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ISSN 2520-2073 (print) ISSN 2521-442X (online) TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Edited by Dr Michael McCarthy

Vol. 5 Issue 2 2021

Issue doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2 The quarterly journal published by Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientific and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland technology, testing and assessment. Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK LICENSING Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China INDEXATION Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico The journal is currently indexed in Scopus, DOAJ, Russian Index of Science Citation, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, ROAD, CyberLeninka, British Library, Bodleian Libraries (University of Oxford), Ghent University Library. Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONS ADVISORY BOARD Training, Language and Culture offers Platinum Open Access to its content which means that both readers and authors are granted permanent and 100% free access to the published material. Authors are not charged article processing fees, or publication fees, or article submission fees, or any Robert Williams University of Westminster, London, UK other type of fees. Authors retain copyright of their work and allow it to be shared and reused, provided that it is correctly cited. All content pub- Anthony Fitzpatrick International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany lished in the journal is available immediately upon publication. Following the Budapest Open Access Initiative’s definition of Open Access, readers Myriam Fischer Callus International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany of Training, Language and Culture are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the journal's articles and Dr Evgeniya V. Ponomarenko MGIMO University, Russia use them for any other lawful purpose. All and any publication costs associated with journal's operation are covered by the publisher – Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University). EDITORS Elena N. Malyuga, Editor-in-Chief (RUDN University) [email protected] Barry Tomalin, Co-Editor (ICC) [email protected] PEER REVIEW Elizaveta G. Grishechko, Executive Secretary (RUDN University) [email protected] Training, Language and Culture is committed to ensuring a fair and productive peer review process to secure the integrity of the scholarly record. The purpose of peer review is to assist the Editors in making editorial decisions and through the editorial communications with the author it may COMPUTER DESIGN Elizaveta G. Grishechko also assist the author in improving the paper. Training, Language and Culture uses double-blind review, which means that reviewers are unaware of the identity of the authors, and authors are also unaware of the identity of reviewers. The typical period of time allowed for reviews is 3 weeks. FOUNDERS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation http://eng.rudn.ru/ PUBLICATION SCHEDULE AND VOLUME International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC) The journal is published quarterly (four issues per year coming out in March, June, September and December) with each issue incorporating 6 to 8 Bochum, Germany https://icc-languages.eu/ original research articles, 1 to 4 reviews on relevant books and other publications on the subjects within the Aims and Scope of the journal, as well as reports on events and latest news. Print will be available on demand. PUBLISHER Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation ETHICAL PRINCIPLES In selecting (review process included), preparing (editing) and publishing manuscripts, editors of Training, Language and Culture are guided by in- CORPORATE CONTRIBUTORS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation ternational standards of publication ethics. TLC Editorial Board will carefully and responsibly consider all reasonable complaints regarding viola- International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany tions found in published materials. Journal publisher, RUDN University, is a co-founder and member of the Association of Science Editors and Pub- lishers (ASEP) and supports the ASEP Declaration on Ethical Principles for Scientific Publications. The journal also adheres to the policies promoted by the Committeee on Publication Ethics (COPE). EDITORIAL BOARD ADDRESS 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation

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Printing run 100 copies. Order No 8. Open price. Responsibility for opinions expressed in articles and reviews published and the accuracy of statements contained therein rests solely with the indi- Signed to print 20.06.2021. Date of imprint 23.06.2021. Format 60х84/8. vidual contributors. Offset paper. Offset printing. Typeface “Optima, Impact”. Printer’s sheet 10,02 Detailed information on the journal’s aims and scope, editorial board, publication policy, peer review, publication ethics, author guidelines and latest news and announcements is available on the journal’s website at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org. Printed at RUDN University Publishing House: 3 Ordzhonikidze str., 115419 Moscow, Russian Federation Online archive of all issues published in Training, Language and Culture is available at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/archive.html. Ph.: +7 (495) 952-04-41; Email: [email protected] Publishing Agreement (Public Offer) to Publish an Article in the Academic Periodical ’Training, Language and Culture’ is available online on the © Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 2021 journal website at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/publication-policy.html. ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientific and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland technology, testing and assessment. Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK LICENSING Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China INDEXATION Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico The journal is currently indexed in Scopus, DOAJ, Russian Index of Science Citation, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, ROAD, CyberLeninka, British Library, Bodleian Libraries (University of Oxford), Ghent University Library. Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONS ADVISORY BOARD Training, Language and Culture offers Platinum Open Access to its content which means that both readers and authors are granted permanent and 100% free access to the published material. Authors are not charged article processing fees, or publication fees, or article submission fees, or any Robert Williams University of Westminster, London, UK other type of fees. Authors retain copyright of their work and allow it to be shared and reused, provided that it is correctly cited. All content pub- Anthony Fitzpatrick International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany lished in the journal is available immediately upon publication. Following the Budapest Open Access Initiative’s definition of Open Access, readers Myriam Fischer Callus International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany of Training, Language and Culture are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the journal's articles and Dr Evgeniya V. Ponomarenko MGIMO University, Russia use them for any other lawful purpose. All and any publication costs associated with journal's operation are covered by the publisher – Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University). EDITORS Elena N. Malyuga, Editor-in-Chief (RUDN University) [email protected] Barry Tomalin, Co-Editor (ICC) [email protected] PEER REVIEW Elizaveta G. Grishechko, Executive Secretary (RUDN University) [email protected] Training, Language and Culture is committed to ensuring a fair and productive peer review process to secure the integrity of the scholarly record. The purpose of peer review is to assist the Editors in making editorial decisions and through the editorial communications with the author it may COMPUTER DESIGN Elizaveta G. Grishechko also assist the author in improving the paper. Training, Language and Culture uses double-blind review, which means that reviewers are unaware of the identity of the authors, and authors are also unaware of the identity of reviewers. The typical period of time allowed for reviews is 3 weeks. FOUNDERS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation http://eng.rudn.ru/ PUBLICATION SCHEDULE AND VOLUME International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC) The journal is published quarterly (four issues per year coming out in March, June, September and December) with each issue incorporating 6 to 8 Bochum, Germany https://icc-languages.eu/ original research articles, 1 to 4 reviews on relevant books and other publications on the subjects within the Aims and Scope of the journal, as well as reports on events and latest news. Print will be available on demand. PUBLISHER Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation ETHICAL PRINCIPLES In selecting (review process included), preparing (editing) and publishing manuscripts, editors of Training, Language and Culture are guided by in- CORPORATE CONTRIBUTORS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation ternational standards of publication ethics. TLC Editorial Board will carefully and responsibly consider all reasonable complaints regarding viola- International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany tions found in published materials. Journal publisher, RUDN University, is a co-founder and member of the Association of Science Editors and Pub- lishers (ASEP) and supports the ASEP Declaration on Ethical Principles for Scientific Publications. The journal also adheres to the policies promoted by the Committeee on Publication Ethics (COPE). EDITORIAL BOARD ADDRESS 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation

