Understanding Cambodian Tourism Development Through Contextual Education

Tourism, Culture & Communication, Vol. 11, pp. 103–116 1098-304X/11 $60.00 + .00 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3727/109830411X13215686205888 Copyright © 2011 Cognizant Comm. Corp. www.cognizantcommunication.com

Ariane Portegies, Theo De Haan, Rami Isaac, and Lucette Roovers

International Tourism Management and Consultancy, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands

Within a field that has prioritized ideas of a global tourism industry impacting on a local environment, less attention has been given to regional, cultural, and geographic differences and parallels. A problematic concern in the study of tourism was perhaps the lack of contextualization and the integration of the units of analysis (e.g., tourist destinations) to the larger regional structures and societal processes. We wish to take up the challenge to further disturb the foundations of the field and, more importantly, to participate in the advancement of a more pluralist discourse. A central component in this article is a 5-day study visit in Siem Reap, Cambodia as part of an Asia-based fieldwork of bachelor students in tourism development at NHTV University of Applied Sciences in Breda, The Neth- erlands. This study visit serves as an illustration of the contextual education approach developed in the tourism course and facilitated by the international classroom setting. This fieldwork’s philosophy and the inspirational encounters made possible by it is an attempt to address the challenges posed by the study of the dynamism and changing character of destinations. To conclude we will bring forward selected student experiences as well as dimensions of Cambodian history and society that have enriched our understanding of Siem Reap as a destination. This experience will fuel a discussion on knowledge production in tourism and on the added value of this contextual education approach. The repeated opportunity for our students to meet, think, and reflect on what they were confronted with created a possibility to uncover more than would have been possible via standard research methods using surveys and interviews.

Key words: Contextual education; Knowledge production in tourism; Tourism developments in Siem Reap; Cambodia; Asian perspectives; ITMC student encounters

Introduction an illustration of this approach—a 5-day stay in Siem Reap, Cambodia as part of an Asia based The aim of this article is to explore and discuss fieldwork in the context of the International Tour- contextual education as a best practice for knowl- ism Management and Consultancy (ITMC) Bache- edge production in the field of tourism. By way of lor course at NHTV University of Applied Sciences

Address correspondence to Ariane Portegies, M.Sc., Senior Lecturer International Tourism Management & Consultancy, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, P.O. Box 3917, 4800DX Breda, Netherlands. Tel: 0031 (0)76-5332371; Fax: 0031 (0)76 5302295; E-mail: [email protected] Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda103 University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. 104 Portegies ET AL.

in Breda, The Netherlands—the concept of contex- swer, an attempt, to the challenges posed by the tual education will be further defined, as strength- study of the dynamism and changing character of ened and facilitated by the international classroom destinations. To conclude we will bring forward se- setting (Portegies, de Haan, & Platenkamp, 2009). lected student experiences as well as dimensions of ITMC is a 4-year European-based program with an Cambodian history and society that have enriched international scope, welcoming students from a our understanding of Siem Reap as a destination. range of countries worldwide. A 3-week destina- These discoveries were facilitated by the contextu- tion fieldwork where all second year students learn al educational approach. and stay on location in Asia forms a prominent part Findings on destination developments in Siem of the study program. A contextual educational ap- Reap and Cambodia elaborated on in this article are proach is strongly reflected in the fieldwork assign- based on authors’ field research and interviews car- ments and activities. Siem Reap, Cambodia, and ried out during a total of 5 visits done between June Koh Samui, Thailand were the areas defined for the 2007 and April 2009. In addition to this research, 2009 portion of this ITMC fieldwork. This article authors in the field were namely inspired by the will pay specific attention to the 5-day visit stay in works of Winter (2007a, 2007b, 2009) and van de Siem Reap at the start of the fieldwork program, Put and Eisenbruch (2002). We appreciated the ap- including selected reflections of students on their proach and recognized the far-reaching empathic contextual learning experience in Cambodia. This capacities in their studies on heritage in Angkor experience will fuel a discussion on knowledge in and healthcare in Cambodia, where historical and tourism and on the added value of this approach. societal accounts play major parts. First the article will clarify the concept of contextual education, and the special role of the “inter- Contextual Education and national classroom” space (Lengkeek & Platen- the International Classroom kamp, 2004). Second, after due attention to the situation of tourism development in Cambodia, we Destinations are dynamic and ever changing will argue for the need of Cambodian (and Asian) spaces continuously performed and shaped by the perspectives, without which Cambodia as a desti- visitors and inhabitants. Clearly, a destination is nation remains a Western destination for Western more than a sum of empirical facts related to tour- markets. Indeed, within a field that has prioritized ism. It also includes the way people live and work, ideas of a global tourism industry impacting on a currently and in the past. Understanding a destina- local environment, less attention has been given to tion can only be done in that context. Hall (2005) regional, cultural, and geographic differences and pointed out that the problematic issue in the study parallels (Winter, 2007a). Elaborating on this “An- of tourism was perhaps the lack of contextualiza- glo-Western centrism” Winter (2009) further posits tion and the integration of the units of analysis that the critical voices of Alneng (2002), Edensor (e.g., tourist destinations) to the larger regional (1998), and Williams, Hall, and Lew (2004) and the structures and societal processes. In his various various studies conducted on domestic and regional publications on tourism of Asian origin, Winter tourism in regions outside Europe and North Amer- (2007a) and Winter, Teo, and Change (2009) also ica have yet to disturb the ethnocentric foundations draws attention to this and argues that in its current of the field, which emerge from the widely held as- form the field of tourism studies is institutionally sumption that tourists come from the West and that and intellectually ill-equipped to understand and “the modern tourism industry” is essentially West- interpret the new era we are now entering. He sug- ern in its origins. We wish to take up the challenge gests that the core–periphery dynamics that charac- to further disturb the foundations of the field and, terize the field today should give way to cultural more importantly to participate in the advancement and political pluralism (Winter, 2009). of a more pluralist discourse. In order to have students discover the changes A central component in this article will be the and dynamics of tourism destinations, a contextual 5-day program itself, its philosophy, and the inspi- approach has been developed at NHTV (Platen- rational encounters made possible by it: it is an an- kamp, 2006; Portegies, de Haan, & Platenkamp, Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. Cambodian Tourism Development 105

