sign in sign up
<<
Home , Education

Tertiary and Musicians’

Jenni Anne Hillman

ORCID Identifier: 0000-0001-8611-2158

December 2018

Melbourne Graduate of Education

The of Melbourne

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

ii

Abstract

Australian tertiary offer many courses for musicians intent on working in the music . There has been, however, limited into how these courses from different providers contribute to musicians’ careers. The rationale for conducting this research was to provide insights to educators on how they might courses to meet better the of musicians preparing to in the .

A review of the literature highlighted the concerns of educators and academics about the balance in emphasis between musical expertise and industry practice. This study examined the merits of different pedagogical through the of graduates from different tertiary music offerings.

Using a mixed methods approach and a descriptive, interpretive research design, this study explored the of tertiary music graduates and how their contributed to establishing their music careers. Data were analysed around three themes, (1) the characteristics of music portfolio careers, (2) tertiary experiences and graduate outcomes, and (3) the ongoing professional development needs of musicians for sustaining a music .

The findings demonstrate the formidable challenges of working in a music portfolio career including the self- of a career in a precarious market. Such careers required a mix of work realms such as music practice, teaching and entrepreneurial activities to generate new work. Consequently, career trajectories were found to be necessarily circuitous and “messy” but there is evidence that tertiary music education is a significant intervention in the continuum of learning for a musician’s career. It is argued that there are five broad categories of proficiencies that are required first to establish and then sustain a music career. The and emphases from different tertiary music providers in the Australian of Victoria contributed in different ways towards musicians’ careers. Furthermore, there were some shortcomings in requisite proficiencies which suggest the potential for further curricular development. This potential lay in both undergraduate courses to better prepare musicians for starting out in their careers, and post-graduate courses to provide further development for the sustainability of musicians’ careers.

iii

iv

Declaration

(i) The thesis comprises the original work towards the Doctor of Education.

(ii) Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used.

(iii) The thesis is fewer than the maximum word limit in length, exclusive of tables, figures, bibliographies and appendices.

13 December 2018

v Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my late father, Ken Barker. Ken’s vision and innovative energy as a music educator and leader in the development of tertiary music education in TAFE were inspirational for me and countless others. His influence as an educator changed lives. His vision for the development of bachelor and master’s degrees at TAFE is his lasting legacy. His , confidence and pride in me as a music educator and researcher has been a constant source of comfort and support to me throughout my professional career and this doctoral journey.

vi

Acknowledgements

Many acknowledgements to be made to people who have contributed in some way to the completion of this research.

I acknowledge the musicians who participated in this study. Their generosity in completing the online survey and willingness to be interviewed was much appreciated. Without their participation, this thesis would not have been possible.

I am very grateful for the generous assistance, expertise and guidance from my , Associate Neryl Jeanneret from the Melbourne of Education and Professor David Forrest from the School of Art at RMIT University. Thank you for your kind words, support and invaluable comments on my research.

I would also like to thank Professor David Beckett for his wisdom and guidance as my advisory panel chair in the earlier part of my candidacy and for the latter part, Dr Robert Brown for his support in this role.

Thank you to my three children and extended family for their support and encouragement. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Tony, for his unfailing support, love, encouragement and confidence in my ability to complete this thesis. Thank you also for your invaluable proof- throughout the doctoral journey.

vii

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... iii Declaration ...... v Dedication ...... vi Acknowledgements ...... vii Table of Contents ...... viii List of Tables ...... xiv List of Figures ...... xvi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ...... xviii Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1

Background ...... 1

A preliminary comparative review of tertiary music courses ...... 2

Research Aims, Questions and Importance of the Study ...... 3

Organisation of the Thesis...... 4

Chapter 2 Literature Review: A Musician’s Career ...... 7

Why Work in Music? ...... 7

Creative Industries...... 9

New music industry models ...... 10

The Creative Trident ...... 11

Inside the Portfolio ...... 13

Income and work hours ...... 16

The Question of Identity ...... 19

What is Success? ...... 22

Chapter 3 Literature Review: Tertiary Music Education ...... 25

Transition ...... 25

Life course and lifespan theories ...... 25

viii

New interpretations of transition theories ...... 27

Policy Changes in Tertiary Music Education in Victoria ...... 28

Historical developments in music - and -2001 ...... 28

Tertiary music education developments since 2001 ...... 29

Implications of policy changes since 2001 ...... 30

Higher Education and Vocational Education and ...... 34

Purpose of HE and VET ...... 34

Academic versus vocational ...... 36

Review of Music Education: Choices ...... 37

A Comparative Review of Provision of Post-Secondary Music Education and Training in Victoria (2015) ...... 38

Priorities for Tertiary Music Education ...... 42

Career awareness ...... 42

Career identities and artistic selves ...... 45

Broader conceptualisations for and skills ...... 46

Exemplars for Provision of Learning ...... 49

Entrepreneurship and ...... 49

Work-integrated Learning (WiL) ...... 50

Embedded employability skills ...... 52

Summary: Literature Review Chapters 2 and 3 ...... 53

Chapter 4 ...... 55

Positioning ...... 55

Methodology ...... 56

Mixed Methods ...... 58

ix

Research Design ...... 62

Tertiary music education sites and qualifications ...... 62

Recruitment ...... 64

Research design sequence ...... 65

Stage 1: Program Leader Interviews ...... 66

Overview ...... 66

Selection and ...... 67

Stage 2: Online Survey ...... 67

Overview ...... 67

Construction of the online Music, Education and Careers Survey (MECS)...... 68

Participant recruitment and online survey ...... 71

Stage 3: Alumni Interviews ...... 73

Intent and content of alumni semi-structured interviews ...... 73

Selection and recruitment ...... 74

Limitations and Trustworthiness ...... 76

Online survey questions ...... 76

Online survey distribution method...... 77

Semi-structured interviews ...... 78

Ethical Considerations...... 81

Analyses ...... 82

Quantitative – IBM SPSS 23 and Microsoft Excel ...... 82

Qualitative -QSR NVivo11 ...... 82

Summary ...... 83

Chapter 5 Findings and Discussion: Music Careers ...... 85

The Study Participants ...... 85

x

Defining the Music Career ...... 88

Work hours...... 88

Breakdown of music-related work activities ...... 92

The question of professional identity ...... 96

Income...... 101

Musicians’ Career Journeys ...... 107

Early influences leading to music careers ...... 107

Motivation ...... 109

Building a portfolio ...... 110

Self-management of a music portfolio ...... 115

Entrepreneurship ...... 119

Expectations and Goals ...... 120

Meeting of expectations ...... 120

Changing of goals ...... 121

Formative events in career journeys ...... 123

Summary ...... 126

Chapter 6 Findings and Discussion: Tertiary Music Education ...... 128

Overview of Institutions and Qualifications ...... 128

Institution types ...... 128

Undergraduate qualifications and specialisations ...... 129

Reasons for choice of provider ...... 130

Earlier music education pathways ...... 132

Curriculum ...... 136

Most beneficial subjects ...... 137

Suggestions for changes for degree programs ...... 138

xi

Pedagogical Approaches ...... 139

Perspectives of program leaders ...... 140

Perspectives of alumni interviewees ...... 142

Music Industry Knowledge and Skills ...... 146

The extent of learning on industry topics ...... 146

Generic employability skills ...... 150

Work experience ...... 152

Rating of Courses ...... 154

Effectiveness in contributing to careers ...... 154

Meeting of expectations and goals ...... 156

Summary of Findings for Tertiary Music Education ...... 161

Chapter 7 Findings and Discussion: Sustaining a Music Career ..... 163

Strategising a Career in Music ...... 163

Professional Development Needs...... 167

Music disciplinary skills ...... 167

Music industry knowledge and skills ...... 169

Methods of Professional Learning ...... 170

Role of Social Networks ...... 173

The Role of Tertiary Institutions ...... 174

Formal post-graduate study...... 174

Informal professional learning ...... 176

Summary ...... 178

Chapter 8 Discussion and Conclusion ...... 179

Sub-question 1: What are the Characteristics of Music Careers? ...... 179

Sub-question 2: What are the Graduate Outcomes of Tertiary Music Courses

xii from Different Provider Types? ...... 182

Sub-Question 3: How Do Musicians Sustain Their Careers? ...... 184

Requisite Proficiencies for a Career as a Musician ...... 186

The Central Question: How Does Tertiary Music Education Contribute to Musicians’ Careers? ...... 188

Recommendations ...... 190

Limitations ...... 191

Directions for Further Research ...... 191

Conclusion ...... 192

References ...... 193 Appendix 1 ...... 203 Appendix 2 ...... 205 Appendix 3 ...... 206 Appendix 4 ...... 220 Appendix 5 ...... 221 Appendix 6 ...... 223

xiii

List of Tables

Table 2.1 The Creative Trident ...... 12 Table 2.2 Median Gross Creative and Arts-Related and Non-Arts Related Incomes for Musicians for 2000-01, 2007-08 and 2014-15 (in 2015 $) ...... 17 Table 2.3 Means of Work Hours-Per-Week for Creative and Arts-Related Work, and Non-Arts Related Work for Musicians for 2000-01, 2007-8 and 2014-15 ...... 18 Table 3.1 Comparison of Whole Course Tuition Fees and Government Subsidies for Three-Year Music Degree in 2015 ...... 32 Table 3.2 Breakdown and Proportion of Music Degrees by Subject (Victoria, 2015) ..... 40 Table 4.1 Overview of Research Questions and Relationship with Mixed Methods and Tools ...... 59 Table 4.2 Initial Scope of Educational Sites ...... 62 Table 4.3 Post-Secondary Qualifications (Undergraduate) and the Australian Qualifications Framework ...... 63 Table 4.4 Revised Scope of Educational Sites ...... 64 Table 4.5 Potential Bias Problems and Mitigation Strategies ...... 79 Table 5.1 Overview of Program Leader Interviewees ...... 85 Table 5.2 Alumni Interviewees and Tertiary Course Data ...... 87 Table 5.3 Music Employment Status ...... 88 Table 5.4 Hours Per Week on Music-Related Employment by Music Employment Status ...... 89 Table 5.5 Hours Per Week in Non-Music-Related Employment Cross-Tabulated with Hours Per Week in Music-Related Employment ...... 90 Table 5.6 Percentage of Total Income Earned from Music-Related Work ...... 102 Table 5.7 Cross-tabulation of Level of Current Music Career Meeting Expectations by Career Stage (n=221) ...... 120 Table 6.1 Course Specialisations for Bachelor and Sub-Bachelor Courses by Type ...... 130 Table 6.2 Reasons for Choice of Music Provider (n=180) (n=490 responses) ...... 131 Table 6.3 Overview Qualification Levels and Specialisations of Earlier Music Courses ...... 133 Table 6.4 Cases Having Studied Earlier Bachelor Courses Prior to Most Recent Undergraduate Course ...... 134 Table 6.5 Cross-Tabulation of Variable- Insufficient Performance or Contract Opportunities with Provider Type, (n=133) ...... 158

xiv

Table 6.6 Alumni Interviewees and Career Trajectories at Time of Interviews ...... 159 Table 7.1 Suggested Topics for Professional Development ...... 177

xv

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Structure of the thesis ...... 4 Figure 2.1 Median gross income showing creative and arts-related and total for musicians for survey years 2000-01, 2007-08 and 2014-15 (in 2015 $) ...... 18 Figure 4.1 Conceptual map of this study ...... 61 Figure 4.2 chart of the research sequence and timeline ...... 65 Figure 4.3 Relationship between sections of the CWI and MECS ...... 69 Figure 5.1 Overview of survey respondents—age, and career stage ...... 86 Figure 5.2 Percentage of respondents’ total employment hours in five ranges (n=193) .. 91 Figure 5.3 Percentage of respondents engaged in music-related employment ...... 92 Figure 5.4 Activity upon which respondents spend the most time on (n=198) ...... 93 Figure 5.5 Respondents’ choice of professional identity (n=199) ...... 97 Figure 5.6 Distribution and percentile graph showing median for annual income for respondents working full-time in music, (n=110) ...... 103 Figure 5.7 Annual income for respondents working part-time in music, (n=89) ...... 104 Figure 5.8 Annual income earned from music for all respondents working in music, (n=199) ...... 104 Figure 5.9 Annual total income for respondents (music and non-music combined) (n=198) ...... 105 Figure 5.10 Sources of income, (n=194) (n responses=451) ...... 105 Figure 5.11 Respondents’ highest earning sources of income (n=194) ...... 106 Figure 5.12 Respondents’ music learning prior to the end of (n=228) ...... 108 Figure 5.13 Respondents’ primary reason for becoming a musician, (N=232) ...... 109 Figure 5.14 Factors influencing changes in respondents’ music career goals (n=176) (n=576 responses) ...... 121 Figure 5.15 Formative event themes in respondents’ careers journeys ...... 123 Figure 6.1 Respondents by provider type indicating beneficial subjects for their degree ...... 137 Figure 6.2 Most frequent suggestions for change to degree courses ...... 138 Figure 6.3 Comparison of degree graduates' extent of learning on industry topics by provider type (n=162) ...... 147 Figure 6.4 VET graduates’ extent of learning on industry topics (n=14) ...... 148 Figure 6.5 Comparison of average ratings for degree course effectiveness ...... 155

xvi

Figure 6.6 Comparison of average ratings for VET course effectiveness in contributing ...... 155 Figure 6.7 Level of satisfaction with current music career meeting expectations ...... 156 Figure 6.8 Comparison of degree graduates' reasons for changing goals by provider type, (n=133) ...... 157 Figure 7.1 Areas of need for further development of music knowledge and skills ...... 168 Figure 7.2 Areas of need for further development of music industry knowledge and skills ...... 169 Figure 7.3 Respondents on methods of furthering music and industry knowledge and skills, ...... 170 Figure 7.4 Percentage of degree graduates with post-graduate qualifications ...... 174 Figure 8.1 Model of requisite proficiencies for a musician's career ...... 186

xvii

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

Acronym/ Meaning Abbreviation

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

AQF Australian Qualifications Framework

Austrade Australian Trade and Investment Commission

CAE of Advanced Education

CSP Commonwealth Supported Place

CWI Creative Workers Instrument

DIY Do It Yourself

FEE-HELP Government loan scheme towards fees for eligible

HE Higher Education

MECS Music, Education and Careers Survey

NUHEP Non-University Higher Education Provider

PAO Principal Artistic Occupation

UNESCO Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation

TAFE Technical and

TEQSA Quality and Standards Agency

SAC Specialist Arts College

VET Vocational Education and Training

WiL Work-integrated Learning

xviii

Chapter 1 Introduction

Background

The quest for this study germinated in 2005 and grew over the following ten years while I was teaching and managing both Vocational Education and Training (VET) and Higher Education (HE) music programs. Working in a Technical and Further Education (TAFE) environment, where VET programs focused primarily on employment outcomes it was apparent to me that alongside the development of a high level of musical skill and depth of knowledge, graduates needed to be able to apply their skills immediately to their employment.

The year 2005 was significant because it was the first year all levels of a new suite of music degree programs in performance, composition and audio production were implemented. These programs were designed to meet the needs of musicians primarily in contemporary popular and jazz genres. The TAFE institute offering degrees for the first time was subject to rigorous review processes and external auditing. There was already a cohort of students progressing through a three-year curriculum-based Advanced . Such was the of this qualification that long-standing articulation arrangements enabled direct entry to an end-on teaching qualification at The University of Melbourne and Deakin University.

I had a problem in 2005. I was to teach a third-year subject to the converting Advanced diploma graduates who were enrolling into a fourth year for the conversion of the Advanced diploma to a Bachelor degree. They had previously completed the content of an industry-based subject in their Advanced diploma. So, I devised a one- off extension program for that cohort which included a small group research project into the conditions of musicians within the music industry. The results of this small study reinforced my belief that tertiary music education could and should do more to prepare musicians for the difficulties of the music career. This was the initial inspiration for this research.

My interest in how TAFE graduates fared with gaining work and operating in portfolio careers grew. Annual graduate surveys were collected some months after , but music portfolio careers seemed to take much longer to get established than regular work pathways. What became of these TAFE graduates? What

1 opportunities did they have for paid work? In what activities were they engaged in the music industry? What aspects of their course of study did they find useful? Did they find the aims and pedagogical orientation of their course of study advantageous to starting out in their career? Because the degree programs offered by TAFE and by other non-university providers were new, I wanted to know how their graduate outcomes compared with those who had studied in more established institutions. Ten years later, in 2015, I came back to research this issue.

A preliminary comparative review of tertiary music courses

To provide an overview of the scope of tertiary music education provision in Victoria, I conducted a desktop . Using from institution , printed promotional material and from attending public institution open days, I explored similarities and differences in tertiary music curricula. In this review, I examined 68 courses including all post-secondary music specialisations from Certificate IV level through to Bachelor degrees delivered at 19 Victorian institutions. The report, (Hillman, 2015) contrasted the differences in emphases of curriculum content between programs at the different institutions. In examining the priorities in the assemblage of the course components, I was able to compare courses at an elemental level, categorising subject content into areas such as core music technical or discipline, applied music, music business, breadth and elective subjects.

This review of Victorian tertiary music courses demonstrated that provision of both disciplinary knowledge and applied music practice occurred in all course orientations, albeit to different extents. The of music industry learning and career management skills was variable between providers with courses from the Non- University Higher Education Providers (NUHEPs) placing a greater emphasis on these studies which would better equip graduates for employment in the music industry. The review also highlighted significant inequity in course fees and accrued loan debts between students studying at different institutions (Hillman, 2015).

Limitations of the desktop audit approach included (a) in only examining titles and descriptors of subjects there was potential for making erroneous assumptions about content and (b) without exploring graduates’ actual experiences it lacked a depth of understanding pertaining to the relevancy and impact of those programs on musicians’ careers. To overcome these limitations a new study could involve further scrutiny of

2 curriculum detail together with qualitative research to provide such understanding. Following this comparative review of courses, the current study explored graduates’ perspectives of their educational experience at different institutions, focusing on pedagogical approaches and content. As well as the difference in courses, individuals have their own aims and expectations of study and choose their course and institution accordingly. All these factors play into how a graduate might perceive their training. To be able to contextualise their appraisal of their education experience required an understanding of the individual’s journey with their particular opportunities, challenges and personal circumstances. To gain such an understanding required three further aspects to the research: (1) to define the profile of the music careers of the study cohort, (2) to examine the graduate outcomes of the different tertiary music courses, and (3) to consider how musicians can sustain their careers.

Research Aims, Questions and Importance of the Study

The aims of the research are as follows:

1. To explore the characteristics of music careers of alumni of tertiary music programs in Victoria. This involved examining the sort of work an early- career graduate might obtain and how they established themselves to gain their preferred type of work.

2. To explore how these musicians managed the work opportunities, roles, identities and practical aspects of their careers. I sought to understand the diversity of their workload and the balancing of short and long-term career objectives.

3. To conduct a comparison of emphases in pedagogies and program content offered by different tertiary providers from the learners’ perspectives to expand upon the earlier comparative review of tertiary music courses (Hillman, 2015).

4. To understand how these musicians valued the contribution of their particular tertiary music program in the of their music careers. The results of the first three aims would provide context for the fourth aim:

These aims led to the central research question:

3

How does tertiary music education contribute to musicians’ careers?

Underpinning this question are three sub-questions:

1. What are the characteristics of music careers?

2. What are the graduate outcomes of tertiary music courses from different provider types?

3. How do musicians sustain their careers?

I identify the importance of this research as: (1) adding to scholarly knowledge and research literature filling an identified gap by investigating the careers of music graduates from different providers of Victorian tertiary music education, (2) applying the findings of this research to identify strategies for improvement to curricular and pedagogical approaches in tertiary music education and (3) identifying needs for further research. As such it makes a contribution towards the continuous improvement of tertiary music education to better prepare musicians for working in the music industry.

Organisation of the Thesis

The overall structure of the thesis is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Structure of the thesis

4

Chapter 1 provides some background and introduces the personal drivers for the initiation of this research quest. It introduces the aims and research questions, and the organisation of this thesis is described. The Literature review follows and is divided into two chapters.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature about the characteristics of musicians’ portfolio careers including a discussion of modern industry models and technological advances which have significantly impacted the way musicians work in their careers demanding a wide range of skills.

Chapter 3 reviews the literature about tertiary music education beginning with a discussion of transition from education to work theories. A brief of the development of music education in Victoria is outlined, and a discussion follows about research contributing to the debates about purposes of higher education and vocational education and training. The review includes studies investigating graduate outcomes to date and identification of knowledge and skills needed for music portfolio careers. A gap in the literature is exposed as a major driver for this research.

Chapter 4 describes the methodology used to conduct this research. The conceptual map of the mixed methods approach is presented along with the limitations and trustworthiness issues, ethical concerns and tools.

Chapter 5 reports and discusses findings on the characteristics of music careers of graduates.

Chapter 6 reports and discusses the findings on graduates’ tertiary music education with a particular focus on how their education contributed to their careers. Differences in curricular and pedagogical emphases between providers are explored, and concerns of participants are reported.

Chapter 7 reports and discusses findings on graduates’ strategies for the future and professional development needs for a sustainable career.

Chapter 8 discusses the research sub-questions and brings together the issues and concepts from earlier chapters. Synthesising the findings to answer the central research question a model is proposed. Recommendations for tertiary music education

5 are made. Limitations of the research are described, and avenues for future investigation are recommended.

Points of clarification

The use of the word courses refers to whole programs that result in a certification or degree and not, individual subjects within them.

Providers and institutions are used interchangeably.

Alumni and graduates are used interchangeably.

The word survey is used to mean the online questionnaire rather than the research study more generally.

In Chapters 5, 6 and 7 descriptive statistics have been applied for most items. In most instances where relevant, I have used the Gamma statistic for the of significance. On one occasion I have used chi-square. Assumption for significance: p <.05

6

Chapter 2 Literature Review: A Musician’s Career

This chapter is the first of two reviewing the literature relevant to this study and explores literature to contextualise the first part of this study: that is, defining the careers of musicians.

The first section focuses on motivation or calling followed by an overview of the and the implications of emerging music industry models for musicians. I briefly summarise the Creative Trident methodology for statistical analyses of creative workers’ portfolios and its identified shortcomings. This is followed by an examination of studies which analyse the type and sector of work within the music portfolio career, trends in musicians’ income and working hours, and a discussion of musicians’ sense of identity and how it is linked to time and energy spent in different roles. The chapter finishes with a discussion about success in the music industry.

Why Work in Music?

It is well established that making a living from a career in music is fraught with difficulties. While some musicians strive to assemble a portfolio of activities that is relatively stable, most need also to be reactive, to evolve and change the mix of activities to maintain sufficient income to sustain a living over time. Insufficient and sporadic income, managing self-employment, balancing a variety of gigs and projects and the necessity for constantly pursuing new work and opportunities are some of the characteristics of a music portfolio that is precariously protean (Bennett, Coffey, Fitzgerald, Petocz, & Rainnie, 2014; Hannan, 2012). This is despite the considerable contribution the music industry makes to Australian and the (Bartleet et al., 2012; Hughes, Keith, Morrow, Evans, & Crowdy, 2013; Parker, 2015; Watson & Forrest, 2012). If working in the music industry is so difficult, the question must be asked why do young people decide to become professional musicians?

Music is unique in the realm of occupational disciplines due to the longevity of music learning, often starting in early childhood. Music instrumental or vocal tuition is usually encouraged through family and private instrumental or vocal lessons. It can be extra-curricular or supported through the structures of primary,

7 secondary and tertiary education. Thus, musicians develop a sense of musical identity from a very early age (Smilde, 2009). Music can also be informal, participatory and involve peer-to-. For some contemporary musicians, the learning practices are more socially situated within peer groups, and the acquisition of skills and knowledge is an immersive process highlighted by Green (2002) as .

In seeking to understand reasons why young people chose to study music with the intention of working as performing musicians rather than as of music, Parkes and Jones (2011) surveyed music majors at seven institutions. Through qualitative data analysis and a grounded approach, they identified four themes contributing to their decision-making. These were:

1. enjoyment in playing music 2. ability 3. a belief that being a musician is useful and 4. musicians’ identity (p. 20).

The study was situated within the North American college system whereby students often began together as one cohort and then diverged into different tracks for college majors in either music or music education. Parkes and Jones asserted that “students consider a career in music performance because they it” and, that “these students appear to place their performance enjoyment above all else, even practical matters such as ” (p. 26).

The drive to become musically proficient throughout the schooling years, to continue into and then, for it to transform into the passion that leads to the pursuit of a career in music is described by Dobrow (2013) as a calling. In her study, Dobrow defined the calling as “a consuming, meaningful passion people experience toward a domain” (p. 433). In contrast to the more established theory of calling being unchanging and findable, she proposed and tested the notion that calling was dynamic, in that it could change over time and be shaped by antecedent factors (p. 448). Moving from a passion for music to a position of actively pursuing a path towards working as a musician is often a result of earlier experiences both intrinsic and extrinsic (Tolmie, 2014). This research implies that calling plays a significant role in career decision-making.

8

Creative Industries

Earning an income from music is a creative activity and is therefore assigned to the creative industries for large population and statistical studies. Creative Industries is an umbrella category which encapsulates activities and work roles that specifically relate to creative and performing arts, fine arts and design and media industries. The cultural and creative industries as defined by United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) broadens this scope by including production activities that make creations available to the public: “sectors of organised activity whose principal purpose is the production or reproduction, promotion, distribution and/or commercialization of , services and activities of a cultural, artistic or heritage- related nature” (UNESCO, 2018). Similarly, the Australian Trade and Investment Commission (Austrade) lists the creative industries as one of nineteen industry capabilities and identifies the six sectors within it as; , performing arts, visual arts, screen production, screen services and facilities, and music (Austrade, 2018).

A succinct, up-to-date overview of the Australian creative industries is found in the Forecast and proposed of work: Culture and related industries (Skills for and the Culture and Related Industries Industry Reference Committee, 2017) produced at the direction of the Federal Minister for Vocational Education and Training. The forecast and schedule reflect research into the sector, the trends shaping it and implications for training. While this forecast is aimed at informing Vocational Education and Training, the analyses provides a pertinent snapshot of required skills for prospective workers in the Creative Industries. In describing the work environment, the following quote accords with the work of academics in the field:

Many participants are contractors or sole operators, with unstable work patterns who likely require multiple to earn a living. Dealing with and mitigating this difficult work environment will require an additional of skills than the technical performance skills taught in qualifications (Skills for Australia and the Culture and Related Industries Industry Reference Committee, p. 3).

This overview grouped skills priorities into five categories.

1. current specific technical skills core to the particular occupation,

9

2. problem-solving skills that are creative and adaptable in application to and ideas

3. the ability to build and manage relationships and work in teams with relevant personnel including resilience and communication techniques

4. and strategic skills for creative people, including personal branding and marketing to a wide variety of stakeholders and

5. small business and contracting skills including property and other legal knowledge, as well as budgeting and administrative functions

(Skills for Australia and the Culture and Related Industries Industry Reference Committee, 2017, p. 4). These categories and lists of skills appear in most of the literature on portfolio careers in various combinations.

New music industry models

Hughes, Evans, Morrow, and Keith (2016) argue that while change in any industry is inevitable, because of the close alliance of music with and facility, the rate and extent of change in the music industry has been extraordinary and - changing. They claimed that the structure of the music industry and how it operates has fundamentally changed and preferred the plural form of industries to better reflect its diversity. They identified five revenue stream groups: “live performance, merchandise, song publishing, recorded music and sponsorship deals” (p. 18). Increased and immediate access to digital files online throughout the 1990s and into the enabled (a) global piracy with its negative impact on creatives and the music market, (b) instant and global communication and collaboration and, (c) new mechanisms and platforms for production and distribution (Hughes et al., 2016; Moodie, 2016). More recent, however, has been the impact of online streaming services which appear to have partially restored some control over remuneration from consumers but simultaneously has opened completely new ways of doing business and in so doing, a new way of viewing the artistic worth of musical products.

As a result of their ethnographic study investigating how the new industry environments have impacted on musicians, Hughes et al. identified three career models for musicians. These are:

10

1. The 360-model evolved with the rise of record companies. In return for investment in their signed artists, they derived income for themselves and their artists in all five revenue stream groups listed above. Record company returns from this model have diminished greatly due to the digital and internet developments in the past twenty or so years.

2. The entrepreneur model transferred the capital risk to the artists. In this model, the artists themselves subcontract management and production roles but still engage the record companies for marketing and distribution. The proportions of can change over the different stages of their career, but this model does mean that the artist maintains some control and independence.

3. The Do-It-Yourself (DIY) model bypasses the traditional record companies by the artist directly managing themselves and distributing their own product with some strategic outsourcing as needed. Hughes et al. claimed that the accessibility of the internet as a tool for distribution has created a crowded marketplace and that the artist now takes on a huge workload in strategising their way through it to procure exposure.

This shift in career models has meant that the record companies and artist managers are still involved, but more in a provider role. Because the artist can have direct communication with their fan-base and so build a relationship with them, the model becomes a circular one, bouncing between three actors: the artist, the fans and the industry.

The implications of the new industries and career models are far-reaching for young musicians who are starting out. It is often the case that in the earlier stages of their career, they have no choice but to take on the whole gamut of activities required to develop their product and engage with the marketplace. To do this, they need aptitude for learning on-the-job, an entrepreneurial spirit, networks, and a vast array of knowledge and skills.

The Creative Trident

The is that musicians often need to supplement their creative work within the music industry with support work within the industry, creative work embedded in

11 other industries or non-music work. This multiplicity of work practice is one of the reasons why capturing statistics about the creative workforce is so complex. As explained in Higgs, Cunningham, and Pagan (2007), the ‘Creative Trident’ methodology is used to assess three ways work activities contribute to the creative industries economy. These are represented by the three components 1) specific creative specialist activity, 2) creative-based activities embedded within other industries and, 3) non-creative management and support activities within the creative industries. The total of these three components represents all creative work. Table 2.1 shows the Creative Trident in tabular form (Bridgstock & Cunningham, 2016) which has been used with census data to account for Creative industries contribution to the Australian economy.

Table 2.1 The Creative Trident Employment in creative Employment in other Total industries industries

Employment in creative Specialist creatives Embedded creatives occupations

Employment in other Support workers occupations (i.e. non- creative work)

Total Total employment in Total creative creative industries workforce Source: Bridgstock & Cunningham (2016) p. 14

This method of accounting for the variety of work patched together by creative workers still does not fully capture the complexity of creative workers’ portfolios (Cunningham, 2011; Goldsmith & Bridgstock, 2015). Identified concerns with this model include the complexity of allocating work types to the different components of a worker’s portfolio. Referring to their results from the Creative Workforce Instrument (CWI) concerning the time spent on creative work embedded in other industries, Bennett et al. noted that respondents’ self-identification of this work was problematic because of the multiple interpretations of these roles (2014). In trying to account for all elements of , they claimed that embedded creative work was all but invisible. This is because the Australian Bureau of Statistics mechanism only accounts for one main source of income at a given time. Identifying this limitation of the Creative Trident methodology, Cunningham concluded that

12

“census data significantly underestimates the full amplitude of creative activity” (p. 28). While the Creative Trident methodology excludes teaching from the model as a non-creative occupation, researchers report that most musicians include music teaching within their portfolio. This was identified as a significant shortcoming (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015; Bridgstock & Cunningham, 2016; Cunningham, 2014; Goldsmith & Bridgstock, 2015; Hennekam & Bennett, 2017).

Inside the Portfolio

Studies examining musicians’ portfolios have found that most musicians are self- employed and juggle multiple roles and duties within their portfolios, in a mix of creative and non-creative work (Bennett et al., 2014; Bennett & Richardson, 2016; Comunian, Faggian, & Jewell, 2014; Parker, 2015; Rowley, Bennett, & Reid, 2017; Thomson, 2013; Throsby & Zednik, 2011). While Bartleet et al. (2012) identified gaps in the research about portfolio careers, there has since been more research into musicians’ career trajectories which goes some way to addressing that shortfall. It is generally accepted that the role of tertiary music education should do more to prepare music graduates for the of working in the industry (Bennett, 2016). It is important to examine the career trajectories of working musicians to determine the nature of their work before strategies can be devised to best prepare them for their careers.

Bridgstock (2005) explored key attributes of artists’ careers described as protean and non-linear. The study was based on extant literature and data on employment and career from larger quantitative studies of artistic populations and focused on careers of fine artists, performing artists and musicians. Using data from Throsby and Hollister’s 2003 report, Bridgstock highlighted the multiplicity of simultaneous jobs. She reported that 63% of artists were holding multiple jobs, 43% were working in a different arts-related field to their principal artistic occupation (PAO), and 32% were working in non-arts related fields. and were also common. These sorts of statistics are common to many of the studies about portfolio careers in artistic careers.

Indeed, due to the effects of globalisation, the rise in technologies, economic and political uncertainties at the international and local levels, workers in all disciplines are experiencing shifting modes and precarity of employment (Bennett et al. 2015,

13

Walsh, L. 2016, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), 2017). Speaking generally of graduate employability, Bennett et al. (2015) made observations that current labour market trends require the skills to negotiate multiple work roles such as digital and the ability to network and source work as independent operators.

Seeking to understand the composition of work and skills of musicians’ portfolios, Bennett (2008) surveyed 165 musicians located in Australia, the and . Findings from the questionnaire and interviews included that “musicians changed the extent of their performance roles for five key reasons: insufficient performance opportunities, lack of financial security, unsociable hours, injury, and lack of practitioner diversity” (p. 62). Respondents reported that they were working outside the music industry and this was not necessarily because of lack of performance opportunities. Bennett’s summary of the skill needs identified by her respondents in this early study set the scene for her of research in following years which consistently concluded that training for music careers must include vocational skills such as administration, marketing, teaching, management, performance and music technology.

Throsby and Zednik (2011) used the data from their 2010 study to investigate the non- arts working patterns within portfolios. Separating the workload of the portfolio into three categories: (a) creative work, (b) arts-related work and (c) non-arts work, they claimed that the diversity of artists’ labour market participation was common and did not follow the standard career trajectory (pp. 9-10). Further, they argued that resorting to non-arts work was usually a necessity for artists to supplement their income from creative activities and that, somewhat surprisingly, many of them were able to work creatively within these non-arts roles in other industries.

Thompson (2013) reported a multi-method investigation comprising 80 individual interviews, a small number of intensive financial case studies and the Artist Revenue Streams project survey completed by 5,300 musicians. In agreement with other research studies, she found that musicians were “juggling more work, shouldering more risk, and are tasked with more career-management duties—often for lower rates than before” (p. 515). Other characteristics of musicians’ work portfolios included working in multiple roles with separate income streams, difficulties with managing

14 time, working with teams, continually needing to find new work and opportunities. These characteristics necessitated taking an entrepreneurial approach and being strategic about how to allocate time and resources to remain sustainable.

Bennett et al. (2014) reported results on the characteristics of creative workers’ portfolio careers in Perth, Western Australia. Their data collection tool was the Creative Workforce Instrument (CWI). Their chapter focused on creative workers’ motivations, use of time, range of activities, identity and how these related to the Creative Trident methodology. Findings from 182 responses to the survey from a wide range of creative practitioners portrayed portfolios comprising a complex mix of creative and non-creative work and roles. It was also found that the work might be paid, or unpaid. Cultural production workers earned low incomes and income for non- creative work was often higher than for creative work. Teaching was commonly included as part of the creative portfolio even though it was officially outside the Creative Trident. Balancing low paid creative work with more stable employment from non-creative work was one strategy to mitigate income risk. They confirmed that the Creative Trident model could not capture the complexities of these workers’ portfolios due to the methodology allowing for only one ‘main’ .

Bridgstock and Cunningham (2016) used large population statistical data together with graduate destination studies in the and Australia to ascertain in addressing the creative labour ‘oversupply’, employability and sustainability and implications for higher . They used a refinement of the Creative Trident—which separated the different segments of creative workers for example design, performing arts, —and studied workers in those different creative segments through graduate outcomes surveys. They found that career earnings of graduates from the visual and performing arts segments (as specialists or producers of cultural product) were considerably less than for those of other segments or those who were employed in creative services or embedded creative roles. They attributed this to the fact that they were more likely to be self-employed or experiencing some unemployment or underemployment at times. They found that graduates from visual and performing arts programs had prioritised aspirations to be specialist cultural producers and yet, the precarity of cultural production work necessitated them to also work in creative services, embedded creative roles or non-

15 creative roles which had higher earning capacity. Close to half held jobs in non- creative job roles outside the Creative Trident and surprisingly had rated the creative value they contributed to these roles “to a fair extent” (p. 18). Nevertheless, those who were able to earn some of their income from cultural production considered themselves to have more career ‘success’ than those who did not.

Through qualitative analysis of survey responses from creative workers, Hennekam and Bennett (2017) found that they were holding multiple jobs, working long hours and struggling to earn enough income to support their living. Their survey tool was the Creative Workers Instrument (CWI). Results indicated that some of their portfolios included paid non-creative work which allowed them time to pursue their creative exploration and ground-work which was often unpaid. Nevertheless, being self-employed and having a portfolio career lacked the labour protections and benefits of more regular work roles.

Focusing on jazz/contemporary singers from one Australian jazz/contemporary voice program, Bartlett and Tolmie (2018) surveyed 47 graduates who had been working between six to ten years after graduating. Using an online survey, they collected and analysed quantitative and qualitative data. They found that 75% of the graduates were still performance-active, maintaining between one and nine music identities within their portfolios. Twenty-eight per cent worked full-time, but performance work was casual for the majority and was supplemented by other work which may or may not have been music-related. Incorporating teaching in the portfolio was common and some engaged in unpaid music work. The sample was rather small and confined to graduates from only one program, but the researchers identified this as a limitation and described their study more as a pilot. They mentioned one program, but later in the article, they mentioned more than one university, so the relationship between the program and the was not clear. The study identified that tertiary training had equipped students to maintain some ongoing performance engagement but recommended that some form of work-integrated learning be included in future curriculum design to better prepare them for portfolio careers.

Income and work hours

Since 1983 the Australia Council has sponsored a regular set of economic studies on the working conditions of artists in Australia. These studies investigated the working

16 conditions of 1000 Australian artists with the aim of understanding how artists construct their portfolio careers and how their artistic practice interplays with other life necessities. While acknowledging that many artists cross disciplines, the various streams of Australian artists (except film-makers) were categorised in eight Principal Artistic Occupations (PAO). These were:

1.

2. visual artists

3. practitioners

4. actors and directors

5. dancers and choreographers

6. musicians and singers

7. composers, songwriters and arrangers

8. cultural development workers

The findings showed that musicians had multiple work income sources and long work hours. The results have been used widely by other researchers in policy, education and arts organisations.

Table 2.2 provides a comparison of median income data for the category of musicians and singers for the financial years, 2000-1, 2007-8 and 2014-15. The earlier years, 2000-1 and 2007-8 income data were factored up by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Consumer Price Index to the equivalent 2015-dollar amounts. The median data is presented for creative and arts-related income and non-arts related income combined as well as the gross total median income.

Table 2.2 Median Gross Creative and Arts-Related and Non-Arts Related Incomes for Musicians for 2000-01, 2007-08 and 2014-15 (in 2015 $) Period Creative & Arts-related Non-arts related Total 2000-01 $29,900 $23,400 $53,300 2007-08 $30,600 $19,500 $43,500 2014-15 $9,900 $35,100 $45,000 Notes: Data sourced from Throsby & Peteskaya (2017).

Figure 2.1 demonstrates how the proportion of the creative and arts-related income in

17 relation to the non-arts related income has changed over the fifteen years in percentage terms. The creative and arts-related work component reduced by 39% and correspondingly, the non-arts related work component increased over the period.

2000-01 56% 44%

2007-08 61% 39%

2014-15 22% 78%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Sub-total creative & arts-related Non-arts related

Figure 2.1 Median gross income showing creative and arts-related and total for musicians for survey years 2000-01, 2007-08 and 2014-15 (in 2015 $)

Throsby and Peteskaya (2017) pointed out that when median incomes (as opposed to mean incomes) were considered, the income data was heavily skewed towards the lower income end (p. 9). As well, they reported that there were significant numbers of artists who were unemployed or underemployed.

Table 2.3 shows the means of total work hours-per-week for each of the years 2000- 01, 2007-08 and 2014-15 rose by 3 hours-per-week over the fifteen year period. Given the nominal understanding of a full-time workload as 38-40 hours-per-week, this trend in increased work hours places extra strain on these workers whose remuneration is already low.

Table 2.3 Means of Work Hours-Per-Week for Creative and Arts-Related Work, and Non-Arts Related Work for Musicians for 2000-01, 2007-8 and 2014-15 Period Creative & Arts- Non-arts related Total related 2000-01 31 9 40 2007-08 31 9 40 2014-15 32 11 43 Note: Data sourced from Throsby & Hollister (2003); Throsby & Peteskaya (2017); Throsby & Zednik (2010).

The data from Figure 2.1 and Table 2.3 show that over the fifteen years, the proportion of musicians’ incomes for creative and arts-related work has dropped even

18 though they were working longer hours on this work.

In her 2015 study investigating the career realities for professional musicians concerning their well-being, Parker (2015) reported the following findings:

• over 91% of musicians had some kind of precarious work situation • 87% supplemented this work with an additional job • 58% were working more than the recommended 48 hours per week and, • 45% were earning below the Australian minimum .

Parker found that the working conditions, low earnings, longer than average weekly work hours, job insecurity and career uncertainty contributed to high levels of psychological distress and burnout. Interestingly, she also reported that 76% of the sample had completed some form of tertiary qualification (p. 19) which accords with other literature on the high incidence of musicians having tertiary qualifications.