Jean Langlois About our Former associate researcher at CHART Research Centre (Human & Artificial Cognition, EPHE/Paris CONTENTS VI/Paris VIII), and a researcher at the National Insti- contributors tute for Research in Digital Sciences and Technolo- 5 gy-INRIA. Taught one of the first courses in France About our contributors Nicolay V. Ivanov on the impact of language on decision making, 7 Introduction to Issue 5(2) by Guest Editor Dr Michael McCarthy Doctor in Linguistics, Full Professor, Chief of Ro- New Trends in Decision Making Science: Transdis- man Languages Department, MGIMO University ciplinary and Transcultural Perspectives, with Zyd- (Moscow, Russia). Spheres of scientific interest ney Wong at SciencesPo (2019). Currently works cover theory of translation, semiotics, semantics, on the translation of several Chinese classics on Original Research theory of communication, discourse studies, Por- strategy. Holds a Certification in Sanskrit from Karl 9 THE PHENOMENON OF FASCINATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE (BY ITALIAN EXAMPLES) tuguese grammar. Jaspers Centre for Advanced Transcultural Studies by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya (Heidelberg University), a Masters in Cognitive Olga A. Pogoretskaya Science and Psychology from Paris VIII University 22 THE ROLE OF THE COGNITIVE METAPHOR IN THE HYBRIDISATION OF MARKETING AND POLITICAL DISCOURSES: AN ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH-LANGUAGE POLITICAL ADVERTISING Lecturer at the Cherdantseva Chair of Romance and a PhD in Mathematical Economics from PSL/ by Ekaterina P. Murashova Languages, MGIMO University (Moscow, Russia). EHESS. Currently a student of the Executive Global Italian language teacher. Full-time postgraduate Master in Management from LSE (London/Beijing/ 37 THE TOURIST BOOKLET AS A GENRE OF PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE: INTERACTION WITH THE CUSTOMER student at the Chair of Romance Languages at Bangalore). Research interests cover cognitive sci- by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya MGIMO University. Research interests cover semi- ence, languages and culture. otics, semantics and discourse studies. 51 WHEN LINGUISTICS MEETS COMPUTER SCIENCE: STYLOMETRY AND PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE Marina Peluso by Jean Langlois Ekaterina P. Murashova Holds a PhD in Semiotics at the University of PhD in Linguistics, Associate Professor in the Dpt Bologna, Italy. Completed an MA with distinction 62 THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH, SEMIOTICS AND PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE of Linguistics and Professional Communication in by Marina Peluso in Diplomacy and International Communication Political Sciences, Moscow State Linguistic Uni- from the University of East Anglia, UK. Since 2013 versity, Russia. Research interests cover discourse 73 SEMANTIC SHIFT IN CONFLICT TERMINOLOGY IN CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN SOCIO-CULTURAL has worked as social media strategist for a wide MEDIA DISCOURSE studies and metaphorisation. client portfolio of small and medium business, in- by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova cluding social media management in fashion, Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya beauty and wellness, and enogastronomy. Man- Dr habil. and a leading researcher at the Depart- ages social media for the EU Bookshop, the online Book Reviews ment of Languages of Mass Communication at library of the European Union. Research interests 90 Why study languages? (A review) Ural Federal University named after the First Presi- include semiotics, functional studies, international original work by Gabrielle Hogan-Brun reviewed by Robert Williams dent of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, Russia. Head of the communication, and professional discourse. English Language Department at Penza State Uni- versity, Russia. Has published extensively in the ar- Alina S. Antipova News & Events eas of linguistic pragmatics, political, legal and Researcher at the Department of Psychology of media discourse, and cross-cultural communica- Language and Language Teaching at the Faculty of 93 ICC News by Barry Tomalin tion in internationally acknowledged journals, Psychology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, such as Discourse and Communication, Critical Russia. 94 EUROLTA News by Myriam Fischer Callus Discourse Studies, Discourse Studies. Co-edited a 94 RUDN University News by Elena N. Malyuga few volumes, including Young Scholars’ Develop- Maria D. Rabeson ments in Linguistics: Tradition and Change (Cam- Researcher at the Department of Psychology of bridge Scholars Publishing, 2015). Member of the Language and Language Teaching at the Faculty of Russian Communication Association and the In- Psychology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, ternational Society for the Study of Argumentation. Russia.

4 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 5 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2

Olga V. Smirnova Communication, a pioneering course training peo- plumb its depths and offer plausible explanations PhD, Associate Professor, Chair of Periodical Press ple to be the bridge across communities and be- Introduction to of its rhetorical impact by measuring it against the- Department at the Faculty of Journalism, Lomono- tween language groupings. Currently the internal ories and grounded analytical systems. sov Moscow State University, Russia. Chair of the quality assurance member for CoMoViWo – a It was with these thoughts in mind that I ap- Digital Divide Working Group in IAMCR. Re- project designing intercultural communication Issue 5(2) proached the task of guest-editing this issue of search interests cover discourse studies, culture training material in English and Spanish, with a by Guest Editor Dr Michael McCarthy Training, Language and Culture. My task was studies, computer science and human-computer specific focus on e-communication. Has over 30 made easier by the calibre of the scholarly submis- interaction. years’ experience in language education as a Welcome to Issue 5(2) of Training, Language sions that landed on my desk. All the articles in teacher, teacher trainer, assessor and consultant. and Culture. this issue go beyond the lexico-grammatical scaf- Robert Williams Has been involved in many EU co-funded devel- The expression that there is ‘more to something folding of their chosen texts and, using different Principal lecturer in the Department of Modern opment projects and also chairs an annual Inter- than meets the eye’ is an apt metaphor for a text. methods and approaches, all explore the symbolic Languages and Cultures at the University of West- cultural Masterclass through UK Trade and Indus- Lay readers reading for meaning and linguists substrata of texts. And one stratum of the symbolic minster, UK. Teaches on the MA TESOL and is try and regularly speaks at conferences across Eu- analysing for how that meaning works have first import of a text is its axiology, its reason to be val- course leader for the MA International Liaison and rope and beyond. and foremost to deal with the surface of an object, ued. While literary criticism has never shied away typically realised as a complete artefact, whether from evaluation, some approaches to text linguis- handwritten on parchment, typeset in a newspaper tics have been content with unpacking discourse or book, carved in stone or realised in the pixels of structure, for example, genre analyses which offer a computer screen. For centuries scholars have ex- structural insights into academic texts for the pur- plicated texts in terms of what these visible forms poses of training students in academic writing, ‘mean’, their message and import. Literary critics, which can be done through statistical analyses of stylisticians, discourse analysts, scholars of seman- corpora that involve no requirement to say tics, semioticians, inter alia, have weighed in on whether the text is good, middling or ineffective. what the forms that meet the eye might be said to A challenge of a different order is to explore an mean. Yet meaning itself eludes definition. A text axiological notion such as ‘fascination’, which can mean something to its solitary reader, or, at Nicolay Ivanov and Olga Pogoretskaya undertake another extreme, it can occupy a coveted place in in this issue. The semiotics of political strategy are the canon of literature of a nation or culture, a deconstructed in their article, with ‘figurative lexi- ranking of public greatness, an example of which cal elements referring to cultural associations’ ex- would be the plays of William Shakespeare in the ploited by political parties. The list of flamboyant English-speaking canon, or Leo Tolstoy’s works in titles parties choose, illustrated by the authors with the Russian. Such rankings emerge and evolve Italian examples, is indeed truly fascinating. The over time and are typically accorded to the dead power of the authors’ approach lies in their com- rather than the living. The accolades may also be mitment to explore the notion of fascination ‘from somewhat fickle and subject to the shifting sands the poetic and rhetorical form of the text up to ver- of historiography. A text might equally be bal nominations in it – making them subject to one renowned for its immediate, controversial (but of- principle of inner semantic organisation’. ten ephemeral) impact in political or social The discourse of politics is also at the forefront spheres – yet another level of ‘meaning’. Or it may in Ekaterina Murashova’s article. Here the pathway be something as seemingly inconsequential as to meaning takes us through cognitive metaphors preparation instructions on a packet of food. The and a mixed methodology of cognitive linguistics, paths to ‘meaning’ are labyrinthine, with layer pragmatics and sociocultural linguistics. The com- upon layer of ways into the central goal: what modification of everything is a common experi- makes the text work in its context? What meets the ence nowadays, and politics is no exception. Polit- eye is the surface of the text, like the surface of a ical ideas are not philosophies to be mentally nur- river. The reader must make sense of its flow with- tured; rather, they become commodities, goods to in their context and culture; the analyst must be marketed. In any nation, the metaphors chosen