2009). Contextual education starts from the com- The IC is composed of hybrids, footloose, seden- plexity of our network-society (Appadurai, 1996; tary, tourists, indigenous, strangers, migrants, friends, Castells, 2000; Hannerz, 1993). In a contextual ap- and family; it is a cross-section of our network- proach students are encouraged to start by—as society and in which networks interfere (Appadu- much as possible—leaving their frameworks be- rai, 1996; Castells, 2000; Hannerz, 1993). The hind. Simultaneously to having preconceptions and awareness of students of their own contexts in- stereotypes about tourism development, these stu- creases significantly while living and researching dents are very open to new information and new in another context. This “self-reflexive” perspec- situations. The contextual approach departs from tive is a necessary step in the opening up to new the idea that many relevant insights in the study ob- situations and for the development of new insights ject—for example a tourism destination—may be (Platenkamp, 2006). In addition to actively using found in unwritten or implicit types of information. this phenomenon of “being overwhelmed,” the A master plan or a regional development plan, a contextual approach also encourages students to destination value chain report, a marketing plan for open up to it further. Students’ observations, their a hotel, figures about beds, overnight stays, and ar- encounters with the people they meet unexpectedly rivals provide students with the illusion that they or without a study purpose, but also their diaries, have all relevant insights in a destination. A contex- emails, and text messages they send home, these all tual approach makes this type of information more become part of the field research. Applying the in- secondary, more subordinate, while paying atten- ternational classroom concept thus expresses the tion to what is happening “on the street” becomes intention and practices in ITMC to recognize, bring more relevant: how people sell souvenirs and de- to the fore, and actively put to work the plurality velop other forms of entrepreneurship, how people that is reality in most classrooms—and tourism spend their time, learning, working, caring for their destinations—today. It is a space where discussions families, but also the variety of tourists walking take place between perspectives. These discussions around at different times of the day and in different are impregnated with hidden moral and existential areas of the destination. questions (Isaac, Platenkamp, & Portegies, 2009). This contextual approach has grown gradually These types of questions are rarely dealt with in within the limits of a tourism practice in higher education, business, and academic contexts. The education at NHTV Breda University of Applied identification and introduction of these questions in Sciences (in the Netherlands). At its start, it was professional analyses is thought to enhance under- instrumentalist in outline, and step by step in an standing and scientific reflection. “incremental” way, gradually, an educational practice developed that can be characterized by a “con- Research Design and Fieldwork Design textual practice” of higher education. Earlier work provides a history of this practice and a critical re- Mid-March 2009, 114 second-year NHTV tour- flection on the added value of this approach. (Porte- ism students arrived in Siem Reap, Cambodia. This gies, de Haan, & Platenkamp, 2009). heterogeneous group of students aged between 19 and 23, from Europe, Latin America, and Asia had different perspectives in observing developments International Classroom and Self-Reflexivity in society and in tourism, because of their different The practice of the International Classroom (IC) backgrounds. The IC concept requires these per- (Lengkeek & Platenkamp, 2004) mixes with tour- spectives to be made explicit by way of self-reflex- ism practice in international destinations in an in- ive assignments and student discussions, in order to spirational manner and with mutual respect. Stu- identify and further develop meaningful insights. dents from a variety of backgrounds, and most of The arrival of this group in Siem Reap symbolized whom do not originate from the destination visited, for many their “arrival in Asia” experienced from bring within them their own contexts, their own their heterogeneous perspectives. Before moving learning resources, valuable for themselves, for on to Bangkok and Koh Samui by coach and ferry, their fellow students, and also for the teaching staff. a 5-day program in Siem Reap was to “set the Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. 106 Portegies ET AL.