The Question of Identity

Due to the self-employed nature of the portfolio and the instability of work in the music industry, the portfolio musician must find multiple ways of generating income which often extends to work which is not musical in nature. This pattern of working inside and outside the music industry is both contributory and consequential in the formation of professional identity. As pointed out by Bennett et al., “the activity of work is central to how people identify themselves” (2014, p. 168).

The notion that working in music first requires one to be a musician is a recurring theme throughout the chapters of the edited by Bennett, Life in the Real World: How to Make Music Graduates Employable (2012a). In her chapter, Rosie Perkins pointed out that taking on a music career is “not simply a ‘9-till-5’ job, it is also a way of life encompassing values, decisions, dreams and expectations, as well as the practical need to earn a living” (Perkins, 2012, p. 13). Developing a sense of identity as a musician often occurs during the years spent in tertiary music education or in early forays into working as a musician in the industry.

Burland and Davidson (2004) followed up participants of an earlier 1990s study of the practice habits of young musicians having individual music lessons. The follow-up study investigated the transitional phase from training to the professional careers of

19 eighteen of the original participants eight years later using semi-structured phone interviews and analysing results using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. As specialist musicians working in the industry, the participants provided insights into critical events and interventions influencing their careers. Three indicative themes were identified as important to a successful transition: the importance of music to self-concept, positive experiences with others (such as parents or teachers) and the development of coping strategies. The researchers used the three themes to develop a tri-partite model for success. They placed central importance on the musicians’ self- concept as a primary factor responsible for the successful transition into a professional career (p. 225). So, the development of musical talent, while important, is not as important as the development of a sense of self as a musician.

In their study using four in-depth interviews and a longitudinal biographically- oriented research model, Juuti and Littleton (2012) were particularly interested in exploring the career transitions of pianists from starting their studies to their professional lives eight years later. All participants had studied at the one institution, and while this aided a deep understanding of the common nature and the cultural setting of their training, this could also be seen as a limitation of the study. Juuti and Littleton examined the disjunction between their participants’ original expectations and hopes of being solo performers, and the eventual portfolio nature of their careers. They found that the participants had not been prepared adequately for holding multiple roles and identities in their training and therefore needed to re-negotiate their musical and work identities to the realities of working in a more holistic career.

Bennett and Bridgstock (2015) explored how well career projections were realised for tertiary music and dance students. The graduates’ expectations and hopes were recorded when starting their degree programs and again after graduation four years later. The reflections from five of the cohort were analysed from responses to an in- depth survey and phone interviews. The researchers drew on the Creative Trident methodology and transcendental phenomenological analysis techniques. They reported that graduates contrasted their reality of working in a portfolio scenario with their initial career expectations of having a performance-focused career. Their experiences of having to incorporate additional work outside the creative domain influenced their identities. The study recommended that students need to develop

20 more awareness of the realities of the industry and strategies for developing the required skills and knowledge earlier in their degree.

Time spent on various music activities and work roles are important influences upon a workers’ sense of professional identity. Hennekam and Bennett (2016) focused on this idea in their study examining involuntary career transition away from a creative job to one in another industry. They discussed the problem for those who are forced to make a career transition away from music but continue to identify as a creative musician, which can produce conflict with the “co-existence of several identities” (p. 1116). In a later paper, Hennekam (2017) wrote of musicians’ strategies to integrate and accumulate multiple identities rather than separate and toggle between them which often resulted in dis-identification and more stress. She reported that workers who were able to apply strategies to resolve the conflict did reap the benefits, making them more adaptable, flexible and productive (p. 984).

In a quest to understand the development of music and education identities while studying at tertiary levels, Freer and Bennett (2012) reported results from their parallel studies in the US and Australia which aligned with the “possible selves” theoretical framework. Rather than focusing on antecedents and the development of calling as in Dobrow’s research, they were more interested in the future building of identity and in this case, for careers in music education. Tertiary students of music may start out with the intention of working in a particular area of the industry as a performer, composer, singer-songwriter or music but the reality for most is that their career involves more than one role. Freer and Bennett found that while those who claimed strong musical self-efficacy were confident of their teaching orientation, the opposite was not necessarily true. The existence of dual identities as a musician and music teacher had the potential to cause internal friction and dissatisfaction with career outcomes if not aligned with the individuals’ original conception of their professional identity. Findings included that “music teacher identity may be optimally contextualized within a broader musical identity, rather than music being positioned within a dominant teacher identity” (p. 281).

As many musicians do think of their teaching practice as an extension of their artistic practice, this can create contradictions in career identity. Goldsmith and Bridgstock (2015) illustrated this issue by comparing the codes for Australian and New Zealand

21 educational occupations with the answers provided by respondents to their study, noting that some of the answers did not easily fit into any of the official occupation categories. They concluded that a ‘top-down’ approach (such as the Creative Trident) does not provide a conclusive picture of employment of creatives in education and, that they “need to be supplemented and extended by ‘bottom-up’ approaches, such as graduate tracking surveys” (p. 373). The incorporation of a music teacher identity as a component or subset of an overall identity as a musician was an important concept for this study as well.

What is Success?

Measuring success in a career when it is no longer the norm to have a single career in a working lifetime is a vexed question especially when applied to those in the music industry. The notion of success can mean many things to different people.

One notion of success as a musician is to be a professional musician. For their survey on Australian artists’ economic circumstances, Throsby and Zednik (2011) defined a professional artist as one who is working or seeking work and thereby serious in terms of their commitment to their craft, the artist has significant training, experience or talent and a working regime that is ranked and accepted in professional circles (p. 10). Bennett et al. (2014) pointed out that individuals construe their own identity as being a professional—as distinct from a hobbyist—through a variety of factors such as “… product, occupational and social prestige and the position of creative work relative to other activities” (p. 168).

In a survey questioning successful, contemporary Australian musicians about their early influences, prior music experiences and schooling, Letts (2013) defined a successful musician as one whose primary income was from music, or, who had high artistic respect from their peers. This definition is overly simplistic and misses a variety of markers which could be considered for the notion of success.

Hughes et al. (2013) pointed out the more traditional notions of success included live performance opportunities, record deals, royalties, radio play, international recognition and being signed by a major record label. They analysed qualitative data from seven focus groups with a range of music industry personnel including performing artists. They noted that these practitioners were operating in a DIY (Do It

22

Yourself) mode which necessitated developing a diverse set of roles and skills. At the start of their careers there was little financial reward and consequently, most needed supporting income from a “day” job in another field. They argued that the markers for success went beyond Letts’ definition and included not only financial prowess, musical excellence and peer respect but were also “built on business acumen and strategic planning” (p. 77). Other prominent authors in the field concurred with this finding and identified entrepreneurship skills to be important alongside the music skills (Bennett, 2014; Bridgstock, 2013, Smith, 2013).

Smith (2013) pointed out that determining what it means to be successful or professional as a popular musician could be problematic. Many conflate the notion of success with being commercially visible or famous due to an obsession with celebrity that is promoted by competitive shows. He argued that in earlier days of popular music, creating original music and starting out with gaining exposure might have been regarded as “en route to success”, while in contemporary times this is now construed as success in itself (p. 194). Smith argued further that a broader concept of success was needed.

Hughes et al. (2013) concluded that no matter whether the markers for success were small or large, in the words of one of their industry interviewees, success could just be viewed as “whatever you want it to be” or more simply, “satisfaction in musical achievements” (p. 78). Likewise, Bridgstock and Cunningham (2016) reported other factors such as subjective self-defined career success or work with non-economic value were additional important markers for personal career success (p. 7).

Investigating the fallout from a creative career that does not meet expectations and consequently forces an involuntary transition to another career was the topic of Hennekam and Bennett’s 2016 article. It was based on a qualitative study comprising semi-structured interviews with 40 artists from different disciplines. Three challenges of creative careers were identified: 1) insufficient income had to be supplemented by work in non-creative fields which in turn, limited the time available to pursue their creative work; 2) a sense of identity confusion and loss was often the consequence of having to work in both creative and non-creative fields and, 3) judgement from others that they had ‘sold out’ on their creative practice contributing to significant psychological stress. The identified challenges of a non-linear career with multiple

23 jobs prompted suggestions for future research looking into identity loss and grief.

The necessity to develop creative skills from other industries such as graphic design, promotions and production techniques, or administration and management is often considered burdensome and frustrating by musicians because it reduces the time and effort spent on their central creative activities. Hughes et al. reported on the difficulties faced by their focus group participants of working within the DIY model (2013). Participants expressed their frustration about the time it took to manage their career, tackle their increased accessibility to the public, and wrestle with the increased competitiveness of the marketplace. Achieving success in their careers depended on their ability to diversify their skills. These could range from producing, sound , applying for grants, managing crowdfunding campaigns, graphic design, strategising and administrating their online presence. These skills were needed as a pre-requisite for the “more traditional benchmarks of financial success and peer recognition” (p. 78).

To fully understand the implications of preparing for such a career one needs to start with the conditions of the industry and this sets the scene for exploring the working conditions of my study cohort. Highlighted in the literature in this chapter, the passion and drive to pursue a music career springs from an innate motivation which appears to transcend the patent difficulties of the industry. Such difficulties arise from the DIY nature of work in the Creative Industries which is characterised as protean. Musicians work in a portfolio of activities which involve multiple jobs—some of which are non- music related—and requires a high level of self-management. Incomes are low, work hours are high, and work identity confusion is often a result of all of these factors. Musicians teach, and while most think of teaching as part of their creative practice, teaching is not classified as a creative industries activity. Success in the music industry requires flexibility and openness to the development of multi-disciplinary skills. There are many synergies within the studies outlined in this chapter with the concurring on the difficulties of a musicians’ creative portfolio career.

24

Chapter 3 Literature Review: Tertiary Music Education

Whereas Chapter 2 examined the working conditions of musicians, this Chapter seeks to take a step back to review the literature about how musicians become professional, starting with their tertiary training and their transitioning into the profession. I first discuss the notion of what it is to be considered professional and the to becoming so through the lenses of various transition theories. As this study is primarily conducted around Victorian tertiary music education, a historical perspective on the policy and evolution of tertiary music education in Victoria provides context for current practice. A significant contradiction is revealed when considering the provision of tertiary , that of higher education and vocational education. I explore the debates about the distinction in pedagogies between these two sectors and how they operate within the neo-liberal markets as a basis for investigating the different tertiary offerings open to aspiring young musicians. The somewhat “muddied waters” of the purpose of higher education are explored through the eyes of Leesa Wheelahan’s work (2014). She argued against the prevalent policy of vocationalism at the expense of academia in higher education and highlighted the disarray and urgency for reform in the vocational sector. Following this, the curriculum and for music careers are surveyed through the work of academics in the field. Strategies for tertiary education to address the call for improved employability outcomes is explored, and in doing so, I highlight the differences between tertiary music provision at different provider types in Victoria and Australia more broadly. It is noted that there is no Australian research to date comparing such provision between different provider types and how they prepare their students for working in the music industry. Following this discussion, I touch on current and emerging innovative practices in tertiary music education identified by leading academics in the field. Finally, I outline how my research questions were formed to address the gaps in the literature.

Transition Theories

Life course and lifespan theories

The Life Course research approach was first used by Elder and others in the 1960s when working on longitudinal data about children who were born in the 1920s-30s in

25 the United States (Elder, 1998). It followed the human development of these children over time into adulthood. The subjects of this research had lived through the as children and Elder’s early work focused on how those experiences interacted with other factors that influenced their life paths. Elder defined the theoretical principles behind the Life Course approach as “historical time and place, the timing of lives, linked or interdependent lives and human agency” (Elder, 1998, p. 4). One of his collaborators, John Clausen, pointed out that complexity of life courses was due to the shifting and dynamic nature of individuals’ trajectories. Elaborating further, he stressed the importance of including the “person’s own report of his or her life: his or her perceptions of the influences on it as these have been experienced” (Clausen, 1995, p. 367).

A ten-year quasi-longitudinal study of the working lives of two cohorts of Australian graduates was based on a life course approach (Fehring & , 2013). Using a mixed methodology, the researchers collected quantitative and qualitative data from retrospective longitudinal interviews focusing on the interactions between personal career motivations, workforce issues as either inhibiting or enabling, educational pathways, the influence of others and family planning. The Working Lives Project served as an example for early planning for this research. Findings included: the importance of , developing work-related skills, financial remuneration, self-employment, , self-esteem, skill set confidence and a balance between work and life. They also recommended the need for educational to pathways and re-entry programs to be critical as drivers for career satisfaction.

Although often applied to study of the aged, lifespan theory can be applied to the study of any stage of the lifespan. Baltes and Dickson (2001) outlined a specific life span model for successful ageing: “Three general strategies—Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC)—can be used to deal with developmental opportunities or losses successfully” (p. 52).

The topic for the 2018 ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician pre-conference seminar was “The Musician’s Career Lifespan”. For her contribution to the seminar, Dawn Bennett adopted Baltes and Dickson’s SOC theoretical model in her study examining musicians’ careers across the lifespan. She

26 explained the three strategies:

1. Selecting goals and outcomes that align with existing resources and resource demands;

2. Optimising efforts and resources to optimise performance; and

3. Compensating by rethinking strategies to maintain the desired level and type of work.

(Bennett, 2019, pp.18-19).

She found that due to the precarity and irregularity of musicians’ work trajectories, the SOC strategies were employed “in combination and non-sequentially” (p. 7). This coping mechanism is broadly recognisable in the way many of the musicians operate in the studies identified in this literature review.

New interpretations of transition theories

The notion of time-linear trajectories in careers has been challenged as a result of the established norms being disrupted by modernisation and globalisation. The consequent breakdown of traditional life trajectories has meant that uniformity and linearity are far from the experience of young people of the 21st century (Gillis, 2008; Martin, 2007). Researchers heralding the prevalence of this trend have advocated for better preparation of young people to cope with multiple careers and increased precarity in employment (Baruch, 2014; Bennett et al., 2015; Cuervo & Wyn, 2011).

Speaking at a 2015 tertiary education public seminar in Melbourne, Australian researcher and academic, Ruth Bridgstock challenged the attending academics to embrace learning from digital technology and to prioritise skills which would future- proof young students for multiple career roles throughout a working life (Bridgstock, 2015, November). She spoke of the necessity for academics to down the traditional subject silos, to help students to prepare for unimagined futures and to ensure that generic employability skills were embedded into the learning process. She went on to list these graduate employability skills to include: disciplinary excellence, mastery of complex tasks, and problem-solving, entrepreneurship, social engagement, more hands-on work-integrated learning, and with commerce or industry, new opportunities in trans-national settings

27 and the fostering of lifelong relationships between the individual and their educational institutions. These are especially relevant for musicians who work in portfolio careers.

Further to the breakdown of life course trajectory norms, researchers from the Youth Research Centre in Melbourne re-conceptualised the metaphor of the linear life course path with new terminology describing transitions to adulthood as a “new adulthood” and “patterns of life” (Wyn, 2014). Through their Life Patterns research Joanna Wyn and colleagues set about documenting young Australian lives in a longitudinal mixed methods study (Cuervo & Wyn, 2011; Tyler, Cuervo, & Wyn, 2011). Conceptual themes arising from this study included: social generation, diversity in transition to adulthood, new adulthood, the meaning of work and career, and balance in life (Cuervo & Wyn, 2011). In a later paper, Wyn rethought the transitions metaphor by emphasising aspects of a relational approach (Wyn, 2014). She argued that the connection between education and work was tenuous and therefore the expectations of gaining work were not guaranteed. Wyn further argued that the notion of “belonging” was more appropriate to describing how connections between place, biography, education and employment impact on the individual and their choices. She claimed that “the reality for people’s lives is multidimensional, messy and almost always non-linear” (p 10). Implications for education point towards having flexible approaches to age, catering for diverse needs and encouraging active engagement in decision-making. She went on to argue that education was an opportunity for fostering connections—both local and global—and for fostering navigation of learning that acknowledges and encourages personal responsibility for continuous development and identity development (Wyn, 2014). This view is particularly apt for the reality of the musician’s career. The precarious mix of one-off gigs, short-term projects and variety of employment types which characterises the musicians’ portfolio requires active decision-making, personal responsibility for initiating, promoting and courting work opportunities, and an all-encompassing level of connectivity in personal and professional networks both live and digital.

Policy Changes in Tertiary Music Education in Victoria

Historical developments in music - higher education and vocational education 1970s-2001

Higher Education (HE): Aside from the universities and their associated music

28 conservatoria, higher music education had been offered at an institution type called the College of Advanced Education (CAE). These had initially been State- funded colleges, but in the 1970s, they increased their tertiary level programs and gained eligibility for Federal funding (Silsbury, 1988). At this time, the Melbourne State College offered an innovative music education degree blending music disciplinary training with teaching while—unlike the universities and conservatoria—focusing more on contemporary popular and jazz genres. Due to this focus, the graduates from this course were eminently suited to teaching in secondary and the fledgeling TAFE colleges. Throughout the 1980s, another Federal Government initiative developed a suite of contemporary music curricula for certificates and delivered at the newly re-badged Colleges of Advanced Education (CAE) and the TAFE colleges. The flourishing of new CAE courses was halted somewhat in the late1980s by Federal Government that reduced the number of colleges through amalgamations and merges with universities (Bennett, Lancaster, & O'Hara, 2013; Silsbury, 1988). In 1989, the Melbourne CAE (formerly Melbourne State College) was subsumed into The University of Melbourne.

Vocational education and training (VET): In 2001, the vocational certificates and diplomas in music were replaced by those contained in the nationally accredited and industry-driven Music Training Package. The package included a suite of successive qualifications matching the Australian Qualifications Framework levels one to six and were written using a different learning . Instead of a broad curriculum, the courses comprised a set of competencies, some of which were mandated as core competencies at each course level and others which could be chosen as electives to contextualise the learning for different specialisations. Many of the core competency topics revolved around applied music and industry skills to assist the students to become work ready.

Tertiary music education policy developments since 2001

Throughout the early 2000s, developments in tertiary education policy had major impacts on the post-secondary sector and the providers. The following list summarises the main developments:

29

• In 2005, in addition to universities, some non-university providers were granted eligibility for accreditation to offer higher education degrees in specialist niche areas. Unlike students studying degrees at universities however, students studying at non-university providers were not afforded Commonwealth supported funding necessitating fee-for-service costs to be borne by the in full. • The Bradley Review of Australian Higher Education (Bradley, Noonan, Nugent, & Scales, 2008), included recommendations for dramatic new targets for participation in higher education in Australia, and the setting up of a new national body for governance of the higher education sector: Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA). • In 2009, non-public providers of VET were given access to State Government funding through the Victorian Training Guarantee forcing publicly-funded TAFE institutions to compete with a flourishing of new private providers entering the market. Federally funded VET FEE-HELP loan schemes were established for upper VET qualifications (Diploma and Advanced diploma). • In 2012, the caps on Commonwealth Supported Places (CSP) available to university students in higher education were lifted, but these were not extended to students studying degrees at Non-University Higher Education Providers (NUHEPs) as recommended by the Bradley Report (Bradley et al., 2008). • A consequence of the removal of caps for CSPs in Higher Education, was that universities increased their offerings to sub-bachelor qualifications at AQF levels five and six which directly competed with the VET qualifications at the same AQF levels, and, • In 2017, a new loans scheme replaced VET FEE-HELP with tighter restrictions on loan access at all institutions.

Implications of policy changes since 2001

From 2005 students enrolled in degrees at TAFE institutes and private providers were offered self-funded places. Consequently, their fee debt was much higher than that of those studying degrees at university which was a distinct disadvantage (Bennett et al., 2013). Eventually, students studying at NUHEPs did gain access to student loans but incurred an extra loading on their loan. While the degrees offered at NUHEPs were

30 more contemporary and specialised, the subject structure design and delivery contact hours still needed to comply with academic regulations and guidelines. In this respect, the NUHEP degrees were similar to the degrees offered by universities. However, some of the NUHEPs favoured three trimesters per year with the result that these degrees could be express-delivered over two years rather than three.

Two stand-alone TAFE institutes in Melbourne established contemporary music degrees, and because of their focus on the current music industry, they attracted strong enrolments. Many of the TAFE music teaching staff had studied at the Melbourne State College course and brought their contemporary music expertise to the programs. Private providers also offered contemporary music degrees at fee-for- service costs. The music degree programs in NUHEPs could not compete with the universities based on fees, but they flourished nevertheless due to their contemporary and applied specialisations.

Higher education in Australia has seen significant changes in recent years in response to the 2008 Review of Australian Higher Education, otherwise known as the Bradley Review (Bradley et al., 2008). One of the outcomes of this review was the establishment of a new national governing body, the Tertiary Education Quality Standards Agency (TEQSA). This agency was established to oversee quality and in all higher education across Australia. The Bradley Review had recommended increasing the proportion of Australians with bachelor level qualifications. The mechanism for this increase was the removal of caps for places in university higher education from 2012 (King & James, 2013). Larkins (2014) reported on increased enrolments in higher education in all genres, noting that, at the undergraduate level, there had been a 20-22% increase in university undergraduate enrolments from 2009 to 2014. The increased intakes in universities in response to the 2012 changes meant that they were recruiting students from a similar pool to the upper qualifications of the VET sector which had a flow-on effect of diminishing enrolments in VET creating more competition for HE across all providers (Fowler, 2017). Traditionally, VET providers had attracted students from a lower socio- economic status or those who were not able to gain the tertiary entrance scores required of more traditional universities. Increased access for students to university places with CSPs also impacted the applications to NUHEPs where the degree course

31 offerings were similar.

The inequity of fee charges for degree students between universities and NUHEPs has persisted since 2005 contrary to recommendations in the Bradley report to ameliorate this situation (Bradley et al., 2008). As an example, Table 3.1 shows the difference between the total course fees of music degree students who studied at a university, and those who studied at a NUHEP (TAFE or private provider) for a three-year Bachelor program in 2015. The fee difference to the student of almost $30,000 more for NUHEP graduates was very concerning. It was exacerbated if students took loans because NUHEP students incurred an additional 25% loading at the time of taking out their loan whereas university students who took out loans accrued interest at Consumer Price Index (CPI) rates until the loan was paid off. When these costs were factored in, the NUHEP graduates would have accrued nearly $60,000 debt at the end of their course whereas the university students’ would have accrued just under $19,000 debt (an increase of around $300 based on 2015 CPI rates). This inequity was one of the drivers for me to embark on this research.

Table 3.1 Comparison of Whole Course Tuition Fees and Government Subsidies for Three-Year Music Degree in 2015 Type of Institution Total course tuition Government Revenue to (if paid upfront) subsidy Institution University $18,456 $35,556 $54,012 TAFE (NUHEP) $45,000 $0 $45,000 Private Provider (NUHEP) $47,400 $0 $47,400

The higher revenue to universities shown in Table 3.1 may be partly explained by the need to fund research. While NUHEP higher education staff members are required to pursue activities, they are not expected to be involved in research to the same extent as university staff. Despite these disadvantages, the data show that enrolments at NUHEPs by 2012 had grown and formed a significant part of domestic undergraduate enrolments (Edwards & Radloff, 2013). Edwards and Radloff also reported that in 2012, creative arts degrees were the most heavily subscribed discipline at NUHEPs, accounting for 33% of domestic undergraduate commencers.

Student satisfaction in tertiary education is an important quality assurance measure. The student experience in universities has been the subject of significant research over

32 many years. There has been less in-depth research into the student experience in private providers despite the growth of the sector. The student subject survey has become increasingly important as a quantitative tool for measuring student satisfaction as a component of the quality assurance cycle for all institutions. Some earlier studies identified several features which made private higher education attractive to students (Nair, Bennett, & Shah, 2012). These included: the vocational orientation towards learning, work experience opportunities, teachers having industry credibility and the institution having an effective learning support infrastructure. At that time, Bennett et al. (2013) reported that university degree programs incorporated very little curriculum or other programs to assist musicians to be career-ready for working in a portfolio career in the music industry.

As VET moved towards an open training market, the States freed up VET funding to follow the student. In Victoria in 2009, the introduction of a contestable funding model for VET was implemented (Schubert, Goedegebuure, & Meek, 2018). Registered Training Organisations, both public and private, responded swiftly. VET course offerings were expanded, and with the introduction of a Federal Government loan scheme for Diplomas and Advanced diplomas called VET FEE-HELP, there were enormous swings between provider types in VET enrolments. Large VET enrolment swings away from public TAFE institutes to the private sector had repercussion for the whole tertiary sector (Fowler, 2017). As well, the increase in degree enrolments at universities (due to the removal of CSP caps) affected the student base pool for enrolments in VET and HE in NUHEPs (Larkins, 2014).

The establishment of VET FEE-HELP loans to VET students studying Diplomas and Advanced diplomas across the board was subject to extraordinary rorting of the system, particularly in the private sector. The scandal was reported repeatedly throughout 2015-2016. An example of such newspaper headlines was “Training college contracts terminated amid fraud revelations” (Cook, 2015). Repercussions included the de-registering of training organisations with significant consequences for students who were mid-course. In late 2016, restrictions were applied to limit VET FEE-HELP loans to courses deemed to be needed by industry and other restrictions on the number of students accessing loans were applied particularly for the private sector.

33

There have been many “band-aid” fixes to the VET system over more than twenty years. In her public address to academics at the Melbourne Graduate in March, 2017 entitled VET in Crisis, Leesa Wheelahan argued that the integrity of the whole VET system was so compromised that it needed a complete review and in particular, a new social settlement for public TAFE institutes (Wheelahan, 2015, 2017).

In a similar vein to Wheelahan’s recommendations, Jones (2018) called for more autonomy for local TAFE institutes and an integrated tertiary education sector, even suggesting, “Given that the workforce will need more higher-level vocational qualifications in future, perhaps we no longer need to designate qualifications as vocational and higher education” (p. 8). She further explained that specialist expertise in the applied workplace was a driving factor and that “parity of policy and resourcing” would restore esteem and confidence in the system. Other academics have also been recommending that the whole tertiary sector in Australia needed reform but resignedly explained that the vested interests of Federal and State priorities and competition in striving for prestige and superiority would prevent this from happening (Goedegebuure, Schubert, & Bentley, 2017; Schubert et al., 2018). Highlighting how insular competency-based training had become, they suggested that the narrowness of VET qualifications needed reform so that the skills developed would enable graduates to work more broadly within a vocational stream. This would require capabilities such as the ability to change and adapt (Wheelahan, Buchanan, & Yu, 2015). Schubert et al. called for increased collaboration between “the State, industry, the knowledge sector and civil ” (p. 5) to achieve a more innovative system.

Higher Education and Vocational Education and Training

What are the different approaches to education between HE and VET? The following section discusses the similarities and differences in learning between the HE and VET sectors and what these mean for students when deciding where they should study in preparation for their music careers.

Purpose of HE and VET

The overall purpose of bachelor study at level seven is described “as enabling graduates to apply a broad and coherent body of knowledge in a range of contexts to

34 undertake professional work and as a pathway for further learning” (Australian Qualifications Framework Council, 2013, p. 47). The regulating body, Tertiary Qualifications and Quality Standards Agency (TEQSA) sets and monitors standards for degree graduate outcomes. However, within the general standards, there is scope for providers to design their programs with distinguishing features to meet specific needs of the local or targeted industry. Bridgstock and Cunningham (2016) reinforced the need for higher education curriculum reform to include the preparation of graduates for the workforce. This was despite resistance from some who believed vocationally oriented curricula would dilute the core knowledge and skills of the discipline (Bennett et al., 2015; Daniel & Daniel, 2015).

There is no such ambiguity in the purpose of Vocational Education and Training (VET) qualifications (AQF levels 1-6). Nationally accredited, industry-specific training packages are designed “to meet the training needs of our industry sectors” (PwC’s Skills for Australia, 2018). “The curricula are written in the language of competency-based training, which atomises the learning into discrete functions to break down the knowledge and skills required to perform effectively in the workplace” (Hillman, 2017). Wheelahan et al. (2012) identified two concerns about competency-based training. The first was concern that competency-based training lacked engagement with underpinning theoretical knowledge and the second was the consequent lack of development of the person. To be agile and adaptable in the twenty-first century, educators have realised the importance of including “educational breadth as well as occupational depth” (Jones, 2018, p. 3).

One of the important considerations for those who begin their tertiary study in the VET sector is the flexibility and of the pathways through qualification levels towards their goal employment and education proficiency (Wheelahan et al., 2012). The TAFE institutes, dual sector universities with a TAFE department, and to a lesser extent, private providers, often promote pathways into degree programs through VET qualifications. There are obvious advantages of operating as a “one-stop” shop when institutions offer the pathways at their own institution. Some TAFE institutes also build negotiated articulation arrangements with partner universities to facilitate pathways from VET into HE. Indeed, as well as the pathways from VET to HE, there are also many university graduates who move from HE to VET to gain more specific

35 vocational skill sets and training (Goedegebuure et al., 2017; Wheelahan et al., 2012).

Academic versus vocational

With the rise in influence of the neoliberal market upon higher education in Australia and other Anglophone countries, there has been a change in the balance between public and private funding over the past 30 years. What was essentially free public provision of higher education in the 1980s, has moved to a market-driven model. The Government covers the larger part of the cost with students contributing the remaining cost through fees. Eligibility restrictions for government funding for VET students mean that some must be self-funded and students who study degrees at NUHEPs are also self-funded. The new model has enforced changes for course goals and expected outcomes. There is an expectation of return on investment for a qualification in which both the recipient and the taxpayer has had a significant financial input. An outcome of a system in which the user pays at least part of the cost results in an orientation towards applied knowledge and vocational skills (Thornton, 2015). It means that there is an expectation to produce work-ready graduates “to serve the needs of industry” (p. 1).

With the increasing emphasis on graduate outcomes in tertiary education, there is a corresponding shift to utilitarianism with providers needing to demonstrate the successful transition to employment as a measurable graduate outcome. This world- wide phenomenon, driven by globalisation, has raised awareness of accountability measures and governments’ responses to maximise for productive (Wheelahan, 2014). Internationally, the Germanic and Northern European countries steer students through their secondary and tertiary education into separate well-defined vocational and academic tracks, whereas in Anglophone countries (including Australia), the differences between vocational and academic tertiary education and the pursuant transitions to employment are not so clear (Backes-Gellner & Geel, 2014; Moodie, 2012).

The merits of vocational and academic approaches are argued on fundamental beliefs about the importance and interplay of theoretical knowledge and practice-based skills. Wheelahan (2010) argued that in Anglophone countries (particularly in Australia), where the VET course content is driven by competency-based training, the opportunity for access to understanding the knowledge structures of the discipline is

36 limited. She claimed that “by focusing on the contextual, students are denied access to the conditions of knowledge needed to understand the contextual” and that this view limits vocational education to only the local and particular (2014, p. 134). She concluded that the lack of emphasis on knowledge in VET prevented students from participating in wider societal debates, and therefore was an issue of social justice. Furthermore, Wheelahan claimed that this reinforced disadvantage because those who participated in vocational education were of a lower socio-economic demographic.

Wheelahan’s research has been focused on vocational and higher education with interest in the types of knowledge that are implicit in the various approaches to these different forms of post-. She claimed that although “universities have historically been the main sites for knowledge creation for applied as well as pure disciplines” (2014, p. 132), that the proliferation of post-secondary institutions had expanded the field. She acknowledged that “higher education is broader than universities” (p. 134). Wheelahan was part of an Australian research team undertaking a three-year study sponsored by the National Centre for Vocational Education and Research, (NCVER) which investigated the educational and occupational paths that students have taken and how their study related to their work (Moodie, Fredman, Bexley, & Wheelahan, 2013; Wheelahan et al., 2015). In the final report, Wheelahan et al. (2015) claimed the lack of connectedness between policy frameworks and labour market realities was the reason for the weak links between the education and occupations. One of the recommended implications for future policy development included “renovating VET qualifications to produce ‘adaptive capacities’ for work” and the development of “vocational streams” within VET (p. 9). These streams would focus on broad-ranged knowledge, skills and attributes needed in preparation for work and careers in an occupational area rather than a specific job-role. This theme is also relevant to the higher education sector and will be discussed further in Section 3.5.

Review of Music Education: Choices

Expanded course offerings in Victorian tertiary music education in recent years present prospective graduating secondary music students with a dilemma. They need to choose their course of study from multiple offerings delivered at one of three different provider types; university, TAFE or the private provider. As well, they need to decide between higher education (HE) and vocational education and training

37

(VET). Then, there are various specialisations to choose from: performance (classical or contemporary popular or jazz), composition, songwriting, , audio production and others. Bennett et al. (2013) pointed out that the plethora of choices was overwhelming and that secondary school graduates needed accurate information and support to make informed decisions. With degrees being provided by both universities and NUHEPs, and VET programs being offered by public and private education providers, the former distinctions between the sectors have blurred.

Traditionally, outcomes focused on industry and employability skills have been a distinguishing feature of vocational education and training courses (Jones, 2018; Moodie, 2012). In higher education also, graduate outcomes need to incorporate this focus. The challenge for HE providers has been to ensure that the inclusion of employability skills is integral degree programs rather than being elective or extra- curricular (Bennett et al., 2015).

A Comparative Review of Provision of Post-Secondary Music Education and Training in Victoria (2015)1

As a prequel to this research study, I undertook a desktop audit of the websites and promotional materials of music HE and VET curriculum content for Victorian tertiary institutions (Hillman, 2015). The aim was to explore the composition of the courses and the proportions of subjects and topics which aimed to prepare musicians for working in the music industry. By examining subject titles and descriptors, I calculated the relative proportions of content knowledge and skills and expressed these as percentages of the degree curriculum content. Subject titles indicating work preparation included: music business, industry, enterprise, entrepreneurship, , work placement or work-integrated learning (WiL), capstone projects and the like. While this approach was somewhat coarse and could well have missed any related activities embedded within other subject titles, it would at least serve as a starting point for understanding the extent to which courses or institutions had specific reference to career-building subject areas.

In 2015, 68 undergraduate music programs were offered in Victoria. These comprised

1 Much of the information in this section is drawn from two sources: “A comparative review of current post-secondary music education and training courses offered in Victoria” (Hillman, 2015) and “United Voices? Exploring similarities and differences in tertiary music programs in Victoria” (Hillman, 2017).

38

34 degrees and 34 VET qualifications at AQF levels 4-6 and were delivered across 19 institutions which included six universities, three public TAFE providers, nine private providers and one public post-secondary college. Five specialisations were identified:

1. performance (including musical theatre),

2. composition,

3. audio or sound production,

4. musicology or ethnomusicology and,

5. music industry or business.

Because all music VET qualifications included some industry-related competencies in the mandated core only the music degree breakdowns are presented here. Seven music industry or business degrees were included in the 2015 analysis but were excluded from this current study. Of the 27 music degrees from the other four specialisations, nine (33%) had no overt reference to the content related to the subject category: Music Business (Internship /Capstone). Eight of these were at universities, and one was a private provider (Table 3.2). Also, it may well have been possible that enterprise or music industry learnings were incorporated in an embedded way not discernible by examining subject titles or brief descriptors. In a similar desktop audit of music degrees delivered in Australasia, Daniel (2013) found a much higher percentage (55%) of music degrees lacked overt enterprise or music business subjects. I did note however, that there were some music degrees missing from his list which, if they had been included, would have lowered this percentage.

In the 2015 study, I reported that some degrees included the opportunity for electives. The choice of electives had the potential to change the weighting of a subject area for an individual. In some cases, when the elective component was a substantial percentage of the degree, the specialisation core appeared to be smaller than for other similar degrees. For example, in Table 3.2 Monash University’s music performance degree had only 25% of performance core compared much higher percentages to the others. However, if a student elected to study performance electives, the performance proportion of the degree would be increased for that individual. Another consideration of this analysis was that the gathered information was only correct for the year in

39

Table 3.2 Breakdown and Proportion of Music Degrees by Subject (Victoria, 2015)

40

Table 3.2 (continued)

41

which it was collected even though the curriculum continues to evolve and change over time. While the analysis in Table 3.2 provides an overview, the various percentages of subjects within the degree programs do reveal the priorities of these degrees to some extent. For example, the two musical theatre degrees have much higher percentages for performance-based subjects than the other nine performance- based degrees to cater for the development of the three triple-threat performance skills of acting, singing and dance.

For many music students and lecturers, developing the specific musical and technical expertise is an all-consuming preoccupation and is often thought of as developing “purely art for art’s sake” (Daniel, 2013). This focus was the norm for music degrees for many years (Bennett, 2008; Daniel, 2013; Perkins, 2012). With the increased pressure on graduate outcomes to include employability skills however, many of the scholars urge curriculum design to incorporate the preparation of graduates for the challenges of working in the music industry no matter what stream or specialisation they study (Bartleet et al., 2012; Beeching, 2010; Bennett, 2008, 2012b, 2014, 2019; Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015; Bennett & Burnard, 2016; Bennett et al., 2013; Bennett & Richardson, 2016; Bennett et al., 2015; Bridgstock, 2011, 2013; Bridgstock & Cunningham, 2016; Comunian et al., 2014; Daniel, 2013; Daniel & Daniel, 2015; Gilmore & Comunian, 2016; IBSA, 2014; Juuti & Littleton, 2012; Minors, Burnard, Wiffen, Shihabi, & van der Walt, 2017; Monkhouse, 2015; Perkins, 2012, 2013; Reid & Bennett, 2014; Rowley et al., 2017; Skills for Australia and the Culture and Related Industries Industry Reference Committee, 2017; Smilde, 2008; Tolmie, 2014; Tolmie & Nulty, 2015; Zelenko & Bridgstock, 2014).

Priorities for Tertiary Music Education

Music education researchers have progressed from earlier discussions about knowledge and skills to broader conceptualisations. I have organised the following discussion into three sections: 1) career awareness 2) career identities and artistic selves and, 3) human capitals, career capabilities, and creativities.

Career awareness

The scholars recommend that courses incorporate a range of generic and music industry-specific employability skills as professional preparation for working in the

42

music industry. Bridgstock’s 2011 study found a link between the development of a set of skills and graduate outcomes. The quantitative approach tracked graduating creative industries students with a self-report survey on predictor and outcome variables on two occasions, one year apart. They found that the final year undergraduates who self-reported well-developed career management skills experienced higher levels of career success in the first year after graduation. The study highlighted the importance of intrinsic motivation and developing career self- management skills for a protean career and recommended that career management skills should be embedded throughout the curriculum (Bridgstock, 2011).

In her article reporting on education-to-work transitions of creative graduates from VET and HE, Haukka (2011) drew on multiple data sources over three years with a large sample of over 500 respondents. The sample included a wide range of graduate specialisations of which performing arts was only one. Using a framework consisting of macro and micro labour force outcomes, Haukka identified factors key to successful or unsuccessful transitions. These included: the type of employment (i.e. full-time or part-time), the undertaking of freelance work, age and maturity, alignment of qualifications with the workforce, engagement with industry while studying, development of connections and networks, and professional development once starting out in the career. Haukka recommended that gaining industry experience was critical early in training.

Bennett (2012b) summarised her earlier work, mainly in classical music realms, by synthesising the essential skills and attributes needed for a music career. These were: 1) business skills and entrepreneurship, 2) communication skills and, 3) performance skills and passion. Bennett et al.’s 2013 paper mapped music education and training offerings across Australia and found that post-secondary music education had significantly diversified from the formerly predominant classical Western European performance training. Before selecting a tertiary course, Bennet et al. highlighted the importance of developing awareness of possible careers in the music industry and considering the “fit” of the course to the individual’s preferences. They stressed that the overall effectiveness of the course for the individual would be dependent on this “fit”.

Tolmie (2014) first reported early findings from the introduction of a vocational

43

stream of study at the Queensland Conservatorium Bachelor of Music and Music Technology programs. One of the first-year program activities was designed to identify aspirations, career identity, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and career realities. They found that first-year students may not have understood the industry for which they were training and so later struggled to align the ‘dream’ of their vocation with reality. In a later appraisal of the program, Tolmie and Nulty (2015) reported that participants had varied engagement levels depending very much on their individual stage of development and readiness for the information. The study also found a level of resistance from students to learning music-industry skills. The researchers needed to consider this when proposing amendments to the program for future iterations.

Comunian et al.’s (2014) study in the United Kingdom explored music graduates who had completed higher education and how they fared in their early careers. Using empirical data collected by a national body and some interviews they produced quantitative and qualitative data (some longitudinal and some short-term). Institutions included those that were older and more prestigious and those that were newer alternative higher education institutions. Courses at the more established and prestigious universities were based more on academic studies and research with less performance than the newer conservatoires. Comunian et al. reported that graduates from the established prestigious universities felt that their qualification was more beneficial for finding work although they still faced similar precarity that was faced by all musicians establishing portfolio careers. The researchers found that graduates’ networks—developed throughout tertiary study and in extra-curricular opportunities— helped mitigate the short-term trauma of adjusting to a musical career in the transition from study to work. Having to be entrepreneurial and holding multiple jobs including work in non-music industries in a portfolio career contributed to graduates’ expressions of dissatisfaction with the lack of preparation in their undergraduate study for such a career. Graduates called for “more real world exposure to the risks of being a musician” to assist with the transition from the educational environment to work (p. 185).

Daniel and Daniel (2015) explored the employment characteristics of 98 graduates in a self-report survey. One of the questions asked graduates to rate their preparation for a career in six areas. The findings were reasonably positive overall but, as in other

44

studies, identified “the need to embed more of a focus on enterprise or entrepreneurial skills” (p. 420).

Career identities and artistic selves

Building on Section 2.4 from Chapter 2, a close examination of the literature revealed how a sense of identity as a musician could be developed in tertiary music education. Most aspiring musicians started out with identities most closely aligned with performance or composition (Bennett, 2014; Freer & Bennett, 2012). Musicians are then faced with the reality that they will need to embrace a range of other work activities; that alongside their main artistic practice, they may have to include associated arts-work, teaching and even non-music related work. Musicians needed to find a way of dealing with these multiple practices and may have needed to develop co-existing identities.