6 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 7 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 will be distilled through that nation’s language, functional approach which is the subject of Marina which is ‘a concentrate of national culture’. Poli- Peluso’s paper. Halliday’s work, where language is, tics as a commodity ceases to be a trade in ideas in Peluso’s words, ‘a semiotic representation of val- and becomes a battleground where your adver- ues, attitudes and behaviours’, is relevant to pro- Original Research saries may be disabled, may attack you like a mili- fessional discourse, intercultural business interac- tary force or may eat you alive. Murashova’s cor- tions and to the teaching of professional communi- pus illustrates how politics have hijacked the dis- cation. Halliday’s work stresses the semiotic foun- course of marketing; these are texts where ‘mean- dation of communication: in this sense, Peluso’s The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse ing’ is measured by the power of their metaphors paper chimes in with the centrality of the symbol (by Italian examples) and the hard sell. which surfaces in the other papers in this issue. Tatiana Dubrovskaya’s paper looks at another Alina Antipova, Maria Rabeson and Olga by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya kind of marketing: tourist brochures, which create Smirnova’s paper on online media discourse con- Nicolay V. Ivanov MGIMO University, Russia [email protected] a complex seller-customer relationship akin to a fronts meaning shifts and language change, which Olga A. Pogoretskaya MGIMO University, Russia [email protected] professional interaction. To unpack this kind of may happen with surprising alacrity compared Article history Received March 7, 2021 | Revised May 19, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 meaning, one has to look at the discourse in the with the texts of a pre-digital world. Their subject Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest round: Dubrovskaya’s paper draws on multimodal matter is conflict and their analysis of a corpus of Research funding No funding was reported for this research discourse analysis, genre studies and the methods tens of thousands of media resources involves util- doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 of professional discourse analysis. Here we see ising artificial neural networks. The ‘reader’ be- For citation Ivanov, N. V., & Pogoretskaya, O. A. (2021). The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by how textual meaning involves the contexts both of comes a machine, one that can track the distribu- Italian examples). Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 9-21. the writer and of the reader: the tour companies tion of words over time, realising the concept of The article presents a study of the phenomenon of fascination as a functional effect of the text, or particular units of the display ‘their image as experts in tourism’ and ‘the ‘monitor corpus’. The authors show how the no- text, in political discourse. Fascination is the highest point and a part of the communicative impact which a politician need to construct rapport with the customers’. The tion of conflict, as well as articulating geo-political exerts on the mass addressee. Fascination characterises the integrative impression that the text and its particular units customer must feel reassured by the experience features, is a semantic complex embracing ‘fi- provide in their formal aspect – an expressive or a conceptual one. Fascination is treated as a complex and multilevel and expertise of the company, and the feeling that nance, law, the social sphere, family relations, edu- textual phenomenon. Poetic, rhetoric and figurative lexical levels are distinguished where a fascinative effect can be they ‘know’ the authors of the texts as they might cation, culture, economics and criminal practice’. rendered. Fascination is totally communicative, but at the same time it belongs to discourse. The essence of the fasci- know their professional friends. All the papers in the present issue represent a nation consists in iteration, intra-textual or external, coming from discourse. A speech unit which produces a fascinative The article by Jean Langlois brings us back to search of what is more than meets the eye in their effect (text utterance or lexical nominative unit) evokes a conceptual or expressive association with something said be- what meets the eye in texts, in this case the dispas- chosen texts, and our conclusion must be that fore, i.e. said before in this text or kept in the cultural and expressive memory of the discourse. Fascination represents sionate eye of the computer and its ability to count texts are highly elaborate symbolic artefacts whose the effect of identification of what comes from the cultural experience of the language and what then virtually or other- and display patterns of style which may elude the nature we occasionally over-simplify to our detri- wise reappears in the new speech conditions. The iteration means reassessment and conceptual regeneration of what eye of the human reader. Stylometry, questions of ment as scholars and teachers. This issue includes is recalled. Fascination in its conceptual status stands above the pragmatics, it crowns the semiotic growth of the sign authorship and stylistic fingerprints have had an a skilfully written book review by Robert Williams in speech. But in political discourse, fascination does not bear its own conceptual function, being subject to pragmatics, where the main role is given to the evaluation (axiology of the sign). The effect of fascination in political discourse impact not least in the field of forensic linguistics which addresses the question Why Study Lan- reinforces the evaluative meaning of the sign and consequently its pragmatics as a whole. Special attention must be apart from their contribution to literary exegesis. In guages? The articles in this issue give us a number paid to the lexical level of fascination which, more than other levels, correlates with axiology. At the lexical level the ef- these fields, along with professional discourses of good reasons why, and as language educators fect of fascination appears when a pragmatic evaluation is substituted by a nomination bearing a supreme conceptual and even more potently in the world of authorship we can think of a great many more, a number of value. In Italian political discourse, the clearest examples of it can be the official names that some political parties on social media, computational analysis of linguis- which Williams presents in his review. choose to denominate themselves. These political parties’ names include figurative lexical elements referring to cultural tic features can enhance ‘openness and trans- Guest-editing this special issue has been an il- associations. Such names may be used for the purposes of political manipulation. The article may be of interest to spe- parency of authorship’. Crucially, Langlois reminds luminating experience and a 100% pleasure cialists in general linguistics, text linguistics, the theory of communication and to anyone investigating the discursive re- us of the role of the human researcher before and which I hope you will share. ality of a language. after the fact of automated analysis. Such a view As is customary, the issue also comes with re- always informed the work of the British linguist cent news from ICC, EUROLTA and RUDN Uni- KEYWORDS: fascination, political discourse, communicative impact, fascinative effect, evaluation, manipulation, Ital- Michael Halliday, who asserted that a corpus of versity. TLC welcomes contributions in the form of ian, interpretation texts was not enough to build a grammar: that ac- articles, reviews and correspondence. Details are This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits tivity must be based on theory-building as much as available online at rudn.tlcjournal.org. Feel free to unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material on data. It is Halliday’s work and his systemic- contact us at [email protected]. for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

© Nicolay V. Ivanov, Olga A. Pogoretskaya 2021 8 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 9 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 will be distilled through that nation’s language, functional approach which is the subject of Marina which is ‘a concentrate of national culture’. Poli- Peluso’s paper. Halliday’s work, where language is, tics as a commodity ceases to be a trade in ideas in Peluso’s words, ‘a semiotic representation of val- and becomes a battleground where your adver- ues, attitudes and behaviours’, is relevant to pro- Original Research saries may be disabled, may attack you like a mili- fessional discourse, intercultural business interac- tary force or may eat you alive. Murashova’s cor- tions and to the teaching of professional communi- pus illustrates how politics have hijacked the dis- cation. Halliday’s work stresses the semiotic foun- course of marketing; these are texts where ‘mean- dation of communication: in this sense, Peluso’s The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse ing’ is measured by the power of their metaphors paper chimes in with the centrality of the symbol (by Italian examples) and the hard sell. which surfaces in the other papers in this issue. Tatiana Dubrovskaya’s paper looks at another Alina Antipova, Maria Rabeson and Olga by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya kind of marketing: tourist brochures, which create Smirnova’s paper on online media discourse con- Nicolay V. Ivanov MGIMO University, Russia [email protected] a complex seller-customer relationship akin to a fronts meaning shifts and language change, which Olga A. Pogoretskaya MGIMO University, Russia [email protected] professional interaction. To unpack this kind of may happen with surprising alacrity compared Article history Received March 7, 2021 | Revised May 19, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 meaning, one has to look at the discourse in the with the texts of a pre-digital world. Their subject Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest round: Dubrovskaya’s paper draws on multimodal matter is conflict and their analysis of a corpus of Research funding No funding was reported for this research discourse analysis, genre studies and the methods tens of thousands of media resources involves util- doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 of professional discourse analysis. Here we see ising artificial neural networks. The ‘reader’ be- For citation Ivanov, N. V., & Pogoretskaya, O. A. (2021). The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by how textual meaning involves the contexts both of comes a machine, one that can track the distribu- Italian examples). Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 9-21. the writer and of the reader: the tour companies tion of words over time, realising the concept of The article presents a study of the phenomenon of fascination as a functional effect of the text, or particular units of the display ‘their image as experts in tourism’ and ‘the ‘monitor corpus’. The authors show how the no- text, in political discourse. Fascination is the highest point and a part of the communicative impact which a politician need to construct rapport with the customers’. The tion of conflict, as well as articulating geo-political exerts on the mass addressee. Fascination characterises the integrative impression that the text and its particular units customer must feel reassured by the experience features, is a semantic complex embracing ‘fi- provide in their formal aspect – an expressive or a conceptual one. Fascination is treated as a complex and multilevel and expertise of the company, and the feeling that nance, law, the social sphere, family relations, edu- textual phenomenon. Poetic, rhetoric and figurative lexical levels are distinguished where a fascinative effect can be they ‘know’ the authors of the texts as they might cation, culture, economics and criminal practice’. rendered. Fascination is totally communicative, but at the same time it belongs to discourse. The essence of the fasci- know their professional friends. All the papers in the present issue represent a nation consists in iteration, intra-textual or external, coming from discourse. A speech unit which produces a fascinative The article by Jean Langlois brings us back to search of what is more than meets the eye in their effect (text utterance or lexical nominative unit) evokes a conceptual or expressive association with something said be- what meets the eye in texts, in this case the dispas- chosen texts, and our conclusion must be that fore, i.e. said before in this text or kept in the cultural and expressive memory of the discourse. Fascination represents sionate eye of the computer and its ability to count texts are highly elaborate symbolic artefacts whose the effect of identification of what comes from the cultural experience of the language and what then virtually or other- and display patterns of style which may elude the nature we occasionally over-simplify to our detri- wise reappears in the new speech conditions. The iteration means reassessment and conceptual regeneration of what eye of the human reader. Stylometry, questions of ment as scholars and teachers. This issue includes is recalled. Fascination in its conceptual status stands above the pragmatics, it crowns the semiotic growth of the sign authorship and stylistic fingerprints have had an a skilfully written book review by Robert Williams in speech. But in political discourse, fascination does not bear its own conceptual function, being subject to pragmatics, where the main role is given to the evaluation (axiology of the sign). The effect of fascination in political discourse impact not least in the field of forensic linguistics which addresses the question Why Study Lan- reinforces the evaluative meaning of the sign and consequently its pragmatics as a whole. Special attention must be apart from their contribution to literary exegesis. In guages? The articles in this issue give us a number paid to the lexical level of fascination which, more than other levels, correlates with axiology. At the lexical level the ef- these fields, along with professional discourses of good reasons why, and as language educators fect of fascination appears when a pragmatic evaluation is substituted by a nomination bearing a supreme conceptual and even more potently in the world of authorship we can think of a great many more, a number of value. In Italian political discourse, the clearest examples of it can be the official names that some political parties on social media, computational analysis of linguis- which Williams presents in his review. choose to denominate themselves. These political parties’ names include figurative lexical elements referring to cultural tic features can enhance ‘openness and trans- Guest-editing this special issue has been an il- associations. Such names may be used for the purposes of political manipulation. The article may be of interest to spe- parency of authorship’. Crucially, Langlois reminds luminating experience and a 100% pleasure cialists in general linguistics, text linguistics, the theory of communication and to anyone investigating the discursive re- us of the role of the human researcher before and which I hope you will share. ality of a language. after the fact of automated analysis. Such a view As is customary, the issue also comes with re- always informed the work of the British linguist cent news from ICC, EUROLTA and RUDN Uni- KEYWORDS: fascination, political discourse, communicative impact, fascinative effect, evaluation, manipulation, Ital- Michael Halliday, who asserted that a corpus of versity. TLC welcomes contributions in the form of ian, interpretation texts was not enough to build a grammar: that ac- articles, reviews and correspondence. Details are This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits tivity must be based on theory-building as much as available online at rudn.tlcjournal.org. Feel free to unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material on data. It is Halliday’s work and his systemic- contact us at [email protected]. for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