scene” for the rest of their 3-week field work. A encounter with a local, or hybrid, footloose, seden- conscious choice was made for a slow approach, tary, tourist, indigenous, stranger, migrant, or in- with room for acclimatization and own explora- habitant of Siem Reap. tions. Prior to the details of the program in Siem Reap The Need for Asian and Cambodian Perspectives specifically (Fig. 1), let us briefly situate it in the When applying a contextual approach it is also broader context of ITMC’s yearly fieldwork phi- necessary to include the broader Asian aspects of losophy. Understanding tourism and the develop- the Cambodian circumstances of tourism development of destinations is a focal point of the Interna- ment in Siem Reap. This leads to insights in what is tional Tourism Management and Consultancy happening in Cambodia and Asia’s economical, Bachelor degree (ITMC) at the NHTV Breda Uni- political, and cultural environments, which are rel- versity of Applied Sciences. For 12 years now, the evant in the understanding of (potential) tourism “destination fieldwork” has been a prominent com- developments. The enriching meetings and discus- ponent of the ITMC program is designed to create sions with experts, writers, and practitioners in and make use of complex cultural environments as tourism development (for a list of interviewees is a learning environment for students. Bali, Phuket, show in Table 1) informed the design of the field- and Koh Samui were prime locations for this work. work program. In turn, the experience of the field- In 2007, ITMC moved further into Asia by intro- work, seeing and hearing about students’ engage- ducing the Central Coast area of Vietnam and Siem ments and experiences helped explicitate aspects of Reap in Cambodia as areas for student research. contemporary Cambodian society that deserve more In order to determine how students engaged with ample attention in a more pluralist discourse. This the context in Siem Reap and with self-reflexivity mutual engagement between students’ discoveries processes, a series of classroom sessions were or- and understanding of tourism development has lead ganized on the last day of the program. The ses- to a call for more and more prominent Asian and sions started with broader observations and person- Cambodian perspectives which is argued in the fol- al experiences of students, and then in a second lowing part. instance they developed on more specific observations on characteristics of tourism development. Tourism Development in Cambodia and Siem Reap The encounters students had were a mixture of organized encounters with stakeholders and profes- Although the main built heritage attractions in sionals in tourism on one hand, and “accidental” Cambodia number over in total 100 sites (Phuong, encounters with local people, shopkeepers, hawk- 2003) in terms of visitor numbers the attraction sec- ers, children, and tuk tuk drivers on the other. In- tor is dominated by Angkor Wat near Siem Reap, company visits and professionals were selected which is one of the most impressive World Heri- based on their involvement and commitment to tage Sites. Already under the French Protectorate Cambodia and to Khmer culture. Both the philoso- rule Angkor Wat came into fashion as the exotic phies and the operational activities of these organi- tourist attraction of “Indochine,” a role that, with zations, Hotel de la Paix, the Art Venues, FCC Ho- ups and downs due to political circumstances, has tel, Sala Bai Hotel School, etc. (for detailed since been taken in by the ancient former Khmer descriptions see Fig. 1) and reflect the embodiment capital. of Cambodia’s historical, social, and economic Focusing on Angkor the first Lonely Planet on contexts. Cambodia was published in 1992. Its descriptions Records were made of the four reflexive class- of landmines and war-torn cities and recommended room sessions on day 5: each session was loosely “not to miss highlights” like jungle-hidden ruins, guided by a moderator, and two staff members took had a significant impact on the physical develop- notes to be compared and merged into two reports, ment of the emerging destinations Siem Reap and one for each student shift. In addition to these dis- Angkor (Winter, 2007b). In the 1990s, however, cussion reports, students had to produce a logbook Cambodia’s tourism industry was undeveloped per fieldwork team and an individual story of an compared to Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. A Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. Cambodian Tourism Development 107