In the study by Bennett et al. (2014) employing the Creative Workers Instrument (CWI)—which formed the basis for the Music, Education and Careers survey for my research—about one third of the respondents adjusted their identity depending on the situation they were working in at the time regardless of the actual amount of time or energy devoted to it. Bennett et al. found the concept of identity was more complex than purely aligning with one specialisation of their work. The fluidity of the relationships between music work, arts-related work and non-music work was complex, and while it had not been standard practice in the past, specific curricular intent is needed to address the development of musical identity for musicians in training. Bennett even goes so far as to say, “change is needed both to reorient learning through the creative exploration of their future lives in music thereby creating selves that are sustainable over the career lifespan” (2014, p. 236). The main tenor of her argument was that a gap in tertiary music education could be addressed by focusing on relevance to the student through the notion of developing proactive creativities. In doing so, students would be given opportunities to discuss, self-challenge and imagine their potential professional selves.

Reid and Bennett’s (2014) focus group study took a linguistic analysis approach to study how students thought about and music practices. Reporting that students’ study experiences informed the formation of their professional identity, the study highlighted the importance of including student views in the process. Another

45

study focused on leadership as a core creativity contributing to musicians’ identity (Rowley, Bennett & Reid, 2017). The study drew on student experiential learning from an internship program to investigate how the experience might help shape the students’ sense of self while they were still in a ‘liminal’ space between being a student and being a worker in their internship. In doing so, their reflections demonstrated transferred skills such as leadership, teamwork and problem-solving while imagining their future professional selves.

In juggling a multi-job portfolio, musicians struggle with multiple identities. This issue is especially the case when musicians are involuntarily forced to take on non- music work to supplement their incomes, causing grief at the loss of their preferred creative identity (Hennekam & Bennett, 2016). Confusion with professional identity makes the transition from education to work even more fraught for creative workers (Haukka, 2011; Hennekam & Bennett, 2016). Bennett (2014) and Perkins (2012) stressed that career direction choices were inextricably connected to identity and exploration of these within tertiary programs was often omitted. They claimed that the considerations of the development of the musical self should permeate the whole program right from the start to enable a smooth transition after graduation.

Broader conceptualisations for knowledge and skills

Researchers have reconceptualised knowledge and skills, linking them with broader concepts identified as competences, human capitals, capabilities, creativities and more problematically, attributes. Mietzner and Kamprath (2013) devised a portfolio of competences for the creative industries described in three categories: 1) the personal- social, 2) methodological and, 3) professional. Using the terminology of competences to describe the requirements necessary for creative workers belies the German cultural background of the authors whose education system springs from an employment logic comprising well defined academic and vocational tracks in secondary and post- . Essentially, an employment logic refers to the strong relationship between educational institutions and businesses found in co-ordinated markets (such as in Germany and other northern European countries), with strategic intervention and close relationships between the government and businesses for the acquisition of skills in the vocational sector. Conversely, an education logic is found in liberal or neo-liberal markets where industry and businesses are largely determined

46

by the needs-driven capitalism of the markets which have little relationship with state educational structures (such as in Australia and other Anglophone countries). See further in Bosch & Charest, (2008); Hall & Soskice, (2001); and Iannelli & Raffe, (2007).

Using an exploratory design interrogating the literature and undertaking qualitative interviews and workshops with industry Mietzner and Kamprath (2013) identified four major competence-shifting trends: 1) interdisciplinary fundamentals, 2) the need for an open mind to the new, 3) permanent transformation of job-specific knowledge and 4) specialists versus generalists. In the last category, industry experts were not necessarily in favour of specialist education over a more generalist approach. Their recommendations for further research included the need to address specific areas of the creative industries (such as the music industry for this research) and to explore more explicitly how these competences could be developed in education curricula.

Bridgstock and Cunningham (2016) presented lists of capabilities that graduates developed throughout their degrees that they applied to their non-creative work scenarios, some which involved creative skills and others not. There were two categories of capabilities, those associated with creative skills—such as creative ideas, critical thinking, design input or presentation/performance—and other capabilities which could be described as generic skills—such as communication and teamwork, project management, business management, and entrepreneurship (p. 19). One of the defining results of this study was that 42% of graduates rated the latter group of capabilities (generic skills) as essential for success in their creative career and yet, Bridgstock and Cunningham found that these generic skills were either inadequate or completely missing from their creative degree courses.

Bennett and Burnard (2016) explored the relationship between the creative and non- creative realms of work for creative workers. They used Bourdieu’s three theoretical tools: 1) the ‘habitus’ or personal (such as the field of music) interacting with 2) the developed ‘capitals’ that is to say, their “professional capital career creativities” as applied to 3) the practice (and complexity) of music graduates’ work portfolios. While bearing in mind Bourdieu’s four types of human capitals, (symbolic, cultural, social and economic) and from using in-depth interviews with three participants and

47

181 responses to the CWI in-depth questionnaire, they identified four capital career creativities that were essential for creative workers. These were:

1. community-building creativity (such as networks),

2. inspiration- creativity (such as instrumental teachers as role models or mentors),

3. career-positioning creativity (such as taking up new opportunities and exploiting the structures and trends within the music industry) and

4. bestowed gift-giving creativity such as work which ‘gives back’, social service or pro bono work. (Bennett & Burnard, 2016, p. 126).

Using the career summaries of several of their study participants, Bennett and Burnard analysed how the musicians built their careers through using their career creativities (knowledge and skills) and how these contributed to the creation of their general human capital. These were applied within their portfolio practices (fields of action) and habitus: which could be a musicians’ own genre and musical skills, for example, whether a singer-songwriter, music producer or performer. Bennett & Burnard suggested that higher education providers might implement the four capital career creativities in their programs and post-study support interactions.

Instead of the more prevalent skills-centred approach for building employability in graduates, Tomlinson (2017) proposed an inter-related model which portrayed graduate capitals and their related resources and applications in industry. His model comprised five linked areas of capital (a) human, (b) social, (c) cultural, (d) identity and, (e) psychological. He argued that the concept of capitals embraced a more comprehensive view of a graduate’s education and life experience outcomes. The inter-connected system within his model had three levels, the capitals and two further dimensions: “the key resources related to each and how they are utilised when graduates enter the job market” (Tomlinson, 2017, p. 340). Tomlinson further explained that capitals as resources were “cumulative and recursive in nature, potentially empowering graduates when making the transitions into the job market” (p. 349). The multiple resources and ways in which graduates accumulated capitals and, the interaction and complementarity between them was one of the most beneficial elements. In thinking about the practicalities of implementing this model,

48

Tomlinson pointed out that the development of capitals happens within (for example, higher education or peer networks) and takes many forms. Both work- integrated learning and extra-curricular activities are examples of experiences which could build human capitals.

Exemplars for Provision of Employability Learning

Many of the studies explored throughout Chapters 2 and 3 highlighted the importance of employability learning for musicians transitioning into music portfolio careers. Graduates reported deficiencies in these learnings in their tertiary music education programs. Encouragingly, however, there is an increasing number of tertiary institutions trialling and implementing innovative practices to address these shortfalls. This section explores some of those practices.

Entrepreneurship and experiential learning

Bridgstock (2013) made a case that entrepreneurship learning for arts professionals could not simply be transferred from those of business schools. She argued that entrepreneurship learning must be arts-idiosyncratic and outlined a plan for developing career identity and entrepreneurial self-confidence incrementally over three stages. She explained that in the first stage, students should be encouraged to explore their own career evolving identity. In the second stage, she advocated graduates to be prompted to seek opportunities for enterprise and the possibilities for their involvement in some venture or project. In the third stage, she proposed that students undertake project-based work which may or may not have successful results. In ‘doing’ entrepreneurship through such a project the students would learn core entrepreneurial skills (p. 132). She made the point that rather than supplanting the subject curriculum, the project “must be woven into the fabric of the disciplinary curriculum” (p. 134). Bennett (2014) also reinforced the importance of students constantly challenging their self-efficacy and self-concept. She claimed that such goals need not generate expensive curriculum reforms but rather, could be achieved through “engaging students in discussion and listening to their responses without bias” (p. 242).

The My Life as a Musician (MLaaM) program is another approach designed and implemented by the Queensland Conservatorium, Griffith University (Tolmie &

49

Nulty, 2015). The program featured a series of specific subjects which targeted music industry or small business learnings, taught across the three years of a creative degree. Tolmie and Nulty reported that the program was a work in with early feedback showing that there were significant structural and timing issues in catering to the diversity of students’ readiness and preparedness to engage with the content. Linking their students’ motivations with elements of the program seemed to be a key issue which would inform re-design of the program.

Academics proposed active and experiential learning as a way forward for increasing awareness and taking on of developing requisite skills for successful transitions into careers. Experiential learning involves the participation of students in the setting of learning goals and implementations. Minors et al. (2017) explained a case study about active student engagement in curriculum reform by involving student partners in planning and developing components of the course. The initiative was assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively through student focus groups. Feedback on the projects was very positive as students had valued the opportunity for input and collaborative and shared experiences.

With a similar thrust, Carruthers highlighted the importance of developing self- determination in students as the ‘missing’ ingredient in higher education curricula. He described the benefits of experiential learning in developing agency as affording students the “opportunity to acquire transferable skills, and personal and professional agency, that enable them to transition through career stages and to negotiate successfully a lifespan in music” (Carruthers, 2019, p.217).

Work-integrated Learning (WiL)

Genuine work-integrated learning experiences help build employability skills and assist with the transition from student to professional as evidenced by extensive internships and practicums in professional degrees such as , and engineering (Backes-Gellner & Geel, 2014; Bartlett & Tolmie, 2018; Henderson & Trede, 2017; Hillman, 2019). As a mechanism for administrating and assessing work- integrated learning experiences for students, Henderson and Trede (2017) proposed a collaborative governance framework which featured a tri- between academia, industry and students.

50

Finding authentic work experiences is very difficult for musicians who will most likely work as free-lancers working within a portfolio of different activities and projects (Hillman, 2019). In such cases, the framework would be missing the industry partner from the tri-partnership model as proposed by Henderson and Trede. Nevertheless, there are creative ways of designing internship experiences for musicians where the role of the industry partner can be simulated. Institutions often set up student projects to simulate industry conditions, under the umbrella of key faculty.

Alternatively, the internship experience can be designed to expand the students’ concepts of how they might work within the industry and while doing so, gain unique learnings about their own identities, their capabilities and adaptability to new situations. Analysing a set of reflective blogs written by final-year creative industries students about their contributions to the design and implementation of their internship opportunity enabled Zelenko and Bridgstock (2014) to pilot-test six critical criteria for assessment. Examples of the criteria included: “setting parameters for the role and assessing the malleability of organisational structure” or, “willingness and attempts (rather than existing capacity) to adapt to change” and these illustrated how effective the participants’ degree of engagement was to their career skills development (p. 8). They found that participants developed agility and adaptation skills enabling them to respond to changing work conditions no matter what the context.

Exploring musician identity through the perspective of complexity theory, Rowley et al. (2017) reported on the internship program at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. The students’ internships were within arts organisations and required them to work outside of their performing or creative specialism. Reflections on the project revealed the effect of experiential learning in reorienting to new career roles and developing “essential, transferable skills such as leadership, communication, teamwork, workplace negotiation and problem-solving” (p. 10).

Music Australia’s Contemporary Music Roundtable in 2016 included a session for music educators from different providers throughout Australia. As a result of that forum, the educators recommended setting up a national internship program to “integrate the training sector with the music industry through the platform of structured internships” (Music Australia, 2016).

51

Most music institutions provided simulated performance opportunities either on campus or in venues. Other internships or work placement requirements could be implemented through community engagement projects such as in Brown’s student project which comprised a theatre production to communicate , safety and legal messages to youths participating in the end-of-school celebrations. Student reflections on the outcomes included learnings in “personal self-confidence, the transferability of skills and the progressing from student to professional” (Brown, 2016, p. 39).

Embedded employability skills

Beeching (2010) highlighted the dilemma for tertiary music education where there appeared to be a conflict between providing artistic development or vocational training for developing careers. She provided an overview of current situations at United States institutions whereby entrepreneurship courses or workshops were provided in job searching, goals setting, grant or and self- promotion. Beeching pointed out that these approaches were passive rather than experiential. Founded on her wide exploration of programs at various institutions she proposed seven cross-curricular strategies for incorporating entrepreneurship in programs. One of these was the value of an “entrepreneurial project incentive program to provide seed money and mentoring support for projects” (p. 13).

An innovative professional development program has recently been designed to encourage student entrepreneurship at the Melbourne Conservatorium of Music (MCM) and features extracurricular workshops, individual career counselling, small stipends for community music or management internships, seed funding for business development of chamber groups as small enterprises and funding for small group performance or commissions projects (Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, 2018). Entitled IgniteLab, the program has experienced a steady increase in popularity since the program’s inception three years ago and currently has 25% of the MCM student body accessing the one-on-one careers counselling. The program administrator highlighted the reasons why students elected to get involved in the program as “wanting to gain an edge in their career development, wanting to sustain a creative career, concern about their ability to be financially successful, [asking] questions surrounding their relative success as a musician and wanting general existential guidance” (McKinnon, J. Program Administrator, IgniteLab Melbourne

52

Conservatorium of Music (personal communication, November 18, 2018). The program is co-curricular and optional although there are several honours level electives available which involve music management, enterprise and internship. Unfortunately, there are no current plans to integrate the program into mainstream courses.

With a focus on embedding employability into curriculum underpinning higher education programs, an initiative funded by the Australian Government has been set up by a team led by Dawn Bennett (Australian Government Department of Education and Training, 2017). The team set up a called “Developing employability” to provide resources and guidance for higher education educators and students. It hosts information, forums, publications and resources for educators striving to embed employability skills into higher education courses (Hillman, 2019). The employability agenda in tertiary education is seen as an imperative accountability measure. The call to make provision for employability training in some form or other cannot be ignored. The challenge is to imbue the curriculum with learning and activities aimed at developing entrepreneurship and employability skills such that it does not detract from the other priorities of learning in the curriculum yet, adds value for the transitioning graduate.

Summary: Literature Review Chapters 2 and 3

The research discussed in the two literature review chapters have presented extant literature and studies to profile the portfolio career of musicians and the how tertiary educators have sought to prepare musicians for such careers. The Chapter 2 literature set the scene for investigating the specifics of musicians’ portfolio careers, while Chapter 3 reviewed the research efforts of music academics providing insights into how tertiary music education is addressing the needs of graduates and identifying significant gaps.

Much of the research to date has focused on conservatoire and university graduates from more traditional and classically (and some jazz) oriented programs. There are other provider types and pedagogies preparing musicians for working in the music industry who have been operating for close to twenty years. The lack of research into graduate outcomes for the music courses at these other providers represents a significant gap in the literature. These non-university providers promote their foci on

53

providing contemporary and vocational education, and this is a significant focus of my research project. This study aims to provide a whole of tertiary music education sector perspective, inclusive of all provider types and course orientations primarily in Victoria.

The dominant traditions of the past for tertiary music courses at universities or conservatoria have focused almost exclusively on developing musical expertise with underpinning knowledge. Researchers reported that these traditions are still prevalent in some institutions with the new employability agenda for curriculum reform making little if no headway. By contrast, the programs at non-university providers are focused on more contemporary streams with a vocational pedagogy in preparing students for the workforce. Examination of the balance between developing musical and artistic expertise and developing employability skills within tertiary music course curricula is really at the nub of the differences between providers. Hence, the central research question: How does tertiary music education contribute to musicians’ careers?

While there has been considerable research into portfolio music careers, it was necessary to profile the portfolio careers of this particular sample to provide context for the interview data. Hence the first sub-question: What are the characteristics of music careers? Sub-question 2 addresses explicitly the identified gap in the literature: What are the graduate outcomes of tertiary music courses from different provider types?

Finally, in consideration of the ephemeral nature of the music industry with the majority of its workers being self-employed, the importance of developing strategies for adaptability to sustain these workers into the future is encapsulated in the third sub-question, How do musicians sustain their careers?

This study was constructed to incorporate specialisations including jazz, popular and classical performance, composition and audio production specialisations delivered at institutions with different pedagogical emphases. By exploring all, I sought to find best practice to provide insights to inform tertiary music education for the future. Chapter 4 discusses the methods and instruments used to address the research questions for this study.

54

Chapter 4 Methodology

This chapter outlines the rationale for the methodological choices made for this study. From my experience on the provision side of the educational equation, I now seek to understand from the outcomes side. To answer the research questions, I need a broad overview of music industry conditions within which my study cohort are operating, as well as individual perspectives of graduates from different provider backgrounds who have applied the outcomes of their education to their careers in all their particularities. For both, the research needs to be descriptive but also needs to be interpretive. Thus, the methodology for this study is both descriptive and interpretive using a mixed methods approach with the aim of providing robust answers to the research questions.

Positioning

My positioning frames the decisions for my methodological approach and the consequent methods chosen to explore the research questions. As a musician, I have been through tertiary music education myself. I did not pursue a career as a performing musician, rather, as a music educator progressing into and management. However, identity is a complex construct, and like most of the participants in this study, I have always considered myself to be a musician in addition to my career identities. As such, I have had the privilege of affinity with the young musicians who have been in my charge, and as a teacher, my beliefs and values align with a constructivist paradigm. Such a view holds that individuals will construct their own understanding and meanings of their learning and these will and shape their life journeys and career trajectories (Creswell, 2007). A constructivist has an ontology that sees social outcomes determined by interactions between individuals and the social world (Bryman, 2012; Greene, 2005).

Denzin and Lincoln (2000) explain that constructivism is based on a “relativist ontology, a transactional , and a hermeneutic, dialectical methodology.” (p. 158). In answering the questions for this research, I wanted to examine the world of the musician bearing in mind that the ontology of the musical world is not a fixed reality. It changes and evolves, as do the opportunities and challenges of the protean career. Moreover, the musicians’ world (more concisely, the music industry) has characteristics and trends which are common and experienced by all (or most)

55

participants. So, the pragmatist within me wanted to find out about this world to provide the context in which the participants of this study operate. After describing the musicians’ world as a context, I could then focus my effort on the particularities of musicians’ journeys to allow their perspectives to emerge about how they constructed their careers and how they perceived their music education had contributed to them. The epistemology of the musician is based on his/her relationship with what he/she knows about his/her reality and how it has played out between tertiary music education and his/her career involving a two-way transaction (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Flowing from these two philosophical standpoints, my constructivist positioning seeks to interpret through a series of reiterative discourses between the musicians’ world context and his or her agency and interactions within it. Thus, taking a pragmatic approach, this descriptive and interpretive framework is the premise for my methodology and research design.

Methodology

Because musicians’ careers are complex and take the form of a portfolio, there are no standard employers, types of employment, career structures or trajectories. Musicians need to create their own pathways, sometimes strategising their progress, and at other times taking opportunities as they arise. They need to make of their career what they can, given the constraints, market conditions, networks, influences and expectations of others. Each musician’s career is unique. Their sense of identity as a musician, how this relates to their work portfolio and how it has been shaped by their local culture— including their musical education and interactions with society—is central to a constructivist standpoint. This view requires a holistic approach, one which is both descriptive and interpretive to enable the researcher to gain a balanced view of the field and to gain insights into the particulars as perceived by the participants at a given point in time.

The research questions have guided the methods I have chosen for the research design.

The central question:

How does tertiary music education contribute to musicians’ careers?

56

and the sub-questions:

1. What are the characteristics of music careers?

2. What are the graduate outcomes of tertiary music courses from different provider types?

3. How do musicians sustain their careers?

The central question being a how question cannot be answered adequately by the traditional positivist paradigm alone. Large graduate destination surveys can provide basic statistics about who and how many are employed and how soon after graduation they gained full-time or part-time work and so on, but they are not sufficiently nuanced to individuals’ experiences to answer this how question. Nevertheless, descriptive measures are suitable for examining the ontological context of musicians’ careers as an overview of their work world or industry. Research sub-question one could be answered by closed questions to elicit the demographic details of the portfolios and collate them into quantifiable summaries. For example, such summaries could include the number of full-time or part-time workers, time spent on different types of activities, incomes and sources of income from music and non-music related work in their portfolios and so forth. This information could generate quantitative data to provide an overview of the field expressed with descriptive statistics (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2012). Similarly, in setting the scene for sub-question 2, questions about the type of course and institution studied, the balance of curriculum content, overall opinions of effectiveness expressed as ratings could also generate quantitative data. This data could facilitate an overview of similarities and differences in curriculum content by comparing characteristics between groups inferentially.

For sub-question 2, individual musicians’ perceptions of their course usefulness to them in their careers—from an emic or insider perspective—required a qualitative approach to understand how their career journeys and decisions interacted with their ontological position, that is, the musical circles and genres within which they were operating (Merriam, 2009).

In addition to a descriptive approach, I also needed an interpretive approach, one in which I could inductively ascertain patterns of meaning from the qualitative

57

data of participants while acknowledging the role that my background played in shaping my interpretation (Creswell, 2007, p. 21). An interpretive perspective would seek to understand how these musicians have understood and incorporated the learnings from their tertiary education into their mode of operation in their careers (Merriam, 2009). In addition to the quantitative data, I needed data collected from a more open individual method. Although some open-ended questions in a survey could enable text-based responses to provide individual insights, I needed to employ one- on-one interviews with individuals for more in-depth explanations. Bresler (2014) emphasised the importance of open-endedness in qualitative methods, and that semi- structured interviews could allow themes to emerge. While the researcher might direct where the may go, they cannot predict where the conversation may lead them. Using a semi-structured approach allows them to retain the flexibility to explore issues and threads which may not have been expected (Bresler, 2014; Bryman, 2012). This qualitative data would allow the drivers and personal determinations of the individual to be considered and interpreted in the context of the musical world in which they were operating. In order to answer the research questions, I needed both quantitative and qualitative data requiring a mixed method approach.

Mixed Methods

A mixed methods approach has the advantage of incorporating both data which describes general frequencies and trends through statistical relationships (quantitative) and in-depth explanations of those relationships through inductive analysis of data garnered from interviews and other sources which enable interpretations (qualitative) (Greene, 2008; Greene, Kreider, & Mayer, 2005; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007). In his study of methodological trends in music education research over a 20- year period, Zelenak (2014) reported that there had been significant shifts in the complexity of data collection and . While researchers had collected diverse types of data for research as far back as the 1930s, the more hegemonic research model in the 20th century had been the positivist paradigm based on scientific methods, experimental and generating quantitative data (Johnson et al., 2007). Positivist researchers insisted on objectivity and based on observable realities, and interpretivist researchers focused on qualitative analysis which was subjective and open to interpretation. In the late 20th century there was acrimony between those with positivist and interpretivist views due to their opposing . It was not until

58

the 1970s that researchers started using a variety of data for testing validity through triangulation (Creswell, 2012; Greene et al., 2005; West, 2014). Maximising the benefits of both quantitative and qualitative data, a mixed methods approach is particularly useful in because of the complexity of learning within a social setting (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2006). It is especially relevant to those working in and who have more relativistic views, and who often employ qualitative interpretive techniques (Creswell, 2012; Greene, 2005).

Johnson et al. (2007) made the point that “Today, the primary of mixed methods is ” (p. 113). This is also true of this research in the way the study design has been determined by the research questions. Table 4.1 shows how the quantitative or qualitative methods and tools relate to each of the research questions.

Table 4.1 Overview of Research Questions and Relationship with Mixed Methods and Tools Methods Online survey Semi-structured interviews Closed Open-ended Program leader Alumni interviews questions questions interviews Quantitative- Qualitative- Qualitative- Qualitative- multiple-choice interpretive –in descriptive and interpretive & multiple some instances interpretive insights, emergent Analysis response analysis themes inductive questions, transforms into descriptive quantitative Research Questions Central How does tertiary music education contribute to ✓ ✓ ✓ musicians’ careers?

Sub-question 1 What are the characteristics of music ✓ ✓ ✓ careers?

Sub-question 2 What are the graduate outcomes of tertiary ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ courses from different provider types?

Sub-question 3 How do musicians sustain ✓ ✓ ✓ their careers?

One of the weaknesses of mixed methods research, however, is that the pool of data can appear to be eclectic and disconnected. To mitigate this weakness, Yanchar and

59

Williams (2006) proposed the “soft incompatibility approach” as an innovative set of guidelines supporting the mixture of philosophical bases of quantitative and qualitative data within the one study. These five guidelines are: contextual sensitivity, creativity, conceptual awareness, coherence and critical reflection (pp. 8-9). I have applied the five guidelines to this research design to ensure that despite the underlying opposing theoretical premises, the two different types of data are used productively and complementarily to produce cohesive results.

Contextual sensitivity: Selection of the methods needs to be inextricably linked to a relevant context which is driven by the research questions. Matching the questions by incorporating data from appropriate sources—program leader interviews, survey participants and alumni interviews— ensured that the study remained sensitive to its context.

Creativity: Making use of the strengths of a mixed methods approach requires a creative approach. By structuring the survey (quantitative data) in such a way as to facilitate connections with perceptions from the semi-structured interviews (qualitative data) I could bring the different data types together to create a more holistic interpretation.

Conceptual awareness: The historical trajectory of tertiary music education and different providers in Victoria as well as the theoretical grounds surrounding the academic and vocational pedagogies (Chapter 3) informs the conceptualisation of this study. In practice, these are threaded throughout as the data sources interact and triangulate back and forth through the findings.

Coherence: Triangulation between the quantitative and qualitative data was employed as a reiterative process throughout the analysis to maintain coherence in this study (As represented by the three data sources within the triangle in Figure 1). Other devices to maintain coherence included: the conceptual map, the purposive selection criteria of the alumni interviews, the alternation between descriptive statistics and illustrative quotations from interviews. In this way, coherence was achieved in the study design and implementation.

Critical reflection: I outline the strengths and limitations of the study design in this chapter but also where relevant to the findings in Chapters 5, 6 and 7. The critical

60

reflections are summarised at the end of those chapters and then synthesised in the concluding Chapter 8. Figure 4.1 presents the conceptual map for this research.

Figure 4.1 Conceptual map of this study

The quantitative aspect of this research needed to provide a clear picture of the characteristics of musicians’ portfolios including their activities, resources and incomes, and how they assembled the various components of their careers. Responses to set closed questions could facilitate quantitative data upon which descriptive analysis of overall trends for the sample and sub-groups could be assembled. Interviews with program leaders from the different provider types could provide a context for the courses and pedagogical approaches. This examination of provider context from program leaders could contribute to the corroboration and triangulation with survey responses about curriculum and with comments from the alumni interviews. By conducting semi-structured interviews with alumni, I could discover how individuals shaped their interpretation of their career journeys. The alumni participants, for the most part, would not necessarily have had extended working lives to research longitudinally. Nevertheless, tapping into their early influences and career narratives thus far through a modified life course/new adulthood theoretical lens could provide insights into the impact of their tertiary music education on their subsequent experiences and opportunities as they transitioned from study to work in the music industry. Not only could a qualitative approach help explain components of musical careers, but it could also provide triangulation of the quantitative data.

61

Research Design

Tertiary music education sites and qualifications

The core context of this study is tertiary music education situated within Australia, with a focus on Victoria. I had initially planned to target the survey to graduates from four provider types: a university, a TAFE (which included HE and VET) one private provider for HE and another for VET. See Table 4.2 for the initial scope of sites.

Table 4.2 Initial Scope of Educational Sites Tertiary level Provider types HE VET university ✓ TAFE ✓ ✓ private provider 1 ✓ private provider 2 ✓

Music qualifications after secondary education included post-secondary VET qualifications and Bachelor degrees. These qualifications are identified at specific levels of the Australian Qualification Framework (AQF). VET qualifications included Certificate IV at level four, Diploma at level five and Advanced diploma at level six. Table 4.3 provides a summary of each of the certificate levels. In this study graduates with VET qualifications have been included as either standalone or as pathway qualifications into a Bachelor degree. The taxonomy and application of knowledge and skills are sequential and designed to facilitate pathways from one qualification to the next. Level six comprises two qualifications: Advanced diploma and Associate degree. An Associate degree is often embedded into the first two years of a Bachelor program. Both the Advanced diploma and Associate degree may be assessed for towards a Bachelor degree depending on how well the learning outcomes or specialisations accord between the two qualifications.

62

Table 4.3 Post-Secondary Qualifications (Undergraduate) and the Australian Qualifications Framework Australian Qualifications Framework levels

Levels Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7

Advanced Bachelor Qualifications Certificate IV Diploma Associate degree diploma degree

Typical length 0.5 – 1 year 1 – 2 years 1.5 – 2 years 2 years 3 – 4 years (Volume of learning)

Graduates at Graduates at this Graduates at this Graduates at this Graduates at this level will level will have level will have level will have this level will have specialised broad knowledge broad knowledge have broad theoretical knowledge and and skills for and skills for and coherent and practical skills for skilled/ paraprofessional/ paraprofessional/ knowledge knowledge paraprofessional highly skilled highly skilled and skills for and skills for work and /or work and/or work and/or professional Summary specialised further learning further learning further learning work and/or and/or further skilled work learning and/or further learning

TAFE TAFE TAFE TAFE TAFE

Institutions Private Private provider Private provider Private provider Private that deliver provider provider University University

Note: Elements from this table were drawn from the Australian Qualifications Framework Second Edition (2013)

The eventual sample for this research was shaped by the distribution method of social media (Section 4.6.3). The categories of providers were rearranged to include a separate category for a specialist arts college as a division of a university. A new category was created by collapsing the TAFE and private providers into one category known as the Non-University Higher Education Providers (NUHEPs). The rationale for this decision is further explained in Chapter 6. The revised scope of sites and qualifications included in this study are detailed in Table 4.4.

63

Table 4.4 Revised Scope of Educational Sites Tertiary level Provider types HE VET University Degrees AQF7 Specialist Arts College (SAC) (as a department of the university) Degrees AQF7

Non-University Higher Education Certificate IV, Diploma, Providers (NUHEPs) (including TAFE Degrees AQF7 Advanced Diploma institutes and private providers) AQF4, 5 & 6

While there are obvious commonalities between the three types, there are also differences. These include: the pedagogies and different curricular intent, learning , the import of their within a historical and cultural hierarchy and, importantly, the mechanisms for financial support as an expression of cultural and political policy. The increased variety of providers offering higher music education and related degrees in recent years has created a commercial and “in confidence” competitiveness between them. Students studying degrees at universities received Federal funding and loans without fees while those who studied at NUHEPs did not. I needed to be conscious of this competitive sensitivity when interpreting program information from program leaders.

Recruitment

My first contact with the institutions was to send an invitation and plain language statement to an appropriate person or leader within each of the institutions (one university, one TAFE institute and two private providers). I requested agreement to interviews with program leaders and to facilitate access to the alumni survey through alumni email or promotion through the institution’s social media portal. The private providers agreed to both parts of my request. The university and the TAFE institute were agreeable to the program leader interviews and a general notice to be promoted through their alumni social media portals however they did not agree to send the invitation and survey link to alumni through email due to restrictions of their alumni contact policies.

The original intention had been to garner participants from specific institutions in Melbourne, Australia. This was not possible because, instead of targeted emails to

64

alumni the recruitment method for the survey relied on social media distribution. The bulk of the participants were from Melbourne institutions with some from others around Australia and a small number who had studied internationally. Responses from those who had studied at overseas institutions were included in the data analysis about music portfolios but not for the analyses of tertiary education.

Research design sequence

This mixed methods research followed a three-stage explanatory sequence (Creswell, 2012). The sequence diagram in Figure 4.2 shows the three stages, timelines and activities of the research methods. The study began with program leader interviews at purposely selected institutions in Melbourne (Patton, 2002).

Figure 4.2 Flow chart of the research sequence and timeline Note: SAC- Specialist Arts College, TAFE- Tertiary and Further Education, PP- Private Provider, HE- Higher Education (degrees), VET-Vocational Education and Training

Concurrently with the program leader interviews, the online survey was in the final stages of and was then piloted. Links to the online survey were distributed by social media and email, remaining open for three months from late October 2016 until February 2017. The alumni interviews followed in the early months of 2017. After the stage 2, I could choose the alumni interviewees purposively

65

from the volunteers through the online survey. This sequence could provide an opportunity for triangulation between the three sets of data (Fetters, Curry, & Creswell, 2013; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).

Stage 1: Program Leader Interviews

Overview

Program leaders were in the best position to provide insight into the stated aims, graduate outcomes and the rationale behind the inclusion and exclusion of subjects, the relative subject weightings and pedagogical emphases of the course2. Gaining an overview of the courses of study and their distinguishing features from those who constructed the courses (program leaders) could assist in situating views and comments from the alumni participants. The method of semi-structured interviews could allow for flexibility to explore program leaders’ anecdotal knowledge of various alumni and their career trajectories as well as the ideas and opinions from their teaching teams.

The semi-structured interviews with seven program leaders included questions prompting discussion on the following topics. See Appendix 1 for the Interview protocol and sample questions.

(a) About the course for which they were leaders:

• recent updates and changes to course content in the past few years • distinguishing features of the course • distinguishing features of the course as compared to their knowledge of offerings of other similar courses • pedagogical approaches • the balance between academic, practical and vocational aspects • inclusion or not of work placement or internships b) Graduate outcomes and employability:

• official graduate outcomes of the course

2 As mentioned in the points of clarification in Chapter 1, I use the term “course” as it refers to the whole program of subjects for which the program leader is responsible.

66

• their views on the prospects of graduates with gaining work and satisfactory incomes in the music industry • how the course prepared students for gaining work • anecdotal knowledge of past alumni and their career trajectories

(a) Knowledge of graduates’ opinions:

• perspectives and insights on how students have valued elements of the course as building towards their skills and knowledge for future careers • rapport and follow-up of alumni • role of the institution in professional development

(b) Teaching team views:

• overview of their teaching colleagues’ perspectives on course curriculum (or units of competency) and engagement of students • insights for potential future improvements to the course and how these might benefit students with the goal of gaining musical careers

Interviews with program leaders would provide insights into the structure, content and pedagogical intentions of their courses as well as some useful anecdotal information about the pathways and careers of some of their graduates.

Selection and recruitment

Following agreement from the institution to participate, I contacted program leaders from the original plan for the different provider types (Table 4.4, p. 63). Purposive sampling involved seven program leaders across the provider types representing HE and VET and most program specialisations. Instead of a program leader interview from the classical stream at the university, I relied on information about courses from a study I completed in 2015 where I gathered information from websites, brochures and open day presentations.

Stage 2: Online Survey

Overview

The online survey sought information about the characteristics of portfolio careers, the backgrounds of participants and the content and learnings of different tertiary

67

music education experiences. There were four sections to the survey. The first two sections addressed the conditions of the portfolio musician asking about characteristics of their working week such as incomes, work hours and the breakdown of activities. Sections three and four comprised questions about the participants’ course, type of institution, and tertiary music experiences.

Construction of the online Music, Education and Careers Survey (MECS)

Initially, I considered using existing surveys or at least incorporating some questions modelled on those from previously conducted surveys for other studies about professional musicians. Applicable survey instruments for reference models included: the 2010 Creative Media Workforce Survey (Creative Skillset, 2010), the Survey of Successful Contemporary Musicians (Letts, 2013), the Musicians’ Well-being Survey (Parker, 2015), and the Creative Workers Instrument (CWI). The latter was developed by Dawn Bennett and colleagues and is referred to in their study of access to tertiary music institutions promoted by Music Australia (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015).

After reviewing these instruments in relation to the research questions, I devised a list of the topics or concepts for questions in my online survey entitled the Music, Education and Careers Survey (MECS). These topics were:

• motivations for becoming a musician • concepts about the development of their identity as a musician • basic demographic detail • how participants make up their music portfolio regarding: • music-related and non-music related work • time spent on various activities • income and income sources • how well their original expectations of graduate outcomes were met • how their career goals and original expectations may have changed over time • other influential factors • basic demographics about their tertiary study, institution and course • the inclusion of music industry or vocational knowledge and skills in the curriculum of their tertiary study • the effectiveness of their course in contributing to their careers • views about their engagement with the course curriculum (subjects or units of competency) • earlier course pathways • post-graduate courses

68

• needs and methods of furthering knowledge and skills in terms of professional development • willingness to be contacted for an interview I determined that the Creative Workers Instrument (CWI) (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015) to be the most suitable model for the online MECS because it had more relevance with the intended content as listed above. Dawn Bennett provided permission to use the CWI as a model (Appendix 2). In summary, I used 22 of the 89 CWI survey items for the MECS questions, albeit some with minor variations and customisation to my research focus. In effect, I used 24% of the CWI for about 50% of the MECS. With the addition of 22 newly created questions, the MECS had a total of 44 questions. Appendix 3 shows a table of the MECS questions and their relationship with the research questions and the CWI questions. The original CWI had five sections, and these were re-arranged into four sections for the MECS of which the first two related to portfolio careers, and the final two related to tertiary music education (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 Relationship between sections of the CWI and MECS

The MECS included a mix of three question types: (a) , (b) multiple response checkbox and (c) open-ended questions. While the first two facilitated collection of quantitative data, the third required text responses with possibilities for qualitative data. Some of the text-based data were suitable to be transformed into alternative variables or response options not listed in the original multiple response lists. As explained by Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2006), data of one type (qualitative) could be transformed and treated as the other type (quantitative).

I first established face validity by consulting several experts. These included sample

69

alumni from similar institutions to those in the target sample and a tertiary music teacher who had worked with tertiary music students. Several of the original questions were modified because of this process, and response options were reviewed to be more relevant to the question intent. The second step in validating the survey was to conduct a pilot test with a small sample of alumni similar to those in the target sample. The nine pilot participants were sent an email with a link to the online survey with the following aims:

• To test if the survey was delivered in a convenient and logical sequence, • To ensure that the questions made sense and could be interpreted reliably, and, • To test that the survey delivery worked on the small screens of mobile devices.

The pilot participants were also asked for feedback and suggestions. As a result of the pilot test, a few of questions were further refined. Several were expanded into more than one question. For example, a matrix question where a common question stem had been applied to a number of variables, was changed and expanded into separate questions, each with the same question stem for more convenient small screen accessibility. Several other questions were rearranged in the order of delivery. Further refinements to the layout of the introductory page included embedding a separate link for access to the plain language statement. These modifications are included in the table in Appendix 3.

A late addition to the online survey was the inclusion of an incentive for completion. The incentive consisted of three vouchers from a choice of music suppliers. The three winning respondents were to be drawn from a ballot from those who had voluntarily included their email addresses for this purpose. As the ethics application had already been approved without the incentive, the ethics application was modified and re-submitted for approval before the survey went live.

I explored two platforms for the online delivery of the MECS: (1) Survey Monkey and (2) Qualtrics. Both platforms worked well. I chose Survey Monkey because the university department had an account and secure digital control of the data as required by the ethics application. Working on the presumption that many of the respondents would complete the online MECS with a mobile device, I investigated best practice design information to ensure that the MECS was accessible for those using a small

70

screen device.

Participant recruitment and online survey distribution

In addition to the email distribution of a link to the online survey to alumni from two private providers and posts on the social media alumni portals, I initiated a snowball sampling procedure. A snowballing technique was applicable for this study because it was a well-defined population (i.e. tertiary music graduates) and, they were also highly likely to be well connected in social and professional networks, both in person and virtually through social media (Bryman, 2012; Sue & Ritter, 2012). I contacted a small number of alumni known to me through my professional and personal networks from each of the target institutions to start the snowball effect of social media sharing. In this way, it was still broadly purposive and could gain a good number of participants from those target institutions. Although it was not possible to control the spread of the survey to confine it to those target institutions, one of the advantages of this method was that it did allow for a wider range of institutions to be included in the sample. Most of these were based in Melbourne with some in other states within Australia and ten from overseas institutions.

The planning for the survey population had included estimates of graduates from 2010-2015 from performance, composition and sound production qualifications from twelve institutions in Melbourne (including universities, TAFE institutes and private providers). This planned population had been estimated to be around 1833 (Appendix 4).

However, the online survey link was distributed through social media using a snowball sampling technique and as such, was a non-probability sample. The distribution method did not employ random selection procedures and consequently, may or may not be representative of the population (Bryman, 2012; De Vaus, 2002; Sue & Ritter, 2012). In the absence of control of reach I decided that I would not apply constraints on the institutions, number of years since graduation or the geographical location of the institution to Melbourne. The true population then was impossible to estimate. Sue and Ritter (2012) argue that for non-probability sampling the following applies:

71

Respondents for this survey were selected from among those who opted in to participate [from social media sharing] … Because the sample is based on those who self-selected for participation rather than a probability sample, no estimates of sampling error can be calculated. (p. 14)

Because of the non-probability sampling technique, making generalisations of the findings to the full population of this research would be limited. I would argue, however, that if comparisons of the quantitative results from the MECS with those of other similar studies such as those in Chapter 2 were found to be similar, the notion of transferability could apply.

Ultimately, there were 266 responses to the survey of which, 34 were deemed too incomplete to include. Those who had responded that they were working in the music industry needed to have answered the basic range question for their record to be useful. Those who had claimed they were not working in music at all had been skipped out of the questions about basic salary range and needed to have answered more questions into the survey to be useful. I set the inclusion criteria as having answered a question about their career and how well it matched their expectations or another which asked about their goals changing. The inclusion criteria were framed thus:

1. If the respondent’s answer to employment status was either part-time or full- time, and they answered the salary range question, cases were included.

2. If the respondent answered to their employment status that they were not working in music, and, they answered questions about their expectations, their careers meeting expectations or their goals changing, cases were included.

Ten of the final sample of 232 had studied at overseas institutions so were included for analysis of the music career information, but were excluded from the analysis of the tertiary education data. Limiting the responses for music education to the Australian education system ensured a more homogenous sample.