1. INTRODUCTION alone. Thus, Heidegger (2014) talks about the his- Fascination is a word of broad abstract seman- ‘Fascination as a lexeme concentrates in ‘Fascination is often associated with torical dimension of the being in its existential tics. Etymologically, it comes from the Latin fasci- itself many of the attributes that are something unforeseen, unexpected in the sense. natio, derived from the verb fascinare, which trans- commonly distinguished in philosophical text. Contrast and paradox are considered The present article will examine and analyse lates as ‘to bewitch’, ‘to charm’, ‘to captivate’, as some speech facts of Italian political discourse, in well as ‘to put the evil eye on’. Almost unchanged aesthetics when characterising folklore- the main features of fascination, which is which the appeal to historical memory, to socio- in semantics, the word entered the Romance lan- symbolic and artistic forms as the criteria especially characteristic of the fiction cultural background information becomes an im- guages, as well as other European languages, of their poetic impact’ literature’ portant resource of semantic fascinative influence where a more literal meaning ‘to dazzle’ was on the public audience. In particular, we will con- added to it, particularly in Italian. Fascination as a ponents of the text – its individual units and ele- Together with other semantic factors in the text, it sider the area of fascination created by means of lexeme concentrates in itself many of the attributes ments, utterances and verbal denotations. Fascina- provokes a communicative reaction by the ad- figurative nominations in a political text. In addi- that are commonly distinguished in philosophical tion has both a sensual and rational nature. In dressee, transforming perception into ‘an active tion, principles of manipulative application of lin- aesthetics when characterising folklore-symbolic terms of cognitive interpretation, it is a rational source of interpretation and a part of the very guistic imagery resources in Italian political dis- and artistic forms as the criteria of their poetic im- meaning which leads to an emotional reaction af- process of text production’ (Eco, 2005, p. 14). The course will be touched upon. pact. Fascination crowns catharsis (Omelchenko, ter being understood. In psychological terms, it is addressee gives a semantic ‘verdict’ (positive or The method applied to the material in this arti- 2016, p. 179). a general impression that may mean interest, negative) on the speech, ‘usurping’ the author’s cle comprises discursive (with reference to cultural Not surprisingly, this word has come at the right amazement, surprise, charm, satisfaction, dislike, right to its ultimate interpretation. The author is associations), communicative (based on pragmat- time in the subject of psychological, literary and indignation, fright, etc. Sensual semantics of fasci- powerless before the addressee’s interpretative ver- ics) and cognitive semantic (confronting axiologi- art semiotics studies, and subsequently philology nation is unlimited. dict (Ivanov, 2014, p. 125-126). Trying to antici- cal and cultural connotations present in speech and text linguistics, quickly becoming a term used Fascination is often associated with something pate this, authors strive to produce their speech so sign) aspects of analysis. to denote the totality of features of pragmatic and unforeseen, unexpected in the text (Omelchenko, that it would not be rejected by the addressee, i.e. These aspects are especially valid in their appli- cultural perception of any work of art, verbal work 2016, p. 179). Contrast and paradox are consid- making it convincing in content and acceptable in cation to political discourse where they clearly ex- or text in social communication. In modern studies ered the main features of fascination, which is es- form. The ‘hypothesis of perception’, focusing on plain and demonstrate the regulatory function of this notion has been extensively applied not only pecially characteristic of the fiction literature the foreseen perlocutionary effect, becomes a fun- the text. to verbal textual forms, but also to a large variety (Omelchenko, 2012, p. 20). But occasionality is damental prerequisite of utterance production in of works of art, creolised text production or cine- not quite sufficient to explain fascination in full. communication (Frank, 1999; Sidorov, 2011). Fas- 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ma (Omelchenko, 2015). The fascinative effect is precedential (Omel- cination is the highest form and order of expres- 3.1. Fascination as a communicative phe- Fascination is commonly treated as a psycho- chenko, 2012) and potentially iterative and may sive presentation of the thought in text, which the nomenon in political discourse logical phenomenon in all varieties of human be perceived as an expected phenomenon. In po- speaker focuses on and aspires to, ‘inviting’ the Political communication stands out among oth- communicative conduct and artistic forms (Sokov- litical discourse, the audience often wants to hear addressee to communicative ‘cooperation’. er types of communication due to its pronounced nin, 2005) combining cultural paradox and cultur- some familiar words, concepts and speech formu- However, a pragmatic understanding of fascina- pragmatic orientation. Its main goal is to influence al habit, where paradox breaks or in some way lae from a politician again and again, which coin- tion alone is not enough. Fascination is not only a the consciousness of the addressee, to create a sys- modifies the habit (Omelchenko, 2013b, p. 239). cide with their heartfelt aspirations and assess- communicative, but also a discursive phenome- tem of socio-political beliefs and to form a way of For us, fascination is a useful term to cover a large ments. Of course, this must be a prepared audi- non. More precisely, one is inconceivable without thinking. Political communication unfolds in the variety of text expressive phenomena – from the ence. Politicians in their rhetoric are sharply ori- the other. The pragmatics of the speech act and the socio-cultural space of political discourse. poetic and rhetorical form of the text up to verbal ented towards the impulses of the ‘crowd’, of the discourse condition each other. It is possible to It is worth noting that in recent years political nominations in it – making them subject to one common opinion. For this reason, we do not sepa- speak of a mutually generative relationship be- discourse has significantly expanded the bound- principle of inner semantic organisation and to rate the unexpected fascination from the expected tween speech pragmatics and discourse (Fedulova, aries of its speech usage due to media space, one method of analysis from the point of view of one with reference to political discourse. 2020, p. 271). The discourse accumulates the cul- which is actively developing and has already be- language cultural experience in discourse. First of all, fascination is the highest point of tural-expressive memory of a language, being the come an integral part of political communication. communicative influence that a text has on the ad- integral space of this memory. The speech act re- Political discourse is a conceptual condition of the 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS dressee, the highest point of the perception of the produces and renovates the experience accumu- phenomenology of the speech act, of any commu- Fascination is the effect usually attributed to a meaning of a speech unit in its integrity and at the lated in discourse representing an extension and nicative event. text, referring to its holistic perception by the ad- same time the initial point of its interpretation by further development of this experience. Phenome- Scholars have interpreted political discourse as dressee in terms of form. The qualities of holistic the addressee or other actors in the discourse. Fas- nology is defective when disconnected from its broadly as possible, bearing in mind its relation to perception are transposed into the particular com- cination is perlocutionary in its functional status. historical premise, limited to actual pragmatics language. Discourse is ‘language used effectively