registered amount of 8,000 tickets were bought for mediate visible consequence for visitor numbers to Angkor by tourists in 1994, rising to less than Siem Reap. At this moment, there is no more talk of 41,000 in 1998, then to 750,000 in 2003 (Winter, room scarcity and a labor surplus is starting to be 2007b, 2009). Also the opening of Siem Reap air- perceived. Hospitality professionals and training port in 1998 for international arrivals took care for institutes recognize new times are ahead (inter- the take off of Siem Reap and Angkor as a tourism views field research, 2008, 2009). product available to the world tourist market. Lo- It is important to realize that visitor numbers to cated in the west of the country, the beginning of Cambodia and Siem Reap are increasingly growing direct flights has helped to increase visitor numbers by the many developing Asian markets. This growth directly to Siem Reap and has reduced transit traf- in intraregional tourism, initially led by Japan, has fic that used to be routed through the capital Phnom continued to gain impetus with ever-increasing ar- Penh (Lennon, 2009). rivals from Taiwan, Korea, and China (Ministry of As a country Cambodia has shown significant Tourism 2000, 2003). By 2003, nearly 60% of the growth in inbound tourism until 2009. The growing 701,000 tourists entering Cambodia originated from number of tourist arrivals in Cambodia over the Asia, with around two thirds of that figure account- years is a result of several reasons. Firstly, the num- ed for by countries located in the northeast of the ber of people traveling in general is increasing. region (Ministry of Tourism, 2003). The Ministry Secondly, the more popular destinations in the re- of Tourism (2003) states, the fastest growth from gion have been visited (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia, 2002 came from Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand. Indonesia) and there are more options for other des- The less impressive, but still notable, increase from tinations. Thirdly, the northeast Asian outbound China and Taiwan ensured Cambodia and Angkor market is growing rapidly caused by regional eco- in particular were entering a new era of tourism. As nomic growth, rising disposable incomes, and de- in 2008, Korea is the key generating market in the creasing travel costs, and finally, as a result of the top 10 arrivals to Cambodia. Korea’s market share promotional efforts regarding these regional mar- is of nearly 13% in 2008, followed by Vietnam kets (Winter, 2007a). with a share of 10%, and Japan on the third place The total number of tourists visiting Cambodia with 8%. The remarkable increase of Vietnamese in 2008 increased by 5.48%; this is translated into travelers to Cambodia from 2007 to 2008 was 67%, 2.12 million tourists (Ministry of Tourism, 2009). while the number of Korean travelers declined by Direct employment in travel and tourism for 2008 19% in the same year (Ministry of Tourism, 2008). was estimated at 1,102,000 (15.4% of the total During the 1990s, Siem Reap witnessed a rapid workforce or 1 in every 6.5 jobs) (World Travel increase in Korean, Japanese, and Chinese expatri- and Tourism Council [WTTC], 2008). This is quite ates operating in its tourism business. Another im- high compared to the average of 8.5% related jobs portant major economic development of the coun- in tourism for the entire South East Asian region. try is that the town is now home to a very important However, the growth of the number of tourist arriv- proportion of estimated 30,000 mainland Chinese als in 2008 was rather disappointing in comparison living in Cambodia (Beech, 2005). Since the late to 2007’s 18.5% (Ministry of Tourism, 2009). The 1990s, Siem Reap has also witnessed a tremen- main reasons for this decrease are the political cri- dously rapid growth in the number of businesses sis in Thailand, the conflict between Cambodia and catering to Asian tourist and markets, particularly Thailand over the Preah Vihear temple, and the the Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Taiwanese mar- global financial crisis. Up until the 2008 economic kets (Winter, 2007a). As a result, a high level of crisis, the industry leaders in Siem Reap were deal- integration (vertical as well as horizontal) had de- ing with a lack of rooms and lack of skilled staff as veloped between several travel agents, restaurants, main challenges. The consequences of the crisis souvenir shops, and hotels, all targeting markets were not clear yet when our students visited the city from Northeast Asia (interview with N. Henderson in March 2009. However, the impact of the closing in 2008 and N. Downing in 2009). Much of the in- of Bangkok airport and downturn of tourism devel- vestment in these products and facilities has come opment in Thailand at the end of 2008 had an im- from outside Cambodia. Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. 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Figure 1. the 5-day program in Siem Reap. Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. 110 Portegies ET AL.

