What Is Soul? (And What Is Soul Music?)” In Soul Music: Tracking the Spiritual Roots of Pop from Plato to Motown.(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010), 10.
3 “Georgie Woods Vows to Learn True Facts of Slain Singing Pals Death,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 15, 1964.
4 Shields, Del. “Taking Care of Business,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 6, 1963.
74 organ as a jazz instrument was mainly popularized in Philadelphia. Aside from Shirley
Scott, most all famous jazz organists hail from Philadelphia: Jimmy Smith, Jimmy
McGriff, Trudy Pitts, Joey DeFrancesco, Bill Doggett, Charles Earland, and many others.
Soul jazz thrived live and in jukeboxes of black owned and frequented bars and clubs.
75 Worksheet 1
Document B: Excerpt from the album liner notes of Great Scott!
1) What type of document is this?
Who wrote it?
When?
2) What argument is the author making about women jazz musicians? Cite two examples from the text.
3) Does the album cover photograph emphasize/highlight Scott’s gender? Does the album cover seem to support the author’s argument in the liner notes? Why or why not?
4) Is this a reliable source for understanding what it was like to be a black woman playing jazz in the 1950s? Why or why not?
76 Worksheet 2
Document : Excerpt from the album liner notes of Something D
1. What type of document is this?
Who wrote it?
When?
2. What argument is the author making about women jazz musicians? Cite two examples from the text.
3. The album cover on the board is from a 1969 release from Atlantic Records. How do her Atlantic Records releases reflect the Black Power Movement? Cite one example from the album cover and one example from Document C.
4. Citing the sources you have examined in class today, did the Black Power Movement change the way the music industry presented black women musicians? Use 3 different pieces of evidence to prove your argument.
77 Document A
Citation: Gardner, Barbara. “Shirley Scott: A Woman First,” Downbeat. October 1962.
78 Document B Citation: Shirley Scott, Great Scott!, Prestige 7143, 1958.
Excerpt from the original liner notes of Great Scott! written by Ira Gitler:
“’She plays good---for a girl.’ This statement has been heard many times in jazz circles. Overlooking the bad grammar, it has been true more often than not...female jazz players have lacked, among other things, the swing and authentic drive which mark the bona fide jazz musician.
It doesn’t take long to realize that a genuine jazz feeling is embodied in the playing of Shirley Scott. She is only a slip of a girl but she makes that Hammond roar when she wants to. I might add that she chooses the times she wants to very astutely...At the organ, she does a man-sized job.”
79 Document C
Shirley Scott, Hip Soul, Prestige 7205, 1961.
80 Document D
Excerpt from the original liner notes of Something written by Reginald Gibson
“Today, Now & How! This lady has brought the scintillating changes of her own feminine mystique to the world of jazz. Everyone is aware of the great awakening among women of today. This spiritually and sensually alive quality is beautifully exhibited by this talented Black Woman. What better way for a hip black sister to express herself than through the multi-voiced organ and what better musical medium than that of ever moving jazz!
...On Side Two Shirley comes back with another song about women. There is Something about every mysterious, sensual woman that makes her memorable. A smile, a walk, a particular movement--something. Shirley, with her knowledge of femaleness brings to mind, everything that is sensual, soft, unnamed perhaps about every woman who has that Something.
...I like to feel that Brand New Me* is Shirley’s acknowledgement of all those changes that Women in general, and Black Women in particular have been and are still going through. There’s a certain self assurance in the arrangement, yet we are left with the thought that there is more to come.”
*This is a title of one of the songs on the album.
81 Document E
Citation: Shirley Scott, Shirley Scott & The Soul Saxes, Atlantic 1532, 1969, vinyl.
82