10 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 11 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya

The pinnacle of the regulatory function of com- by its appeal to the addressee. The appeal to dis- ‘The pragmatics of political discourse is municative pragmatics in political discourse is ‘Speech impact is a constant factor course (to background knowledge, to history, to characterised by an increased function of evaluation (Belykh, 2019, p. 8-9). Evaluation in all accompanying political action, fulfilling a socio-cultural experience, etc.) and the scale and cases is the ultimate achievement of political com- crucial, one might say paramount, depth of immersion into discourse measure its fas- communicative regulation, a purposeful munication. Politicians seek to arouse sympathy, to cinative potential. Pragmatics is the rational apex semantic influence on the addressee’ gain support for their position by the mass audi- axiological role in any political process. of the sign. Fascination stands beyond pragmatics. ence. The criterion of evaluation ultimately is the The political addressee is primarily As such, it is a factor of irrational impact. in specific situations to achieve goals; it is a struc- voter’s attitude to the theses, actions and socio-po- oriented towards the politician’s word’ In political discourse, fascination has a rather ture and at the same time a process’ (Santulli, litical position of the politician. The most impor- ‘complex’ relationship with argumentation – the 2005, p. 13). tant tool for expressing public appreciation is elec- evaluation’ (Tsutsieva, 2014, p. 140). Each politi- rational side of communicative influence. The ra- The pragmatics of political discourse is charac- tions, or other form of mass support for a cian creates and accumulates his or her own set of tional side is intended for both the positive (mass) terised by an increased function of communicative politician. The evaluation performs an interpreta- communicative influence techniques. and the negative (political opponent) addressees. regulation, a purposeful semantic influence on the tive function in the structure of the political com- Under these conditions, the function of the text Fascination, as a communicative phenomenon, is addressee. The addressee of political discourse has municative act (Belykh, 2019, p. 66): ‘evaluation, – any speech unit in discourse (text, utterance, intended primarily for the mass addressee. a dual nature. On the one hand, it is the mass au- as a part of pragmatic meaning, brings to the fore word) – is multifacetedly conditioned by the Of course, a politician cannot rely solely on the dience, the people, the electorate, whom the the problem of interpretation’ (Arutyunova, 1988, speech culture of discourse. Any speech act is a fascinative effect in his or her speech strategies, as politician has to attract to his or her side. On the p. 8). Communicative regulation in political dis- part and a continuation of the discourse. Only in far as communication with the mass addressee is other hand, it is the political opponent, the adver- course is primarily aimed at provoking an appro- scientific abstraction can one imagine a speech act concerned. In political communication, the fasci- sary, whose arguments need to be rebutted, over- priate axiological orientation of the addressee’s in- without any reference to discourse. Ergon (ἔργον) native effect must ultimately be subordinated to come through counter-argumentation (Belykh, terpretative response from the point of view of per- and energy (ἐνέργεια) come together in the prag- the pragmatic task of the sign. Fascination is not 2019, p. 75). A similar duality of the addressee is ception and understanding. matics of the speech act. At the apex of semiosis, semantically independent in political discourse, it typical in judicial legal discourse, where the ap- Communicative regulation in political dis- the sign, reaching the edge of its semantic and ex- only enhances the function of the pragmatic effect. peal to the judge and the appeal to the opposite course is total. It targets both the rational and sen- pressive form of being, reveals something existing With all that, at some moments, the function of side of the process (for example, the defence to the sual spheres of the addressee’s consciousness. beyond this form – a chain of external connota- fascination in political communication can prosecution) differ significantly in their pragmatic Communicative nature of evaluation is stressed by tions, further semantic infinity, new distinguisha- expand, ‘eclipsing’ the internal rational functional- orientation (Fedulova, 2020, p. 190). There does researchers. Dialogism, dynamism, expressiveness bility inherent in it as a phenomenon of our life. ity of the sign. This leads to what can be described not seem to be a similar duality of the addressee in are main functional features of evaluation (Panina The sign acquires discursive properties, enters a as a functional substitution of pragmatics for exter- colloquial and literary, as well as scientific types of & Amerkhanova, 2018, p. 87). Reactive commu- new interpretative dimension, revealing the nature nal expressive effects. On this basis (in addition to discourse. In these types of discourse the functions nicative evaluation in political discourse can be of discourse as ‘speech immersed in life’ (Aru- the cases of outright lies and deception, which are of the ‘positive’ addressee (the people, the judge) evoked by a variety of means. In addition to social tyunova, 1990, p. 136). frequent in politics) chances appear and grow for and the ‘negative’ addressee (the political oppo- and political action, the verbal element plays an The boundaries of understanding and the per- political manipulation. nent, the opposite side in the trial) are not distin- important role in the political impact on the audi- spectives of further understanding, the finite and guished. ence – both the rhetoric of a single political the potentially infinite, pragmatics, and external 3.2. Levels of fascination in political text In political discourse, the main addressee, i.e. speech or the process of sustained argumentation socio-cultural associations (image, stylistic colour- Fascination is a complex phenomenon, which the highest and ultimate goal of the regulatory in an on-going political debate. Speech impact is a ing) are inextricably linked to each other, and, at is generated at the totality of levels where text is communicative influence, is the people, the mass constant factor accompanying political action, ful- the same time, confront each other in the speech conditioned by discourse, among which we distin- audience. The objective of political discourse is to filling a crucial, one might say paramount, axio- reality of the sign. Regarding the figurative means guish the parameters of poetic, rhetorical and influence the behaviour and beliefs of a targeted logical role in any political process. The political of language, researchers note the coincidence and nominative verbal levels. constituency (Bebbington, 2018). One can hardly addressee is primarily oriented towards the politi- struggle between the two semantic levels of the At every level we see what could be called the assume the same regulatory orientation of a politician’s word. Aware of this, the politician carefully understanding-perceptional complex – the internal ‘phenomenon of recognition’, which means cal text towards a political opponent (unless, of selects the linguistic means of influence, while re- endogenous rational and the external exogenous awareness of previous cultural or contextual expe- course, there is some kind of political alliance lying on the conceptual and expressive speech fac- irrational (Shnyakina, 2010, p. 90-94). In a com- rience that a speech sign integrates. One suddenly with him or her on the basis of some kind of mutu- tors of discourse. ‘The modern politician has to munication study of political or other types of dis- recognises in a sign something that happens to be al concessions). In the latter case, the politicians master the system of figurative and expressive course, a similar unity and contrast of the two in a way already well known, has long ago or just share the regulatory function to the extent of their means in order to influence the audience, to have functional aspects can be seen in almost any been seen, and now reveals itself different in a alliance relationship. an impact on it; to count on a response in the speech sign. The pragmatics of a sign is measured new context. Philosophers, referring to such situa-