Table 1 its main focus from preservation to exploitation of Interviewees Field Research 2007–2009 the temple areas for benefit of the whole Cambo- dian economy (Winter, 2007b). Stephan Arrii, General Manager Knai Bang Chatt, Kep Nick Butler, Coordinator Sam Veasna Center for Wildlife Conservation, Siem Reap Martin Dishman, Managing Director The One Hotel, Cambodian Perspectives: Modernization Siem Reap and Tourism Beyond Angkor Wat Nick Downing, General Manager Hotel de la Paix Angkor, Siem Reap Angkor Wat is a primary attraction in Cambodia. Arjen de Haan, President Director Asialink Holidays, Bali Tourists, however, equally seek encounters with Noelene Henderson, Director of Sales and Marketing Hotel de la Paix Angkor, Siem Reap the context in which the temples are embedded: for Benoit Jancloes, General Manager FCC Angkor, Siem Reap example, tasting local food, experiencing the trop- Sivanna Khoeung, Sales Director Artisans Angkor ics, and authentically perceived situations. These Cambodian Fine Arts & Crafts, Siem Reap Kate Lloyd-Williams, Program Manager Tourism are considered valuable add-ons to the primary at- International Finance Corporation (IFC) World Bank tractions (Ashworth & Tunbridge, 2005; Isaac, group, Ho Chi Minh City 2008). Next to the Angkor complex, Cambodia and Raymond Pereira, General Manager Angkor Century resort & Spa, Siem Reap Siem Reap have a unique and authentic heritage of Samnang Pok, Khmer Angkor Tour Guide Association, modern buildings of internationally high standard. Siem Reap These were built after independence in 1953 (Grant Don Protasio, Curator Arts Lounge Hotel de la Paix Angkor, Siem Reap Ross & Collins, 2006) when Khmer elites started to Willem van de Put, Algemeen Directeur HealthNet TPO, build showing their Khmer pride with an own dis- Amsterdam tinctive Khmer modern architecture stimulated by Ampor Samoeun, Director Sala Bai Hotel school, Siem Reap Le Corbusier inspired national architect Vann Mo- Charley Todd, director of Cambodian Living Arts livann (Grant Ross & Collins, 2006; Winter, 2007b). Chitra Vincent, General Manager Shinta Mani Hotel This has been hardly recognized by the direct tour- and Institute of Hospitality, Siem Reap ism focused popular magazines and research. New forms of art and architecture were developed and fostered from 1953 until 1970 that ex- Siem Reap and Angkor Wat are now fully inte- pressed a recognizable distinctive Khmer cultural grated into the international tourism industry, with style (Reyum Institute of Arts and Culture, 2001). tour operators, airlines, capital and investment A policy of stimulation of Khmer modern architec- companies, and hotel chains dominating the area of ture resulted in a yet hardly discovered Khmer Siem Reap and its airport (NHTV/ITMC student modern style of hotels, conference and exhibition reports from 2009; Winter, 2007b). The Siem Reap centers, market buildings, and the like. Many sur- 2- to-3 day attraction tourism product has been tak- vived the Pol Pot holocaust period when all devel- en up into the world wide interrelated tourism busi- opments came to a standstill. Many buildings have ness. Many services that tourists ask for are readily been restored already such as the Raffles Hotel Le available including family businesses, restaurants, Royal in Phnom Penh, others waiting for “inspired” and souvenir markets. Expecting that tourists might money. The Cambodian modern style not only in- seek more than the prime Angkor complex tourist spired to restore abandoned buildings like the Knai attraction, even initiatives like Stay-another Day Bang Chatt Resort in coastal Kep (interview with try to prolong and enrich visitor stays, experiences S. Arrii in 2009) but also inspired investors to con- and spending (interview with K. Lloyd-Williams in struct hotels in classic 1960s structures like the 2008; NHTV/ITMC field student reports from 2008 Amansara and the FCC Angkor in Siem Reap. The and 2009). Art Déco style Hôtel de la Paix in the center of Shortly after the take off of the tourism boom Siem Reap is a contemporary addition in line with that took place in the Siem Reap area, the Authority the New Khmer Architecture with buildings that for the Protection and Safeguarding of the Angkor blended modern techniques with Cambodian tradi- Region (APSARA), the entity that manages the en- tion. The De la Paix, linked with Shinta Mani, is tire 100 km2 area of Angkor Wat, decided to shift one of the important motivating players in the Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. Cambodian Tourism Development 111