72

Stage 3: Alumni Interviews

Intent and content of alumni semi-structured interviews

The interviews with alumni were one-off and each up to an hour long. They were conducted by at a mutually convenient time. While the alumni subjects of this research project did not all have long working lives to research longitudinally, tapping into their histories could provide insights about the impact of their particular music education experience on their subsequent work experiences and opportunities as they transitioned into the music industry. The method of semi-structured interviews could contribute towards the building of a biographical picture of each interviewee, from their earlier music background to tertiary music education and subsequent music career experiences. The re-telling of interviewees’ stories as brief biographical bites prefacing relevant quotes throughout the findings could provide insights by situating the selected interviewee quotes in their context and in relation to the topics under discussion.

The semi-structured interviews consisted of follow-on questions to allow participants to expand on their online survey answers. I considered it important not to reiterate the online survey questions but instead, to ask them to expand upon their answers, enabling a deeper understanding of the individuals’ reasonings. A set of sample questions was developed as a basis, and then individual follow-on questions were added for each participant depending on their previous answers to the online survey. The interviews could enable me to explore such issues as their thoughts about the industry, the strategies they used to build their portfolios, their original career expectations and decision-making processes for changing goals, other influences and their sense of professional identity. The semi-structured interviews with alumni included questions prompting discussion on the following topics:

(a) About their course:

• Their expectations and how well the course met them • How their course and the curriculum related to or engaged them (b) Motivations for tertiary music study:

• Background on why they chose their specialisation, instrument or voice, course and institution

73

• Music learning while growing up and important influences/influencers (c) Their portfolio careers:

• Diversity and management of their portfolio activities • Chronology of their career trajectory to date • Identity as a musician • Further knowledge and skills they had needed to develop after study • Their plans for the near (five years) and far (20 years) (d) Other music learning (formal or informal):

• Further training in music disciplinary knowledge or skills • Further training in vocational or music industry skills • Formal post-graduate study

(e) Factors other than education:

• Significant events, persons, life decisions affecting work and career

(f) Engagement as an alumnus:

• Learning culture of their previous institution • Importance of networks with course contemporaries after formal study • Methods of learning for professional development See Appendix 5 for the Alumni Interview Protocol and Sample Questions. While the list above shows sample topics, the order and content of these interviews varied due to the personalised nature of the interviews. In accordance with the ethics application, all interviews were audio recorded, transcribed and sent to interviewees for review.

Selection and recruitment

The final question of the online survey asked respondents to volunteer for an interview. Around 80 of the respondents volunteered including a range of graduates from all four provider types. After analysing the demographics of respondents from the online survey data, I applied stratified purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2012; Patton, 2002). I aimed for: (a) even representation of the four different provider types (university, SAC, TAFE and private provider); (b) the inclusion of HE and VET graduates, (c) an even number of alumni from the early career and the established career stages and, (d) a balanced range of alumni between those who had reported that they were working either full-time or part-time in music-related work. This categorisation was often related to the career stage although not in all cases.

74

Because of the freelance and portfolio nature of the industry, it was important to speak with alumni with varying lengths of time since graduation as it could take some years to build up professional networks and a portfolio of work opportunities. Early career entrants may not yet have established a substantial component of their work as musicians, but they could provide insights into how aspects of their course were assisting them to build their portfolios. The more established musicians could have a longer perspective for their educational and industry experiences which could provide a better indication of the ongoing sustainability of their music careers into the future.

Therefore, I used two categories arising from the survey data: (a) early career entrant and, (b) established musician. There were several contributing factors in categorising respondents to these two categories. The first was derived from online survey responses to the number of years since graduation as either: (a) one to five years after graduation or, (b) six or more years after graduation. The other factors contributing to the definition of the stage of their career were: age, maturity and longevity of working as a musician. In several cases, some alumni had been more mature aged at the time of their and had worked professionally as musicians before or during their undergraduate study period, and so they were quite well established when they graduated.

A note about the inclusion of qualification levels: As I was investigating undergraduate music education and training and its impact on careers, I had originally intended to include an equal number of VET graduates (qualifications at levels 4-6). There were only five survey respondents who had completed a VET qualification as the most recent undergraduate qualification, and, who had volunteered to be interviewed. Two responded to follow-up calls. Additionally, there were six of the degree graduates selected for interviews who had completed VET qualifications prior to their degrees.

The stratified purposeful sampling approach for the interviews included 16 degree graduates, six of whom who had studied earlier VET pathways and two VET graduates. In total, there were 18 alumni interviews with the following qualifications and provider types:

• university - four degree graduates

75

• SAC - four degree graduates, three of whom had studied VET prior • TAFE - five degree graduates, two of whom had studied VET prior and one VET graduate • Private Provider - three degree graduates, one of whom had studied VET prior and one VET graduate

See Table 5.2, (p. 86) for further information about the tertiary education data of the alumni interviewees.

Limitations and Trustworthiness

Online survey questions

Using established questions from another tested survey provided some measure of reliability and validity for those questions. In discussing ways of increasing the reliability of questionnaire questions, De Vaus points out “the best course is to use well-tested questions from reputable questionnaires” (2002, p. 53). In addition, establishing face validity and piloting the online survey—with the consequential fine- tuning of questions and sequential design (as described in Section 4.6.2) — were strategies undertaken to satisfy evaluation of measures of the underlying concepts of the questions (Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2012; De Vaus, 2002).

One of the advantages of an online survey, is the facility of the individuals’ answers to customise following questions as relevant. Skip logic was applied to some questions (De Vaus, 2002; Sue & Ritter, 2012). For the most part, this procedure worked well. Upon reflection, I did identify a few instances when respondents may have been erroneous in their first answer and potentially could have answered following questions had they not been skipped out of them. These instances are identified in the findings in Chapters 5 and 6.

Another possible limitation of the survey was the issue of question order bias. By establishing face validity and piloting the survey, and subsequent action upon the feedback with rearrangement, deletion of some questions and re-writing of others, it was possible to minimise question order bias. Upon analysis and reflection, however, I identified a question sequence in the MECS that had the potential to cause question order bias. This was where a question about the inclusion of music industry knowledge or vocational skills in their course was followed by a question asking them to rate the effectiveness of the course in contributing to their careers. This sequence

76

had the potential to influence respondents to link the earlier question response to the latter one. Once analysed, however, the disparity between answers of graduates from different institutions on the earlier question was quite considerable and yet, the response for the latter question was quite similar across the whole cohort. I considered that despite the potential for question order bias, the results indicated that it had not had any real impact.

Questions about time devoted to music and work-related income were intended to provide data about the musicians’ portfolio. A limitation to gaining a consistent picture of work activities for participants may have been the use of the term employment rather than work. This may have contributed to some confusion about reporting time committed to non-paid or part-time work.

Some text response answers to open-ended questions were critical comments providing opportunities for thematic and interpretive analysis. As Patton (1990) asserts, “The open-ended responses permit one to understand the world as seen by the respondents” (p 24). Patton outlines some of the limitations of this type of question which include: the brief time respondents take over open-ended questions, lack of writing skills, and the inability for the researcher to probe further.

Online survey distribution method

Two institutions agreed to contact alumni via their alumni email. As a general observation, however, alumni are not predisposed to responding to official contact through formal institutional channels. Consequently, due to the likely limitations on the response rate to official alumni contact methods, access to alumni through social media was a much more productive alternative.

Online delivery of the survey through social media could present several advantages. Kayam and Hirsch (2012, p. 60) outlined four advantages: (a) significant savings in cost in terms of time and facilities, (b) significant saving in time as the data were collected by the internet tool with little intervention from the researcher, (c) survey respondents could truly elect to participate or not without any undue pressure, and (d) computer data collection minimised human errors with delivery of questions being consistent across the sample. The disadvantages included: (a) “sampling in internet research studies is also not randomised” (p. 60) as the social media networks operate

77

within groups, (b) there could be potential for data to be compromised by capricious participants. (This is also true of more traditional survey delivery and to mitigate, the researcher is responsible for seeking outliers in the data and excluding them), (c) while the plain language statement was provided through an embedded link facilitating informed , it was possible that participants may not have accessed the link, and (d) there was no uniform way of providing a de-briefing after the survey. This last point was mitigated by a Facebook page set up for the dissemination of results to participants who could freely access this page. Those who elected to provide email addresses could be informed when findings had been uploaded to the Facebook page.

Respondents to the survey could choose one of three levels of anonymity,

(a) they could elect to be anonymous by not including any contact details,

(b) they could elect to only provide their email address for notification of the incentive and study results, or

(c) they could provide contact details if they were prepared to be involved in interviews.

Out of 232 respondents included in the analysis, 155 provided email addresses to be included in the incentive draw and to receive findings of the research. Eighty-two of the cohort supplied further contact details for the interviews. These options in levels of anonymity were explicitly outlined in the ethics application, in the introduction to the online survey and the plain language statement.

Because the sample was contingent on an unpredictable method of distribution (social media), and the reach could not be confined to graduates from particular institutions or years, it is not possible for the data to be truly generalisable. It is proposed, however, that relevant themes arising from this research could be found in similar courses in other institutional sites and hence the notion of transferability could be used as an evaluative criterion (Schwandt, Lincoln, & Guba, 2007).

Semi-structured interviews

Table 4.5 lists potential problems and strategies to mitigate the potential for bias in

78

the semi-structured interviews. By using the prompt questions for the semi-structured interviews, individual responses for alumni were triangulated against their own survey data and group data of the survey for trustworthiness (Fetters et al., 2013). As the period of recall for most participants was under ten years beyond graduation, inaccuracies of alumni histories should be relatively contained. Another related limitation is that recall of the process of decision-making can be affected by the outcomes of those decisions. As each alumni interview was highly personalised, it would be difficult to verify the accuracy of their responses in this respect. In providing them with a transcript of their account, however, the individual could verify the accuracy according to their recall.

Table 4.5 Potential Bias Problems and Mitigation Strategies Potential for bias Mitigation strategies to minimaise effect

Alumni longevity working in the • Use of purposive selection criteria for alumni industry could affect interview interviews ensuring a balance between those who perspectives were early career entrants and those who were more established musicians

Alumni working full-time or part- • Use of purposive selection criteria for alumni time in music could affect interviews ensuring a balance between those who interview perspectives were full-time and part-time working in music

Researcher as interviewer having • Use of quantitative data to triangulate with worked in a TAFE Institute – the qualitative data risk of partiality in interviews • Use of purposive selection criteria for interviewees to be representative across the different providers

• Use of general template for questions for semi- structured interviews to guide the interviews in a consistent and impartial manner

Accuracy of transcriptions • Interview transcripts returned to interviewees for review and feedback

Limitations of the interviews being conducted via telephone meant that non-verbal cues were not observable. However, the lack of visibility of the researcher may also have had the advantage of the interviewee being more honest and forthcoming with explanations.

The debate about determining academic and establishing quality criteria in

79

qualitative research has been an ongoing and robust discussion over many years. Influential researchers in this debate include the work of Lincoln and Guba and others. Lincoln and Guba’s two sets of criteria are presented here: (1) trustworthiness and, (2) authenticity (Schwandt, Lincoln, & Guba, 2007). The trustworthiness set was developed as an alternative parallel to quality criteria from the positivist research paradigm. This set is applied to this research as such:

(a) credibility: by triangulation between the quantitative survey data and qualitative alumni interviewee data and through verification of transcripts with participants;

(b) transferability, the development of rich descriptive narrative bites prefacing and at times surrounding the individual’s context might be relevant to others in similar situations in which case the findings of this research could also be applied;

(c) dependability and,

(d) confirmability, explanations of procedures and analysis techniques such as those in this chapter can provide dependable and confirmed results.

The second set of criteria was proposed as unique to qualitative enquiry and according to Schwandt, Lincoln, and Guba could be complementary to the former set. It comprises:

(a) fairness, implemented as openness in interviews, transparency of fully informed consent, in results and feedback to the participants and considering the aims and outcomes of the different programs from both the program managers’ and alumni perspectives;

(b) ontological authenticity and,

(c) educative authenticity, in the application of the findings to improve musicians’ experiences following their tertiary education or, the stakeholders’ own and awareness of their situations could be enhanced through the interview process itself, and, in recommendations for future research;

80

(d) catalytic authentication, action resulting from the research is undertaken via the report, recommendations and dissemination of the research, and the final criterion;

(e) tactical authenticity, by ensuring that participants have the opportunity to contribute opinions about their role in the research and access to the findings and subsequent actions. The dissemination of the results via the public Facebook page was set up for this purpose.

Ethical Considerations

The ethics application for this study was submitted and approved in April, 2016 in accordance with university policy. Procedures for ensuring ethical treatment of all aspects of this research study have been mentioned where relevant throughout the methods in this Chapter. The following list provides a summary:

• The first contact with institutions included the provision of a plain language statement and agreement to participate • The survey had a link on the front page leading to a website with the plain language statement about participating in the survey • Consent to participate in the survey was made explicit in the plain language statement and was implicit by the participant having voluntarily completed the survey • The online survey responses were kept in a secure online database through the university systems • Online survey responses were de-identified before being entered into data management systems, with only the researcher having access to raw data • All interviewees were provided with a plain language statement and signed forms for consent to participate • Transcripts of interviews were sent to interviewees for review • Pseudonyms were used for all interviewees, and generic institution types were applied to ensure confidentiality.

81

Analyses

Quantitative – IBM SPSS 23 and Microsoft Excel

The online survey data were analysed in two ways. Closed question responses were analysed quantitatively with descriptive statistical analysis using the IBM statistics software SPSS 23. The data were first downloaded into Microsoft Excel software, cleaned and prepared for analysis for entry into SPSS. Once in the SPSS software, I ran descriptive statistics operations such as measures of central tendencies and cross- tabulations. Cross-tabulations were used for two purposes: (a) to identify intersecting data that was able to clarify anomalies in the response from one question to another and, (b) to reveal patterns of response or relationships between groups. In the latter case, statistics of relationship significance were also calculated with the Gamma statistic in cases where the data were ordinal by ordinal. Some operations to transform data were used to combine or calculate new variables, for example, the estimates of total income including music-related and non music-related incomes (Section 5.2.4).

Some response options in multiple choice or multiple response-checkbox questions included the option, Other, please specify which was answered with text responses. The answer data for this response option were entered into the software, QSR NVivo11, and common answers or themes were identified. Some answers to this type of response option were from respondents proffering either a variation of one of the existing options or, an alternative new answer. The former could be re-allocated to an existing variable, and where there was a viable alternative—especially if others had also mentioned the alternative—it was added to the list of variables and thereby analysed quantitatively along with the rest of the answer variables for that question.

Qualitative -QSR NVivo11

The semi- transcripts of program leaders and alumni were uploaded to NVivo and analysed qualitatively. Excerpts were coded to emergent themes which were broadened inductively to wider concepts. These concepts were used to structure the discussion points throughout the chapters 5, 6 and 7. Program leader themes were mostly clustered around the prompt questions. When necessary, responses and suitable quotations were cited in the discussion to highlight program information and to triangulate between the online survey and alumni interviewee datasets. Analysis of program leader data could also facilitate greater understanding of

82

alumni comments through triangulation.

Alumni transcripts of interviews were read several times and then coded to themes as they arose. As the semi-structured nature of the prompt question provided some commonalities in information, coding themes tended to revolve around these. After the first four transcripts, I reviewed and rearranged the coding nodes, collapsing some and creating more general themes.

Open-ended questions required text-based responses. An example of this is a question which asked respondents to identify the most beneficial subjects, suggestions for inclusions, exclusions, changes or any other comments about their course. The text- based responses were first analysed in NVivo. Some of these answers could be aligned with existing variables, and a few new variables were created, counted and then treated quantitatively. Other comments required more interpretation and identification of themes. For example, respondents were asked to identify three formative events in their career. The text responses revealed a mix of event types which could then be classified (Chapter 5, Section 5.4.3). Once categorised, the events could be counted and treated quantitatively. Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2006) explained that codifying qualitative data and then applying quantitative analysis involves data transformation. Moreover, the extensive variety of responses to this question was revealing and could assist qualitatively with the understanding of positive motivating factors that impacted on musicians’ careers.

Near the end of the online survey, respondents were asked for suggestions for professional development activities that they would find useful. While some of these answers were short and could be counted, others were quite long explanations of the types of activity and modes of delivery that respondents considered desirable. NVivo was used to categorise and collate responses into themes and topics (Chapter 7).

Summary

In this chapter, I have introduced the methodology framing this research by explaining my personal experience as an educator and leader in tertiary music education and how the research questions have driven the methods to include both quantitative and qualitative approaches. I have explained how my conceptualisation of the study design addresses concerns about the mixed methodology. Seeking to answer

83

how tertiary music education has contributed to musicians’ careers, three sources of data could be triangulated to scaffold the topics and themes in the discussion of the findings.

Interviews with program leaders from different educational providers could supply context in course intent, curriculum, pedagogical approaches and expected outcomes for their graduates once out in the music industry.

An online survey based on the Creative Workers Instrument (CWI) was designed, piloted and revised. Rather than distributing the survey via alumni emails as first planned, distribution was through social media snowball sampling. This development required me to think reflexively about my sampling criteria and the follow-on recruitment of alumni for interviews in the following stage. This method could generate mostly quantitative data to provide an overview of the music industry, portfolio practices of the sample, tertiary music education demographics and participants’ appraisal of their courses. Some open-ended questions could facilitate qualitative data as well.

The semi-structured interviews with alumni could build on the previous online survey answers for each individual and delve deeper into their backgrounds, careers, identities, subsequent skill development and decision-making. These rich interpretive data could be integrated with the other two data sets throughout the findings chapters enabling both a descriptive and interpretive approach.

Limitations of the methods and mitigation strategies to minimise these are described. Trustworthiness and evaluation criteria are proposed. Overall, the limitation of the methodology resides in the non-probability properties of the sample meaning that true generalisation of the findings to the population is limited. Thus, the notion of transferability is proposed instead.

Procedures to ensure the ethical treatment of participants and the data were presented throughout and summarised in Section 4.9. The methodology chapter serves to frame the findings which are the subject of the following three chapters.

84

Chapter 5 Findings and Discussion: Music Careers

“I actually consider myself a freelance human! So, I’ve got the music, on one hand, I’ve got the zoo [safari-guide - people-person job] on another, and I’ve got the still in the background keeping a bit of cash-flow coming in”. Trent

Aiming to understand how tertiary music education has contributed to the careers of the musicians participating in this study, it was important to gain an understanding of the characteristics of these musicians’ careers and the ways in which their careers had developed. The following sections of this chapter are organised around the themes behind the survey questions and in a similar order as they were presented to the respondents. The first section describes the study participants. Section 2 focuses on the operational aspects of the work portfolio – work hours, activities, identity and income. The third section covers factors other than formal education that impacts on music careers such as early influences, motivations and the self- management of a portfolio career. The fourth section focuses on goals and changes in career direction and includes a discussion of formative influences such as success and positive reinforcement experiences, external factors and self-agency for change. The fifth section draws together elements from the previous sections and highlights the key issues for portfolio musicians and their journeys.

The Study Participants

Program leaders were purposively chosen from five providers. Table 5.1 shows the program specialisations and provider type for the seven program leaders and one administrator for the co-curricular careers program at the university.

Table 5.1 Overview of Program Leader Interviewees Provider Type Program specialisation Pseudonym Private provider 1 VET (performance-jazz/pop) Caleb Private provider 2 HE (performance-jazz/pop) Jayden HE (audio) Phil VET (all streams) Nell TAFE HE (performance-jazz/pop) Steven HE (audio) Bill SAC (University) HE (performance- jazz improvisation) Ross University HE (performance- classical, Program entrepreneurship program) administrator

85

Figure 5.1 shows some basic demographic information about the online survey sample. The age in years comprises three categories, 30 years plus, 22-29 years and 17-21 years. There were a total of 232 valid respondents to the survey. The sample was equally divided between male and female respondents with a small percentage of other. Two categories have been identified for the stage of career: 1) early career stage, one to five years after graduation or starting their career and 2) established (6 years or more).

Figure 5.1 Overview of survey respondents—age, gender and career stage Note: N figures differ due to some who missed some questions

Eighteen alumni interviewees were purposively selected from survey respondents who had voluntarily supplied contact details for this purpose. Details of these interviewees are given in Table 5.2. The selection was structured to include both early and established career musicians and those working full-time and part-time in music. Sixteen degree graduates were selected from a range of provider types. It was later discovered that one had reported on her post-graduate qualification in the survey and another had completed her post- at the level of undergraduate study. Among the interviewees, there were only two graduates who had completed a VET Advanced diploma as their main qualification - one from a private provider and one from a TAFE institute. Six degree graduates had studied earlier VET qualifications, and three other degree graduates had completed a degree prior to their music degree.

86

Table 5.2 Alumni Interviewees and Tertiary Course Data Years Work Career Provider Prior Prior Post- Postgrad Alumni Age Gender since Undergraduate Major status in Work Identity stage type qualifications provider graduate provider grad music FT Non -music & Jason 32 M 8 Est B.Mus Trumpet (Class) PP AdDip TAFE — — PT Musician Lily 28 F 6 Est B.Mus Clarinet (Class) PP — — M.Teach Uni FT Music teacher Pat 20 M 1 Early AdvDipMus Violin (Class) PP — — — — NWM Unemployed B.Mus GradDip Sue 47 F 5 Est Grad Dip Composition PP Uni PP PT Musician (Class Flute) MusTech Claire 28 F 4 Early B.FineArtsMus Guitar (Jazz Imp) SAC Cert IV TAFE — — FT Musician Eva 28 F 1 Early B.FineArtsMus Voice (Jazz Imp) SAC Cert IV TAFE — — FT Musician Jordan 40 M 9 Est B.FineArtsMus Guitar (Class) SAC AdvDip TAFE M.Teach Uni FT Musician Wyatt 26 M 6 Est B.FineArtsMus Guitar (Jazz Imp) SAC — — — — FT Musician Cert IV, Dip, Chloe 44 F 6 Est B.App.Mus Guitar (Jazz/Pop) TAFE TAFE M.Teach Uni FT Musician AdDip

87 Evelyn 33 F 7 Early B.App.Mus Voice (Jazz Imp) TAFE — — — — NWM Non-music

Luna 45 F 8 Est B.App.Mus Composition TAFE Dip, AdDip TAFE — — PT MD / DJ Mike 27 M 6 Est B.App.Mus Guitar (Jazz/Pop) TAFE — — — — FT Musician Cert IV Nathan 34 M 12 Est AdvDipMus Double bass (Jazz) TAFE — — PP FT Musician TAE Trent 25 M 3 Early B.App.Mus Guitar (Jazz/Pop) TAFE B.Sc. Uni — — PT Musician GradDip Uni Jessica 27 F 2 Early GradDipMus# Violin (Class) Uni B. — PT Unemployed Mus Richard 28 M 6 Early B.Mus Recorder Uni — — — — FT Musician M.Mus Sally 28 F 5 Est B.Mus Recorder Uni — — Uni PT Composer Comp Tony 28 M 3 Est B.Mus Piano (Class) Uni B.Comm Uni M.Mus$ Uni FT Music teacher Note: Alumni names are pseudonyms. Providers are generic provider types. Key to abbreviations: PP=Private Provider, SAC=Specialist Arts College, TAFE=Training and Further Education, Uni=University PT=Part-time, FT=Full-time, NWM=Not Working in Music, MD/DJ= Music Director/Disc Jockey Early – Early career, Est – Established career, Class – Classical, Jazz Imp – Jazz Improvisation # Post-graduate diploma at 3rd year level undergraduate, $Currently enrolled, &Music Technology

Defining the Music Career

This section details data from the survey and interviews which profile the work of the musicians in this study.

Work hours

An early survey question sought to clarify the music employment status of the respondents with “how do you describe your music-related workload or employment status?” There were three multiple choice answers: Not Working in Music, Part-time and Full-time. The responses are summarised in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Music Employment Status

Employment status in music Frequency Percent Full-time 110. 48 Part-time 89 38 Not working in music 33 14 Total 232. 100.

While 33 of respondents reported they were not working in music as their employment status, all but three were spending time on developing their music. The survey questions about portfolio work began by asking “how many hours per week do you spend on your music-related employment?” Respondents were instructed to include all time spent on private practice, rehearsals, phone calls, administration, actual gig time, travel between gigs, music retail, teaching and preparation. Respondents could choose from eight multiple choice hour-ranges. Table 5.4 shows the responses for hours per week music-related employment cross-tabulated with Music Employment Status. Only three indicated they were not spending any hours on music-related work. A high percentage of respondents (36%) indicated that they were spending above 40 hours per week. Much of the research literature identified long weekly working hours as a health issue for musicians in the industry (Parker, 2015; Thomson, 2013; Throsby & Zednik, 2010). Underemployment was also apparent from these answers as 22% indicated that they spent nine hours or less per week on their music-related employment.

88

Table 5.4 Hours Per Week on Music-Related Employment by Music Employment Status

Hours per week on Employment status - music-related work music-related Not working in Part-time Full-time Totals % employment Music 0 hours 03 00 00 03 01 1-9 hours 24 24 02 50 22 10-19 hours 02 26 03 31 13 20-29 hours 04 22 07 33 14 30-39 hours 00 12 21 33 14 40-49 hours 00 01 35 36 16 50-59 hours 00 04 42 46 20 Total 33 89 110. 232. 100

Despite 33 respondents claiming they were not working in music (Table 5.4), 30 of these respondents indicated that they were spending some hours on music-related employment. Four of this group indicated that they were spending between 20-29 hours per week. Those who identified their status as not working in music and yet, were spending time on music-related employment may have been practising or developing their music skills while not necessarily earning money from this activity. Alternatively, they may have been earning a little but did not consider it to be contributing to their annual income despite the time they spent. This study cannot determine the reasons for this apparent confusion.

In the survey, the term music-related employment was interpreted differently by respondents. Respondents may have interpreted the notion of being part-time in music-related employment as music practice or development time and therefore over and above the work week. Developing one’s craft as a musician can entail many hours of solitary practice, rehearsals with others or indeed, unpaid gigs. Practising or rehearsals are essential preparations for paid employment, but they are rarely paid for separately. The question asked musicians to consider all their time spent on earning their income including preparation time. There are many young musicians starting out who are prepared to perform publicly to gain exposure, often without pay or, for a so- called ‘door deal’. A door deal involves minimal charges for patrons at the door of the venue some or most of which is paid to the venue with very little left paid to the musician (Noone, 2017).

89

Comments from interviewees also highlighted the commonly held attitude of music consumers that it is acceptable for musicians to play in public without pay while they gain exposure. This attitude stems from a belief that playing music has intrinsic worth or, is fun. Working as a professional disc jockey over twenty years, Luna became disillusioned with the trends of the industry, the competitiveness and the psyche of consumers that musicians were doing it for “fun” or “exposure”. She highlighted that some musicians were willing to perform for free which set up expectations that others would also perform for free, “everyone thinks that you should do it for free and then there are some people who will do it for free.” Singer-songwriter, Wyatt had spent six years building up his skills, networks and income opportunities. He acknowledged how others outside the industry viewed musicians’ work as fun: “I think it’s just a challenging industry because everyone would love to be in the arts – it’s great, it’s fun, or at least it looks like that from the outside, it’s challenging work”.

The respondents who identified as working part-time in music (n=89) were asked how much time they were spending on work in non-music related employment. Three of the full-timers also answered this question and indicated that they were working a small number of hours in non-music work in addition to their full-time music work- load (hence the total number n=93). Table 5.5 shows a cross-tabulation of hours per week in non-music employment with hours per week in music-related employment.

Table 5.5 Hours Per Week in Non-Music-Related Employment Cross-Tabulated with Hours Per Week in Music-Related Employment

Hours per week in non-music employment

Hours per week in < 5 5-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 Total music-related hours hours hours hours hours hours respondents employment < 5 hours 03 0 01 03 03 0 10 5-9 hours 02 1 01 02 02 4 12 10-19 hours 12 2 05 02 04 2 27 20-29 hours 08 3 04 03 03 0 21 30-39 hours 09 1 02 00 00 0 12 40-49 hours 03 0 00 00 00 0 03 50-59 hours 07 0 00 01 00 0 08 Totals non-music 44 7 13 11 12 6 93 hours

Forty-four indicated that they were working less than five hours per week at non- music related employment while working on their music in a variety of hour ranges.

90

Seven of these were working between 50-59 hours on music plus a few more hours (< 5) on non-music employment. For many, the combined hours from music and non- music related employment pushed their total beyond a full-time week of 38 hours as defined by the Australian National Employment Standards (Australian Government). In one case, the respondent indicated they worked between 50-59 hours on their music employment plus between 20-29 hours on non-music employment.

By taking mid-points of the work hours ranges and adding together the music and the non-music hours, indicative figures for total weekly hours of employment were calculated. These were categorised into the following five ranges:

• 1 - 25 hours per week • 25 - 35 hours per week • 35-40 hours per week (full-time employment) • 40 - 52 hours per week • > 52 hours per week Figure 5.2 shows the total workload for all respondents including music-related employment and non-music related employment. It shows the percentage for each range of total weekly hours. The percentages for the under-employed and over- employed respondents in this study were considerable. Most alarming is the 26% of respondents who were working more than 52 hours per week. This high workload is unsustainable for long periods and often leads to burnout and health issues (Parker, 2015).

Figure 5.2 Percentage of respondents’ total employment hours in five ranges (n=193)

91

Breakdown of music-related work activities

The survey asked respondents to break down their music-related employment into nine separate activities. Respondents could choose as many responses as were relevant but were not required to quantify their music-related employment time against the activities. In the other, please specify response, three further activities were identified. These were: music , radio programming and instrument- making or repair. These were included in one new variable, other (music therapy, radio, instrument repair). Figure 5.3 shows the percentage of respondents who chose each of these activities. Performing music was the most frequent choice (88%), closely followed by personal practice (76%), rehearsals/sound checks (72%), music teaching (71%) and administration/management (56%). Note, those who had indicated they were not working in music (n=33) were not included in this data.

Performing music 88% Personal practice 76% Rehearsals / sound checks 72% Music teaching ( in school or private lessons) 71% Administration / management 56% Creating original work 50% Work -related travel 48% Sound recording or producing 33% Directing / conducting 29% Music retail 5% Other (music therapy, radio, instrument repair) 4%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Figure 5.3 Percentage of respondents engaged in music-related employment activities (n=198) (n responses = 1095)

When asked “which of these activities do you spend the most time on?” respondents had one choice only from the same activities listed in Figure 5.3. Figure 5.4 shows that music teaching scored the highest frequency with 42% of respondents. There was a large gap between music teaching and the next highest frequency of responses for the most time-consuming activities. The significance of teaching in a musicians’ portfolio for these respondents accords with findings from other researchers (Bartlett & Tolmie, 2018; Bennett, 2008, Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015; Hennekam & Bennett, 2017).

92

Music teaching 42% Personal practice 15% Performing music 12% Administration / management 8% Rehearsals / sound checks 7% Creating original work 7% Sound recording or producing 6% Other (music therapy, radio, instrument… 2% Work-related travel 1% Directing / conducting 1%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Figure 5.4 Activity upon which respondents spend the most time on (n=198)

Interview data supports the survey data in the diversity of tasks, the necessity of simultaneous juggling of diverse types of work and the high work hours. As found in much of the literature in Chapter 2, many of the interviewees in this study expressed concern over balancing their time between work that pays the bills and creative work that furthers their artistic practice. Eva, jazz singer-songwriter, expressed her frustration at not being able to spend enough time on the creative work, saying, “That’s the main thing that I’m struggling with at the moment, is finding time to do all of that, like the publicity and the admin as well as the creative work and teaching to earn income”. Jordan, guitarist-performer turned music teacher, summarised the dilemma by highlighting the necessity of keeping up with a profile, accepting work and administrating his workload.

Wyatt, independent singer-songwriter, explained how he did not have a routine. Instead, he juggled a vast array of activities from day to day by working long hours as he explained,

It is hard because every week is different … last week I was riding up the central coast with some other people doing stuff, and I was writing from Tuesday to Thursday. I did maybe, 10 am until 10 pm everyday sort of thing and then on the Friday, I did another session that was in Sydney that was like, 10 am until 6 pm. When I’m at , I’m doing 9 until 5 most days writing on my own if I’m not writing with other people or for other people. It’s hard to get yourself into a routine when one week you’re all over the country, and the next week you’re at home for a whole week like, I’ll do one

93

whole day of admin and then the next day I’ll be writing at home or with other people for the other days and stuff like that.

Touring singer-songwriter, Mike, talked about the variation between busy and quiet periods of the year and how he managed these,

You’re sort of, you know the busy time of the year for me, for example, would be September through until March and then it slows down … So, setting yourself up in those warmer months and you’ve sort of got to relax a bit in the colder months where I’m thinking about the next recording and actually just preparing so it’s more of an indoors thing and performance takes a bit of a back seat.

Interviewees also emphasised the importance of teaching activity within their portfolios. Claire highlighted how important the teaching work was to her income stream but expressed frustration with the considerable amount of teaching time she juggled with her creative and performing work,

I really enjoy teaching. Sometimes I think, oh, it would be great to do it just two days a week and have a bit more of doing my original music rather than teaching. Or more performing … but three days a week is a really good amount to teach. It keeps the income stream pretty healthy, and it also allows you plenty of time to go to festivals or the studio.

Tony is a full-time instrumental music teacher, teaching piano mostly in schools. He was employed differently at different schools. At one school he was an independent contractor invoicing parents directly while at another, he was employed as a casual employee and was paid for the lessons he taught or for other requirements such as accompaniment or concerts. He explained,

The majority of the time is taken up with piano teaching. I think I’ve got some 40 hours of teaching per week, individual one-on-one lessons. And then there is some admin stuff that I have to do on top of that, you know with timetabling and lesson planning and that sort of thing. … there’s a fair bit of accompanying for the musical that they’ve put on at the moment, so that’s like two hours every week and plus there’s all sorts of student concerts/soirees that happen term by term, so I’m often required to do accompanying for that.

Like Tony, Lily worked as a teacher for four days per week. She was employed casually at one school with term-to-term contracts while at another, she was contracted thereby maintaining direct contact with parents. She was also studying a

94

master’s degree on her fifth day as well as teaching some private students at home.

So, I probably do three days at one of my schools; I probably do maybe 20-25 hours across those three days at that school. And then I’m one day at another school where I do about 6-7 hours, and I have cousins of mine that I teach one day a week after work.

The range of work activities throughout the week, or even throughout the day, is a considerable challenge for musicians as exemplified by the following interviewee comments. Sally, a composer, juggled teaching, playing and composing as she elaborated,

Ok, that would have been private practice, and also rehearsals with other friends or groups that I was playing with which were multiple groups. You know, I had a recorder quartet and was doing like, early music ensemble stuff and also professional work as well as composing and, yeah. That’s probably about it.

Jordan was working as a music teacher but had formerly been working as a performing musician. He explained the extraordinary variety of activities he juggled throughout his work week in his music portfolio,

I was in a number of fixed projects, maybe three at any given time … So, being kind of classical and art-music focused most of my work at home behind the scenes was at home learning repertoire. My part specifically, arranging music for the ensembles. Usually, I found myself as music director in those groups. So, arranging music and practising and composing for the groups is the sort of work I would do at home. That would be a few hours per day here and there. Maybe a personal practice session with a metronome with scales and exercises in the morning and then throughout the day try and grab a bit of time to arrange and often once or twice a week I would spend a good few hours composing and putting together palettes and templates for my compositions ... then performance work, I was doing function work and background reception work probably two to four gigs a week doing solo, duo, trio work in that realm.

Singer-songwriters Wyatt, Mike and Claire talked of balancing time between activities which supported their music practice such as; administration, teaching and publicity with their music-making and performing. Mike confessed that he struggled to multi-task and so, took an approach where he only did one type of activity at a time,

95

There are days where if I’m looking at booking a tour, you know, I might not even pick up the guitar for a whole week because I guess the way I tend to do it is, just focus on one project at a time ... I’ll just be on the emails or festival applications, and I’ll just sort of focus in on that element for a good chunk of time and then you know the next week it might be all rehearsing for the live show or something like that. I’m not so good at juggling so I tend to just do one thing at a time.

Although Wyatt had been working at his portfolio for over six years and worked closely with a business partner who managed him, he claimed he still did not earn enough to outsource the administrative workload,

I have a publicist on board, an agent and things like that, but a lot of it just comes down to not having enough hours in the day. If we had a bit more money to invest and we were able to bring another person on board, we could probably achieve a lot more.

Like Wyatt, Claire self-managed most things and indeed had branched out into her own small enterprises as well. Claire and her partner were both musicians, so she juggled her music needs with those of her partner along with her music teaching business and administrative and promotions work. Claire had also developed non- music skills for self-promotion and publicity and commented on the usefulness of a multi-disciplinary approach,

I’ve got my teaching business and then I also my other skills obviously performing and playing. I also write my own music and have my own music project which is my original music and I also run like a little bookings and publicity agency ... So, I do performance booking, festival applications as well as a bit of publicity stuff. I’ve got basic graphic design skills, so I do all of my own posters … For example, in magazines I’ll put together the advertisements and correspond with the magazine.

Discussion with interviewees about their work activities revealed a close relationship between activities they spent time on and their sense of work or professional identity. It was also clear that professional identities frequently changed in response to career changes and the diversity of activities within their portfolios.

The question of professional identity

The survey question was asked: “In terms of professional identity, how would you answer if someone asks What do you do?” to determine how these musicians thought

96

of themselves professionally. There were 199 respondents to this question. The 33 respondents who had identified as not working in music in an earlier question were not asked this question. As revealed in Figure 5.4, 30 of these 33 were spending some time on their music. A limitation of the skip logic used in this survey is that they may also have had a music identity even though they had reported that they were not working in music.

Figure 5.5 reveals that the professional identity, musician, had the highest number with 45% of respondents followed by the response, music teacher at 28%.

Musician 45% Music teacher 28% Performer 6% Singer /songwriter 6% Composer 4% Sound engineer or producer 3% Combination of music roles 3% Music administrator 2% Music therapist 2% Non-music 2% Radio programmer/producer 1% Music director 1% Student 1%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% Figure 5.5 Respondents’ choice of professional identity (n=199)

There were a further eight text responses to other (please specify). Three of these identified as a non-music role and so the category Non-music was included. The other five respondents were coded to a new variable, combination of music roles. The identities of musician and music teacher were by far the most dominant.

The term musician could be interpreted as an overall umbrella term for several of the other identities. Over 50% of respondents, however, did take the opportunity to be more specific about their professional identity by choosing one of the other identity categories. Comparing Figure 5.4 with Figure 5.5 highlights an interesting anomaly. Despite 42% of respondents indicating that teaching was the music activity they spent the most time on (Figure 5.4), only 28% of respondents thought of themselves professionally or primarily as music teachers (Figure 5.5). This points to an identity

97

trend that some musicians think of themselves as musicians first, and music teaching was an activity or outcome of being a musician.

Researchers have also identified the struggle with identity when working in multiple roles (Bennett, 2014; Bennett et al., 2014; Freer & Bennett 2012; Hennekam, 2017; Perkins, 2012). While the survey asked about professional identity at a point in time, the interviews revealed a more complex sense of temporariness of professional identity over time. Interviewees reported that their professional identity changed and evolved. Sometimes, their full-time career moved away from music-related work and yet, music was still considered to be a part of their identity. Others had a set goal and were building their career identity into the future.

Mike studied his music degree at a TAFE institute and began his portfolio career as a touring singer-songwriter, building his reputation and public following over several years. He juggled playing for events, functions, some teaching (although this had diminished somewhat at the time of the interview), festivals and even busking,

I’d come straight out of high school, and my vocation was ok, I was going to be a touring artist … it’s an all-rounder type of thing at the minute, so I’m not only just playing original gigs, I’m still playing events, functions and even, the whole busking scene in Melbourne … just trying, having the vision of how to make this all work and have all the parts moving towards a common goal and that’s being able to support yourself fully through music.

Alumni interviewees described their struggles with finding their niche or having to change direction to ensure they could earn a living. Following graduation at the SAC, Eva was exploring experimental improvised music and was finding it difficult to break into the local jazz scene forcing her to re-think her situation,

Because when you’re in the institution you’re surrounded by all these jazz musicians, and that’s your world, and you just assume that you’re going to be led into that world when you finish and when you have to think of something else, if that makes sense?

Jessica (university graduate) was struggling to find a work niche for herself as a violinist after graduating. She found that she did not have the single-mindedness for competing for classical music work and was considering carving a role for herself in community engagement: “I’ve been sort of, very interested in community cultural

98

engagement.” She was still thinking it through, trying to find out what her role might be,

I can see it [music] could be very useful in combatting the isolation, giving people something to do where their whole focus is that, you know, it’s very hard to do something else while you’re playing or while you’re singing! … So, for me, that’s what I see music as, like, the power of music!

However, finding a role to offer people an alternative way of dealing with life through music that wasn’t really teaching and not really volunteering was proving difficult. Jessica was searching for her place in the world of music and hoped to find or create a cultural or community engagement role for herself.

Claire had a music portfolio and juggled performing with three days per week teaching. Clearly, she deemed music teaching an integral part of her music portfolio, and it was the most consistent and time-consuming activity, yet, in the online survey, she had answered that her professional identity was musician. Her sense of being a musician was her over-riding identity, a component of which was teaching.

Also, there will be gigs, performances, so, you know, you could be performing at an act for an hour and have to be at a venue for five hours, there’s rehearsal. The most consistent thing I do each week is teaching because that’s what I get a large portion of my income from so that’s a large portion of what I have going on. It can vary greatly. Then I do something like a festival for four days … Fifty hours of music over that weekend.