12 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 13 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya tions, use the term anamnesis (recall). In the phe- with the destruction of rhetorical structure, as a nomenon of recalling we see simultaneously repe- ‘Fascination is inherent in various speech ‘At the rhetorical level, fascination is formal indicator of the speaker’s heightened emo- tition, continuation and negation of the previous forms at all textual levels. Political created either by enhancing the expressive tional state. Other researchers see a reinforced experience of the sign. The previous life of the sign communication makes use of all possible dynamics of the thought, or by stopping its evaluation behind it and consider it an important experiences a new birth. The connection with pre- signal of the ‘conceptual strength’ of the thought in vious experience decisively influences the form of resources of fascination: poetic, rhetorical intensional development and focusing the understanding the object: ‘strong emotion can pro- the sign, determining its semantic and expressive and verbal. Poetic fascination works attention on a single moment without mote both stereotyping of the text structure, i.e. orientation. Iteration as a method of fascination is primarily as an expressive phenomenon’ moving on to the next’ anaphora, epiphora, climax, etc., or lead to its de- underscored by scientists (Povarnitsyna, 2016, p. struction, i.e. to ellipsis, anacoluthon, parcelling, 121; Omelchenko, 2013a, p. 138). exclamation, rhetorical question’ (Ivanov, 2010, p. The transition from one sign to another, from mediate scale of poetic association and the exter- is a characteristic fascinative reinforcement that is 31). A predicative assertion in a proposition is a one speech fact to another, from a previous ex- nal discursive scale of association. The first one perceived as an indicator of the clarity and cer- figure of a developmental type, which can be rein- pressive experience to a subsequent one that con- can be called poetic proper, the second one – tainty of the politician’s thought. forced in its expressive dynamics. In periphrastic tinues it, generates a figure. The transition from compositional. The first one is revealed at the level The rhetorical form is based on the phe- figures there is no transition to another thought: the discourse to text generates the figure of discourse of intra-textual poetic repetition of rhymed, rhyth- nomenon of transition from thought to thought, speaker, through expressive iteration, concentrates (Ivanov & Fedulova, 2019, p. 16). This transitivity mically or otherwise structurally correlated parts of from statement to statement (Ivanov, 2010, p. 20). attention on a single significant point of the means duplication, substitution and interpretation the text. Internal expressive association based on Each act of transition characterises the dynamics of thought, temporarily stopping its development. of one part of the figure by another (Ivanov & Fed- the principle of structural or sound similarity is an a thought’s semantic development at the given mo- It is important to note that at the rhetorical ulova, 2019, p. 11-12). It can be a transition from important resource of the poetics of the text. ment of its expressive deployment. Here, more level, fascination is not separated from pragmatics, direct meaning to figurative meaning in metaphor, The second dimension of poetic fascination has than anywhere else, emotional expression mani- but rather is combined with it. It is a kind of emo- from topic to rhema in the utterance (Kurochkina, to do with the holistic structure of the text. Here fests itself, which intensifies the axiological assign- tional fascination that is based on evaluation. It is 2006, p. 3), from utterance to utterance in a text, poetics is interpreted broadly as the genre and styl- ment of the element within the thought or of the as if the speaker seeks to ‘infect’ the listener with or from text to text in discourse, etc. (Ivanov & Fe- istic form of a text, its composition in a holistic thought as a whole. his or her emotion, by using an expressive style of dulova, 2019, p. 9-10). Fascination uncovers the sense (novel, novella, newspaper article, essay, At the rhetorical level, fascination is created ei- speech. The rhetorical level has to do with how an properties of communication – whether at the lev- public speech, memo, some kind of official docu- ther by enhancing the expressive dynamics of the idea reaches its culmination, its conclusion, and el of a single utterance (topic – rhema), a text ment, etc.). The linear length (volume) and the in- thought, or by stopping its intensional develop- the expressive form it takes in the end. (where a generalisation, a vivid conclusion or oth- ner architecture of a text (its genre and composi- ment and focusing the attention on a single mo- The most interesting for linguistic analysis is the er substantive culmination occurs as the text un- tional structure) are important for external poetics. ment without moving on to the next. In the first nominative discursive-linguistic level of fascina- folds), or in a prolonged discussion on the dis- The genre form of the text controls its content. The case, we have various forms of predicative devel- tion. This type of fascination occurs in the word, in course level (when an active discourse actor uses a speaker must stay within the time (the prescribed opment from topic to rhema in an utterance (in a single word’s denotative operation. On the one strong counterargument, a bright metaphor or apt length) and follow the commonly used style of particular, increasing the strength of the predica- hand, as at the other higher textual levels, verbal aphorism that ‘overshadows’ the arguments of the composition. This creates a genre or poetic normative assertion of the rhema against the topic), from fascination is auxiliary, since it relies on connota- opponent in the eyes of the mass addressee). The tivity, a certain canon which the communicators premise to conclusion in logical induction, from tions of a figurative and stylistic type. On the other figure creates the form of any speech product (text, are supposed to follow. Thus, in public communi- argument to conclusion (or other kind of meaning- hand, in its pragmatic aspect, verbal fascination utterance, word), marking its relative semantic and cation, the volume – the length of the speech the ful culmination) in larger text structures. The two tends to be culminant in context. Words with this expressive completeness, in which it, as an inte- speaker counts on – is of great importance. As a correlative parts of an utterance or text duplicate kind of connotation are most often thought of as gral speech sign, can be presented to the ad- rule, the desire for brevity, the desire to keep to each other, which can be understood as a kind of the brightest axiologically marked denotations, oc- dressee. Fascination ‘crowns’ the figurative form of time (of course, not to the detriment of the predicative progress (from what to what the cupying a central position in the context. These a speech sign (text, utterance, word) in the aspect content) is more positively perceived by the mass thought moves). words attract most attention and are the most of its pragmatic perception. audience. In the second case, we have an expressive stop- memorable and, therefore, have a strong prospect Fascination is inherent in various speech forms There is an interesting example of a memorable ping of the thought in its intensional development, of being repeated in further speech usage. All this at all textual levels. Political communication short speech by Silvio Berlusconi during the elec- which takes the form of periphrastic repetition by determines the relevant discursogenic role of such makes use of all possible resources of fascination: tion campaign in 1994 – the famous ‘discesa in means of climax or some other type of structural nominations, which is especially important in po- poetic, rhetorical and verbal (figurative). Poetic fas- campo’ speech. The speech lasted nine minutes, parallelism. Stereotyping of the speech form is one litical discourse, where a bright word, an apt de- cination works primarily as an expressive phe- and the politician clearly did not want to bore his of the indicators of increased emotional expres- scription or a slogan can decisively change the di- nomenon. We can distinguish the intra-textual im- audience with his arguments. Conciseness, brevity sion. Osgood (1960) identifies stereotyping, along rection of the entire political communication.