Khmer education initiatives in Siem Reap (inter- Cambodia. Political unrest grew and resulted final- views with D. Protasio in 2009 and C. Vincent in ly in civil wars and revolutionary situations, the 2008 and 2009). Khmer Rouge period, and the Vietnamese Occupa- After a standstill of literally everything during tion. This all pressed the Khmer people and society the Khmer Rouge (1975–1979) and the consecutive into traumatic life times that still smolder close un- Vietnamese influenced period (1980–1989) the lo- der the surface in every day existence of the Cam- cal elites became active again. These elites started bodians (lecture by Van de Put in 2007). When to invest in tourism businesses and became players Cambodia became independent again in 1990 the in the SE Asian regional tourism markets. Khmer world fabricated an explanation of what had hap- businessmen who returned out of their “diasporas,” pened, and this “Standard Total View” (Vickery, on the same track as the many NGOs that flocked 1984) reduced the complex Cambodian reality to a Cambodia, started to invest not only in business but story of a harmonious, innocent, self-supporting also in education of the educationally deprived society, made up of smiling people, that was sud- Khmer. Field research in 2008 and 2009 revealed, denly disrupted by the terror of a group of barba- for example, the closely related Hotel de la Paix rous communists. It allowed all those for whom it and the Shinta Mani Hotel/hotel-school as typical was politically convenient to see the rule of the examples of such relations between education and Khmer Rouge as a breach in timeless Khmer his- commerce. Socially inspired developments such as tory. The context of a long existence of cruelty in community-based development projects go hand in Khmer history and the more recent effect of the hand with the entrepreneurial need for a trained la- massive bombing campaign of the US in 1972– bor force for the tourist industry in which Khmer 1973 escaped attention. capital is taking stakes. Cambodian history is complex and tragic. The Modernization is manifested in many more as- period of the Khmer Rouge (1975–1979) saw evac- pects of the lives of those who live and work in uation of cities, execution and starvation, and clo- destinations, and this features in a contextual ap- sure of international borders. In order to understand proach. Another aspect that is featured as a result of the Cambodian perspective on life one has to un- adopting a contextual approach is the Cambodian derstand the country, the culture, and its people at perspective on life. This specific perspective influ- various levels. Political explanations of the past ences daily life activities, behavior at home and in strengthened the tendency of individual people to business, but these are not very visible on the sur- refer to “standard histories.” This safe representa- face. tion of what had happened to Cambodia as a whole Up until the end of the French colonial time served to avoid political risk, while there was little Cambodia was a relatively stable rural society with interest among families in details of what had hap- a mainly locally focussed economy. Kiernan (1996 pened to others. “Local histories” (Van de Put & as cited in van de Put, 2002) stated that “Pre-Revo- Eisenbruch, 2002) play a role till today: Some peo- lutionary” Cambodia was 80% peasant, 80% Khmer, ple considered the civil war and the massive bom- and 80% Buddhist. First, it was an overwhelmingly barding a more difficult period than the Khmer rural economy. Its village society was decentral- Rouge years. Others suffered more after the fall of ized, its economy unintegrated, dominated by sub- Pol Pot, when they were caught between warring sistence rice cultivation. Compared to Vietnam, its factions at the Thai border. It is difficult to under- villagers participated much less in village-orga- stand the coping mechanisms of all those that still nized activities. They were often described as indi- function—how do people cope with loss, and what vidualistic; the nuclear family was the social core. do they believe to be causes of illness and misfor- Accompanying the economic development after tune? When people talk about hope, desperation, independence Cambodia became acquainted with suicide, guilt, anger, and acceptance, one needs to the concept of an international economy. As a re- know what is meant. sult of worldwide and world-size politics and mili- Next to those who survived and cope with the tary interventions, Cambodia was sucked into the past, new generations born after the disastrous American War in Vietnam, which spread across times form the majority of Cambodians. This gen- Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. 112 Portegies ET AL.