Jordan alternated study at TAFE with working as a musician over 16 years, and then gained a Graduate from the first eighteen months of a Master of Teaching. He unintentionally found himself in a full-time music teaching position after an injury. Like Claire, he had chosen the professional identity musician even though at the time of the interview he was working in a full-time teaching role. He referred to challenges with transitioning into teaching and his comment about the relevance of performing ‘on the circuit’ revealed his concern that that teaching could take him away from that. Later in his interview, he spoke of his intention of going back to some performing after his injury had healed.

I am enjoying it [teaching]. I think it will take a bit of time to transition to that role. I think being a performer, there’s a sense of

99

relevance about being on the circuit and I need to get a perspective on those things. Also, the crowd management of years 7-9 is something to get used to.

Jason started out with the intention of being a music teacher, tried it for a few years and then moved into an entirely non-music career for earning his full-time income. Therefore, his answer to the identity question in Figure 5.5 (p. 97) was non-music as he was working in full-time. However, he had returned to performing with a band on the weekends claiming the following:

I like to think of myself as semi-professional [musician], so I’m still doing musical work on the side, gigs and there’s still money coming in for that, but I don’t see myself as actually, mind, body and soul working in the music industry.

In addition to his full-time information technology job, Jason was spending between 20-29 hours per week on his music. From his comment above, Jason thought of himself as having two work identities; one for his full-time job in information technology and the other as a semi-professional musician. Ironically, Jason was working in music as much as or more than some who had considered themselves primarily as professional musicians.

Like Jason, Evelyn started out as a portfolio musician, which included music teaching and was head-hunted for a consultancy role in a cultural change business. In this new role, she found her music creativity skills were transferable. Her response to the identity question at the time of the online survey was a non-music identity. However, her professional identity earlier in her career had been musician.

I’d say before it was [a portfolio career] … there were times where I’d be playing in bands, doing the wedding gigs and I was running a Chinese mothers’ choir at one point, and I was teaching singing from home, and you know, just doing a bunch of things…I don’t think so now. I just consider myself; I just have this one job [a cultural change consultant]. No, but I do use music. I actually use a lot of the background.

Later in her interview, Evelyn mentioned current music projects that she was still working on for the future. This fluidity between music and non-music professional identities indicates a profound sense of being a musician while simultaneously having a non-music professional identity. Having a non-music professional identity does not

100

preclude having an identity as a musician as well. The sense of being a musician is more pervasive than just a professional or occupational identity. The identity of a musician is more a state of being than a professional occupation.

As seen with Jason and Evelyn, the sense of being a musician co-existed with their non-music professional identity at a given point in time. The concept of having a music identity which is “on the side” is common for the arts. Being artistic (or musical) becomes part of the person’s psyche in a way that is very different to other occupations. This could explain why the respondents appeared to be confused with answering questions which asked about their time spent on their music employment; they tended to ignore the word, employment and wanted to report the time spent on their music regardless of whether they were paid for it or not. Future surveys might use the word, work instead of employment, and structure questions to prompt respondents to clarify how their sense of being a musician might be separate from how they work and earn their income.

Income

A serious consideration for musicians when making decisions about careers is the viability of earning a living to support themselves and their family. Often, this is not deemed quite so important at the start of a music career as it is a few years later. Music career entrants build up to full-time work in music gradually, sometimes working full-time in another industry while only earning some of their total annual income from music. One of the survey respondents commented in response to a later question on the survey: “Met initial goal of making income from music, now wish to earn all money from performing and not rely on teaching at all.” While many of the interviewees happily accepted the inclusion of music teaching in their portfolio, others indicated that it was more of a fall-back position and worked towards a goal of earning their total income from only performing music.

As reported in section 2.3.1, artists’ portfolio earnings can be calculated proportionately between creative work, arts-related work and non-arts-related work (Throsby & Hollister, 2003; Throsby & Zednik, 2010; Throsby & Peteskaya, 2017). The survey questions in this study drilled down to discover how the participants were earning their income; exploring the split between music-related income and non- music related income, the income ranges and sources of income. Once again, the 33

101

respondents who had identified their employment status as not working in music were not asked these questions.

The first of the income questions was: “What was the percentage of your total annual income earned from music-related work for the last financial year?” Table 5.6 presents a cross-tabulation of the percentage of income from respondents’ music- related work against their employment status in music. As could be expected, the association between these two variables was significant, at (p<0.001) — the more time spent on music, the higher their percentage of income from music.

Table 5.6 Percentage of Total Income Earned from Music-Related Work in 2015-2016 Cross-Tabulated with Employment Status, n=231

Employment status in music

Percentage of total Not income from music- working in Part-time Full-time Total related work Music 0% 33 0 0 33 1%-39% 0 49 4 53 40%-69% 0 8 7 15 70%-99% 0 11 15 26 100% 0 21 83 104 Total 33 89 109 231 Note. Due to one full-time participant omitting the percentage of total income from music-related work, n=231

However, the table reveals some interesting anomalies. Of the 104 who answered that music-related work supplied 100% of their total annual income, 21 claimed they were only employed part-time in music-related work. Of the 109 who answered they were employed full-time in music-related work, 83 earned 100% of their income from music. The remaining 26 reported that they earned less than 100% of their income through music. This indicates that they were earning income from non-music related work or other benefits in addition to income from what they reported as full-time work in music. Equally interesting are the 21 respondents who were earning 100% of their income from only part-time work in music, implying that they did not earn money from non-music related work.

Due to skip logic, the survey did not allow those who had identified as full-time in music employment to provide detail about the hours they may have worked in non- music related work over and above their full-time music workload. This is identified

102

as a limitation of the survey. It does, however, point to the complexity of the musicians’ perception of the contributing components of their work portfolio. Further research into this cohort might reveal more detail about the non-music related work that contributed to their total income.

The following questions in the survey drilled down to ascertain an indication of annual income earned from music. Participants were asked to indicate the annual income range rather than a specific income value to encourage more respondents to participate in this somewhat personal question. The question was, “What was the range of your gross annual income from your music-related work in the last financial year?” Figure 5.6 shows the analysis of annual income for those who said they were working full-time in music. The distribution of income varied considerably across the income ranges. The accompanying percentile graph indicates that the 50th percentile (or median) was within the range of $40,000-$49,999 per annum. For comparison, the median annual salary for full-time employees for May 2016 was $72,896 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017).

55% 100% 50% 90% 45% 80% 40% 70% 35% 30% 60% 25% 50% 20% 40% 15% 30% 10% 20% 5% 10% 0% 0%

Figure 5.6 Distribution and percentile graph showing median for annual income for respondents working full-time in music, (n=110)

Figure 5.7 shows the analysis of annual income for those who said they were working part-time in music. The distribution of income is concentrated in the low income ranges, and the percentile graph indicates that the 50th percentile (or median) was within the range of $1-$9,999 per annum. These part-time musicians had indicated previously that they were working in non-music roles to make up the shortfall in income (Table 5.5).

103

55% 100% 50% 90% 45% 80% 40% 70% 35% 60% 30% 50% 25% 40% 20% 15% 30% 10% 20% 5% 10% 0% 0%

Figure 5.7 Annual income for respondents working part-time in music, (n=89)

Figure 5.8 shows the analysis of income earned from music for all respondents working in music including those who were full-time and part-time in music. The 50th percentile (or median income) annual income earned from music for all respondents was within the range of $20,000-$29,999 per annum.

55% 100% 50% 90% 45% 80% 40% 70% 35% 60% 30% 25% 50% 20% 40% 15% 30% 10% 20% 5% 10% 0% 0%

Figure 5.8 Annual income earned from music for all respondents working in music, (n=199)

I undertook further analysis of the total annual income—adding together music- related and non-music related income—for all survey respondents. Figure 5.9 shows the distribution and percentile graph of the total annual income in ranges. The total income was extrapolated using the data for each respondent on their annual income from music and what percentage this was of their total annual income. All respondents earning some income from music were included. Another case was not used because the percentage variable was not provided.

104

55% 100% 50% 90% 45% 80% 40% 70% 35% 60% 30% 25% 50% 20% 40% 15% 30% 10% 20% 5% 10% 0% 0%

Figure 5.9 Annual total income for respondents (music and non-music combined) (n=198)

The 50th percentile (or median) total annual income for this analysis was within the range of $40,000-$49,999 per annum. This result accords with those from an earlier Australian study reported in the literature review in Chapter 2, Section 2.2. Throsby and Peteskaya (2017) reported the gross total annual income median (including all work, creative, arts-related and non-arts related work) of $45,000 for the year 2014- 15.

The survey asked respondents to select all income sources that contributed to their annual music income from a set of seven variables, with an additional text-response option other, please specify. These are shown in Figure 5.10.

Performance fees (gigs, concerts, rehearsals) 83% Music teaching 73% Royalties, copyright, merchandise (CDs, downloads) 27% Live sound, recording or production services 24% Commissions/ contracts 10% Grants 6% Music retail/ sales 5% Salary 3% Instrument repairs 1%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Figure 5.10 Sources of income, (n=194) (n responses=451)

Some of the text responses were recoded into income sources already given in the question. Two new variables were created. One was to cater for responses that referred to a salary (from a full-time role as a music therapist or job in radio). The

105

other was for work in instrument repairs. Administrative work, editing, or ad hoc work(as a director or contractor) were allocated to the variable, commissions /contracts. Music adjudication was allocated to teaching as it involves assessment, and a text response, rehearsal fees was allocated to performance fees.

Figure 5.11 shows which activities were reported to provide the most income. The income source with the highest number of responses was music teaching (52%). As pointed out in Figure 5.3 (p. 91), 72% of respondents included music teaching as one of their income-earning activities and in Figure 5.4 (p. 92), 42% of respondents indicated that teaching was the music activity upon which they spent the most time.

Music teaching 52%

Performance fees (gigs, concerts, rehearsals) 31%

Live sound, recording or production services 5%

Salary 3%

Commissions / contracts 3%

Royalties, copyright, merchandise (CDs, downloads) 2%

Grants 1%

Instrument repairs 1%

Music retail/ sales 0%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Figure 5.11 Respondents’ highest earning sources of income (n=194)

While some musicians kept teaching as a valued part of their portfolio, others aimed to wind it back as their reputation as a musician grew, and they gained more performing opportunities. Successful musician, Nathan started teaching at his local TAFE institute soon after finishing secondary school because he was already gigging with local musicians who were the teachers at the TAFE institute. He said,

In my earlier days I would teach, sometimes I was teaching up to 70 students and, ensembles… whereas basically now, I’d say essentially, it’s a 45% - 45% split between recording and tours and then 10% of my time is teaching.

Likewise, Mike wound back his teaching as his profile and gigs increased,

106

I’ve been consistently teaching guitar during the course and afterwards, say, around 30 lessons a week, up to 40 but then its recently, in the last 2 or 3 years dropped down to 15 lessons a week and the actual music performing has become the primary thing.

Music teaching was the highest source of income for 52% of respondents despite only 28% of respondents thinking of themselves professionally or primarily as music teachers (Figure 5.5). The income source, Performance fees was the most frequently reported income-generating activity (83%) in Figure 5.10 but was the highest earning activity for only 31% of respondents (Figure 5.11). Many of the survey cohort have reported music teaching as a substantial component of their work time and income. This demonstrates that music teaching was an integral component of these musicians’ portfolios and should not be thought of as being outside the creative industries. Unfortunately, this is not reflected in the large statistics collection tools such as a census and the Creative Trident methodology (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015; Bridgstock & Cunningham, 2016; Cunningham, 2014; Goldsmith & Bridgstock, 2015; Hennekam & Bennett, 2017).

Musicians’ Career Journeys

This section builds a picture of musicians’ career journeys, the early influences, motivations and internal machinations of the portfolio.

Early influences leading to music careers

Most musicians began their music training in early childhood. Several of the interviewees spoke of the importance of family influences for inspiring them to learn music as children. Trent told the story of an overseas family trip, when an older cousin living in Ireland played the guitar for him, “He taught me how to play Sunshine of Your Love by Eric Clapton on a single string and I was hooked from that day forward!” Chloe had a very musical family, and it was the norm for each of them to play an instrument. She explained,

My dad used to play the piano accordion. I came from a family of nine and my older brother – he’s a bass player and works for an electrics factory, and my other brother’s been a tribute singer for 27 years.

107

The survey asked respondents to identify how they gained their music skills up until the end of secondary school. The question had five multiple choice options as well as other, please specify option which accommodated text responses. Respondents could select all that were applicable. In the other, please specify text-based response, there were a further 15 respondents who provided text answers which were coded as extracurricular or community music and this category was added to the matrix (Figure 5.12). Of the total sample of 232, 228 respondents made some response to this question. The variable Instrument or voice lessons outside of school attracted the highest number of respondents (69%), and Instrument or voice lessons through the school was the second highest response (63%). Clearly, the instrumental or voice lesson was the most significant early influence during the schooling years.

Figure 5.12 Respondents’ music learning prior to the end of secondary school (n=228)

Wyatt spoke of the importance of his guitar teachers throughout his schooling years and how one teacher challenged him to re-set his drive for performance excellence mid-way through his Victorian Certificate of Education (final year of secondary school),

He was hard on me for quite a while there, and it was exactly what I needed. I came in, and he was like, you’re ok, but you’re not good enough … and then in Year 12 he said to me, you haven’t improved in 6 months and I’ll never forget him saying that to me, and I didn’t open my schoolbooks for the rest of the year.

The variables, self-motivated means (60%) and general classroom music (59%) during the school years were also found to be important influences (Figure 5.12). The fact that learning through the general classroom music program was in the top four methods of gaining music skills reinforces the importance of generalist music programs within schools.

108

Motivation

The survey began with a question that sought to find out why the respondents had chosen to pursue a life as a musician. This question was selected as the first question of the online survey because it was a non-threatening question with closed answers to encourage participants to engage with the survey. It hints at motivation and professional identity. Most respondents were able to answer this question using one of the eight multiple choice options with a few choosing to add a further explanation with the Other, please specify option. These further explanations were closely allied to one of the existing eight options. Overwhelmingly, 65% of the survey respondents chose passion as their primary reason for becoming a musician (Figure 5.13).

Passion 65% Personal satisfaction 21% Talent 7% Family and/or social expectations 4% No identifiable reason 1% Career change 1% None of these 1% High-level recognition 0%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Figure 5.13 Respondents’ primary reason for becoming a musician, (N=232)

The next most popular reason was personal satisfaction (21%) with a smattering of other choices. As this question had been multiple choice allowing only one answer, the variable high-level recognition was not chosen by the survey respondents as their prime motivation for being a musician. Comments from alumni interviewees, however, highlighted the importance of extrinsic high-level recognition as a motivating factor. Nathan had been called at short notice to fill in for a backing band member for a high-profile touring pop musician. He commented on how much he valued that recognition, not only for his musical expertise but also that he was reliable, “that’s a big part of what I value in my career, and my life as a musician is having that recognition from other musicians that I’m reliable and able to do the job well.”

Half-way through completing a science degree, Trent’s consuming love of music

109

motivated him to plan to study music after finishing his science degree. While studying science he had been playing the guitar and gigging at the local pub for a few years. He felt that he needed to give himself the opportunity to follow his love of music by studying a second degree, this time in music, “the old catch-cry, do what you love, you don’t have to work a day in your life-type thing! So, I decided that I’d give the music a go.”

Claire originally had two interests for tertiary study, science and music. She decided to pursue music with a fall-back plan of returning to science if it did not work out. She attributed the fall-back idea to parental influences. However, after finishing her music degree at the SAC, the intrinsic rewards she was reaping from her portfolio career meant that she was never going to go back to science,

I’ve always loved science, and I wanted to be a scientist. And my attitude with music was, oh I’ll just do it until it falls through … and of course, there’s no way now that I would ever go back and study science. I love science, but I don’t want to be stuck in a lab, there’s no way I would ever be able to do that under any circumstances!

Passion for music is a powerful motivator despite the many difficulties within the industry. Within a few years of pursuing a musical career, however, despite their passion, many are still not achieving a living purely from music pursuits alone. In this study, music teaching was treated as music-related employment and contributing to the music portfolio. For those who included music teaching, it was usually the more substantial portion of their income. Supplementing music income with non-music income was also common.

Building a portfolio

Most musicians in this study found that they needed to build their portfolios over some years before they were able to earn enough income for a living. Quoting a price for creative work can be a precarious balancing act between commanding fair pay and aligning the charge with what the employer or client is prepared to pay. It is further complicated by the prevalence of venue owners’ preference for the artists to agree to a ‘door deal’ arrangement rather than the venue-owner employing performers for a gig, the rates for which were covered by a series of awards. The door deal arrangement changed the industrial relationship from employment to contractual with profit/risk

110

sharing between venue owners and musicians (Noone, 2017). This change has weakened musicians’ positions, lowering expectations of pay rates accordingly.

Interviewees discussed how they had to start out with non-paid or under-paid gigs to get exposure. “Getting exposure” is a concept which could be understood as an alternative or internship experience for musicians. Wyatt spoke of starting out touring with his original music earning very little as a support artist,

Originally if you do a support tour you get paid like, $300 a show, and you’re travelling all around the country but you’re supporting an artist who’s selling out 300-400 capacity rooms every night so, you’re not making any money, but you are building fans. And that’s just the reality; other people will take that gig if you don’t take it.

Even the more experienced musicians amongst the interviewees claimed that they were often expected to create or perform for little pay or less than they considered to be their worth. Sally, a composer, spoke of an opportunity she forwent because the offer was too low.

I have had a couple of opportunities. A few that I was happy to do them pro bono, or not get paid for them. I guess I was starting out and feeling like it’s good to get your things out there so that people can notice you. And then, there was a point where I was offered kind of big work and I asked for a contract from the company and basically, I actually decided not to follow through with it. Because I felt like what they were offering me as a composer was not enough. I guess I valued myself and my work more highly than what they were offering.

Consequently, Sally did not get the work and reconciled to herself later that she would rather earn her living in other ways. Likewise, Luna, an experienced DJ and composer, grew tired of gigs where she had to compromise her musical taste to commercial trends and decided that she would rather work in a non-music related field for her living, reserving her music for opportunities where it would be appreciated. She explained, “I can’t put too much pressure on the music to make me an income because I find you have to compromise too much.” Jordan, an experienced guitarist, explained how he compromised on low-paid gig opportunities that might bring him further paid work from other sources in the future,

111

Well, it’s not going to derive an income, but it would be really good to play [with] these three musicians because that could lead to further work or further interesting projects. Or, it might be that it might put me in front of the next client. So, I end up; the stuff that I do, I end up doing a lot of gigs but often they don’t make any money.

Claire, a performing musician and music teacher, had a theory that small venue performing work—for example, in pubs—was diminishing. Due to more musicians competing for this sort of work, employers were less prepared to pay reasonable rates and local pub venue audiences were less prepared to pay as well. Despite this trend, she pointed out that the public was still prepared to pay substantial ticket prices for large-scale events in stadium venues. Her comments echoed those of Jordan’s above,

You don’t want to play or perform for less than you think you’re worth, but it’s a hard one you know, if your fee for a gig, is like, $350, and then people can’t afford to pay that anymore, and there’s only local gigs that pay say, $100 or $150, people can find themselves in that situation where you’re just not being asked.

A consequence of being a portfolio musician and a sole trader is that the musician is in a weak position to negotiate fair terms for their work especially when there are plenty of others who are prepared to play for little or no pay to gain exposure. Trent toured with a folk artist for a few years after completing his music degree and had a few covers projects as well as non-music work to bring in some money but went through some soul-searching to work out what he wanted for his career. He explained that one of the primary difficulties of building up his music work was quoting a fair price to suit the clients while keeping options open for future work.

And especially because you might end up pricing yourself out of a gig and that defeats the purpose of what you’re actually trying to do … if there’s a chance of actually getting more gigs, lower your price per gig, so for example, in your head you might have for a 3-hour gig, $300, but if you can actually get 4 gigs out of them at $250 that actually might be more beneficial because at the end of the day you’re getting $1000 for 4 gigs instead of $300 for one gig.

Responding to his friends urging him to consider teaching, Trent discovered that he indeed could utilise his natural ability to connect with others and his performance skills. In his work as a safari guide he was able to combine these abilities with his interests from his earlier science degree. In addition, he had his own solo singer-

112

guitarist covers project and some casual non-music work. Open to any opportunities that come along, he called himself a “freelance human!”

Eva, a jazz vocalist, left a well-paid job in information technology to pursue a music degree and career. Music teaching formed a sizeable part of her income, but even so, she struggled to earn as much as she did in her former career.

My teaching is the main income and then gigging is secondary. It’s always hard to work out what your annual salary is when it fluctuates so much. You have to work out the monthly and then average it. I’m earning less than I was when I was working as a web developer.

Eva found breaking into the elitist jazz scene very competitive and therefore aligned herself more with the contemporary classical field where her style was more easily accepted. Even so, she found it difficult to find enough paid work. Her portfolio included teaching, initiating her own recordings, gigs and attempting to build her profile and yet, she still struggled to find her niche. Accordingly, she made a further change from jazz performance to focus on songwriting as she explained,

Because when you’re in the institution you’re surrounded by all these jazz musicians, and that’s your world, and you just assume that you’re going to be led into that world when you finish, and then you have to think of something else if that makes sense?

Her long-range goals included performing overseas and progressing from teaching children to more advanced adult students.

Sue taught music two days per week, played in an orchestra and other groups and composed for short-term projects. She claimed the part-time nature of her music-work fitted well around a young family. Formerly, Sue had worked in administration in a large music royalty collection agency and could envision doing that again at some time in the future. She found her music activities to be fulfilling and considered them to be outside of a full-time job.

Jason started out with full intentions of making his career out of music teaching saying, “I only wanted to do teaching; that was my goal all through uni.” After graduating, he worked full-time as a casual contractor in schools while also gigging professionally on the side. He encountered difficulties, however, when parents

113

prioritised over music for their children, and this led to disillusionment with music teaching. He gained a full-time job consulting with an information technology company which he said tapped into his teaching skills. Some years later he picked up again with his music, gigging on weekends. He was playing in several bands including his own creative project. He outlined his plans to continue with his music while it lasted alongside his full-time non-music job,

Musically, I’m happy with where it’s [outside band-work] going. Even for the next 20 years I don’t really have a plan. If it continues, it continues. From my end, I just want to see it continue, like, everyone that’s in that band … I’d be happy if in ten years if that band was still playing. That would be awesome because most bands don’t make it past 5 years. That’s the goal for that, and as far as my day-job is concerned, employed is where I’d still like to be in 20 years!

A strong musical family background nurtured Chloe’s early musical development and she developed a lifelong passion for performing. Performing and touring since she was in her early teens, Chloe decided to formally study music at the late age of 33 years old. Throughout her music portfolio career, she also studied education, taught dance in schools and had been thinking that teaching music might be a viable career path as she got older. After completing a postgraduate teaching qualification, Chloe was surprised when opportunities for her performing career took off in a new direction, that of a tribute band act. She said, “I thought I would be full-time teaching by now and it has turned around to be the opposite, my [performing] career is now shooting off at 45 years of age where I should be settling into teaching!” As for the future, Chloe expressed her desire to teach music at TAFE and impart the practical essentials of working as a professional musician to new generations of tertiary music students.

Nathan began music as a teenager and quickly excelled in his instrument so much so, that he was gigging professionally with jazz musicians from the age of 16. He was offered teaching work at the local TAFE soon after finishing secondary school. He claimed that he just followed the path that was natural for him,

It wasn’t like I made some big grand plan, it just seemed really obvious that was what I was spending my time pursuing and what I loved to do. And I wasn’t really interested in being a rock star, I just

114

really loved making music and being able to make a good sustainable life choice.

He has enjoyed considerable success with his portfolio career, performing, touring and recording/producing for others with a little teaching in the mix as well. While being offered and taking high-profile performing opportunities, he said he was often happiest with deeply challenging music projects,

I would have a goal of continuing to play music that I find personally satisfying and rewarding and to do that in a way that is financially sustainable but, it really is very much a kind of thing of continuing to do the things l’m doing and love doing in a way that keeps on working for me.

Self-management of a music portfolio

Managing a music portfolio involves a multitude of tasks (Bartlett & Tolmie, 2018; Hennekam & Bennett 2017; Thompson, 2013). Interviewees from this project talked of not only juggling the musical aspects of preparing for a paid gig but also of the administrative work in promoting themselves, arranging bookings, logistics and continually scouting for new opportunities. The administrative and promotional work involved a range of skills needed for running a small business. Most of the musicians found this work outside of their comfort zone as they had little or no training in this kind of self-management. Some have learned on the job by picking up new skills on a need-to-know basis, and others have been more proactive, seeking from mentors, other musicians and those outside of music.

Most talked of the need to manage their time between the creative musical pursuits and the necessary administrative tasks as they were not in a position of earning enough to employ others to do this sort of work for them. Wyatt (singer-songwriter) worked with a manager but talked about how they both had to work very hard at building the music business while also working at other non-music jobs to keep the money coming in. He saw this situation as being common to all entrepreneurs who start out in a new venture,

Essentially, I chose an entrepreneurial pathway, like I have to build a business, and I understand it would be great with the amount of effort both [my manager], and I put in, to be paid more but we’ve sort of had to learn a lot and make a lot of decisions that were based

115

around building a business before we were able to make enough money.

Self-management difficulties were also relevant to those primarily teaching music in schools, especially when they were employed as contractors. Tony worked as an instrumental teacher in schools (as a contractor) and mixed his teaching with administrative duties. His time spent on the latter was not remunerated, “Individual one-on-one lessons and then there is some admin stuff that I have to do on top of that, you know with timetabling and lesson planning and that sort of thing.”

Jazz vocalist, Eva, found it difficult to break into the jazz scene in Melbourne and identified self-promotion as her biggest challenge,

I’ve found it quite difficult to promote my own music. That’s probably the hardest thing and the biggest challenge so far. Yeah. That’s the main thing that I’m struggling with at the moment, is finding time to do all of that, like the publicity and the admin as well as the creative work and teaching to earn income.

The irregularity of income throughout the year was an issue brought up by interviewees. Tony had made teaching his main career and built his teaching practice up over some years. He explained that as a contractor he needed to have a substantial number of students during term-time to earn enough income to cover his lack of income during the school holiday weeks,

I’ve got this much income per year sort of thing, so, with the amount of teaching that I’m doing at the moment, which is around 60 students, the income is very steady. So, even when I get sick and have to take time off, and even with all of the holidays, I’m making a decent annual income.

Jessica (violinist) has worked on several self-initiated projects with various ensembles and some music teaching. While demonstrating an entrepreneurial attitude with her projects which met with some success, her dispirited comment below emphasises how difficult it is to find consistent work to bring in a regular income,

I would really like to do this as, I guess, a career, but it’s just very difficult to find a role that wasn’t one day a week or like, basically, wasn’t teaching. Because I’d be interested in even something admin or policy-related. But I’ve hit so many dead-ends with it.

116

Of his earlier portfolio music career, Jordan also lamented the low income, “Probably the central inhibitor is the income … Yes, but to be honest, I’ve found the work very satisfying, engaging and fulfilling. It’s just that sometimes it was untenable without a support income.” The disadvantage of not being able to demonstrate a steady flow of income from a portfolio career has significant consequences for gaining loans for a house or other acquisitions that most people aspire to as they settle down to build a family life. Lily worked as an instrumental music teacher in several schools and was paid as a contractor. However, her portfolio work was challenging to explain to a manager, and it took much convincing to enable her to gain a loan as she explained:

The way you’re paid. I would definitely consider it really different. I recently purchased a house, and it took me years and years to kind of convince the bank that I had a real job, I suppose, being a contractor or even just having three schools as my source of income as opposed to one school or one place of work … Yes, and then obviously, holidays and and those sort of entitlements don’t necessarily come with the way the tutors generally get employed.

After twenty years working as a DJ, Luna wound back her DJ work, being selective about what work she took while earning her income in retro fashion. She explained that she had grown tired of the unsociable hours, the demands of the culture of the DJ scene and the constant need for promoting herself in pursuit of more work,

Yeah with that as well because of the culture of it and the lifestyle. I just don’t want to be up at 3.00am in the morning anymore. Nup! … So, in the end, it's about who you know and who you can say ... if you’re a really pushy person, then you get ahead with it. But if you’re not, you just sort of get left behind.

Another stressor of the music portfolio is the toll on health with late-night gigs or constant touring. Wyatt made a conscious decision to get as much sleep as possible after gigs to enable him to function throughout a busy tour schedule,

Well, I just don’t party … I never really loved parties that much anyway! But if I was partying after the shows and things, I think I would just destroy my body! Very quickly. But the fact is we play shows and then go back and get as much sleep as we can and catch another flight the next morning.

117

Wyatt was also very consciously strategising his career and was selective about taking up opportunities that came his way. Using judgement to go down the right paths was a critical part of managing his own career. Wyatt was careful in considering his next move and not willing to compromise his music,

It’s just about making the right next decision; I don’t want to rush it and think that I need to take every opportunity and then you run out of money. Obviously, we’re building in a way where we can’t just take every opportunity. Not every opportunity is the right opportunity.

He described his journey as a musician over the six years since he graduated explaining how he had broadened his musical expertise from his original narrow focus while a student to being multi-disciplinary,

I was a jazz guitarist, and that was all I was qualified to do. But now I’m a producer, I’m a songwriter, I’m a singer and I play other instruments as well. I do a lot of songwriting work, so I obviously write my own music, and I do most of my own production. But now, I write for other people and I’m doing production for other people as well, so, when someone else puts their song out, I’ll make royalties of that if it does well.

Conversely, Chloe has been a performing musician for over 25 years working on covers and originals. She believed that any musician should seriously consider whatever opportunities arise. Her most recent project in putting together a tribute band act was very successful. She took advantage of an phenomenon which had the potential to earn very well.

But I think really, if you love music, you go where your work is … I love being creative and original, but money is there, work’s there, exposure is there, and I thought well, you can’t look a gift-horse in the face. You can only do what is put there in front of you, and if you don’t take the opportunity, especially with music, you’re silly.

Mike enjoyed the autonomy of being his own boss in self-managing his work and career. He explained that the flexibility of the working hours appealed to him,

Ah, yes, I guess its unique. In a way; you are your own boss. Not that there aren’t any friends who are working in their industry as their own boss, but the flexibility of being a musician is definitely a pro … The whole 9 to 5 has never been of interest for me!

118

As shown by the interviewees’ comments, there are advantages and disadvantages of a self-managed portfolio career. For some, the disadvantages meant leaving music as their primary job, and for others, it meant sacrificing some of the comforts that a reasonable wage can bring for the prospect of their portfolio increasing in stature and earnings in the future.

Entrepreneurship

The need for musicians to be entrepreneurial is well-documented (Bartlett & Tolmie, 2018; Beeching, 2010; Bridgstock, 2013; Bridgstock & Cunningham, 2016; Daniel & Daniel 2015; Thomson, 2013). Most of the interviewees had been creative with starting small enterprises, realising ideas or generating their own opportunities. Wyatt and Claire self-learned new skills in managing their careers. Wyatt taught himself how to create video, how to take advantage of technology and social media to promote and release his songs without a distribution agent. Claire applied her graphic design skills to designing promotional materials, set up her own booking agency, learned how to promote and publicise her music and manage her teaching business. Jessica and a friend came up with an idea for a cabaret show and created a new project which had a successful outcome. In the process, she learned new organisational and industry skills,

During that time I was writing a cabaret show, but I eventually took to Melbourne Fringe because we’d just got back from Adelaide Fringe … I was arranging music and doing the admin stuff, doing other marketing, contacting journalists … There were all these deadlines, you know like, when you’ve got to hand stuff in by, publicity things etcetera, so for me it was like a crash course in just like, all that stuff … We did three shows and sold out two of them.

Evelyn’s can-do attitude translated into some opportunities which eventually led her away from full-time music into a career as a change consultant. Yet, her creativity and music were integral to her mode of operation in the new industry. She used African dance as an activity for her group sessions. “I actually just started doing African dance, you know that idea, ‘Fake it until you become it?’ Anyway, if people say, hey, do you know how to do this? I’ll say, no but I’ll find out how.”

Another interviewee, Eva found great frustration with the inefficiencies of working with an agency, and this prompted her to start her own agency. In attempting to raise

119

her profile, Eva decided to write a new song every day for a year and upload them to an online blog. She spent around four hours everyday writing, performing, videoing and writing the blog post. She saw it as “networking and getting your name out there” as well as an opportunity for personal skill development. Being entrepreneurial or seeking opportunities for new enterprises was a necessary task for these musicians to build their careers.

Expectations and Goals

Personal objectives, experiences and opportunities in musical careers vary greatly. In a series of questions, the survey drilled down to find out how goals and opportunities played a part in individuals’ evaluation of current career success.

Meeting of expectations

The survey sought to find out how respondents viewed their current music career compared with the career they had imagined when they undertook their training or at the start of their music career. It could be expected that the level of engagement with the industry increases with longevity with more established musicians more engaged than those who are early career entrants. This appeared to be the case when two variables—the comparison of a current music career with imagined and, longevity in the industry—were cross-tabulated (Table 5.7). The association between variables was significant (p<0.005). Table 5.7 shows that 56% of the early career cohort claimed that their career to date had not met their expectations.

Table 5.7 Cross-tabulation of Level of Current Music Career Meeting Expectations by Career Stage (n=221) Level of current music career meeting expectations Exceeds my Meets my Does not meet my Career Stage Totals expectations expectations expectations Early n 9 22 39 70 (1-5 years) % 013% 031% 056% 100%

Established n 36 59 56 151 (6 years or more) % 024% 039% 037% 100% Total n 45 81 95 221 Total Percentage 20% 037% 043% 100%

Although a lower percentage of the more established musicians claimed that their career had not met expectations (37%), this was quite considerable. Nevertheless, the

120

numbers are not encouraging. Overall 57% of respondents had achieved their expectations while 43% were unsatisfied.

Changing of goals

The dissatisfaction with meeting expectations for a career is also reinforced by the responses to a question which asked if their career goals had changed in the years since graduation or starting their career. In answer to this, 80% said yes, and 20% said no (n=228). Changing goals may be a reasonable expectation when starting in any new career. However, the figure of 80% does appear to be high and aligns with the literature that gaining satisfaction in the music industry is difficult. The difficulties could be attributed to a variety of factors. They may include a lack of the right sort of training, the precarity of freelance work, the competitiveness of the industry with too many seeking too few job opportunities or unrealistic expectations in the first place.

Respondents who had indicated that their goals had changed were asked to select all factors that influenced their decision to change their goals from a list of 10 options. There was also a text-based answer option, other, please specify. Five of the text responses indicated that health or injury had been a factor in changing their goals so an additional variable was created for health or injury concerns. As shown in Figure 5.14 the most frequent response was Need more stable employment (63%) followed by new opportunities for a different music direction (60%).

Need more stable employment 63% New opportunities for different music direction 60% Higher financial reward 46% Insufficient performance or contract opportunities 43% New opportunities for different non-music direction 29% More sociable working hours 23% Need more 22% Family reasons 21% Less travel 12% Conflicts or working relationship issues 7% Health or injury concerns 3%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Figure 5.14 Factors influencing changes in respondents’ music career goals (n=176) (n=576 responses)

121

Many of these variables could be considered negative reasons as to why a musician might change their career goals. For example: needing more stable employment, wanting higher financial reward and insufficient performance or contract opportunities. The variable: New opportunities for different music direction could be considered a positive one.

The text responses to “other, please specify” gave a few answers about other reasons why their goals had changed. One commented: “I realised that I was part of a system feeding me into a job that would provide me with an income at the cost of my time and freedom to pursue musical endeavours.” The frustration expressed in this comment was common amongst those whose portfolio balance had more of their less preferred earning work which prevented them from their creative work. In these instances, they may have chosen to opt out of a music career, preferring to earn their income from non-music related work to ensure that they had time for their musical pursuits.

Espousing a “can-do” attitude, Evelyn has had many turns and twists in her music career since graduating. She has had several self-initiated performance projects, and after gaining an education qualification worked as a music teacher in schools. Her intense interest in people and connections have seen her take up such diverse activities as African dance, supporting a Chinese mother’s choir and collaborating with a of children’s . Through her connections she was presented with an opportunity to work outside of the music industry as a change consultant and, harnessing her creative and music skills has carved a new career for herself in that industry while also keeping up her music skills in community-based groups.

I feel like everything I’ve done has kind of, led me in a certain direction… Ok, so, for the most part, I say yes to everything, and that’s been my attitude. I try to become friends or at least friendly with people as often as possible. I have a large network as a result … I don’t think it’s that because I’m good, it’s because I’m really enthusiastic.

While her work was in a non-music field, she was still taking up opportunities to work with creative projects. Evelyn spoke of a recent opportunity where she followed up the author of a children’s book she had used in her career change consultancy work, and together they came up with an idea for a children’s show which they were

122

working towards.

Formative events in career journeys

The survey asked respondents to name three formative events in their careers. These text-based answers were analysed in the software package, NVivo where they were coded by grouping into like events. Six event themes were identified. A text-based option other, please specify was available for respondents to explain further and some of these comments were also coded. Figure 5.15 shows the percentage of responses according to their coded event themes. Most of the event themes were positive impacts on careers, but the themes of health/injury and personal relationships had some compromising impacts, and these are discussed further in Section 6.5.2. The following discussion highlights the first three formative event themes: (1) success and reinforcement events, (2) high profile music experiences, and (3) post-secondary study or professional development achievements. As shown in Figure 5.15, the formative event theme, success and reinforcement events garnered 52% of all responses. Within the success and reinforcement theme, there were many for whom a first-time achievement was significant in their career journey signalling that more success was to come.

Success & reinforcement events 52%

High profile music experiences 28%

Post-secondary study or PD achievements 17%

Agency/change 3%

Health & Injury 1%

Family & relationships 0.4%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Figure 5.15 Formative event themes in respondents’ careers journeys (n=211 respondents) (n=555 responses)

The first-time achievement responses included:

• First paid performance • First wedding gig • my original music on the radio for the first time • Getting weekly work as a resident DJ

123

• Getting paid for my original songs • Playing overseas Personal satisfaction with career progress and milestones also counted as a success and reinforcement marker encouraging them to continue their chosen vocation. These personal satisfaction responses included:

• Earning a living 100 per cent from music • Quitting my non-music part-time job • Performing, writing/recording with other musicians • The music I made today • Recognition and support from fellow musicians Other success-related formative events related to recording or publishing contracts such as;

• Sony Music Artist recording contracts • Being approached by a medium-sized label • Getting a record deal • Publishing of own compositions • Getting a song licensed to a feature film • Signing an international sync [synchronisation] deal • Recording and launching an Extended Play (EP) collection of songs Respondents involved in teaching and music therapy counted the following significant milestones in their journeys;

• Being really happy and fulfilled working as a full-time primary music teacher • Finding stable teaching work in my instrument • Watching my students become professional musicians • Having inspired younger musicians to embrace their own musicality and creativity and build their confidence • Speech from a nonverbal through music therapy Twenty-eight per cent of responses related to high profile music experiences (Figure 5.15, p. 122). These included performances with high profile artists such as Jimmy Barnes, Paul Kelly, Tina Arena, Tim Minchin and The Veronicas. Some listed performances at prominent venues, professional theatre shows, prestigious orchestras or bands, or large festivals such as Glastonbury, Port Fairy, Meredith or Woodford. Other significant, high-profile accolades include:

• Depping [deputising for pit orchestral player] on “The Lion King.” • Recording on another artist’s album overseas

124

• Receiving an aria nomination • Singing with Sydney Symphony Orchestra • [Melbourne Symphony Orchestra] MSO work-shopping my composition • Conducting and performing in large national venues Many of the respondents counted their formal music study as significant in the formation of their career with 17% of all responses in the theme of post-secondary study or professional development achievement (Figure 5.15. p.122). In some cases, these respondents had only recently graduated. Formal study or professional development opportunities were also considered formative and included:

• Learning at TAFE • Studying music at a tertiary level • Joining jazz trio in uni • Graduating my music degree • Completion of Diploma of Music • Completing Orff Schulwerk and Kodaly courses. • Learning about music and about resilience in a tough industry • Gaining my teaching qualification While most respondents considered formative events to be positive or reaffirming, 3% of responses who chose agency or change acknowledged that negative experiences were also formative and at a given point in time prompted a decision to either quit or pursue a new path. (Figure 5.15). Some of the obvious examples follow:

• Accepting that I needed a job to pay bills • Realising drums were my future • Studying medicine instead • gaining employment in admin - people think I'm important now • Leaving a band It should be noted that many of the positive reinforcement events already discussed will have prompted respondent agency in decision-making to continue or change directions when new opportunities arise. Other factors which impacted on respondents’ careers included external factors such as health and injuries (1%) or consideration of family and relationships (0.4%):

• Wear and tear on the body • My health prevents me from performing/working too much • Injury (changed to left hand since) • Meeting my business/life partner • Divorce While these responses in the survey provide glimpses of reasons why musicians

125

pursue various paths in their portfolio careers in reaction to formative events, the semi-structured interviews with alumni provided much more detail about reasons and direct action taken by the musicians in attempting to manage their careers. These have been reported in Chapter 6.

Summary

The findings in this chapter demonstrate that the challenges of working in a music portfolio are indeed, formidable. At the time of the survey, it has been established that many of the musicians in this study were (a) either working long hours or not enough hours, (b) supplemented music-related employment income with non-music related income and, (c) earned less than the median Australian annual income. This profile accords with Parker’s 2015 study investigating the career realities for professional musicians concerning their well-being. Parker’s findings reported that over 91% of musicians had a precarious work situation, and 87% supplemented this work with an additional job (Parker, 2015). The insecurity of work and income made it difficult for musicians to gain superannuation, loans, benefits such as paid leave and legal rights of those working in tenured jobs in Australia.