14 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 15 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya tions, use the term anamnesis (recall). In the phe- with the destruction of rhetorical structure, as a nomenon of recalling we see simultaneously repe- ‘Fascination is inherent in various speech ‘At the rhetorical level, fascination is formal indicator of the speaker’s heightened emo- tition, continuation and negation of the previous forms at all textual levels. Political created either by enhancing the expressive tional state. Other researchers see a reinforced experience of the sign. The previous life of the sign communication makes use of all possible dynamics of the thought, or by stopping its evaluation behind it and consider it an important experiences a new birth. The connection with pre- signal of the ‘conceptual strength’ of the thought in vious experience decisively influences the form of resources of fascination: poetic, rhetorical intensional development and focusing the understanding the object: ‘strong emotion can pro- the sign, determining its semantic and expressive and verbal. Poetic fascination works attention on a single moment without mote both stereotyping of the text structure, i.e. orientation. Iteration as a method of fascination is primarily as an expressive phenomenon’ moving on to the next’ anaphora, epiphora, climax, etc., or lead to its de- underscored by scientists (Povarnitsyna, 2016, p. struction, i.e. to ellipsis, anacoluthon, parcelling, 121; Omelchenko, 2013a, p. 138). exclamation, rhetorical question’ (Ivanov, 2010, p. The transition from one sign to another, from mediate scale of poetic association and the exter- is a characteristic fascinative reinforcement that is 31). A predicative assertion in a proposition is a one speech fact to another, from a previous ex- nal discursive scale of association. The first one perceived as an indicator of the clarity and cer- figure of a developmental type, which can be rein- pressive experience to a subsequent one that con- can be called poetic proper, the second one – tainty of the politician’s thought. forced in its expressive dynamics. In periphrastic tinues it, generates a figure. The transition from compositional. The first one is revealed at the level The rhetorical form is based on the phe- figures there is no transition to another thought: the discourse to text generates the figure of discourse of intra-textual poetic repetition of rhymed, rhyth- nomenon of transition from thought to thought, speaker, through expressive iteration, concentrates (Ivanov & Fedulova, 2019, p. 16). This transitivity mically or otherwise structurally correlated parts of from statement to statement (Ivanov, 2010, p. 20). attention on a single significant point of the means duplication, substitution and interpretation the text. Internal expressive association based on Each act of transition characterises the dynamics of thought, temporarily stopping its development. of one part of the figure by another (Ivanov & Fed- the principle of structural or sound similarity is an a thought’s semantic development at the given mo- It is important to note that at the rhetorical ulova, 2019, p. 11-12). It can be a transition from important resource of the poetics of the text. ment of its expressive deployment. Here, more level, fascination is not separated from pragmatics, direct meaning to figurative meaning in metaphor, The second dimension of poetic fascination has than anywhere else, emotional expression mani- but rather is combined with it. It is a kind of emo- from topic to rhema in the utterance (Kurochkina, to do with the holistic structure of the text. Here fests itself, which intensifies the axiological assign- tional fascination that is based on evaluation. It is 2006, p. 3), from utterance to utterance in a text, poetics is interpreted broadly as the genre and styl- ment of the element within the thought or of the as if the speaker seeks to ‘infect’ the listener with or from text to text in discourse, etc. (Ivanov & Fe- istic form of a text, its composition in a holistic thought as a whole. his or her emotion, by using an expressive style of dulova, 2019, p. 9-10). Fascination uncovers the sense (novel, novella, newspaper article, essay, At the rhetorical level, fascination is created ei- speech. The rhetorical level has to do with how an properties of communication – whether at the lev- public speech, memo, some kind of official docu- ther by enhancing the expressive dynamics of the idea reaches its culmination, its conclusion, and el of a single utterance (topic – rhema), a text ment, etc.). The linear length (volume) and the in- thought, or by stopping its intensional develop- the expressive form it takes in the end. (where a generalisation, a vivid conclusion or oth- ner architecture of a text (its genre and composi- ment and focusing the attention on a single mo- The most interesting for linguistic analysis is the er substantive culmination occurs as the text un- tional structure) are important for external poetics. ment without moving on to the next. In the first nominative discursive-linguistic level of fascina- folds), or in a prolonged discussion on the dis- The genre form of the text controls its content. The case, we have various forms of predicative devel- tion. This type of fascination occurs in the word, in course level (when an active discourse actor uses a speaker must stay within the time (the prescribed opment from topic to rhema in an utterance (in a single word’s denotative operation. On the one strong counterargument, a bright metaphor or apt length) and follow the commonly used style of particular, increasing the strength of the predica- hand, as at the other higher textual levels, verbal aphorism that ‘overshadows’ the arguments of the composition. This creates a genre or poetic normative assertion of the rhema against the topic), from fascination is auxiliary, since it relies on connota- opponent in the eyes of the mass addressee). The tivity, a certain canon which the communicators premise to conclusion in logical induction, from tions of a figurative and stylistic type. On the other figure creates the form of any speech product (text, are supposed to follow. Thus, in public communi- argument to conclusion (or other kind of meaning- hand, in its pragmatic aspect, verbal fascination utterance, word), marking its relative semantic and cation, the volume – the length of the speech the ful culmination) in larger text structures. The two tends to be culminant in context. Words with this expressive completeness, in which it, as an inte- speaker counts on – is of great importance. As a correlative parts of an utterance or text duplicate kind of connotation are most often thought of as gral speech sign, can be presented to the ad- rule, the desire for brevity, the desire to keep to each other, which can be understood as a kind of the brightest axiologically marked denotations, oc- dressee. Fascination ‘crowns’ the figurative form of time (of course, not to the detriment of the predicative progress (from what to what the cupying a central position in the context. These a speech sign (text, utterance, word) in the aspect content) is more positively perceived by the mass thought moves). words attract most attention and are the most of its pragmatic perception. audience. In the second case, we have an expressive stop- memorable and, therefore, have a strong prospect Fascination is inherent in various speech forms There is an interesting example of a memorable ping of the thought in its intensional development, of being repeated in further speech usage. All this at all textual levels. Political communication short speech by Silvio Berlusconi during the elec- which takes the form of periphrastic repetition by determines the relevant discursogenic role of such makes use of all possible resources of fascination: tion campaign in 1994 – the famous ‘discesa in means of climax or some other type of structural nominations, which is especially important in po- poetic, rhetorical and verbal (figurative). Poetic fas- campo’ speech. The speech lasted nine minutes, parallelism. Stereotyping of the speech form is one litical discourse, where a bright word, an apt de- cination works primarily as an expressive phe- and the politician clearly did not want to bore his of the indicators of increased emotional expres- scription or a slogan can decisively change the di- nomenon. We can distinguish the intra-textual im- audience with his arguments. Conciseness, brevity sion. Osgood (1960) identifies stereotyping, along rection of the entire political communication.