eration grows up with a fresh, yet heavily burdened, ed to create a greater space for local (Cambodian) perspective on their future with opportunities of- and regional Asian knowledge and perspectives. fered by tourists who mainly focus not on their re- Instead of arranging standard surveying and inter- cent achievements, nor the troubled times three viewing sessions we arranged opportunities to dis- decades ago, but on the centuries old history of cuss, to meet and discover the underlying aspects of Khmer Angkor. reality. The space created lead to room for personal Coming to a full understanding of Cambodian stories and “local histories” ever present in the tradition and culture is not the objective of the stu- background of any destination to emerge, and that dent’s research project in Cambodia. The main aim is what we want students to hear and look for. of this research article, therefore, is to shed light on Besides meeting the guides while performing an unexamined but critical aspect of this contextual their profession, showing the Angkor complex, stu- approach, its impacts, arguing that one cannot “ful- dents could ask guides to show their village, their ly” understand Cambodian tourism without trying daily life situation, and talk about it as well as about to integrate and understand Cambodian history, their ideas about the tourists and their attractions. culture, and economy. Although Cambodia itself is In meeting students at the Shinta Mani and Sala still a homogeneous society (Van de Put & Eisen- Bai hotel schools our NHTV students heard about bruch, 2002), because tourism has developed rap- the Cambodian students’ backgrounds, their per- idly in Siem Reap within the context of a multiplu- sonal motivation, and how they are experiencing ral economy, it is expected that Cambodian society the sudden and enormous rise of tourism in their will change and modernize alike. province and the need for educated and trained people for this industry. The perceived once in a life- time opportunity for the Cambodians gives an extra Discussion and Conclusion dimension for interpretation of Siem Reap’s tour- Contextual education in Cambodia means imple- ism development. menting a research approach whereby there is no The aim of this article was to explore and discuss standard or predetermined set of variables based on contextual education as a best practice for knowl- the models of tourism development. Nothing is left edge production in the field of tourism. Student ex- out beforehand in this more explorative research periences and observations provide important input approach, aiming at openness for those implicit, in the discussion on knowledge production in tour- hidden perspectives and variables that may play a ism, as well as the added value of this contextual leading role in orientations and implementations of approach in this knowledge production process. development. The need for more space for Asian and Cambodian perspectives very soon becomes Student Experiences apparent. This seems self-evident in a pluralist discourse, but as we have argued, dominant tourism The 5-day program culminated on the last day development discourse seems to remain somewhat when students were convened to share impressions stuck in core-periphery dynamics and in “Anglo- and insights gained. A rich and dynamic event took Western” centrism. This situation has far reaching place then, where there was room for the “hidden implications: Western students tend to see mainly dimensions” including cultural dynamics of the Western tourists and connect with Western manag- destination Siem Reap and Angkor Wat. These di- ers or stakeholders on the destination, hearing in mensions could be felt as students sought to en- turn Western perspectives on Cambodia. In addi- counter the places and the people in an unstructured tion to this bias, there is the more persistent and way. After a few “warming up” questions about longer-term orientalism (Said, 2003) as a phenom- how they bargained for their accommodations, enon keeping in place the distance with the other, what pictures they took, what messages they sent and thus with the Cambodian and other very rele- home, the discussion was slowly geared towards vant Asian perspectives. their “meaningful” experiences. The following The extensive 5-day program we designed in quotes reflect some of them ranging from awe and Siem Reap for mainly Western students attempt- admiration: Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. Cambodian Tourism Development 113

Yesterday we visited a village, local people, to see Dutch student: I felt in culture shock. At the air- that people had almost nothing, children with dirty port, looking out of the bus. What I saw from the clothes, it was impressive, that people live like bus. A dentist operating in the dust, in the open, that. For me it was the village too, they picked up with a small sign by the shack. flowers and gave them to us, they have nothing and then they give something to us. Indian student: I see the same way of living like in my own country. Poverty, I understand why they do things, trying to earn money, like the tuk tuk We had conversations with our tuk tuk driver driver, bargaining. . . . about his family life; we talked about life, healthcare, school system. There was an interest from A substantial part of students’ reflections on their both sides to compare. People are open; they like stay were self-reflections, contrasting their world- to share and are curious about students and tourists views and assumptions with the others, as well as as well. about their learning.

We arrived with a few real images in our minds Topics that were talked about openly were topics and returned with thousands. like relatives, jobs, and everyday life. Our blind spots were often to judge things according to our Talking to hospitality students from Sala Bai, at own perspectives, and to try to rationalize situa- first it was difficult, then it became more fun, they tions through our Western eyes. wanted to know where we live. Meeting Srey Keung was a very pleasant cross cultural experience, because we instantly liked To tensions and disturbances: each other. . . . It was a wonderful event during which both sides learned something about the oth- Shocking for us was that guides could talk so er’s culture, which was new, strange, but really openly about the history and the fact that people fascinating. died, his whole family, and how he survived . . . but also that he seemed to have told it many times. What the Contextual Approach Reveals I felt I was spending much money, but perhaps not Field research findings could be divided into in- to the right children. sights gained in “internal dynamics” of Cambodian society and “external forces,” referring to the re- For a moment I was ready to ask him further questions . . . but as soon as I opened my mouth I de- gional and international political and economic po- cided this was not an appropriate time to start a sition of Cambodia which have been and are still discussion. shaping developments and society. This distinction has the advantage of providing room for the Cam- They left us often wondering what they might bodian perspective to emerge, which tends—as we think of us and made us somehow feel a bit stupid. have argued—to be reduced or silenced by the But we never felt unwelcome. . . . louder “global” and regional voices. For a more We often felt quite strange and somehow ashamed, general discussion on contextual education as best wandering through the local village, seeing the practice for knowledge production in the field of poverty and taking pictures of everything. tourism also see Portegies et al. (2009). Student observations combined with our own These sessions revealed the tension between the provided confusing, emotional, and dynamic snap- open assignment calling upon broad-minded dis- shots of Cambodian life in and around Siem Reap. coveries about people and places on the one hand, Some local informants added further insights: Mr. and the existence in students’ minds of theoretical Pok Samnang, head of the Khmer Tour Guide As- and cultural preconceptions on the other. The add- sociation, also the guides accompanying our stu- ed value hereof is a growing consciousness of fu- dents in small groups for a full day; the tuk tuk ture professionals of their preconceptions, stereo- drivers the students befriended. There were also types, and assumptions potentially standing in the many informal conversations held with people liv- way of deeper understanding. Some students felt a ing in Siem Reap around the organized part of the culture shock, others not. program. Delivered by Ingenta to: NHTV Breda University of Professional Education IP: 194.171.178.174 On: Wed, 18 Oct 2017 07:22:28 Article(s) and/or figure(s) cannot be used for resale. Please use proper citation format when citing this article including the DOI, publisher reference, volume number and page location. 114 Portegies ET AL.