Musicians often spent most of their time working in a combination of activities including music teaching performance, personal practice, rehearsals, administration and self-management. Identity as a musician was not a discrete concept. Many of these musicians had non-music work alongside their music work and used this balance to ensure that they could earn in a sustainable income to fund their lives and families. For 52% of respondents, music teaching was the mainstay of their income. While 71% included teaching in their portfolio only 28% considered music teacher as their identity, most did not distinguish music teaching as separate to their identity as a musician. This fluidity between music and non-music professional identities indicates a profound sense of being a musician while at the same time, having other possible non-music professional identities.

Building a portfolio was a long process often involving working for little or no pay and musicians often found themselves in a weak negotiating position. Musicians found that they needed to be entrepreneurial and to create opportunities for themselves. The pathways of the career journeys for participants have been demonstrated to be sometimes circuitous, moving in and out of music work. Due to

126

the nature of the career, there is a multitude of tasks to be undertaken by the musicians themselves. Many of these musicians did not have any training or experience in the business, promotion or publicity skills needed to be successful and they have had to develop these skills themselves. Finding a balance between these tasks and spending time on their creative work was a considerable concern for musicians.

Forty-three per cent of the sample indicated at the time of the survey that their career had not met their expectations, although this improved with longevity in the industry. Eighty per cent said their goals had changed with substantially negative reasons around work conditions and incomes influencing their decisions for goal changes. Despite the difficulties, due to the passion and intrinsic rewards, most of the respondents in this survey were keen to pursue their music career journeys.

Sixty-five per cent of the sample chose passion as their overriding reason for becoming a musician. The career journeys of the musicians in this study have proven to be “messy” (Wyn, 2014) and yet, there is also optimism – with many positive formative experiences encouraging them to continue in their chosen career.

127

Chapter 6 Findings and Discussion: Tertiary Music Education

This chapter focuses on the tertiary music experiences of the participants in this study. Section 1 provides an overview of the institution types, qualifications, reasons for the choice of institutions and earlier study pathways. Section 2 explores graduates’ perceptions of the benefits and shortfalls of their curriculum, especially with respect to the inclusion of industry knowledge and skills. Section 3 discusses pedagogical approaches from the perspectives of program leaders and interviewees. Section 4 explores the extent of music industry knowledge and skills learning, and Section 5 considers graduate perceptions of their course effectiveness in contributing to their careers. Section 6 summarises the main findings for the chapter.

Overview of Institutions and Qualifications

This study is primarily concerned with tertiary music courses at Australian institutions in Victoria. Before analysing the tertiary education data, a total of 52 cases were filtered out of the sample for three reasons. These were, they did not study a music course after secondary school (23), their main post-secondary qualification was delivered at an international institution (10), or they had not completed this section of the survey (19). The remaining sample numbered 180 for the questions about their tertiary music education. For confidentiality reasons, the institutions will be referred to by provider type rather than the name.

Institution types

The survey was distributed through a snowball sample method on social media. Because of this, it was not possible to confine respondents to particular institutions. It was anticipated that the survey would capture respondents who had studied at universities, TAFE institutes and private providers, and would include degree and VET graduates. The first few questions focused on information about the respondents’ course including the level and specialisation, the provider type and name. Using the responses from these questions five provider types were determined:

• University • Specialist Arts College (under the umbrella of a university) (SAC) • Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Institute • College of Advanced Education (CAE)

128

• Private Provider The SAC had been associated with a university since 2008. Prior to 2017 however, the music courses of the SAC were more focused on fine arts skills than the music courses of the host university. The respondent cohort had studied at the SAC before 2017. Consequently, the study experience for respondents from the SAC was significantly different from those who had studied music at the university. Therefore, the SAC has been kept as a separate entity for comparing pedagogical approaches and outcomes.

Three respondents had studied at a College of Advanced Education (CAE) which was State-funded and existed prior to 1989. Fourteen respondents had studied at private providers. Due to similarities in mission and vocational pedagogical emphases of courses from TAFE institutes, the CAE and private providers, these institution types have been combined into one category called Non-University Higher Education Providers (NUHEPs). Therefore, the three provider types: the university, the SAC and the NUHEP were used for analysis of respondents’ experiences in their tertiary music courses.

Undergraduate qualifications and specialisations

Respondents had four choices to identify the level of their course. Three of these were VET qualifications at of Certificate IV, Diploma or Advanced diploma and the fourth level was the HE qualification of a Bachelor degree. There were only 14 respondents with their most recent undergraduate qualification at Certificate IV, Diploma, or Advanced diploma levels and these were only delivered at NUHEP institutions. Due to this small number, they were combined into a single category thereby creating two course levels: bachelor and sub-bachelor.

Analysis of specialisations showed there were more graduates from classical music performance specialisation from the universities (32) and more graduates from jazz or popular specialisations from the NUHEPs (35) and the SAC (24) (Table 6.1). There were 11 composition majors and a smattering of other specialisations. There were no classical music performance specialisations amongst the sub-bachelor qualifications.

129

Table 6.1 Course Specialisations for Bachelor and Sub-Bachelor Courses by Institution Type

Institution type Course level Specialisations Universities SAC NUHEPs Music performance (classical) 32 15 2 Music performance (jazz or popular) 19 24 35 Music composition 5 1 5 Audio or sound production 0 0 5 Bachelor Music 8 1 3 Music education / teaching 5 1 2 Music therapy 1 0 0 Musical theatre 2 0 0 n=166 Totals 720 420 520 Music performance (jazz or popular) 0 0 7 Music composition 0 0 1 Sub-Bachelor Audio or sound production 0 0 3 Music 0 0 2 Music education / teaching 0 0 1 n=14 Total 0 0 14

Because of the small number of respondents in the sub-bachelor category, some of the following tertiary data analyses will focus on respondents who had completed a Bachelor degree. Sub-bachelor graduate results will be discussed separately as relevant. There were quite some respondents who had completed sub-bachelor qualifications prior to their Bachelor degrees. These pathways from precursor courses to degrees will be discussed in section 6.1.4 on earlier pathways.

Reasons for choice of provider

The diversity of programs and pedagogical emphases on offer in Victoria, indeed throughout Australia, has steadily increased over the past twenty years. Prospective students have access to information about these different offerings through the internet, brochures and attendance at open days to make informed choices. As pointed out by Bennett et al. (2013), it is incumbent on them as individuals to seek a course that fits with their own aspirations. The survey asked why the respondents had chosen their provider. Respondents could choose as many of the answer options as were relevant. The most frequent reason for the choice of provider was good reputation or recommendation (71%), (Table 6.2). The second most common reason for respondents’ choice was because the course suited my needs (61%) and this was the most frequent choice for the VET respondents (64%). Proximity to home was also

130

important to VET respondents.

Table 6.2 Reasons for Choice of Music Provider (n=180) (n=490 responses) Percentage degree Percentage VET Reasons for choice of provider respondents (n=166) respondents (n=14)

Good reputation / or recommendation 71% 43%

Course suited my needs 61% 64%

Good facilities / campus vibe 42% 36% I was offered a place 37% 21%

Particular specialist staff 32% 7% Proximity to home 19% 43%

Length of course 12% 36% Course fees and loan structures 11% 14%

Other students 08% 00%

Trent had previously studied a science degree at university but decided that he needed to follow his passion for studying music. When deciding where he wanted to study, it was the reputation of TAFE as the place to go for guitarists that persuaded him to apply for his degree at TAFE, “I think there was a positive reputation that TAFE delivers a very good music course particularly for guitarists.” Jordan studied VET qualifications at TAFE prior to his degree at SAC. He enjoyed his TAFE course as a beginning course but found that the elite nature of the SAC enabled him to devote himself to excel, “I held it [the SAC] in high esteem, and when I got in, I felt a sense of achievement or privilege to be there.” These comments reflect the reputation of the courses being important as well as a preference for the fit of the course to their own needs and stage of development.

Not surprisingly, good facilities and campus vibe was the third most popular reason for the choice of provider for degrees. It appears that adolescents anticipating a tertiary education experience seek a provider that promises much more than just the learning. The prospect of the student experience includes such other benefits as social interactions, the freedom to experience new life events with others and the opportunity to participate in extra-curricular pursuits and clubs is highly motivating (Nair, Bennett, and Shah (2012).

The fourth most common reason for the choice of provider for degrees, because they

131

were offered a place could indicate in the prospective applicants a lack of confidence in how their talents and aspirations rated against others also applying within the system. It could also be indicative of the somewhat confusing tertiary entrance procedures for creative arts courses where academic scores are not as important as auditions or other criteria. It is entirely possible that some could embark on a course purely because they were offered a place, but results from this question indicated that the applicant had multiple reasons for the choice of institution.

Evelyn was not sure if she was sufficiently talented enough to study music, so she kept two course options open, “I was going to study music or psychology. And I decided if I got into music then I would study music.” However, she also had a friend who had studied at TAFE who convinced her that TAFE was the best place to study music. Jessica had just graduated from a law degree but wanted a music degree qualification because she had always played and taught music. She chose to study her graduate diploma in music at the same university where she had studied the law degree for practical reasons. Because she already had an undergraduate degree, she entered a third-year undergraduate level program for her graduate diploma as a violinist,

So, it was a graduate diploma, so you had to have some other degree that wasn’t music and then, I think at the time you enter a third-year level of everything and then you basically just do that final year of a music degree.

Despite significant differences in fees between university and NUHEP degree programs, only 11% chose the option, course fees and loan structures. This may be explained by the availability of long-term loans to students. Repayment of long-term loans which can be postponed to some distant date did not appear to be of significant concern to many students at the beginning of their course. Further reasons for the choice of course and provider are discussed in the next section where interviews revealed more nuanced reasons for taking earlier pathways in music.

Earlier music education pathways

While the first set of questions about the tertiary music education experience were focused on the respondents’ most recent undergraduate qualification, there were also questions about earlier qualifications or educational pathways. The survey asked

132

respondents if they completed a music course before their most recent undergraduate qualification. Forty-six (25%) of the 180 respondents who had studied music after secondary school had studied an earlier qualification. Most of these, (67%) were in the music performance (jazz or popular) genre (Table 6.3). For the full table of these 46 pathways see Appendix 6.

Table 6.3 Overview Qualification Levels and Specialisations of Earlier Music Courses

Earlier music course level

Certificate Advanced Diploma Bachelor Totals Percentage Specialisation IV Diploma Music performance 0 1 1 4 6 13% (classical) Music performance 6 9 13. 2 31. 67% (jazz/popular) Music composition 0 0 0 1 1 02% Audio or sound 1 0 0 0 1 02% production Music 3 2 2 1 8 17% Totals 10. 12. 16. 8 46. 100%.

Of significant interest are the 38 who had studied a VET qualification prior to their degrees. Thirty-six of these had studied their VET qualification at a NUHEP (including a few TAFE divisions of dual-sector universities) and two at a senior high school.

Twenty-two of the 36 who had studied the earlier VET qualification at a NUHEP had stayed on at the same institution for their bachelor program. NUHEPs and dual-sector universities promote themselves as a ‘one-stop shop’ enabling a smooth progression from VET-level study into bachelor-level programs. In the remaining cases, eight had progressed from a NUHEP to the SAC and 16 had progressed from a NUHEP to a university.

Eight of the prior qualifications were at bachelor level. Further analysis showed that of these eight, five had switched music specialisations for their second music degree ( Table 6.4). For example, one moved from the earlier classical performance degree to a jazz-popular performance degree; another moved from a music composition degree to a jazz-popular performance degree. Two completed a degree in music performance (classical) for their first degree and completed another at a different institution.

133

Another completed a Diploma of Audio after a performance (jazz-popular) degree. Six of this cohort completed two music bachelor programs. Completing two degree courses over a minimum of six years seems to be a long pathway to gain music expertise.

Table 6.4 Cases Having Studied Earlier Bachelor Courses Prior to Most Recent Undergraduate Course Earlier course Most recent undergraduate course

Course Specialisation Institution type Course level Specialisation Institution type Cases level

1 Bachelor Mus perf j/p Private provider Diploma Audio/ sound Private provider Education Bachelor University Bachelor Mus perf j/p TAFE 2 (music)

3 Bachelor Mus perf j/p TAFE Bachelor Mus perf j/p SAC

4 Bachelor Mus perf class University Bachelor Mus perf j/p University

5 Bachelor Mus perf class University Diploma Mus tuition Private provider

6 Bachelor Mus perf class University Bachelor Mus perf class SAC

Mus Bachelor University Bachelor Mus perf j/p University 7 composition

8 Bachelor Mus perf class SAC Bachelor Mus perf class University

Note. Mus perf=Music performance, j/p= jazz/popular, class=classical

Six of the16 degree graduate interviewees had studied VET qualifications prior to their degree programs. Additionally, three had studied prior degrees in other disciplines (see the interviewee classification sheet in Table 5.2, p. 86). Comments from those who had studied a VET pathway into their degree mentioned that VET was a more nurturing experience and covered music industry topics, while they claimed that degree level study pushed them harder to excel in their disciplinary skills.

After working and touring as a musician, Chloe began her tertiary music study at the age of 33. She chose TAFE because she knew she needed to start at the beginning and because TAFE had a reputation of being good for guitarists, “Because I’d already been out in industry, and being 33, all the good guitarists…had all done the TAFE course.” Over five years at TAFE, Chloe progressed through Certificate IV, Diploma, Advanced diploma and a Bachelor degree in performance. She claimed that she owed much to her education to TAFE, “So, everything I know, I owe to TAFE.” Chloe later went on to complete a Graduate Diploma of Education at university.

134

Claire studied a Certificate IV in Music at TAFE for two years prior to enrolling at the SAC. She found the TAFE culture to be more nurturing and friendlier. Consequently, she had a much more collegiate experience there than she did at the SAC. She felt that the SAC was conservative and because her contemporaries were all elite musicians the culture was very competitive. She was also critical of staff attitudes at the SAC claiming that missed or were not made up, whereas at TAFE she felt the teachers really cared about the individual student’s progress. Despite the identified deficiencies of the culture at the SAC, Claire felt that the intense focus on playing skills to the exclusion of almost everything else created an environment where one had the time and headspace to practice and develop expert instrumental facility.

If you’re talking value for money, TAFE far out-weighed the SAC in my opinion but for some people, that just wouldn’t suit because they don’t want to do those bits and bobs, you know the music industry stuff. They just want to do playing music on their instrument, and that’s what is great about SAC. It is just about playing your instrument — none of the other crap. It’s just about playing your instrument, and that is great.

While being a trumpet player and gaining plenty of performance opportunities as a student and in the years afterwards, Jason only ever wanted to be a music teacher. He studied an Advanced diploma at TAFE initially and then went on to study a degree which combined performance and teaching at a private provider. He felt that the VET course prepared him well for the degree, but the degree pushed him further in his performance skills.

Its TAFE, so you’re not always performing or being pushed to perform at your max because not everyone’s at the same level. But the theory and aural side for sure, and the idea of the industry as well, you know, copyright and how it works. And all of that, so I was taught all that well and then, [my degree] really solidified the performance side.

Jordan, studied three years of VET qualifications at a TAFE institute, had a gap playing music overseas and then enrolled into a degree at the SAC. He said,

I think that TAFE really transitions a person from a high school sensibility of music into bringing you up to the line where you can really make the most of a place like the SAC … And a place like TAFE really sorts out the fundamentals. That was my experience.

135

He found that his TAFE education set the foundation for his later study by being a more open environment to improve his skills in his weak areas. He contrasted this experience with the SAC, where the teachers expected the students to have pre- existing knowledge and skills whereas at TAFE the teachers covered the gaps and tried to come down to the individual’s level.

When I was at the SAC, I felt the teachers didn’t have time or weren’t prepared to step down into certain areas … Whereas at TAFE you can know nothing, and we’ll appreciate your effort, or we’ll appreciate starting from the start with you. So, maybe not a precursor but just a sort of more open environment is what I’m trying to say.

Jordan’s experience is what you would expect of a sequential pathway through lower level qualifications to a degree program. The earlier level courses built up basic skills from the beginning whereas a degree program built on an assumed level of knowledge and skills. His comment about his TAFE course being more of an open environment, however, points more to the pedagogical approach and culture of the teachers of the VET courses.

The results show the earlier VET course experiences were practical, inclusive of individual differences and set a foundation of knowledge and skills which could be built upon in following higher level programs. According to Moodie (2012), six per cent of performing arts bachelor admissions in 2008 were on the basis of previous VET qualifications. While the value of educational pathways is promoted by school career teachers, they are often overlooked by parents in favour of a degree at university. There are other factors such as cost and time in having a longer pathway, but the benefits of progressing through a pathway of courses can make the pursuit of an education and career in music possible for many who come to the vocation with gaps in their knowledge and skills.

Curriculum

Comments from interviewees about the merits and or deficiencies of their degree program and institution type are borne out by compiled statistics from text-based answers to the survey questions about subject detail. This section discusses what graduates thought about the curriculum of their course and explores which subjects were most beneficial, deficient or indeed, absent.

136

Most beneficial subjects

The survey respondents were asked to comment on the most beneficial subjects in their courses. The nine topic areas with the highest responses for degree graduates are shown in Figure 6.1. A wide variety of comments about subjects were elicited in response to this question, but not all respondents made comments. The text responses were analysed and condensed into 23 topic areas. The topic areas were then cross tabulated with the three provider types.

Figure 6.1 Respondents by provider type indicating beneficial subjects for their degree (n=166), (n=290 responses)

The SAC had a clear lead over universities and NUHEPs on instrument tuition and ensemble critique. This result accords with the anecdotal data from alumni interviewees. They reported that the SAC was particularly focused on the fine artistry of playing one’s instrument. SAC graduate, Wyatt (singer/songwriter) conceded that the development of a deep level of musical artistry was a priority at the SAC necessitating the deferral of learning the practical industry skills later after graduation. He explained,

The stuff that I got to do at SAC in terms of challenging ourselves to a really deep level, musically and artistically…it was great for opening my mind and challenging me and I guess I had to learn the practical skills myself or find mentors after uni.

The NUHEPs had 15-20% more responses than the other institutions for theory and music business (Figure 6.1). They were also ahead with responses on aural training

137

which is a very practical, hands-on skill. All three institutions scored similarly for performance and stagecraft with universities a little higher than the SAC and NUHEPs despite their lower response percentage for instrumental tuition and ensemble critique. University graduate, Tony said the following about his university degree, “I thought the university was really good at providing a lot of performance opportunities through their concert classes and the piano lessons … it was really a positive and warm supporting environment.” The different degree specialisations may have affected this analysis. For example, a composition major would have dedicated composition subjects whereas performance majors may have only taken composition as elective or indeed, may have identified composition elements within other subjects such as theory. Whereas there were five composition majors each in the University and NUHEP cohorts, SAC only had one. This may account for the nil response from SAC respondents against the composition topic. The different emphases in programs between providers are evident in these findings on the most beneficial subjects.

Suggestions for changes for degree programs

The respondents were asked for suggestions about future subject inclusions, exclusions or changes to their course. Text responses were optional, and some respondents did not participate (Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2 Most frequent suggestions for change to degree courses by provider type (n=62 responses)

University graduates reported the need for more teaching pedagogy in their course, and graduates from all provider types indicated their preference for more business or industry skills in their courses. NUHEP graduates indicated they would have liked

138

more opportunities for live performance. In comments from the other, please specify option respondents took the opportunity to reflect on their experiences and offered their suggestions for improvements to courses to make them more relevant in developing the expertise and career skills needed for a viable future as a musician. Two comments are discussed as examples of these comments.

Comment 1 NUHEP graduate: Students need to be made aware through practice just how important it is to be reliable and easy to get along with (hang chops). My playing is good but not incredible, but I seem to get called for gigs because I learn the material, give everything I can to each performance, and do my best to get along and have a good time with whomever I'm working with.

The professional behaviours of reliability, personal conviviality and responsible described in comment one are attributes that this speaker believed were learned behaviours and along with adequate performance skills, were considered to be more important than expert technical mastery of the instrument for getting call-backs for work.

Comment 2 University graduate:

The course I completed did not prepare students adequately for a "portfolio career" or for the realities/ business of being a professional musician. It was only focused on technical ability on one’s instrument and academia - with which only a very select few will ever make all of their income.

The speaker in Comment 2 criticised the lack of preparation for portfolio careers with a sole focus on learning technical music skills and academic studies. Other university graduates made similar observations. The lack of preparation for managing a portfolio career came through as a consistent gap in the curricula at universities and the SAC. This gap was also highlighted by many other researchers in their recommendations for inclusion of employability skills in education (see list at the end of Section 3.4).

Pedagogical Approaches

Over the past twenty years, the vocational education and training (VET) sector in Australia implemented competency-based training. Advisory panels made up of industry representatives designed programs with sets of competencies. As VET

139

focuses on the contextual and instrumental in preparing graduates for a field of practice, many of the core competencies of the music training package qualifications specifically address the musician’s identity and career employment skills needed for working in the industry.

As governments and the public (taxpayers) are demanding accountability for spending on higher education, there has been a renewed imperative for higher education courses to demonstrate graduates’ successful transition to employment as a measurable outcome. Implementing a mind-set of incorporating more work-readiness or employability in degree programs amongst higher education academics has encountered resistance. Issues of long-standing practice and curriculum design silos between subject streams and academic specialisms have meant that change has been slow in many universities (Bennett & Bridgstock, 2015). Striking a balance between disciplinary musical expertise and music industry know-how has been a consistent failing of tertiary music education in music degree programs as shown in the literature review in Chapter 3.

The seeming contradiction between providing targeted music industry knowledge and skills in the context of subject detail and assessment, and also encouraging the freedom to explore one’s own musical creativity poses a real paradox for educators. Crafting curriculum and learning activities which truly embed the requisite proficiencies for a successful transition to a musical career requires a delicate balance. Future research might investigate ways this is happening (or not) in different institutions. The next two sections explore how these underlying approaches were implemented in different provider types, firstly from the perspective of the program leaders and secondly, from graduates.

Perspectives of program leaders

At one private provider, the degree program leaders identified parts of their curriculum that needed review. While the ensemble and recital components were distinct features of the program, the original curriculum had not incorporated any assessment of the requisite inter-personal soft skills for gaining and sustaining work in ensembles within the music industry. Jayden, music performance program leader explained:

140

The ensemble program, we felt that what was lacking was the ability to know how to rehearse effectively and prepare and communicate with the team members, all that sort of stuff that happens while you’re learning songs. We felt like that had to be assessed, so we put in assessments around preparation, punctuality, learning all your stuff before you get to the ensemble program.

The ensemble program not only focused on developing ensemble skills, but the task required students to develop personal attributes of reliability, responsibility and interpersonal communication skills. This pedagogical approach demonstrates the idea of embedded employability skills whereby the soft skills are built into the learning while not being the focus of it. Students had a requirement to create new songs which was in line with current trends for contemporary musicians as they continually write, produce and release their own music.

SAC jazz improvisation program leader, Ross, identified the goal of shaping one’s voice as prime importance which underlay all subjects in the SAC improvisation degree. The conceptual development of musical and artistic skills in tandem with developing improvisation was paramount to the SAC’s pedagogical approach to develop in their students a sense of themselves as individual artists. Ross explained, “I think that’s a really defining difference for our course. We give them conceptual tools as well for creating new sorts of music and really developing musical imagination.” The repertoire began with jazz standards in the first year to focus on learning the language of Western music and then branched out to other genres as well as original or experimental music in following years.

TAFE degree performance leader, Steven, emphasised the importance of all subjects incorporating an applied relevance to the current music industry. He explained that the ensemble program in the first year was heavily scaffolded with staff assigning students to ensembles and selecting standard repertoire. Progressing to the second year the students were encouraged to create their own ensembles and repertoire within some guidelines. In the third year, they were required to perform in off-campus performances, do a television recording or create some product in the studio. He summarised the approach, “So, they have to start talking about becoming performing artists. Once again, it’s applied … it’s all about what they would be doing when they’re out in industry.”

141

TAFE VET program leader, Nell, spoke of two principles that guided the choice of units of competence units within the different qualification packages. She emphasised the importance of developing pathways of skill development through a suite of sequential VET qualifications leading into the degree program. She also recognised the need to make the diploma qualification suitable as an end in itself with industry outcomes for those who were not interested in progressing through to a degree. To this end, the teachers had built in some limited student choice options as Nell explained, “We’ve given them an option to do songwriting or teaching depending on the outcome they are looking for.”

Perspectives of alumni interviewees

Experiences of interviewees also reinforced these pedagogical differences. Learning the music disciplinary skills was an important goal in each of the provider types. For the universities and the SAC, music disciplinary skills were the priority with little or no to the music industry know-how and vocational employability skills. For the NUHEPs there appeared to be more of a balance between time spent on music disciplinary skills and vocational employability skills but less emphasis on developing one’s own voice.

Jordan studied his music degree at the SAC. His assessment of the degree experience accorded with Ross’s account. He agreed that his SAC degree did not include skills such as knowledge of copyright, business skills and administration but he considered the focus on developing individual musical artistry to be more critical. He said,

I agree that it wasn’t oriented towards any of those business skills and I also agree at that point, it didn’t matter to me. It was not what I was looking to learn. So, it was a very effective course.

Throughout his childhood and adolescence, Tony achieved a high level of classical piano proficiency but chose to study a degree in commerce and . After graduating and working in finance for a year, he built up a studio practice of instrumental music teaching on piano and decided that he enjoyed teaching and needed a qualification in music to broaden his opportunities for employment. Initially, his quest for a further music qualification was prompted by the need for an official qualification, but in the process, he found that he gained a great deal from the performance focus of his university degree program. He said, “it turned out that the

142

course was extremely valuable, and I learned a lot, and I got a lot of performance skills which were really valuable so, in the end, I got more than the piece of paper.” He also expressed that he had expected to learn more about music history and theory throughout his degree for preparation as a piano teacher but that the course did not meet his expectations in this respect.

More broadly, I thought that at the end of the Bachelor of Music you sort of expect students to have a really solid grounding in aural and musicianship skills … also be very knowledgeable about music, theory and history and actually I was quite disappointed in what I didn’t learn really, at Uni, but the performing side of things was really fantastic, I learned a huge amount, and I’m a much better musician for that.

The following comment from a VET graduate highlights the pedagogical differences between VET and degree courses. Pat studied an Advanced Diploma for two years at a private provider and very much appreciated the course. He felt that while they did get some instruction in instrumental playing, it was up to the individual to practice their instrument. He felt the focus of the course was about the music industry and how to get work. Pat summarised the main thrust of the course with,

What they teach you is basically how to make money and how to market yourself, and stuff like that. I would say that’s 50% of what they teach and the other 50% – doing live gigs, so you get experience up with live gigs and stuff like that, they teach you about stagecraft, composition techniques, loads of theory as well, but probably the most valuable to a musician, would be what they teach you about the music industry itself in Australia … The ways to navigate through that, that’s a big part of what they teach you.

Conversely, Nathan studied his Advanced Diploma at a TAFE but felt that the teachers provided a more in-depth course than the training package had prescribed:

One of the good things with the TAFE course…was they were very, very serious about trying to give students really serious knowledge of scales and chord theory and jazz studies and really looking into that in-depth whereas they certainly didn’t have to go nearly as heavy as that as they did, that’s a big part of why I respected that course.

Units of competence about copyright, working with agents and performance rights are mandated units in VET courses. Jason studied a VET course prior to his degree at a

143

private provider. Jason acknowledged that his VET course at TAFE was more focused on vocational knowledge and skills but had lower expectations of performance skills with,

[At] TAFE, so you’re working with a lot of people who have differing musical ability, so you’re not always performing or being pushed to perform at your max because not everyone’s at the same level. But the theory and aural side for sure, and the idea of the industry as well, you know, copyright and how it works.

The survey provided a text response opportunity to provide feedback about their course generally. Nine survey respondents made comments about the timing and the delivery of training in industry knowledge skills indicating that as students, they had not appreciated the instruction at the time. The following two comments came from university graduates:

Really didn't have many options for learning broader industry skills. At the time I didn't realise I needed them, but now I know that skills in licensing/copyright, budgeting and other general administration and management skills would have been invaluable things to come out of my degree with.

At that stage I didn't even know if I wanted a career as part of a band or not, so I wasn't really ready to take on board the information given to me, I actually feel as though it'd be more useful for me to hear the advice now.

Graduates felt strongly about the prime purpose of studying tertiary music – first and foremost - to develop their musicianship and creative skills. Having studied a VET qualification at TAFE followed by a music degree in improvisation at the SAC, Jordan reinforced the fact that he was already gigging in the industry alongside his studies. He claimed that there could be a conflict between learning work-skills and artistic development – intimating that one might suffer due to the other.

I was gigging from 15 or 16 so when I arrived at TAFE I was already aware of the flow of being a gigging musician … the work- ready stuff is interesting because it can sometimes take the foot off or the intensity out of that deep artistic work which is, I don’t know if it’s more important, but it’s very important to be reflective and poetic and creative and sometimes those things are intangible in terms of work-ready context.

144

Some comments were quite negative about institutions providing professional development. Several comments expressed the view that the mission of tertiary music institutions was to provide for the music qualification and it was not part of their role to provide industry skills.

I think it's very dangerous to put the onus on music schools to teach business, marketing and publicity skills. Universities exist for academic exploration and learning, not vocational based learning. Students studying at university need time to focus on their instrument or area of speciality to the exclusion of all other things. There is plenty of time after university to learn those other skills as needed or to find management/publicity/agents to specialise in those skills.

Private provider program leader, Jayden, moved into education from a high-profile, popular music performance career and observed that the independent private providers tended to emphasise industry learning more than the more traditional approach of the SAC where instrumental virtuosity, technical development and creativity was a higher priority.

I examined some research and I found it very interesting myself because I didn’t go to the SAC but a lot of our teachers here did come from quite traditional music schools and their virtuosity in their playing is very good, but they don’t have much [in the way of] music industry skills whereas I think the new places [private providers] you know, have a lot more contemporary music industry skills. This means perhaps, less time for one-on-one technical development.

Graduates worried that targeting the commercial side of the music industry as a goal for learning restricted artistic freedom to develop their own creativity. University graduate, Richard, explained,

I’ve already heard of many courses that they start their composition course whatever it was day one, is talking about how are you going to survive? I mean that’s nice and good and obviously, a realistic thing to talk about. But then, all their projects are built around surviving, and marketing and everything’s driven towards that, and I think that’s a dangerous position to be in. Because that’s not creating art then, that’s creating a product! There needs to be a balance.

After speaking with friends who studied composition at the SAC who had claimed

145

that their course was more conceptual with more space to work on their own individual "voice" as a composer, Luna expressed some disillusionment with the composition degree at TAFE which specialised in composing for film and media. Luna felt that her TAFE degree had a more commercial thrust behind the pedagogy with the exercises and assignments designed around briefs for industry work,

I think with the degree which was amazing because it gives you a taste of everything, I think also with the composition side of it; there wasn’t much chance to develop your own voice…You do so much with the computers and, everything at TAFE. I’m so glad I did it, but I feel like I needed to do one more year of just working on my own voice.

She expressed concern that her TAFE degree was more focused on industry learning rather than the creative side of developing one’s own voice.

Oh… I just well, I kind of feel like, it shouldn’t be focused on…. Its art in my eyes, it shouldn’t be as focused on the money side of it. I don’t know, like that vocational thing has kind of taken the magic out of it.

Music Industry Knowledge and Skills

The extent of learning on industry topics

To ascertain the extent to which industry knowledge and skills had been formally covered within the degree curricula from different institutions, the survey question posed, “In your most recent undergraduate course, how much did you learn about the following music industry topics or work skills?” Respondents answered to a 4-point Likert scale (none, a little, some, a lot). The set of eight skill topics incorporated six which would generally be taught as separate topics. These included; business skills (including administration, planning, financial and problem-solving), copyright, legal knowledge, new media and technology, marketing and publicity, and, social media networking. The remaining two were more generic skills such as adaptability, communications and professional relationships which could be acquired through a wide variety of activities and subject matter.

An average rating score was calculated for each of the eight skill topics and compared between the three institution types as shown in Figure 6.3.

146

Figure 6.3 Comparison of degree graduates' extent of learning on industry topics by provider type (n=162)

In each case, the scores for NUHEPs were considerably higher than for those of the SAC and universities demonstrating a pedagogical emphasis on vocational work preparation. NUHEPs (TAFE institutes and private providers) have designed their degrees to meet niche industry needs, and their approach was more applied in nature. Assuming an ordinal by ordinal relationship, the Gamma test for statistical significance was used to determine a p value for each topic. The associations for each variable were significant. (p<0.05).

Note that the difference between provider types was smaller for two skill topics – adaptability and communications and professional relationships, as these were more generic skills that could be more easily incorporated into other activities. Social media networking showed a higher result for NUHEPs. This topic may have been influenced by the fact that social media networking is a relatively new phenomenon. As half of the sample had studied more than six years ago, the result may simply be showing a lack of exposure by some to this feature.

Anecdotes from interviewees confirmed the different emphases on learning music industry skills between institution types but also spoke of different inherent worth in learning these skills as students. NUHEP graduates acknowledged them to be essential to their survival once out in the industry, SAC graduates dismissed them as not so important as developing their technical expertise, musicianship and unique “voice” as a musician, while university graduates bemoaned the lack of opportunity

147

for learning any industry skills in their undergraduate degree.

The following comment from Richard is typical of comments made by the university graduate interviewees and reinforces the findings from the survey that universities were less likely to include specific industry and career preparation.

In my time, there was nothing to do with how to run your career! Just those little essential things that you may not want to work on when you’re 18 or 19, but it’s actually the time when you should be working on those things.

Likewise, Jessica, a university graduate bemoaned the lack of attention on industry skills and knowledge saying, “Absolutely not! It completely did not really touch on that at all!” Conversely, Chloe, a degree graduate from a TAFE claimed, “All the copyrighting and everything I’ve done with my original stuff was learned through TAFE.”

There were too few graduates from VET qualifications as their most recent undergraduate qualification (14) to directly compare with degree graduates on these measures. It is interesting to note, however, that for most of the topics, the scores for the fourteen VET graduates were similar to the degree graduates from NUHEPs (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 VET graduates’ extent of learning on industry topics (n=14)

Interestingly, Adaptability was the highest rated topic for the VET graduates. This is not taught as a separate unit but is a generic employability skill more likely to be taught in an embedded way throughout many units. Copyright was the second-highest

148

rated topic reflecting the fact that units dealing with copyright are mandated as core units in most VET music qualifications.

Advanced diploma graduate and full-time musician, Nathan studied at a TAFE and had also been teaching VET music in TAFE. He spoke of the box-ticking that resulted from a competency-based approach, and that sometimes the more in-depth musical learning could be missing:

When it all becomes about ticking those boxes all of the time, the amount of focus on in-depth musicianship details can suffer a bit. But there’s no perfect solution to any of this … there’s a really high chance a lot of the people that get that box ticked that the knowledge they get from that will be cursory at best.

He also contrasted this with degree level courses offered by universities or the SAC and speculated that although courses at institutions like these could be more in-depth, the more practical, hands-on approaches to working in the industry could be missing. H said, “if it’s a course that’s say, a bit old school, a really heavy educational jazz or classical course, then maybe there might be a bit missing from that say, learn how to get a gig for example.”

A number of the respondents suggested that institutions should make more use of alumni connections and networks and offer workshops with other alumni to share in their experience and specific skill areas for example, “Ask local musicians and past students to come in and talk to current students.” Another survey respondent commented that alumni coming back to speak to students could simultaneously be a beneficial way of promoting courses and resources to those alumni who in turn, could influence others.

SAC graduate, Wyatt discussed the possible benefits of himself or others who had made a career for themselves over several years going back to their institution to deliver a presentation or masterclass to the undergraduates. He claimed that he would have benefitted greatly from hearing from a graduate who had made their mark in a specific area or genre like his own (for example, songwriting) and what skills they had needed to learn after their degree. He was enthusiastic about the idea of giving back but doubted whether the institution would even remember him and believed the lecturers just invited their friends or contemporaries to come in for presentations.

149

Wyatt’s criticism showed a lack of interest from the staff in their own alumni,

I think I’m in a great position to impart some wisdom to people who were in my situation, but honestly, I don’t think SAC even remembers I went there. I don’t really have a lot of connection there, I’ve been back like, twice.

Wyatt felt this was a missed opportunity as he felt he had much to offer. He considered his currency in musical expertise in songwriting and performing and, in the knowledge and skills he had developed working in the music industry could be valuable to students.

Generic employability skills

Brown (2016) acknowledged the increasing imperative for providing employability skills education and when reporting her results of a performing arts internship project, concluded that more research was needed to find strategies for embedding such skills in the curriculum. The learning of generic skills embedded in learning and activities was evident in some comments by the alumni interviewees. Music ensemble subjects required students to develop a range of communication skills as evidenced by SAC graduate Eva’s comment, “We did ensemble classes, a lot of that is directly relating to work skills, being able to work in a team environment where you’ve got a shared outcome.” Likewise, private provider graduate, Jason identified work and life skills that are learned through doing in the creative music subjects, “because it is a creative skill that you have to learn to play with others, you learn a lot more life-skills as well so, not so much the book-smart type thing.”

Composer-performer, Sue appreciated the research skills she developed at university, and she used these skills extensively in her work in a music copyright organisation in the early part of her career stating,

Mixing with people and I guess, the general things you learn at university which is to discipline yourself to do the practice and the study and learning to study and research, that’s helped me a lot in my career, actual learning how to research and investigate things.

Private provider degree program leader, Jayden identified how skills such as adaptability, communication and professional relationships were embedded into the ensemble task brief: “It’s about adaptability, moving them around in the groups and

150

adapting to different personalities, work strategically to get a good outcome collectively even though you might have some barriers or personal issues.”

Some program leaders had the view that the need for learning employability skills through their tertiary course varied between students depending on their individual experiences as demonstrated by the following comment from Ross, program leader at the SAC,

It’s a hard one to say; I’d say, for some students, there’s more than enough and others, it’s just like they are really lost about that sort of thing. I’m not 100% sure that it’s necessarily about the entrepreneurial side as it is about self-confidence and just saying ok the phone’s not going to ring until you get out of there and make it happen.

Ross progressed this idea further insisting that it was more important to develop confidence in themselves rather than the specific industry skills, “So, instilling a sense of confidence in a student might be more important than the formal thing on how you connect PayPal to your sound cloud…just having the confidence to pitch your band.”

Degree program leader at a TAFE institute, Steven acknowledged the difficulty of catering for students with diverse needs in the formal part of the course:

So, the idea of employability skills it’s really hard to quantify for performing musicians. You can’t cater for someone who just wants to do art music as well as someone who wants to play in a cover band. You know you can’t write that into a course necessarily, so I’m coming back to that point where it’s up to the individual to take the initiative. We try and give them the skills as best we can, what we think is important.

Steven’s comment about individuals needing to take the initiative themselves heralds the way forward for musicians once out in industry. However, his attitude towards building in opportunities for the development of employability skills in curriculum design appeared to be defeatist. As shown by a few of the initiatives described in Section 3.6 of the literature review, opportunities for the development of self-efficacy attributes can be creatively designed and embedded within the curriculum.

Phil, audio/sound program leader from a private provider, indicated they took a more structured approach to develop initiative in their students. He explained how learning

151

initiative and entrepreneurial attitudes were encouraged in students by the in-built requirements of assessments,

Yes, it is an individual thing. It’s not something we address very directly, but it does get addressed in that students are required in many of the units to go off and find something to record … Talk with [other music students] and find some who have 10 minutes of music or whatever and get them into the studio and record them. And so, through those sorts of assessment tasks, they have to show enough initiative to be able to complete them.

Some comments from graduate interviewees hinted at ways they experienced embedded work skills and attitudes. Eva, SAC graduate, said,

There’s more of a work skills emphasis built into the degree [improvisation stream] rather than the classical degree because a lot of the teachers are working musicians as well. You get a lot of that indirectly through their teaching in ensemble classes and things like that.

Eva’s comment implied that some students might have experienced the indirect passing on of work skills tips, but this could be variable depending on their particular instrumental teacher. The development of employability skills such as personal attributes and self-efficacy by embedding the learning ensures that while not necessarily being the focus of the learning content, these attributes are learned as a purposive consequence of curriculum and therefore can be accountable and contributory to a students’ overall readiness for working in the industry.

Work experience

At most music institutions, work experience was simulated rather than real, sometimes on campus, sometimes arranged by the institution as a public gig in a real venue, or on other occasions, student-initiated, voluntary or incidental. For this last category, there was often no formal arrangement or appraisal of students’ experience within the structure of their courses. Jordan, who studied initially at TAFE followed by the SAC, confirmed that there was a more informal expectation of getting work experience: “there wasn’t a formal process or structure or pathway for us to get work but there was a kind of expectation that we had to brace ourselves and walk out into the storm and get gigs”.

152

A private provider included a formal placement subject of 60 hours with course content on workplace behaviours, communication skills and self-promotion. Students were expected to find their own placements. As Phil, the audio program leader explained, “We run a subject called placement, where they go off and do work placement (60 hours) of work, and it’s not like work experience where they watch, here they actually do work.” He further explained that workplace skills such as how to behave in the workplace, writing a CV and job interviews were part of the placement unit.

Bill, degree audio and composition program leader at a TAFE institute, described their review of the composition degree to focus on industry processes for media composition rather than specific technology skills or art for art’s sake. He described the pedagogical approach as meeting the current needs of industry, “It’s about requirements for industry processes, speed, pulling sounds quickly, being creative on the fly, doing stuff to spec.”

Caleb, program leader at a VET private provider, discussed the advantages and disadvantages of requiring students to put on public gigs as part of their course requirements. In their first iteration of the course, they had required students to do eight gigs each. After the first year, they realised that this was far beyond the capability of their students and in the following year moderated it by putting in place a scaffolded support framework,

What we did this year instead, was have three gigs that we [the staff] organised. So, the first one was entirely staff assisted, the second one is partially their own organisation, and the third one was only the students running it.