Observations of life in and around the Pagoda, And after this student hesitantly asked Wog why discussions with fellow Cambodian students and he was not saving his earned money and moving to with reception staff, tuk tuk drivers, and tour guides Siem Reap to fulfill his dream, lead to a careful conclusion to be further explored that there are powerful dynamics at play in Cambo- Wog smiled and very slowly replied: I want to dian society to survive and live, with an outward support my family and stay with my family. I do not have my own money and I will be with the fish look. Hotel staff but also youngsters hanging around in the village. I paused for a second and waited in shops and market stalls were learning languages which direction the conversation continues. . . . during and after work time. People express interest, When I asked Wog if he traveled, he told me that show curiosity in the lives of their visitors. Many he likes Siem Reap and that his wish is to meet people, of different age categories, came across as many rich tourists from all over the world in Siem Reap. In the future Wog will stay with his family, self-confident, going after opportunities, however the fish, and the motorbike. small, but doing business. This power struck us not just in formal or typical tourist situation, but also in One senses the student’s slow approach and the the backyards, behind market stalls, by tuk tuk open-endedness of the conversation. There are more waiting areas. The use and expression of humor questions to be asked and the picture is not yet were indicative. In addition to these tourism related clear. But the situation is speaking. Also, students’ observations, it was also astonishing to learn about detected pride in their encounters, as the following the way society has dealt with external influences quote equally shows: in several ways. In architecture this has lead for example to constructions and landscapes of interest We also noticed that all Cambodians were quite showing modern Khmer struggles and vitality. proud of their country and of Angkor Wat in par- These findings are of a very different nature than ticular. When we showed an interest in their country, their way of life, they were happy to talk to us those resulting from, for example, the still widely and conveyed us the feeling of being very proud of used impact studies approach. The application of their country. impact studies results, as has been discussed by Meethan (2001) and Portegies et al. (2009), results We also identified socially inspired develop- in a rather sterile listing of positive impacts on the ments, initiated both through private initiatives one hand and negative impacts on the other. The (Shinta Mani, Hotel de la Paix, Paul Dubrule Hotel approach used here, “letting the situation speak for School) as well as through public and international itself,” led to the insight that tourism is seen as an projects (Sala Bai Hotel School, Sam Veasna, opportunity, and that many local people benefit Cambodian Living Arts). These developments are from it economically and socially. There is an open of direct interest for tourism development. People attitude to the futurea desire to learn languages working and setting up businesses seem to have a and to make lives better. Many student testimonies very special “connection” to the destination. converged to this, like for example: Our fieldwork made apparent that there seems to be a coexistence of several (tourism) destinations in Our tour guide Pen explained to us that the Cam- this location. Different aspects, lengths of stay, dif- bodians are very proud of the temples, because it ferent local players, hotels, restaurants, guides, for also reminds them on the achievement of their an- cestors. . . . However it is more than that, it is also different kinds of—mainly Asian—tourists. Their a source of income as so many tourists come to meanings attributed to Siem Reap and Angkor Wat visit it. vary substantially and so do their respective experiences of the destination. Recognizing the diversity Wog [17 years old, motorbike taxi-driver, son of a of tourism markets, also the diversity within Asian fisherman] spoke very open and honest. He talked markets, students showed growing awareness of the about dreams, but always came back to reality. He told me that to realize his dreams he needs more world beyond Europe and the need to question some money to pay for hotel training and an additional of their worldviews. Taken a few steps further, this English class. could lead to new perspectives on a destination like

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