After Richard, a university performance graduate had just finished his Bachelor of Music he was awarded an Australia Council grant from a program for emerging artists. One of the opportunities funded by the grant was to access older professional artists in the industry as mentors and to start gaining opportunities for performance.

That was a fantastic initiative, that really helped so many of my peers at that stage…one of the people that I worked with, was an arts producer, her with me enabled me to learn how to write arts grants.

153

Although this experience was not part of his degree course, rather, a post-study opportunity, having access to funds for scaffolded learning in industry practice with current practitioners was a valuable experience for Richard. Unfortunately, funding for these sorts of programs is limited and occasional and so cannot be a reliable avenue for this sort of work/career experience.

Wyatt explained that at the SAC, there was no formal work experience or industry tuition but that by going to gigs or playing at gigs and mixing with professional musicians, they would discuss what they had seen and heard at gigs once back at university and that was how they learned about current practices in the industry.

At the time, a lot of people were out playing contemporary gigs and getting most of their education from that, they were out playing soul bands and stuff like that, people were coming down to see those shows, and then they’d come into uni.

For performance specialisations, real opportunities to perform before an audience were sometimes facilitated through external requests for students to perform at various events. TAFE degree graduate Evelyn highlighted that the institution facilitated requests for student musicians to perform at external gigs but that the process was highly selective and not every student was offered those opportunities: “When I was there, I don’t think I was offered any external gigs. It was always the same people [who were offered gigs].”

This study data show that all institutions used simulated experiences to help provide work-like performance scenarios. They all recognised that students needed to learn to use initiative or to become self-reliant in the generation of their own opportunities. From the interviews and data in this study, NUHEP programs were more likely to have opportunities or tasks with employability skills outcomes than programs at the SAC or universities. However, incorporating these self-efficacy attributes into tertiary learning such that the outcomes could be accountable for all students was still a work in progress.

Rating of Courses

Effectiveness in contributing to careers

While the study data do highlight real differences in delivery and pedagogy between

154

the institution types, respondents rated their degree courses quite similarly regarding effectiveness in contributing to their careers. Respondents were asked to rate the effectiveness of their most recent undergraduate music course in contributing to their music career using a five-point Likert scale. Figure 6.5 shows the average ratings for each of the three provider types. The rating averages were all situated in the mostly effective range, but the NUHEPs had a slightly higher rating than the SAC and universities.

Figure 6.5 Comparison of average ratings for degree course effectiveness in contributing to careers by provider type (n=166)

We know that the different provider types had different emphases in course content as explained throughout the earlier sections of this chapter. It is likely that graduates from each provider type valued the different aspects of their courses differently such that they cancelled each other out. There is room for improvement for all providers on this measure. The rating averages for VET were similar to the rating averages of degrees. (Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.6 Comparison of average ratings for VET course effectiveness in contributing to careers by provider type (PP n=7, TAFE n=7)

155

While VET courses have mandated core units which relate to specific industry knowledge and skills, they are shorter and not as comprehensive as degree programs. The overall number of VET graduates was small with only seven from each of the two provider types.

Meeting of expectations and goals

In their study examining how well music and dance student expectations of future work were met as graduates, Bennett and Bridgstock (2015) found that in many cases there was a mis-match suggesting a deficit in career awareness upon graduating. In Chapter 5 I reported how well all respondents’ current music career met their original expectations. To further illuminate how tertiary music education played a part in assisting graduates with meeting their expectations, this same data has been cross- tabulated for degree graduates by provider type (n=166) (Figure 6.7). On this measure, 49% of university graduates indicated dissatisfaction with career outcomes which is considerably higher than for the other provider types. The association was borderline significant (p=.064). While it might be speculated that this difference could be due to the lesser emphasis on industry skills training at universities and the SAC, (Figure 6.3, p.145) this study did not have the scope to explain this difference in the level of satisfaction. Future research might be designed to specifically investigate the reasons why university graduates were less satisfied with their careers.

Universities 17% 35% 49%

SAC 24% 45% 31%

NUHEPs 23% 44% 33%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Exceeds my expectations Meets my expectations Does not meet my expectations

Figure 6.7 Level of satisfaction with current music career meeting expectations (universities n=72, SAC n=42, NUHEPs n=52)

156

The dissatisfaction with meeting expectations for a career was also reinforced by responses to a question which asked if their career goals had changed. Seventy-eight per cent of degree students (n=133) indicated that their goals had changed. Respondents were asked to select reasons for goal changes. The results for the whole cohort were reported in Figure 5.14, p.120. Figure 6.8 shows the same data for degree graduates (n=133) compared by provider type.

Figure 6.8 Comparison of degree graduates' reasons for changing goals by provider type, (n=133)

The only variable where the percentage of participants from each provider differed significantly was Insufficient performance or contract opportunities, using a chi- square test, X2(2, n=133) =7.3, p=.026 whereby around 50% of university and SAC graduates had indicated that the variable was a contributing factor to their change in goals than for NUHEPs who had only 26% listing this factor. Table 6.5 shows a cross-tabulation of the goal change variable, Insufficient performance or contract opportunities with provider type.

157

Table 6.5 Cross-Tabulation of Variable- Insufficient Performance or Contract Opportunities with Provider Type, (n=133) Provider type

University SAC NUHEPs Total

Count 28 20 10 58

% within provider type 50% 53% 26% 44%

Total for provider type 56 38 39 133.

Table 6.6 shows a summary of the interviewees’ career trajectories. Most interviewees indicated that their goals had evolved during their time since graduating or starting in the music industry.

For some, their goals had changed completely. Of the eighteen alumni interviewees, four changed their goals and main careers while keeping some music activities alongside their new careers (Table 6.6). One was still struggling to find her niche in music. Another who was struggling with a performing career gained a scholarship into a Research Higher Degree (RHD) to enable him to extend his creative music ambitions. Two were full-time instrumental music teachers (which is what they had set out to do), and another had changed over from performing into full-time teaching but intended to go back to performing. Three were working in music in a part-time capacity, and six were continuing with full-time music portfolio careers.

Evelyn completed her music degree at TAFE and after freelancing for some time, completed her Graduate Diploma of Education. She taught music in schools as well as performing in occasional music projects but was offered the opportunity to apply her initiative and creative drive to a career as a consultant in the career change industry. Citing the higher and regular income as well as continually changing opportunities for travel and work in many different settings, Evelyn claimed, “basically, it was an offer I couldn’t refuse!” So, her answer to the survey question about career identity was non-music, but she also claimed that she was using her performance and creative skills in this new role.

158

Table 6.6 Alumni Interviewees and Career Trajectories at Time of Interviews No. Career progress Interviewee Tertiary Career trajectories at time of pseudonyms programs interview Evelyn TAFE degree Career change consultant uses creative skills Changed main 4 Jason PP degree IT consultant, music gigs on the side career Luna TAFE degree Retro-fashion, occasional DJ gig Pat PP Adv dip Intending to work in hospitality Struggling to find Uni post-grad Seeking opportunities to use music in 1 Jessica a niche Dip a community engagement capacity Moving into full-time post-graduate 1 Pursuing a PhD Richard Uni degree study Contractor - instrumental teaching in Tony Uni degree schools 2 FT Music teaching PP degree + Contractor - instrumental teaching in Lily Uni M.Teach schools Move between SAC degree 1-year contract teaching classroom 1 teaching & Jordan + Uni Dip Ed music in school and occasional gigs performance Zoo safari guide, factory work and Trent TAFE degree occasional gigs Uni degree + Corporate admin work, some gigs, PT work in both Sally Uni Masters rehearsals and composing 3 non-music & comp music Uni degree + Post-grad dips PT family care, PT music teaching, Sue in Mus Tech & performance and composing comp Singer-songwriter gigs, songwriter Wyatt SAC degree mentorship work, production work with non-music work on the side Gigs, teaching and tours during school Claire SAC degree holidays

FT music Singer-songwriter, touring, gigging, a 6 Mike TAFE degree portfolios small amount of teaching Producing, touring, gigging, a very Nathan TAFE adv dip small amount of teaching Chloe SAC degree Tribute band performing artist Larger proportion teaching & some Eva SAC degree music projects Note. FT=full-time, PT=part-time, DJ=disc jockey, TAFE=Technical And Further Education, SAC=Specialist Arts College, NUHEP=Non-University Higher Education Provider, adv dip=advanced diploma

159

Like Evelyn, after a few years of teaching instrumental music in schools, Jason changed his career from music teaching to work full-time as an information technology consultant in a high-profile company while still performing as a semi- professional musician in his spare time. The main reason for changing his career goal as a music teacher to a non-music role was his disappointment in the parental attitudes of his students. When pitted against sport and other academic ventures their low priority for their children towards learning music in schools affected his morale,

When the parents are the ultimate people that still hold the keys, you know, can’t see it, it really got me down, depressed with that attitude and I went, I just don’t think I can come in year after year for the next 20-30-40 years, and have this.

Bridgstock and Cunningham (2016) found that musicians often were able to use their creative talent in their non-music work. Jason spoke of how he was able to transfer key skills learned through his music teaching into his new career, “I really do love teaching, and solution-selling is teaching, you’re just teaching. Same concept but different products, different words, it might not be music but … you’re still passing knowledge on to someone.”

Deciding to earn her primary income from the retro-fashion trade, composition TAFE degree graduate, Luna pulled back from her creative music work as a producer and DJ because of ever-increasing competition, anti-social working hours and the unrealistic expectations of clients and the public. She preferred to be more selective about taking on music work,

And then I started pulling back on the DJ work because I had been doing that for so long in the clubs for 20 years ... I still get people constantly asking me to do stuff but I’m really picky about what I do now because I kind of got to a point where I was DJ-ing so much, I started hating music. ... It’s almost like I don’t want to taint the music with the commercial side of it anymore.

Interdisciplinary composition university graduate, Sally, worked on occasional composition commissions but preferred to work in non-music roles such as hospitality or corporate administrative work to earn income. She was realistic and yet could not quite let go of her dream of her music being discovered, “And, I suppose, I guess it’s kind of a dream to have a piece that somebody picks up or go into a festival and

160

people, or somebody decides it’s the most amazing thing they have ever seen or heard!”

At the time of the interview, Pat had only just graduated with his Advanced Diploma qualification from a private provider. He had decided he was not talented enough to pursue a musical career claiming, “I’m not really gigging at the present. I’ve changed plans. I was never going to make enough money playing music.”

Trent explained that his performance skills transferred across to his work as a safari guide, “I’m good with people, I consider myself a people-person. And I guess the performance skills that I acquired from TAFE [means] I can deliver messages and information about animals while I’m dealing with people.”

Summary of Findings for Tertiary Music Education

This chapater focused on those who studied music at tertiary level and focused on those who studied Bachelor degrees. VET qualifications were also evident but played a much a more pivotal role as precursor or preparatory course leading to degree study. Contrasting musicians who had studied at universities, the SAC or NUHEPs, this study demonstrates that the NUHEP courses provide more industry training and business knowledge and skills in their subject matter and assessment than the other two provider types. University graduates reported that their courses provided an emphasis on performance, stagecraft and academic music studies while graduates from the SAC said their courses had focused on instrumental/vocal facility and developing the self as an artist. Comments from interviewees about the merits of their particular study experiences and providers suggested that they all would have benefited from the inclusion of more training in employability skills tailored to the music industry but were concerned that in doing so, it might limit the focus on creativity and individual artist development. The individual differences and preferences of students were generally catered for through the different pedagogical thrusts of the tertiary music offerings.

Development of some generic employability skills such as adaptability, communications and professional relationships were experienced through required tasks such as ensemble playing or one-on-one contact with instrumental tutors and mentors. Study participants demonstrated that this happened at all institutions albeit to

161

different extents. The limiting factor with these experiences was that in most cases they were incidental and there was no purposeful intention to develop or assess such skills through the curriculum.

Genuine work experience is acknowledged to be notoriously difficult for an industry which consists largely of independent sole operators with iconic roles as soloists or members of ensembles or bands. NUHEPs were more likely to have learning or assessments with real industry projects and task briefs than universities or the SAC.

There was more dissatisfaction with career outcomes amongst university graduates (48%) than with the SAC (31%) and NUHEPs (33%). A future study might investigate reasons for this dissatisfaction.

Diversifying skills and gaining industry knowledge, small business skills and planning were all important knowledge and skills that university and SAC graduates needed to develop after study. Graduates from NUHEPs reported the start provided within their course in these areas had been invaluable. Interviewees from all institutions were concerned about the balance between fostering their own creativity and strategies for surviving financially.

Results on the effectiveness of degree courses in contributing to music careers showed that respondents considered all provider types to be mostly effective with little difference between the three. If the task of tertiary education is to prepare graduates for a successful career in their chosen work field then in the eyes of past graduates, all institutions still have work to do to achieve this satisfactorily.

162

Chapter 7 Findings and Discussion: Sustaining a Music Career

Researchers identified the need to be strategic about building a career in music (Daniel & Daniel, 2015; Thomson, 2013). Future career planning was often something that musicians did not think about much at the start of their careers. In their initial enthusiasm and passion, they were more likely just to let it all happen, taking up opportunities as they present themselves or switching to one style or another depending on with whom they were mixing. It is only after a few years of doing this that most realised their earnings from music were not enough to sustain a living on an ongoing basis and that sensible choices needed to be made about opportunities that would build their career. This chapter discusses the themes arising from the survey about needs for professional development and from interviewee responses to the two questions below about career planning.

Where do you want to be in five years? Where do you want to be in twenty years?

Strategising a Career in Music

According to interviewees in this study, long-term career planning became relevant and necessary some years into a music portfolio career. As these musicians progressed through their journeys, modern technologies, opportunities—or lack thereof—and a myriad of other influences helped shape their preferences for the future.

Singer-songwriter, Mike started his music degree having only just turned mainly took up studying at that point to satisfy his parents. Mike was keen to get out and perform, and he confessed that he did not take full advantage of the learnings in his course. He was gigging and had some guitar students while studying but admitted that he would have been better to study in his mid-twenties when he had matured a little and could have taken more advantage of it. At the time of the interview, Mike had been touring a great deal over a few years and recording and building up his performance skills in engaging a crowd. He admitted that while he still loved what he was doing, he needed to take a more strategic approach to create a sustainable future for himself. He explained,

163

That’s great; I’m still doing what I love, I’m able to write music, record it, you know, obviously, you don’t lose that ambition, so wanting to do this on a bigger scale I just think I have to…Maybe it has come to that time to write up a proper business plan and how I’m going to execute it over the next ... As you said, where would you see yourself in five years? A bit more of a concise way of how to get there!

Over the six years since graduating, Wyatt had worked long hours on his music portfolio while supporting himself with work in a family business. Although he had wanted to be a professional jazz guitarist when he started studying, since graduating, he found himself focused on his original music, songwriting and touring. Wyatt built up a reputation as a songwriting mentor and fostered this activity as both a commercial part of his business, and as an avenue for increasing his songwriting skills. He applied a strategic approach to the work that he took on, preferring to build his music as an independent artist to maintain more control over the music and his income. He worked with a business partner as his manager and together they had consciously built a fan-base, releasing singles every couple of months taking advantage of technology and internet streaming platforms.

I’m taking it step by step. I’d like to be doing tours and working on a global scale, outside of Australia as well, and I’d really like to be releasing enough music that’s hopefully reaching and connecting to people, and of high enough quality that I have record sales just going along, that would be enough to sustain me. That’s my absolute dream

His approach was very consciously strategic; working in his family business for living expenses while he built up his clientele as he described,

I haven’t made my living as a musician, but I’m working. I’ve done thousands of hours in it since then because I decided pretty early on in my twenties that I wanted to make original music and I knew that it would be a long path. So I kind of stopped going for money gigs and just decided to work another job and work really hard at songwriting. I chose to build it that way.

Ultimately though, he voiced his long-term ambition simply as: “I’d like to just be a songwriter in the end.” Claire already had an established music teaching business in several schools, her own band projects, played in gigs with other artists, worked as a team with her partner who was also a musician, and independently managed her

164

portfolio with promotions and bookings. When asked where she would like to be in five years she answered:

In my career? Well, its sounds terrible but not much different further along than I am at the moment, to be honest … It’s always great to play with new people; I don’t have any grand plans to move overseas or anything like that. I think the nature of the music industry is that you have to definitely be able to diversify your skills.

Claire explained that she and her partner were planning to have children and to tag- team to spend time rearing their family and balancing their music interests between them.

To be honest, the whole thing about me teaching instrumental music … that’s been part of my long-term plan. … We’d like to have a dual-caring role for the child or children at home. …Ideally, one of us would be doing two days a week of teaching, my partner would be doing three days, and then we’d get two days at home together with the child or some sort of arrangement like that.

VET graduate, Nathan, explained that his portfolio contained a mixture of production work for others in his home-studio, performing in a range of music projects including some high-profile artists, touring and only a handful of instrumental students. He explained that he had worked hard to build his reputation for being a versatile and competent musician, emphasising reliability as an important feature. He has worked at his career for over 12 years and has enjoyed the variety:

Well, I’m doing exactly what I love and what I’ve wanted to do. … It’s never been a focus on sort of, playing to huge crowds or being super famous. It’s always been on my own personal love of music. … I think a lot of it is just being happy with my and just embracing the positives, getting a decent balance.

For his future goals, he said simply,

I want to do the best job I can at keeping a good sustainable lifestyle of doing what I do. … It really is very much a kind of thing of continuing to do the things l’m doing and love doing in a way that keeps on working for me.

Congruent with the literature discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, this research has found that music teaching is an integral part of most musicians’ portfolios. While some

165

comments in the survey indicated a preference to reduce the teaching, others were happy to include some teaching often finding that it could be an expression of their musical creativity.

After several years working his portfolio performing career, Jordan studied the first part of a Master’s in Education exiting with a postgraduate diploma. At the time of the interview, he was finding new challenges working in his new career as a full-time classroom music teacher in a school. The decision to teach had been a response to an injury which caused him to cut back his performing for a while. He intended to continue working on his performance work part-time with the goal of balancing performing work with teaching into the future. He also intended to complete the qualification over the next five years as well as a Master of Performance in classical guitar saying, “I would consider myself still on that path of just a pause. I’m intending to continue as a performer and negotiate fulltime teaching. So, my head and my workplace mix are still travelling in that direction.”

Both Tony and Lily set out to be music teachers and achieved their goals both working in schools as contractors and teaching private students. Tony had first studied commerce and finance before studying music and prefers his piano teaching career. He planned to use his prior knowledge of commerce and finance to help him build up a music school business.

I plan to do piano teaching for the rest of my life, the rest of my career! I am enjoying what I’m doing now. And I feel really lucky to be doing something that I love.…Commerce! No, except possibly to later, build up a music school potentially.

Jessica had played the violin since childhood but first studied a law degree at university before studying music as a post-graduate diploma. Over the years she had been involved in various music projects, instrumental teaching, ensembles and music enterprises. Passionate about bringing an appreciation of fine music to the masses and combining it with her experiences in teaching, Jessica was striving to find herself a niche in the music industry. She was exploring the idea of the community music engagement field but was unsure how to make this her career as a full-time living. She had plans to seek internship opportunities in community organisations overseas to build up skills and experience explaining,

166

I’ve been sort of, very interested in community cultural engagement. Not necessarily with small aged children, but also young and even older people although it’s been a bit tricky trying to find organisations that do that. And then, where they offer paying roles, rather than a one-off running a session.

Sally studied composition and had no illusions about being able to sustain herself with composition alone. She pointed out that even famous composers needed other employment as commissions for composition work were always sporadic. Therefore, to support herself while continuing to compose she was quite happy to work in hospitality or administration alongside some music teaching. This also allowed her the time and flexibility to work around children and family life with a partner who was working fulltime in the music industry: “Hospitality I enjoy, its basic kind of work. And then, teaching is easy to fit around hospitality work. That’s the other thing, its flexible. I can teach and do that.” Sally expressed her intention of studying a PhD at some point in the future, incorporating her interest in children, music and education.

Professional Development Needs

The survey gathered information about how musicians furthered their skills and knowledge in both music-related and music industry-related areas after graduation. Identifying gaps in knowledge or skills and having access to resources to fill those gaps was reported as critical for keeping up with technology and surviving in a portfolio career.

Music disciplinary skills

The online survey asked about the need for further music-related skills after graduation. Even though many of these respondents had studied music formally at tertiary level, they still deemed it essential to continue developing their music disciplinary skills. The question provided six areas of music-related knowledge and skills that could need further development. Figure 7.1 shows the percentage of respondents who identified each of the six areas of possible need.

It was interesting that the six areas of need attracted a similar percentage of respondents with a narrow range of 53%-73%. This indicates that the respondents attached similar relative importance each of these areas of knowledge and skills.

167

Performance 73%

Music teaching 66%

Composing, songwriting, arranging 62%

Recording or music production 61%

New media / technology 55%

Live sound / audio 53%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% Figure 7.1 Areas of need for further development of music knowledge and skills (n=193) (number of responses=714)

It is revealing that music teaching was the second highest percentage with 66% of responses. While some had exposure to music teaching methodology in their undergraduate courses, it was only a minor component. As university graduate, Tony explained,

We had to do a subject called “the art of piano teaching” so that was just for one semester and that was good. I think it wasn’t enough but to be fair this was a Bachelor of Music, it wasn’t specifically about education.

Most musicians find themselves teaching instrumental or voice lessons at some point in their careers, and it is their own instrumental or voice learning from their teachers that often serves as a model for their teaching. Learning to teach music effectively, however, is a distinct skill which requires more learning than just one’s own experience. Methods and pedagogy in instrumental music teaching have not always been an included learning area in undergraduate music study in the past (Bennett, 2012b; Freer & Bennett 2012; Goldsmith & Bridgstock, 2015). However, it is potentially valuable training for an undergraduate program. Some institutions are providing post-graduate programs specifically for musicians seeking professional development in this area.

168

Music industry knowledge and skills

The need for furthering of knowledge and skills in music industry related areas was discussed often in the interview data and was also evident in a question in the survey asking about the areas where professional development was needed. Figure 7.2 shows the seven areas of music industry skills that the question posed as possible areas of need for further development. Seventy-nine per cent of respondents to this question identified business skills to be an area where they needed to further their knowledge and skills with marketing and publicity the next most frequent (72%).

Figure 7.2 Areas of need for further development of music industry knowledge and skills (n=189) (n=857 responses)

Industry-based skills are critical to musicians especially when starting out in their portfolio careers as attested by interviewees. Richard felt strongly about the necessity of finding opportunities to work in industry settings as an intern to prepare for working in the industry.

I think that kind of thing [performance work placement], you know, doesn’t have to be that prestigious but, any kind of working within companies. … Just give people an opportunity to be able to work in that context. Or, even if it’s just rehearsing with them or doing a short work or doing a new work with them.

Claire consciously built up her industry-related skills herself during her tertiary education years intimating that unless one worked out which part of the industry one was aiming for long before graduation, finding avenues for playing would be difficult,

It has taken me years, some years to get my skill level up in doing different things in the music industry and a lot of people won’t necessarily do that, they’ll leave university and like, oh, well, how, where am I actually going to play?

169

Methods of Professional Learning

The next question in the survey asked respondents to identify how they learned useful skills and information for their careers after graduation. Overwhelmingly, the respondents favoured learning through their peers and fellow musicians (91%) followed by personal research (86%). Engagement with their former institution was the lowest option at only 8% (Figure 7.3). Personal research (86%) and online self- help (65%) were also common. Comments from interviewees also highlighted these same avenues for professional learning post study.

Peers and fellow musicians 91%

Personal research 86%

Online self help (including youtube) 65%

Mentors or individual tutors 63%

Masterclasses/workshops 54%

Engagement with former institution 8%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 7.3 Respondents on methods of furthering music and industry knowledge and skills, (n=161) (n=722 responses)

Peers, other musicians and mentors feature in many of the interview transcripts as well as personal research in accessing online forums and YouTube. Claire was unequivocal in her choice to go directly to her fellow-musicians, exclaiming, “If I don’t know something the place that I go to is my peers. I will ask my peers and my friends for advice or knowledge about something. That’s the first place I go.”

Finding most of his informal learning with his mentors, Wyatt claimed, “Mostly I had some incredible mentors. One-on-one music mentors. That was where I learned most of my stuff.” He also claimed that he learned as much from his clients when working as a mentor himself. Wyatt crafted part of his portfolio as a songwriting specialist through up-and-coming artists booking a session with him to fine-tune and workshop their new songs. Of this experience he claimed, “I learn a lot. I think I learned much more about songwriting being put in sessions with people, than I learned about most music in my entire uni degree.”

170

Singer-songwriter, Mike has performed and toured mostly as a solo artist. At the time of the interview he was considering collaborating with another artist for creating songs, “The way I’ve written and have these ideas, it’s a very in my own head type thing. So, I think over the next couple of years, I’d be hoping to embrace that [collaboration] more.”

Personal learning and research were also a common method of learning new skills amongst interviewees. In Section 5.3.5, Eva’s song project is described whereby she created a song and uploaded it to her blog with a blog post every day. She said of the experience, “It’s good professional and .” Similarly, Wyatt worked hard at his songwriting skills and built his reputation as a songwriting mentor, claiming, “I just transcribed hundreds and hundreds of pop songs since I’ve finished uni and I’ve just studied in my own space and time and to the point that I was good enough even to be put in these sessions.”

Many of the interviewees mentioned accessing YouTube and online forums for knowledge and new ways of doing things as well as social media groups for advice and promotion of relevant information. Richard was particularly interested in developing his music in cross-disciplinary arts contexts and found that he needed to know more about the other arts so that he could collaborate more effectively. He said,

I’ve been working on animation and things like that, and you can just go through amazing tutorials, I mean you know, you don’t end up being an expert animator but at least you know how to work with other people who work in that context.

Those who were working as creative musicians in the core cultural production roles also talked of the need to diversify and gain skills in other areas such as: marketing, social media, liaising with booking agents and media personnel, writing blogs and promotional materials and branding. Wyatt explained,

You must learn how to market yourself on social media, [with] your own branding. I’ve made all my own video-clips, so I taught myself how to edit videos, while I was doing it…I’ve had to become a lot more multi-disciplinary than I ever expected and that’s the only reason why I have some semblance of a career.

Claire and her musician partner tried to do most of their administration and

171

promotions in-house having to pick up the skills along the way to keep their costs down. She explained,

We just do everything in-house. It just means that we’re not outsourcing to other services because with publicity and a booking agent, if you skill up and you can do it yourself, then you never have to pay anyone to do it ever again.

She managed her teaching business, performing, writing her own music as well as running a small booking and publicity agency. She has also developed graphic design skills as she described,

…So, I do performance booking, festival applications as well as a bit of publicity stuff. I’ve got basic graphic design skills, so I do all of my own posters, my partner is releasing an album at the moment, so I’ll design the adverts for that, for example in magazines, I’ll put together the advertisements and correspond with the magazine and send them off and get the invoice.

Instrumental teachers in schools such as Lily and Tony favoured more formal workshops, and these were often facilitated by professional music associations. Examples of these associations are listed:

• Australian Band and Orchestra Directors Association (ABODA) • Orff-Schulwerk Associations (localised to states, for example, • Victorian Orff Schulwerk Association (VOSA) • Kodǻly Music Education Institute of Australia (KMEIA) • Taubman Approach to Piano Teaching • Australian Society for Music Education (ASME) One major obstacle faced by instrumental teachers was the financial and time difficulties in participating in professional development because of their employment status as casual contractors. As such, they were not entitled to paid leave to participate in professional development and had to bear the significant cost and time impost personally, as Lily explained,

I’m with ABODA, which is like a concert band, so, if there’s any kind of PD I try and get to stuff like that. That’s generally conducting PD, I find it very hard to do any sort of PD to be honest because of the way I’m employed.

In most instances, they could only participate during term breaks at their own

172

expense. The issue of bearing the cost in time and money to participate in keeping up to date in knowledge, skills and technology was a concern for all interviewees and was also highlighted by Hennekam and Bennett (2017).

Role of Social Networks

Interviewees kept in contact with some of their contemporaries from their former institutions, but the continuance of those relationships was often limited to their particular genre and career direction. Some interviewees spoke of having formed bands while studying which continued as they transitioned into the industry. Chloe explained she met most of the members in her band at TAFE: “Everyone knows or has been taught from someone from TAFE in my band’’ and of her continuing networks: “A lot of people I’ve networked with have been people from TAFE.” Trent also called upon his former course contemporaries as a source of contacts for his covers band:

We’re a five piece but we’ve since lost our bass player, but for a few gigs we just put the word out to our network (which is the TAFE network), someone might be able to fill in or at least know someone else who would be able to fill in.

Working as an instrumental teacher in schools, Lily kept up with several of her course contemporaries and former lecturers quite regularly through her personal and professional networks especially if they were working in education as she explained,

Also, I still catch up with some lecturers from there that I see professionally because we’ve ended up teaching in the same sort of region or we have connections through the concert band or something like that.

Although the social networks developed by individuals while completing tertiary study played a critically important role, Claire explained that for her, the connections depended on the match with the genres she played:

I think it’s really just about who you play with and the kind of music you play.… The other people who were at college, the main reason why I don’t see them is because they’re not part of the same kind of musical genre that I’m in. That is the main reason.

Nathan was an advanced player by the time he finished high school and was gigging

173

with the local jazz musicians. By association with them, he was offered the opportunity of teaching students at the local TAFE. Performing musicians trust the musical expertise of their fellow performers and refer them for work opportunities.

I was teaching some of the students at the TAFE course because a lot of the teachers at the TAFE were jazz musicians in the scene, so I was doing gigs with them … when they needed to find a good bass teacher…I was a good pick for that.

Having studied a jazz improvisation course at the SAC and because he was working as a singer-songwriter more in the independent music scene, Wyatt did not often collaborate or perform with many of his course contemporaries directly. Instead, he found himself working with or in contact with others who were connected with those he studied with, and these networks were invaluable for his own learning and inspiration, “that’s the main thing I got out of doing a uni course. Just meeting an amazing group of people, I learned so much and continue to learn: their artistic now is inspiring for me.”

The Role of Tertiary Institutions

Formal post-graduate study

The survey asked if respondents had studied a post-graduate qualification. A high proportion (51%) had completed a post-graduate qualification. Figure 7.4 shows the breakdown of the study disciplines at post-graduate level.

Figure 7.4 Percentage of degree graduates with post-graduate qualifications

174

There was a relatively even split between those who had studied a music-related qualification and those who had studied an education qualification. Two respondents had studied two post-graduate qualifications; one in music-arts related disciplines and the other in education. Music graduates who wished to go into teaching in schools and be paid commensurate with other full-time teachers in other disciplines needed to gain a post-graduate qualification in education. Victorian Institution of Teaching (VIT) regulations govern minimum standards and qualifications for teaching in Victoria. Due to a shortage of instrumental teachers with educational qualifications, there has been a long-standing custom to engage musicians as instrumental instructors rather than as teachers. Such was the case for one of the 18 interviewees, Tony, who completed his Bachelor of Music (Honours) to assist with gaining and maintaining his employment in schools. While working full-time Tony was also completing a Master of Music but did not want to invest more time in studying an education qualification. He adopted a wait and see attitude,

I’m trying to avoid it if I can. It may be unavoidable because it may be in the future, that I will find it difficult to find work in schools if I don’t have a teaching qualification even though I’m just doing instrumental teaching and it’s an extra-curricular thing.

Lily, who also taught full-time in schools had completed the first part of a Master of Education qualification graduating with a one-year Graduate Diploma of Education prior to 2017. The one-year post-graduate Diploma of Education qualification has recently been phased out in Victoria with only two-year graduate entry initial teacher education programs being offered. Lily’s motivation for doing it was to inform her instrumental teaching practice and to assist her financial security for future work as she explained that instrumental teachers without such accreditation were being employed as sessional tutors on the lower Educational Support (ES) rate of pay,

In the government system, with the state schools, there are definitely different pay-scales. I taught at [a] Secondary College until the end of 2015, and yes, they had other tutors employed more as like para-professionals who didn’t have a music qual, or tertiary qual or necessary education qual so they were employed as ES staff and I was employed as a teacher and on staff.

Following her Bachelor of Music, Sue had studied two graduate diplomas, one in contemporary music technology and another in screen composition. Her post-graduate

175

study experiences have led into her portfolio career, freelancing as a composer, playing the flute in a community orchestra, a little teaching and high-level music administrative work at a large copyright organisation. She explained that she had learned much of her knowledge about the business skills of the industry through her administration work. While she had had the opportunity to study a breadth subject in her undergraduate degree, she suggested that for current students it might be more useful to study small business skills instead.

Sally followed her Bachelor of Music with a Master in Composition degree and was working part-time in a variety of roles. She had been teaching music, some casual performing and composing but was intending to return to study a PhD incorporating composing and music for early childhood sometime in the near future.

Richard was seeking opportunities to spend time composing for new projects in cross- discipline collaborations. Because Richard had been struggling to bring in enough income through his portfolio of diverse musical activities, he had not had the time to work on his new projects. He decided that one way of achieving this would be to pursue a PhD and apply for a scholarship to assist him to find the time for his creative work. Richard also felt that having a PhD would enhance his employability for his future career. As borne out by the survey responses and several of the interviewees in this study, the motivation for embarking on post-graduate studies included the continual struggle to diversify musical and music industry skills as well as the imperative to make oneself more employable.

Informal professional learning

When degree graduates were asked if they could see a role for their previous institution in assisting with their professional development needs 49% replied yes (n=162). This result suggests that close to half the degree respondents would value the involvement of their former institution in the building of more sustainable careers in a constantly changing environment. The survey asked respondents for suggestions of topics or activities they would find useful for their future development (Table 7.1). There were 155 responses overall which were categorised into 24 topics. The most commonly mentioned topics were music industry seminars (44), social media networking and marketing (18) instrumental specialist seminars (15) and teaching and technology (11). This presents a challenge and an opportunity to tertiary music

176

education providers.

Table 7.1 Suggested Topics for Professional Development No. of Topics responses music industry seminars 440 social media networking and marketing 180 instrumental seminars 150 teaching and technology 110 alumni catchups with former staff 100 alumni events and ancillary ensembles 7 join professional associations to access PD 6 mentors from industry 5 motivation to keep making music 5 community ensembles 4 further education 4 online or live tuition for remote access 4 band startup ideas 3 goal setting 3 competitions 2 conferences 2 industry experience 2 internships 2 revitalise the musicians' union 2 time management 2 audience education 1 cross institution support forum 1 instrumental teaching qualification 1 university postgraduate counselling service 1 Total 155.0000

Some felt that after some years in industry their needs for skills and knowledge were very specific and that generalised courses would not provide them with the specific knowledge they needed. The next quotation commented that targeted short courses or masterclasses on particular topics could be more useful than a whole course:

Yes, but I think this would come in a more broad aspect than I require. I am at a stage in my career where short, topic-related study is more beneficial and suited to my needs. I am not aware of my previous institutions offering PD [professional development] in this manner.

Others emphasised that the experience of going out into industry and having to make your way was the only way to gain the necessary skills. One respondent commented that because musicians were sole traders and their craft or experience was unique

177

there was little to be gained by trying to pass on that experience to others. Others felt that they had moved on and wouldn’t be interested in going back to their former institution.

Summary

Eighty per cent of degree graduates had changed their goals, mainly because of not meeting expectations of making a sustainable living from music alone. Some changed to non-music roles for earning their income while still working in music on the side. For those who did work in other industries, the transferability of creative skills from their music education was important in their new work roles.

Interviewees demonstrated a variety of approaches to building their careers, some with definitive strategies and others with more opportunistic approaches. It was surprising that so many of the degree graduates had formally studied post-graduate courses (51%). Furthering of music disciplinary and industry skills were needed by all participants. Overwhelmingly, graduates said that peers and other musicians were the most frequent source of information and professional development with personal research and online sources being a valuable resource. Instrumental teachers relied on membership of more formal organisations for keeping up to date, networking and acquiring new skills. All participants valued their networks of fellow musicians. Some were more reliant on friendships and networks developed through their former institutions; others felt that working in their own genre was more important for the development of networks.

Forty-nine per cent of degree graduates thought it was feasible for their former institution to take a role in the provision of professional development. Respondents commented that short, targeted topics would be best suited to their needs rather than a whole course. Upskilling in small business skills, marketing and publicity were the most sought-after skills after graduation.

The findings on sustaining a music career suggest that continuing development of both music and industry-relevant work skills are critical for longevity in a music career. This presents both a challenge and an opportunity for tertiary music providers to consider how they might contribute to such professional learning (Hillman, 2019).

178

Chapter 8 Discussion and Conclusion

In re-examining the findings presented in Chapters 5, 6 and 7, this chapter will address the research sub-questions, the central question and make recommendations. As the research is based on a non-probability sample, it cannot be entirely representative. Instead, synthesising the findings as broadly transferable, I propose a model of requisite proficiencies for a career as a musician.

Sub-question 1: What are the Characteristics of Music Careers?

The following analysis outlines the characteristics of the music careers as reported by the participants in this study.

A pervasive and lifelong sense of musical identity:

A passion for music was the main intrinsic driver for musicians to develop themselves and their talent towards working in the music industry. This passion translated to a sense of musical identity which was evident while working as a musician and also in non-music related work. Finding one’s specialist niche as a musician or a sense of self as an artist was a significant concern for the participants in this study. Many who worked substantial parts of their portfolios as music teachers thought of themselves as a musician and, a teacher of music as a natural extension of being a musician. Musicians experienced identity disorientation at times when their work did not turn out as expected or they were forced to consider work in non-music roles.

Portfolio careers and self-employment:

Most musicians were sole traders who operated within a portfolio of diverse activities comprising one-off gigs, collaborations and projects. Only three per cent of the participants claimed they were earning income from a salaried position. Musicians self-managed their portfolios requiring a wide range of both music and music industry-related knowledge and skills.

Specialist musical expertise:

Musicians developed musical expertise from a very early age and specialised by developing a high level of proficiency on a particular instrument or voice, or within a particular genre, or in one of the disciplinary streams of performance, composition or

179

production. Once graduated and as their career progressed, participants reported that they broadened their scope of music disciplinary knowledge and skills to other instruments, genres and disciplinary streams as well as in other creative disciplines.

Diversity in creative work:

There is evidence that work in the music industry is extraordinarily varied, ephemeral, spontaneous and uniquely constructed around individuals. No two musicians had the same mix in their portfolios. Musicians worked in cultural production roles variously as performers, singer/songwriters, composers, tribute artists, entertainers, instrumentalists, vocalists, music producers, media artists, DJs and recording artists. Other creative roles included teaching in instrumental or vocal tuition and classroom music teaching. Musicians had a high level of self-determination in their work schedules and the directions and projects they chose to pursue.

Work in a changing industry:

The industry has experienced major changes in the way it operates in the past 20 years. The challenge for musicians was to evolve and adapt to change through taking initiative, continually upgrading knowledge and skills and being open and proactive innovators.

Music teaching is a significant part of the music portfolio:

Music teaching was the most frequently reported music-related activity and the one that participants spent the most time on. In addition to income from teaching—which was important to all—the rewards of teaching included the satisfaction of being creative through teaching, a sense of giving back to society, and the sharing of the love of music. Musicians regarded music teaching as a natural extension of their creative work and themselves as musicians. The findings of this research demonstrated that teaching was an integral and creative component of the music portfolio.

The need for a range of knowledge and skills in music industry know-how:

The participants reported that they had to develop a range of knowledge and skills in small business management, music industry and promotions. These were particularly evident in the earlier part of their careers when they could least afford to employ

180

others to assist. Many participants reported that music industry know-how had not been adequately covered in their tertiary education courses. Others reported that they were self-motivated to learn the themselves once out in the industry.

The balance between creative work and the self-management of careers:

Most musicians operated in the ‘do it yourself’ (DIY) music industry model. The repercussions of the DIY model meant that the musician must self-manage a diverse range of administrative and music business activities. Musicians struggled with balancing their time between creative work and self-managing their careers.

The importance of personal attributes and professional behaviours:

Musicians needed to develop attributes such as self-reliance, confidence, creative problem-solving, resilience and entrepreneurship. Finding or creating work for themselves required musicians to be strategic, entrepreneurial and to learn new skills in other disciplines. Rather than relying on others to provide services, they found that initiating a new venture themselves was a cost-effective way of operating in their portfolio. Releasing their own music online and targeting audiences and promoters were also imperative. They also needed to develop personal resilience to be able to persevere if ventures were unsuccessful.

Low incomes:

A major difficulty of the music portfolio career was earning sufficient and regular income. A consequence of self-employment was that musicians did not have the benefit of employer-paid holidays, sick leave and superannuation that workers within structured workplaces received. There were periods of underemployment, work that was underpaid or unpaid and high competition for work. The lack of industry structure for work hours and minimum pay meant that musicians were often exploited. The lack of genuine work experience or apprenticeship-type experience meant that their work was often de-valued especially when they were starting out.

Long work hours:

Participants worked long hours with 26% working more than 52 hours per week and a total of 53% working more than 40 hours per week. Long hours were often due to the

181

requirement of unpaid time in preparation for a gig (rehearsals, travel, logistics of equipment and sound-checks) and the combination of music-related and non-music related work.

Supplementary non-music work:

Many supplemented their low music-related income with work in non-music jobs to gain the flexibility the needed for their creative work. Sometimes musicians’ non- music work in other industries utilised creative skills developed through their work as musicians.

Inconvenient lifestyles:

Unsociable work hours, the necessity of travel and being away from home for periods were consequences of working as a musician. Partners, travel and planning for were all significant issues for musicians. Health was an issue for some as was a work-life balance.

The need for social networks:

Developing networks with other musicians with whom they could collaborate was essential for musicians as sole traders. Friendships and musical collaborations formed while studying tertiary music were invaluable sources of contacts. Musicians were discriminating about the networks they formed. Those whom they worked with musically were often contacts of contacts and not always their immediate friends. Online networks were essential for participants in this study, for their own professional needs and also for communicating with their audiences.

Sub-question 2: What are the Graduate Outcomes of Tertiary Music Courses from Different Provider Types?

For the first time, this study surveyed those who had studied at both universities and non-universities for their tertiary music education in Victoria. Findings about the graduate outcomes of the tertiary music courses from different provider-types are as follows:

Graduate outcomes from the universities:

Graduates indicated that instrumental tuition, performance and stagecraft formed a

182

central focus of their study which they valued highly. They did not report, however, the development of an individual musical identity. Rather, there was more development of precise instrumental technique and authentic musical rendition of the music of the masters. Music academic studies were also reported as strong. Formal learning aimed at the development of music employability such as music industry knowledge and skills was largely absent. Comments from interviewees and from the online survey were strongly critical of the fact that one could study the whole music degree without any specific preparation for their working life as a musician. Graduates indicated that they would strongly favour the inclusion of basic skills in small business, promotions and approaches to teaching pedagogy as these skills were needed once they started in their music careers. Overall, university graduates were less satisfied with their music careers meeting their original expectations than those from the other provider types.

Graduate outcomes from the SAC:

Graduates reported that the SAC was elite and very focused on the development of their individual voice as musicians. As such, the development of musical identity was a strong focus of the learning. Much of this learning was through ensemble classes. While instrumental technique and musicianship were strong, graduates reported that the culture was also very competitive. Graduates recognised the development of confidence in their own abilities through their course and valued the encouragement given to be out in the music industry performing or observing as much as they could. Formal attention to the development of vocational music industry knowledge and skills such as small business skills and promotions was largely absent from the SAC. SAC graduates felt that while they did not formally encounter learning for working in the industry, they did encounter incidental learnings from their instrumental tutors and mentors.

Graduate outcomes from the NUHEPs:

While the learning of music disciplinary expertise and underpinning knowledge was central to their study, graduates from NUHEPs also reported a high emphasis on applied practical skills in music technology, aural training and music theory. Through ensemble programs and simulated gig experiences they learned the importance of

183

being adaptable and flexible as well as other attributes such as how to get along with their fellow musicians. NUHEP graduates also experienced formal learning in the workings of the music industry, the basics of small business skills, promotions and for more recent graduates, social media networking. They highlighted the important resource that former study colleagues provided in finding band members or people to collaborate on projects following their studies. Some graduates expressed concern that the focus on preparing music for commercial outcomes sometimes did not allow enough space for the development of their own musical persona and identity.

Graduate outcomes from VET courses:

VET graduate comments reflected the mission and stated objectives of competency- based learning of qualifications from the National Music Training Package. They valued the focus on music industry knowledge and practical application of their courses. For those who had progressed into degree programs, the foundational skills of their earlier VET courses provided them with the fundamentals and set them up well for deeper-level studies. VET music qualifications were valued as pathways for preparing for Bachelor degree study. Twenty-five per cent of those who had studied music degrees had completed an earlier VET qualification. Around a third of those who had studied at NUHEPs had completed their earlier pathway course and their degree at the same institution. Graduates particularly appreciated the nurturing environment that was facilitated by their teachers. Graduates spoke of the camaraderie evident in VET courses and that this was a valuable resource for networking and future band collaborations.

Sub-Question 3: How Do Musicians Sustain Their Careers?

Longevity in a music career requires deliberate strategies, ongoing professional learning, positive feedback and engagement in effective social networks. Planning for sustainability and the future of careers invariably involves professional development learning, both formal and informal.

Strategies and planning:

Interviewees reported that as they progressed into their careers, they needed to form strategies and plan for the future sustainability of their careers. These plans included

184

innovative ideas for collaborative and creative pursuits, further learning and upskilling, and making provision for their financial security.

Continuous learning and development:

Findings indicated that tertiary music education should be viewed as part of a continuum of learning in music. A high percentage of the participants reported the necessity for the ongoing development of their musical expertise. An even higher percentage of participants in this study reported that they needed to develop their music industry know-how, particularly in the areas of small business management and promotions.

Formal learning:

Fifty-one per cent of participants had progressed to formal post-graduate study with an even split between music-related and education qualifications. The imperative behind such study was to increase opportunities for employment.

Informal learning:

Ninety-one per cent of participants indicated that friends, peers and contacts were critical sources of information and advice on upskilling for musicians once they were working in the music industry. They also referred to self-help methods particularly through YouTube and online forums.

The role of institutions:

While only 8% indicated that they had engaged with their former institution for professional development, 49% of participants indicated that they would appreciate their former tertiary education provider offering opportunities for professional development. Indicating a preference for short courses rather than longer courses, a wide variety of topics were proposed for upskilling. Topics included: music industry, online networking and marketing, instrumental technique, teaching and technology.

185

Requisite Proficiencies for a Career as a Musician

Analysis of the three research sub-questions has identified many facets of knowledge and skills required to first establish and then sustain a music career. To provide a means for appraising how tertiary music education addresses these essential requirements, I needed to categorise them into a workable model. Drawing inspiration from past studies, I have synthesised my findings into five broad categories of proficiencies. These are (a) musical expertise, (b) identity as a musician, (c) music industry know-how, (d) self-efficacy attributes and, (e) relational communication.

A diagrammatic form of a conceptual model arising from this study is shown in Figure 8.1. While the five proficiencies are identified as separate constructs in this model, in reality, they are interlinked.

Figure 8.1 Model of requisite proficiencies for a musician's career

Musical Expertise:

The musical expertise proficiency comprises the music discipline of a specialisation for example; playing jazz guitar, classical violin, songwriting, composing for film or music production of recordings. Underpinning knowledge is essential to authentic realisation of music. As musicians launch into their careers, the continuous

186

development of musical expertise and broadening of their musical skill-base becomes imperative.

Identity as musician:

The musician’s identity or sense of self as a unique artist is closely allied to musical expertise. Specialisation drives the creation of the musician’s niche and identity. However, versatility in identity for different roles is also necessary, especially as musical expertise broadens.

Music industry know-how:

Music industry know-how is not intuitive and must be learned for musicians to operate effectively in a portfolio career. Self-management of a career, small business skills, knowledge of how the industry operates and openness to being multi- disciplinary are all essential aspects of music industry know-how.

Self-efficacy attributes:

Self-efficacy is a proficiency that all musicians need for successful careers. Belief in one’s ability to perform as a musician in a specialisation relies on a realistic knowledge of one’s skills and a proactive approach towards . It involves the employment of positive traits and attitudes towards current and prospective work and those with whom they work. Self-efficacy in musicians is needed to be outward looking, entrepreneurial, agentic, open to learning and resilient in solving issues when faced with difficulties.

Relational communication:

The ability to develop networks and maintain effective communications with clients, performance partners and audiences is critical for a musician.

187

The Central Question: How Does Tertiary Music Education Contribute to Musicians’ Careers?

The findings show that tertiary music education from all providers was a significant intervention in the continuum of learning for a musician’s career. There was evidence that pedagogies and course emphases from different tertiary music providers in Victoria contributed in different ways towards musicians’ careers. In answering the central research question, I refer to the five key proficiencies shown in in Figure 8.1.

Musical expertise:

All providers of tertiary music education played a fundamental role in the development of musical expertise, knowledge and skills. The ongoing needs for continuous development and expansion of musical expertise were highlighted by all participants, and there was greater potential for the role of institutions in facilitating this for alumni.

Identity as musician:

This study demonstrated that only some graduates experienced opportunities to develop their sense of self as a distinctive artist. The potential for developing identity through tertiary music education was high and yet, not realised in all instances.

Music Industry Know-How:

Tertiary music education is well situated to provide opportunities to develop necessary vocational skills for surviving in a portfolio career. This proficiency needs much further development and innovative curriculum design to be realised to its fullest potential.

Self-Efficacy Attributes:

While tertiary music education did provide some opportunities for the development of self-efficacy attributes, there was a great deal more potential for this proficiency to be incorporated into learning tasks. It is recognised that these attributes are also influenced and developed through external experiences.

188

Relational communication:

The tertiary music education experience creates opportunities for developing networks with musicians, peers, contacts and mentors, and the development of interpersonal skills and communication. There was little reference to the development of audience networks being covered in tertiary courses which is becoming essential for musicians. There is also the potential for extension of these learnings into the virtual realm through social media and media connections.

Some participants in this study expressed concern that including vocational knowledge and skills in degree programs might adversely affect other subjects and priorities. Exemplars of innovative programs designed to incorporate relevant employability proficiencies such as those outlined in Chapter 3 provide inspiration for creative curriculum design to arm graduates with the optimal foundation for starting out in their careers without adversely affecting other curricular priorities.

It should be noted that students entering tertiary music courses possess different levels of knowledge and skills. Some may be highly proficient in their instruments while others may already be working in the industry. Hence, each will have different needs from tertiary music education. For 61% of participants in this study, a primary reason why they chose their particular tertiary course was that the course suited their needs. Despite the need for improvements to tertiary music curriculum and pedagogy at all providers, it is important that differences in emphases be retained so that individuals can make discerning choices when they take up their tertiary studies.

One of the critical findings of this research was that an overall rating for the effectiveness of courses in contributing to careers showed similar ratings between different provider types. This finding suggests that although the graduates had experienced different learning and pedagogical priorities at their different provider types, the courses had met their needs to a similar extent. Exploring the reasons for such a result warrants further investigation and is recommended as an avenue for further research. The rating level of effectiveness of courses ranged between 2.9 – 3.3 out of 5 showing that there is room for improvement for all providers. This finding suggests that if all providers were to achieve higher levels of learning across the five key proficiencies, one might expect the courses to be rated higher in their

189

effectiveness in contributing to careers.

Recommendations

Recommendations from this research are:

1. The results of this study be used to inform curricular design in tertiary music education courses. In particular, consideration be given to all five key proficiencies contained in the model in Figure 8.1.

While providers may still have distinctive emphases according to their particular mission and approach, this research suggests that by ensuring that all five areas are incorporated in the mandated curriculum, musicians will be better prepared for starting out in their careers. The findings from this study support innovative curriculum design to incorporate or embed music industry know-how which was identified as a significant gap for two of the three provider types.

2. Pathway qualifications (such as VET qualifications) deserve greater promotion and recognition.

3. All providers should investigate ways of further engaging alumni especially with the offering of short-term topics of interest for professional development and upskilling.

4. This study has highlighted the discrepancy in government financial support for music degree students at different providers in Victoria (Chapter 3, Section 3.2.3). This appears to be inequitable given this study has shown that graduates from different providers rated their courses similarly in terms of the contribution to their careers. If Australian government policy is to encourage more engagement in higher education with the aim of raising the education level of the Australian population, government funding should be shared more equitably between all students of tertiary degree education.

190

Limitations

The methodological limitations of the study (as outlined in Chapter 4) are as follows:

1. This study was limited by the lack of access to direct email contact with alumni. Consequently, the study could not directly target institutions for recruitment of participants.

2. As the online survey recruitment design utilised online snowball sampling, it was a non-probability sample, and therfore results could not be truly representative. Consequently, the findings cannot be generalised but can be regarded as transferable in similar situations.

3. A number of the survey questions could have reaped richer data with the avoidance of open-ended numerical ranges.

4. Using the skip logic function in the online survey was intended to streamline participants to relevant questions. In hindsight, the assumption behind the decision to use the skip logic function in one instance limited the data collected.

5. A limitation to gaining a consistent picture of work activities for participants was the use of the term employment rather than work. This may have contributed to some confusion about reporting time committed to paid and unpaid work.

Directions for Further Research

Arising from the data the following issues are identified as areas for further research:

1. Investigate how music students’ expectations and goals at the start of their tertiary study compare with their experience once working in the music industry.

2. Explore further the factors behind the effectiveness rating of degree courses in contributing to music careers.

3. Investigate initiatives to build projects into the curriculum that will effectively embed the learning of music industry know-how and require students to develop self-efficacy attributes.

191

4. Explore opportunities for provision of post-study professional development as specific short-term learning topics.

Conclusion

My journey as a tertiary music educator working in a NUHEP prompted my interest in this research. The extant literature had explored career outcomes for graduates from the traditional universities or conservatoires with a focus on classical genres. There had been little research on those who had studied at NUHEPs or those who had studied in contemporary, popular, jazz, or applied specialisations. This gap in the literature formed a clear imperative for this research.

For the first time, this research has examined how the diverse approaches, strengths and weaknesses of tertiary music courses from different providers have contributed to musicians’ careers. This research has shown that there are five areas of proficiency that are critical for musicians’ careers. The increasingly competitive and precarious working environment of the professional musician requires comprehensive learning aimed at these five proficiencies. The undergraduate qualification is but a point— albeit a significant intervention—on the continuum of learning for musicians. This research has identified the potential for a greater role for tertiary music institutions in providing professional development beyond graduation.

This research is important because it provides a better understanding of how the music courses from different providers address the five proficiencies in contributing to musicians’ careers. With creative curricular reform, there is much potential for all providers to better prepare musicians for rewarding and sustainable careers.

192

References

Austrade. (2018). Creative industries. Retrieved from https://www.austrade.gov.au/International/Buy/Australian-industry- capabilities/Creative-Industries Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2017). 6306.0 Employee earnings and hours, Australia, May 2016. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/6306.0/ Australian Government Department of Education and Training. (2017). Developing employability. Retrieved from https://developingemployability.edu.au/ Australian Government Fair Work Ombudsman. Minimum , Retrieved from https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-we-will-help/templates-and-guides/fact- sheets/minimum-workplace-entitlements/maximum-weekly-hours Australian Qualifications Framework Council. (2013). Australian qualifications framework. Retrieved from www.aqf.edu.au. Backes-Gellner, U., & Geel, R. (2014). A comparison of career success between graduates of vocational and academic tertiary education. Oxford Review of Education, 40(2), 266-291. doi:10.1080/03054985.2014.889602 Baltes, B. B., & Dickson, M. W. (2001). Using life-span models in Industrial- Organizational Psychology: The theory of selective optimization with compensation. Applied Developmental Science, 5(1), 51-62. Bartleet, B.-L., Bennett, D., Bridgstock, R., Draper, P., Harrison, S., & Schippers, H. (2012). Preparing for portfolio careers in Australian music: Setting a research agenda. Australian Journal of Music Education,(1), 32-41. Bartlett, I., & Tolmie, D. (2018). What are you doing the rest of your life? A profile of jazz/contemporary voice graduates. International Journal of Music Education, 36(2), 197-216. doi:10.1177/0255761417714606 Baruch, Y. (2014). The development and validation of a measure for protean career orientation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(19), 2702-2723. doi:10.1080/09585192.2014.896389 Beeching, A. M. (2010). Career development and entrepreneurship across the curriculum: best practice in professional development programs in undergraduate music programs. Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician, Shanghai. Retrieved from https://www.isme.org/other-publications/ceprom-proceedings-2010 Bennett, D. (2008). Portfolio careers and the conservatoire. In D. Bennett & M. Hannan (Eds.), Inside, outside, downside up: Conservatoire training and musicians' work (pp. 61-72). Perth: Black Swan Press. Bennett, D. (2012a). Life in the real world: How to make music graduates employable. Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing LLC. Bennett, D. (2012b). Staying afloat: Skills, attributes and passion. In D. Bennett (Ed.), Life in the real world: How to make music graduates employable (pp. 63-77). Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing, LLC. Bennett, D. (2014). The role of career creativities in developing identity and becoming expert selves. In P. Burnard (Ed.), Developing creativities in higher music education: International perspectives and practices. London, UK: .

193

Bennett, D. (2016). Developing employability in higher education music. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 15(3-4), 386-395. Bennett, D. (2019). Higher music education and the need to educate the whole musician: Musicians' work in early-, mid- and late-career. Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician (CEPROM), Almaty, Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.isme.org/other- publications/proceedings-ismes-ceprom-commission-2018 Bennett, D., & Bridgstock, R. (2015). The urgent need for career preview: Student expectations and graduate realities in music and dance. International Journal of Music Education, 33(3), 263-277. Bennett, D., & Burnard, P. (2016). Human capital career creativities for creative industries work: Lessons underpinned by Bourdieu’s tools for thinking. In R. Comunian & A. Gilmore (Eds.), Higher education and the creative economy: Beyond the campus (pp. 123-142). London: Routledge, London. Bennett, D., Coffey, J., Fitzgerald, S., Petocz, P., & Rainnie, A. (2014). Looking inside the portfolio to understand the work of creative workers: A study of creatives in Perth. In G. B. Hearn, R.; Goldsmith, B.; Rodgers, J.; (Ed.), Creative work beyond the creative industries: innovation, employment and education (pp. 158-172). Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. doi:https://doi.org/10.4337/9781782545705 Bennett, D., Lancaster, H., & O'Hara, B. (2013). Easy access? Finding one's way from secondary to post-secondary music education and training. E-journal of Studies in Music Education, 9(2). Retrieved from http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au/R?func=dbin-jump-full&local_base=gen01- era02&object_id=191879 Bennett, D., & Richardson, S. (2016). What do we know about the work of performing arts graduates? Loud Mouth: The Music Trust E-zine. Retrieved from http://musictrust.com.au/loudmouth/what-do-we-know-about-the-work- of-performing-arts-graduates/ Bennett, D., Richardson, S., Mahat, M., Coates, H., MacKinnon, P., & Schmidt, L. (2015). Navigating uncertainty and complexity: Higher education and the dilemma of employability. Paper presented at the Higher Education Society of Australasia Annual Conference: Learning for life and work in a complex world, Melbourne. Bosch, G., & Charest, J. (2008). Vocational training and the labour market in liberal and coordinated economies. Industrial Relations Journal, 39 (5), 428-447. Bradley, D., Noonan, P., Nugent, H., & Scales, B. (2008). Review of Australian higher education. Canberra: Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. Bresler, L. (2014). Teaching qualitative research experientially and aesthetically. In C. M. Conway (Ed.), Tne Oxford handbook of qualitative research in American music education, (pp. 608-636). New York: USA: Oxford University Press. Bridgstock, R. (2005). Australian artists, starving and well-nourished: What can we learn from the prototypical protean career? Australian Journal of Career Development (ACER Press), 14(3), 40-48. Bridgstock, R. (2011). Skills for creative industries graduate success. Education + Training, 53(1), 9-26. doi:10.1108/00400911111102333

194

Bridgstock, R. (2013). Not a dirty word: Arts entrepreneurship and higher education. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, 12(2), 122-137. Bridgstock, R. (2015, November). The growing concerns about employability and the value of undertaking tertiary education. Paper presented at the Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education, 2015 Tertiary Education Public Seminars, Melbourne. Bridgstock, R., & Cunningham, S. (2016). Creative labour and graduate outcomes: implications for higher education and cultural policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy,(1), 10. doi:10.1080/10286632.2015.1101086 Brown, J. E. (2016). Enhancing graduate employability through community engagement projects: A case study of leadership in the performing arts. Paper presented at The Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician (CEPROM), Glasgow, Scotland. Retrieved from https://www.isme.org/other- publications/ceprom-proceedings-2016 Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods (4th ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Burland, K., & Davidson, J. W. (2004). Tracing a musical life transition. In J. W. Davidson (Ed.), The music practitioner: Research for the music performer, teacher and listener. Aldershot: Ashgate. Carruthers, G. (2019). Career stages and personal agency: Negotiating a lifespan in music. Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician (CEPROM), Almaty, Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.isme.org/other-publications/proceedings-ismes-ceprom- commission-2018 Clausen, J. A. (1995). Gender, contexts and turning points in adults' lives. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder, Jr., & K. Luscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 365-389). Washington, DC: APA Press. Comunian, R., Faggian, A., & Jewell, S. (2014). Exploring music careers: Music graduates and early career trajectories in the UK. In N. Crossley, M. Siobhan, & P. Widdop (Eds.), Social Networks and Music Worlds (Vol. 126, pp. 165- 188). Oxfordshire: Routledge. Cook, H. (2015, 18 August). Training college contracts terminated amid fraud revelations. The Age, p. 11. Creative Skillset. (2010). 2010 Creative media workforce survey. Retrieved from http://creativeskillset.org/assets/0000/6239/Skillset_Creative_Media_Workfor ce_Survey_2010.pdf Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Cuervo, H., & Wyn, J. (2011). Rethinking youth transitions in Australia: A historical and multidimensional approach. Youth Research Centre, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne. Cunningham, S. (2011). Developments in measuring the 'creative' workforce. Cultural Trends, 20(1), 25-40. doi:10.1080/09548963.2011.540810

195

Cunningham, S. (2014). Creative labour and its discontents: a reappraisal. In G. Hearn, R. Bridgstock, B. Goldsmith, & J. Rodgers (Eds.), Creative work beyond the creative industries: Innovation, employment and education (pp. 25-46). Cheltenham:U.K.: Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd. Daniel, R. (2013). Enterprise learning in Australasian tertiary music education: The status quo. In P. Tschmuk, P. L. Pearce, & S. Campbell (Eds.), Music Business & the : The Australasian case (pp. 215-228). Berlin, Germany: Springer. Daniel, R., & Daniel, L. (2015). Success in the creative industries: The push for enterprising and entrepreneurial skills. Journal of Australian Studies, 39(3), 411-424. doi:10.1080/14443058.2015.1046896 De Vaus, D. A. (2002). Surveys in social research (5th ed.). St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). The handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In Strategies of qualitative inquiry (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Dobrow, S. R. (2013). Dynamics of calling: A longitudinal study of musicians. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(4), 431-452. doi:10.1002/job.1808 Edwards, D., & Radloff, A. (2013). Higher education enrolment growth: Exploring recent change by provider type. ACPET Journal for Private Higher Education, 2(2), 11. Elder, G. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69(1), 1-12. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), (2017). People, machines, robots and skills, Retrieved from http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publicationsandresources/publications- 9121?NL=72 Fehring, H., & Herring, K. (2013). The Working Lives project: A window into Australian education and workforce participation. Journal of Education and Work, 26 (5), 494-513. Fetters, M. D., Curry, L. A., & Creswell, J. W. (2013). Achieving integration in mixed methods designs: Principles and practices. Health Services Research, 48 (6pt2), 2134-2156. doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12117 Fowler, C. (2017). The boundaries and connections between the VET and higher education sectors: "Confused, Contested and Collaborative" Adelaide, S.A.: National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). Freer, P. K., & Bennett, D. (2012). Developing musical and educational identities in university music students. Music Education Research, 14(3), 265-284. doi:10.1080/14613808.2012.712507 Gillis, J. R. (2008). Life course and transitions to adulthood. Encyclopedia of children and childhood in history and society. Retrieved from http://www.faqs.org/childhood/Ke-Me/Life-Course-and-Transitions-to- Adulthood.html Gilmore, A., & Comunian, R. (2016). Beyond the campus: higher education, cultural policy and the creative economy. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 22(1), 1-9. doi:10.1080/10286632.2015.1101089

196

Goedegebuure, L., Schubert, R., & Bentley, P. (2017). Institutional differentiation in Australian postsecondary education: Hit and miss. In P. G. Altbach, L. Reisberg, & H. d. Wit (Eds.), Responding to massification: Differentiation in postsecondary education worldwide (Vol. 37). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Goldsmith, B., & Bridgstock, R. (2015). Embedded creative workers and creative work in education. Journal of Education and Work, 28(4), 369-387. Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn. [electronic resource]: A way ahead for music education. In Ashgate popular and folk music series. Retrieved from https://ezp.lib.unimelb.edu.au/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.as px?direct=true&db=cat00006a&AN=melb.b5518553&site=eds- live&scope=site Greene, J. C. (2008). Is mixed methods social inquiry a distinctive methodology? Journal of Mixed Methods Research,(1), 7-22. Greene, J. C., Kreider, H., & Mayer, E. (2005). Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in social inquiry. In B. Somekh & C. Lewin (Eds.), Research methods in the social (pp. 274-282). London: Sage Publications Inc. Greene, M. (2005). A constructivist perspective on teaching and learning in the arts. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (2nd ed.). New York Teachers College Press. Hall, P. A., & Soskice, D. (2001). An introduction to . In Varieties of Capitalism: The institutional foundations of comparative advantage. Oxford: Oxford Press. Hannan, M. (2012). Reflections on the protean music career. In D. Bennett (Ed.), Life in the real world: How to make music graduates employable (pp. 127-142). Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing, LLC. Haukka, S. (2011). Education-to-work transitions of aspiring creatives. Cultural Trends, 20 (1), 41-64. doi:10.1080/09548963.2011.540813 Henderson, A., & Trede, F. (2017). Strengthening attainment of student learning outcomes during work-integrated learning: A collaborative governance framework across academia, industry and students. Asia-Pacific Journal of Education, 18(1), 67-80. Hennekam, S. (2017). Dealing with multiple incompatible work-related identities: The case of artists. Personnel Review, 46(5), 970-987. Hennekam, S., & Bennett, D. (2016). Involuntary career transition and identity within the artist population. Personnel Review, 45(6), 1114-1131. doi:10.1108/PR- 01-2015-0020 Hennekam, S., & Bennett, D. (2017). Creative industries work across multiple contexts: Common themes and challenges. Personnel Review, 46(1), 68-85. doi:10.1108/PR-08-2015-0220 Higgs, P. L., Cunningham, S. D., & Pagan, J. D. (2007). Australia’s creative economy: Definitions of the segments and sectors. Brisbane: ARC Centre of Excellence for Creative Industries & Innovation (CCI) Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/0008242/>. Hillman, J. (2015). A comparative review of current post-secondary music education and training courses offered in Victoria. Unpublished manuscript. Hillman, J. (2017). United Voices? Exploring similarities and differences in tertiary music programs in Victoria. Paper presented at the ASME XXI Uniting Voices, Melbourne, Australia.

197

Hillman, J. (2019). The role of tertiary music education in creating and sustaining a lifelong career in music. Paper presented at the Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician (CEPROM), Almaty, Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.isme.org/other-publications/proceedings-ismes-ceprom- commission-2018 Hughes, D., Evans, M., Morrow, G., & Keith, S. (2016). The new music industries: Disruption and discovery. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Hughes, D., Keith, S., Morrow, G., Evans, M., & Crowdy, D. (2013). What constitutes artist success in the Australian music industries? International Journal of Music Business Research, 2, 61-80. Iannelli, C., & Raffe, D. (2007). Vocational upper-secondary education and the Transition from school. European Sociological Review, 23(1), 49-63. IBSA. (2014). Cultural & creative industries environment scan 2014. Retrieved from https://www.ibsa.org.au/sites/default/files/media/IBSA_04%20Cultural%20& %20Creative%20Escan_WEB_FA.pdf Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A., J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1(2), 112-133. Jones, A. (2018). Vocational education for the twenty-first century. Retrieved from Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education: https://melbourne- cshe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/2845775/Final-Anne-Jones- paper1.pdf Juuti, S., & Littleton, K. (2012). Tracing the transition from study to a contemporary creative working life: The trajectories of professional musicians. Vocations and Learning, 5(1), 5-21. doi:10.1007/s12186-011-9062-9 Kayam, O., & Hirsch, T. (2012). Using social media networks to conduct questionnaire based research in social studies case study: Family language policy. Journal of Sociological Research, 3(2), 57-67. doi:10.5296/jsr.v3i2.2176 King, C., & James, R. (2013). Creating a demand-driven system. In S. Marginson (Ed.), Tertiary education policy in Australia (pp. 5-13). Melbourne: Centre for the Study of Higher Education, The University of Melbourne. Larkins, F. P. (2014). Australian higher education enrolments since 2009 student demand-driven policy reforms. Retrieved from L.H. Martin Institute, The University of Melbourne: http://www.lhmartininstitute.edu.au/userfiles/files/Blog/Aus_HE_Policy_Anal ysis_FLarkins_Aug2015.pdf Letts, R. (2013). Survey of successful contemporary musicians, music in Australia knowledge base. Retrieved 23 April 2015 http://musicinaustralia.org.au/index.php?title=Survey_of_Successful_Contem porary_Musicians Martin, B. (2007). Skill acquisition and use across the life course: Current trends, future prospects. Adelaide, SA: NCVER. Melbourne Conservatorium of Music. IgniteLab career development. Retrieved from http://mcm.unimelb.edu.au/study/career-development Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.

198

Mietzner, D., & Kamprath, M. (2013). A competence portfolio for professionals in the creative industries. Creativity & Innovation Management, 22(3), 280-294. doi:10.1111/caim.12026 Minors, H. J., Burnard, P., Wiffen, C., Shihabi, Z., & van der Walt, J. S. (2017). Mapping trends and framing issues in higher music education: Changing minds/changing practices. London Review of Education, 15(3), 457-473. Monkhouse, H. (2015). Bachelor of music: Purpose, desires and requirements. In D. Lebler, G. Carey, & S. Harrison, D; (Eds.), Assessment in music education: From policy to practice. Series: Landscapes: The arts, aesthetics, and education, No. 16 (pp. 71-86). Netherlands: Cham: Springer. Moodie, G. (2012). The role of educational institutions in fostering vocations. Retrieved from https://www.ncver.edu.au/research-and- statistics/publications/all-publications/the-role-of-educational-institutions-in- fostering-vocations Moodie, G. (2016). Universities, disruptive technologies, and continuity in higher education: The impact of information revolutions. New York: US: Palgrave Macmillan. Moodie, G., Fredman, N., Bexley, E., & Wheelahan, L. (2013). Vocational education's variable links to vocations. Adelaide, SA: NCVER. Music Australia. (2016). Music roundtable music educator's forum. Retrieved from http://musicaustralia.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/National- Contemporary-Music-Plan-Sept-2016-final.pdf Nair, C. S., Bennett, L., & Shah, M. (2012). The student experience in private higher education in Australia. ACPET Journal for Private Higher Education, 1(2), 24. Noone, T. (2017). Why musicians are the canaries in the mine. Eureka Street, 27(16). Retrieved from https://www.eurekastreet.com.au/article.aspx?aeid=52933 Onwuegbuzie, A., J., & Leech, N., L. (2006). Linking research questions to mixed methods data analysis procedures. The qualitative report, 11 (September), 478-498. Parker, S. L. (2015). Results of the Musicians' Well-being Survey: Creative realities for music professionals in Australia. Retrieved from School of Psychology, Australia: https://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~uqspark8/ResultsUQMusicianWellbeingStudy.p df Parkes, K. A., & Jones, B. D. (2011). Students’ motivations for considering a career in music performance. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 29(2), 20-28. doi:10.1177/8755123310397005 Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, California Sage Publications. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Purposeful sampling. In Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed., pp. 230-243). London, New York: Sage. Perkins, R. (2012). Rethinking 'Career' for music students: Identity and vision. In D. Bennett (Ed.), Life in the real world: How to make music graduates employable (pp. 11-25). Champaign, Illinois: Common Ground Publishing LLC. Perkins, R. (2013). Learning cultures and the conservatoire: An ethnographically- informed case study. Music Education Research, 15(2), 196-213.

199

PwC’s Skills for Australia. (2018). Training packages. Retrieved from https://www.skillsforaustralia.com/ Reid, A., & Bennett, D. (2014). Becoming and being a musician: The role of creativity in students’ learning and . Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician, Brazil. https://www.isme.org/other-publications/2014-ceprom-proceedings Rowley, J., Bennett, D., & Reid, A. (2017). Leadership as a core creativity for musician identity. Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician, St. Andrew's University, Scotland. https://www.isme.org/other-publications/ceprom-proceedings-2016 Schubert, R., Goedegebuure, L., & Meek, L. (2018). Revisioning the system: A critical analysis and the way forward. Retrieved from Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education: https://melbourne- cshe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/2845780/Revisioning-the- system-310718-Final-004.pdf Schwandt, T. A., Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (2007). Judging interpretations: But is it rigorous? Trustworthiness and authenticity in naturalistic evaluation. New Directions for Evaluation (114), 11-25. doi:10.1002/ev.223 Silsbury, E. (1988). Tertiary music education in Australia. British Journal of Music Education, 5(2), 173-180. Skills for Australia and the Culture and Related Industries Industry Reference Committee. (2017). Forecast and proposed schedule of work: Culture and related industries. Price Waterhouse Cooper Retrieved from https://s3-ap- southeast-2.amazonaws.com/pwcau.prod.s4aprod.assets/wp- content/uploads/20170718143405/20170424-Culture-and-Related-Industries- Industry-Skills-Forecast-and-Proposed-Schedule-of-Work-v2.1.pdf. Smilde, R. (2008). Lifelong learners in music; Research into musicians' biographical learning. International Journal of Community Music, 1(2), 243-252. Smilde, R. (2009). Musicians as lifelong learners: Discovery through biography. Delft: Eburion Academic Publishers. Smith, G. D. (2013). Seeking “success” in popular music. Music Education Research International, 6, 26-37. Sue, V. M., & Ritter, L. A. (2012). Conducting online surveys (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. doi:10.4135/9781506335186 Thomson, K. (2013). Roles, revenue, and responsibilities: The changing nature of being a working musician. Work and Occupations, 40(4), 514-525. doi:10.1177/0730888413504208 Thornton, M. (2015). Introduction: The retreat from the critical. In M. Thornton (Ed.), Through a glass darkly: The social sciences look at the neoliberal university. Canberra: ACT: ANU E Press. Throsby, D., & Hollister, V. (2003). Don’t give up your day job: An economic study of professional artists in Australia. Retrieved from www.australiacouncil.gov.au/artistcareers Throsby, D., & Peteskaya, K. (2017). Making art work: An economic study of professional artists in Australia. Retrieved from www.australiacouncil.gov.au/artistcareers Throsby, D., & Zednik, A. (2010). Do you really expect to get paid? An economic study of professional artists in Australia. Retrieved from www.australiacouncil.gov.au/artistcareers

200

Throsby, D., & Zednik, A. (2011). Multiple job-holding and artistic careers: Some empirical evidence. Cultural Trends, 20(1), 9-24. doi:10.1080/09548963.2011.540809 Tolmie, D. (2014). Identifying, analysing and aligning "the dream" with vocational preparation: an investigation into first-year music undergraduate career aspirations and motivations. Paper presented at the ISME Commission for the Education of the Professional Musician, Brazil. https://www.isme.org/other- publications/2014-ceprom-proceedings Tolmie, D., & Nulty, D. D. (2015). Aligning student attitudes, assessment, and curriculum design: A case study using the 'my life as a musician' vocational preparation strand. In D. Lebler, G. Carey, & D. S. Harrison (Eds.), Assessment in music education: From policy to practice. (pp. 279-292). Cham: Springer. Tomlinson, M. (2017). Forms of graduate capital and their relationship to graduate employability. Education & Training, 59(4), 338-352. UNESCO. (2018). What do we mean by the cultural and creative industries? Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/creativity/sites/creativity/files/digital- library/What%20Do%20We%20Mean%20by%20CCI.PDF Walsh, L. (2016). Education generation next: Young people, teachers and schooling in transition, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited. Watson, A., & Forrest, D. (2012). The bands culture in Victoria, Australia: Live music benefits career paths, employment and community. Australian Journal of Music Education, (2), 71-81. West, C. (2014). First-generation mixed methods designs in music education research: Establishing an initial schematic. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education,(199), 53-67. doi:10.5406/bulcouresmusedu.199.0053 Wheelahan, L. (2010). Why knowledge matters in curriculum: A social realist argument. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Wheelahan, L. (2014). Babies and bathwater: Revaluing the role of the in knowledge. In P. Gibbs & R. Barnett (Eds.), Thinking about higher education (pp. 125-137). : Springer International Publishing. Wheelahan, L. (2015). The future of Australian vocational education qualifications depends on a new social settlement. Journal of Education and Work, 28(2), 126-146. Wheelahan, L. (2017). VET in crisis. Paper presented at the Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne. Wheelahan, L., Buchanan, J., & Yu, S. (2015). Linking qualifications and the labour market through capabilities and vocational streams: Adelaide, SA: National Centre for Vocational Education Research (Australia) (NCVER), 2015. Wheelahan, L., Leahy, M., Fredman, N., Moodie, G., Arkoudis, s., & Bexley, E. (2012). Missing links: The fragmented relationship between tertiary education and jobs. Retrieved from https://www.ncver.edu.au/research-and- statistics/publications/all-publications/missing-links-the-fragmented- relationship-between-tertiary-education-and-jobs Wyn, J. (2014). Conceptualizing transitions to adulthood. New Directions for Adult and , Fall, 2014(143), 5-16. Retrieved from doi:10.1002/ace.20100/abstract

201

Yanchar, S. C., & Williams, D. D. (2006). Reconsidering the compatibility thesis and eclecticism: Five proposed guidelines for method use. Educational Researcher, 35(9), 3-12. Zelenak, M. S. (2014). Methodological trends in music education research. In C. Randles (Ed.), Music education: Navigating the future. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. Zelenko, O., & Bridgstock, R. (2014). Developing agency in the creative career: A design-based framework for work integrated learning. In G. Hearn, R. Bridgstock, B. Goldsmith, & J. Rodgers (Eds.), Creative work beyond the Creative Industries: Innovation, employment and education (pp. 211-225). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Pub. Ltd. doi:https://doi.org/10.4337/9781782545705

202

Appendix 1

203

204

Appendix 2

Email Permission to Adapt Creative Workers Instrument (CWI)for Use with the Music, Education and Careers Survey (MECS)

205

Appendix 3

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

Appendix 4

Table of Population and Sample Estimates

Institutions/Courses Completion Years Population Sample Degree programs 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Estimate Estimate Uni 1 - Perf - Class 50 50 50 50 50 250 250 Uni 1 - Perf - Jazz 15 15 15 15 15 75 75 Uni 1 - Comp 10 10 10 10 10 50 50 TAFE 1 - Perf - J/P 35 35 35 35 35 175 175 TAFE 1 - Comp 8 8 8 6 6 36 36 TAFE 1 - Audio 8 8 8 8 8 40 40 PP 1 - Perf - J/P 0 0 0 5 10 15 15 PP 1 - Audio 0 0 0 5 5 10 10 Uni 2 - Perf - Class 30 30 30 30 30 150 Uni 2 - Perf - Jazz 30 30 30 30 30 150 Uni 2 Comp 10 10 10 10 10 50 Uni 3 Perf - J/P 10 10 10 10 10 50 TAFE 2 Perf-J/P 10 10 10 10 10 50 PP 3 - Perf & Ed 5 5 5 5 5 25 PP 4 - Perf- J/P 0 0 0 0 6 6 PP 5- Perf - J/P 5 5 5 5 5 25 PP 5 - Songwriting 3 3 3 3 3 15 PP 5 - Audio 3 3 3 3 3 15 PP 6 - Audio 5 5 8 8 8 34 VET programs TAFE 1 - Perf Jazz/Pop 10 10 8 8 6 42 42 TAFE 1 = Sound 8 8 6 4 4 30 30 PP 2 - Perf - J/P 0 0 0 10 10 20 20 PP 2 - Sound 0 0 0 15 15 30 30 Uni 3(TAFE)-PerfJ/P 10 10 10 10 10 50 TAFE 2 - Perf - J/P 10 10 10 10 10 50 TAFE 2 - Sound 10 10 10 10 10 50 PP 3 - Perf 5 5 5 5 5 25 PP 6 - Sound 15 15 15 15 15 75 Uni 4 (TAFE) -Sound 30 40 50 60 60 240 Total proposed population 1833 Key: Shaded -Unlikely to get any Target sample 773 respondents from these institutions

220

Appendix 5

221

222

Appendix 6

Table of Pathways for MECS Respondents

Earlier Study Course Most Recent Undergraduate Course Course Course Specialisation Provider Specialisation Provider Level Level Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) Uni Diploma Music NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Cert IV Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Cert IV Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Sub-bach Audio/ Sound NUHEP Cert IV Music SenSecSch Sub-bach Audio/ Sound NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Sub-bach Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Diploma Music NUHEP Sub-bach Music NUHEP Adv Dip Music perf (class) NUHEP Sub-bach Music Uni Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Sub-bach Music Comp NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Diploma Music perf (class) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (class) Uni Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Bachelor Music Uni Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music Uni Cert IV Music NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music Uni Adv Dip Music NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (class) SAC Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music Uni Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Adv Dip Music perf (class) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (class) SAC Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) Uni Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Adv Dip Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (class) Uni Bachelor Music perf (j/p) Uni Adv Dip Music NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) Uni Bachelor Music perf (class) Uni Sub-bach Music (Tuition) NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) SAC Cert IV Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (class) Uni Bachelor Music perf (class) SAC Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Sub-bach Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music Comp Uni Bachelor Music perf (j/p) Uni

223

Earlier Study Course Most Recent Undergraduate Course Course Course Specialisation Provider Specialisation Provider Level Level Bachelor Music perf (class) SAC Bachelor Music perf (class) Uni Cert IV Music NUHEP Bachelor Music NUHEP Diploma Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Cert IV Audio/ Sound SenSecSch Bachelor Audio/ Sound NUHEP Cert IV Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Music Comp NUHEP Cert IV Music perf (j/p) NUHEP Bachelor Audio/ Sound NUHEP

Abbreviations:

Cert IV Certificate IV Adv Dip Advanced Diploma Sub-Bach Sub-Bachelor Music perf Music performance j/p jazz/popular class classical Music Comp Music Composition SenSecSch Senior Secondary School

224

Minerva Access is the Institutional Repository of The University of Melbourne

Author/s: Hillman, Jenni Anne

Title: Tertiary music education and musicians' careers

Date: 2018

Persistent Link: http://hdl.handle.net/11343/225121

File Description: Thesis

Terms and Conditions: Terms and Conditions: Copyright in works deposited in Minerva Access is retained by the copyright owner. The work may not be altered without permission from the copyright owner. Readers may only download, print and save electronic copies of whole works for their own personal non-commercial use. Any use that exceeds these limits requires permission from the copyright owner. Attribution is essential when quoting or paraphrasing from these works.