4. STUDY AND RESULTS the assessment to an object or event, whether the the speaker (in our case it is a politician) in order The word as an element of the text in its expres- ‘In all cases of fascination there is a designated object or reality and their assessment to effectively deliver the communicative impact to sive communicative presentation is capable of im- moment of intra-textual or external are sufficiently adequate for each other. The con- the addressee (Fedulova, 2020, p. 246) for the pur- plementing poetic, rhetorical and discursive fea- discursive iteration, an implicit or explicit ceptual aspect deals with the socio-cultural ade- pose of provoking an appropriate semantic re- tures of fascination. Poetic and rhetorical fascina- quacy of the evaluation. In this aspect, the speaker sponse by the addressee. tion are produced by the word within the text. return to what has been said before. On seeks a social sanction for the application of the We distinguish two interrelated levels of evalua- They appear through intra-textual expressive or se- the scale of discourse, one can understand evaluation. Evaluation requires constant reliance tive asymmetry that could appear in a speech sign: mantic correlations, namely, through a casual ex- it as a kind of external semantic and/or on an external motivation in both semantic and factual (endogenous, relative and pragmatic, fo- pressive or structural anaphoric coincidence, sociocultural aspects. It always looks to justify it- cused on the object) and virtual (exogenous, fo- which refers to what has been already said in the expressive attraction with reference to self, otherwise it is in danger of losing its truthful cused on the concept that dominates discourse). text. We are primarily interested in the external as- previous cultural and expressive foundations and of becoming socio-culturally iso- The first is analysed and described in linguistic sociative transitivity that occurs between the word experience, background knowledge’ lated. studies by Fedulova (2020) and Melnichuk (2018). as a text element and the discourse. In such a tran- In common usage, the two sides of evaluation Cases of judicial rhetoric are described where the sition, the level and scale of discursive interpreta- external discursive associations strengthens the in a speech sign are represented syncretically, in- implicit lack of factual corroboration is compensat- tion is extremely important. evaluative weight of the politician’s speech and distinguishably. Nevertheless, despite the stable in- ed for an explicit reinforcement of evaluation In all cases of fascination there is a moment of gives it a feature of socio-cultural significance. separable connection, in some types of discourse (through euphemisms or dysphemisms). Such eval- intra-textual or external discursive iteration, an im- Word fascination necessarily serves the evalua- the two functional sides of evaluation (pragmatic uation is clearly disproportionate to its object. plicit or explicit return to what has been said be- tion. There are two sides of evaluation: the relative and conceptual) may come into conflict, some- As to political discourse, we are interested in fore. On the scale of discourse, one can under- subjective and the absolute conceptual. The rela- times in a rather striking way. This is quite prom- demonstrating the conceptual side of axiological stand it as a kind of external semantic and/or ex- tive subjective evaluation provides an immediate inent in judicial legal discourse (Fedulova, 2020, asymmetry in speech signs, where the highest dis- pressive attraction with reference to previous cul- pragmatic comprehension of the denotatum (the p. 166-167), as well as in political discourse, cursive conceptual association compensates for tural and expressive experience, background object that the sign designates) which can be chal- which is of great scientific interest in terms of the insufficiency and lack of factual corroboration knowledge. This kind of attraction can be consid- lenged in its interpretative status. Absolute concep- opening up opportunities to identify the manipula- of the pragmatic side of evaluation. The highest ered the strongest and most sustainable in terms of tual evaluation appeals to higher moral criteria as- tive axiological potential in these types of dis- and superior fascinates the inferior. Thus, fascina- the fascinative effect it creates. The speaker evokes sociated with the conceptual foundations of discourse. tion in the choice of words means replacing the the ‘authority’ of the cultural and expressive expe- course and, as such, cannot be challenged. The Human social behaviour is often contradictory. endogenous subject-axiology by the exogenous rience of language. functional duality of evaluation in its reference to Personal gain comes into conflict with higher so- concept-axiology, which is assumed to be absolute At the verbal level, discursive fascination corre- the designated subject of speech and its appeal to cial values. Inconsistencies between what I want and undisputable. lates with the so-called ‘internal semantic form’ of the conceptual foundations of discourse is noted and what I should do, between the pragmatic and In making this distinction, we rely on Arutyuno- the word, which is the product and resource of its by researchers (Wolf, 1985, p. 13-14; Arutyunova, deontic sides of evaluation, have long been part of va’s (1988) theory of language evaluation, which effective speech implementation. The internal se- 1988, p. 9-11; Fedulova, 2020, p. 226-227). The the field of discursive linguistic and cultural stud- distinguishes between the axiological (pragmatic) mantic form is the necessary interpretative capaci- pragmatic side, in which the evaluation refers to ies, in which they are referred to as ‘axiological and normative-deontic spheres of evaluation and, ty of the word which serves to achieve a pragmatic the object, can be defined as explicit. The concep- enantiosemia’ (Melnichuk, 2018, p. 4-6; Siny- following this, identifies the proper evaluative and communicative impact. Coming from the inner se- tual side is most frequently virtual and implicit. achkin, 2011, p. 12; Fedulova, 2020, p. 166). Aru- deontic predicates belonging to each of these mantic potential of the word in the culture, it fea- The relative subjective and absolute conceptual tyunova (1988, p. 6) refers to such enantiosemia, spheres. Based on Arutyunova’s (1988, p. 9-11) tures the form of the thought in a word (Shpet, sides of evaluation presuppose and support each postulating an inherent internal conflict within the terms, we can formulate the idea of verbal fascina- 1996, p. 62). External associations enhance the other in the speech dynamics of discourse. They evaluation, arising from the opposition of what is tion as ‘a substitution of the pragmatic evaluative pragmatic effect of the ‘internal semantic form’, ex- can be called the two dimensions of evaluation, absolute and what is relative in it. predicate by the deontic value predicate’. Clearly, panding the space of the socio-cultural interpreta- which infinitely influence each other. Any evalua- Axiological enantiosemia is an extreme case of there is no strict or fixed distinction between the tion, conceptualising understanding. In political tion in speech has a double verification. The ob- the internal opposition between the relative and two types of predicates in language. The distinction discourse, in the rhetoric of political speech, exter- jective designation verifies the evaluation objec- conceptual sides of evaluation in a speech sign. we make can only be relative and conventional. nal fascinative amplification as such is redundant. tively on its factual side. It constitutes the evidence On this basis, characteristic facts of asymmetry ap- Potentially, any lexeme denoting something social- It gains a functional status only when it rests on an of it being real and true. The conceptual side, in pear in the speech sign dynamics in discourse. This ly significant and culturally undeniable can play internal, necessary interpretative resource, ‘in which the evaluation is legitimised by gaining so- asymmetry is not something spontaneously arising the role of a superior deontic predicate and serve which evaluation plays the key role’ (Arutyunova, cial status, serves as its ultimate moral justification. in the sign with no regard to human will, but a as a substitute for the nearest pragmatic evaluation, 1988, p. 5). The virtual figurative content based on The subjective side deals with the applicability of purposeful speech technique deliberately used by which often lacks factual corroboration. Any fact of

16 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 17 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya

these were all relative evaluative predicates (or the indirectly recognisable poetics of the original ‘As to political discourse, we are rather, political terms elevated to the rank of evalu- form come into discursive conflict, creating what ‘Fascination at the lexical level is closely interested in demonstrating the conceptual ative predicates) which could be challenged on a we call the fascinative effect. What can be called a related to figurativeness and produces a side of axiological asymmetry in speech rational level. Forza, Italia! is an irrational party false poetic re-identification of the form opens up: symbolic effect. The task of the symbol is name in which to challenge the connotation asso- we associatively recognise what we know well on signs, where the highest discursive ciated with it (the greatness and glory of Italy) is the rational and sensual levels, and at the same to evoke the broadest possible semantic conceptual association compensates for impossible, unacceptable. Of course, little by time we do not recognise it in its new pragmatic association, affecting the sensual the insufficiency and lack of factual little, even the most exalted political names are application. perception in a cumulative way’ relativised in political discourse. But they still The latent manipulative function of figurative corroboration of the pragmatic side of maintain their external appeal for a long time, ap- fascinative forms in political discourse is notewor- tants of South Tyrol towards the local Italian popu- evaluation. The highest and superior pealing to the voter’s sensibility. thy. Political discourse is mainly public. Any public lation. By the very title the author draws a symbol- fascinates the inferior’ Here are some other similar names for Italy’s re- communication, being evaluative, cannot escape ic parallel between the treatment of migrants from gional and national parties: Polo delle Libertà manipulation. Persuasion and manipulation are African and Arab countries in contemporary Eu- history, national or world culture that evokes a cer- (‘Pole of Freedoms’), Casa delle Libertà (‘House of common functions of any public discourse (Panina rope and the treatment of Austrians towards Ital- tain emotional attitude of the mass recipient can Freedoms’), Realtà Italia (‘Reality Italy’), Fermare il & Amerkhanova, 2018, p. 86). Figurative speech ians 150 years earlier. Racial animosity is com- be chosen as a deontic predicate. Superior deontic Declino (‘Stop the Decline’), Alto Adige nel Cuore means are relevant material for cognitive analysis pared to ethnic animosity. It is as though the au- predicates are archetypical, while inferior subjec- (‘Alto Adige in the Heart’), Io Sud (‘I the South’), of manipulation based on its inner contrast. As the thor offers to see himself in the other’s shoes, mak- tive predicates are relative and pragmatic. Forza Nuova (‘New Force’), Grande Sud (‘The analysis of a number of examples shows, manipu- ing it clear that an Italian who has experienced Interesting cases in this regard can be noted in Great South’). Some parties choose mixed rational- lation that is so common in political discourse re- something similar is easier to feel what a modern Italian political discourse, in particular in the irrational names: Fratelli d’Italia – Centrodestra veals itself at the semantic level as a mechanism of migrant is experiencing. Already in the very title names of political parties. By the end of the 20th Nazionale (‘Brothers of Italy – National Centre- subordination of the superior (aesthetic, poetic or the article calls for a more tolerant attitude to- century, the Italian voter had become increasingly right Party’), Movimento Sociale – Fiamma Tricol- moral concepts) to the inferior (pragmatic, rhetori- wards migrants. tired of the familiar historical names of political ore (‘Social Movement – Tricolour Flame’). Irra- cal, subjectively evaluative sense). In other words, Various kinds of metaphors, personifications parties. Parties using traditional ideological termi- tional names with a vague positive cultural associ- the author engages an external cultural and verbal and other figurative nominations in political dis- nology in their names (socialist, liberal, democrat- ation include: L’Ulivo (‘The Olive Tree’), Partito Pi- resource, sometimes even belonging to the sphere course are most often used to create the fascina- ic, conservative, Christian, etc.) are losing popular- rata (‘Pirate Party’), Movimento Cinque Stelle (‘Five of other discourses, in order to help solve a specif- tive effect. For instance, by naming the foreign ity. New parties are being formed, which by their Star Movement’), La Lega Nord (‘Northern ic pragmatic problem within his discourse. Politi- minister of the Italian Republic Fantozzi, once can very names appeal not to the possible political po- League’), Lega d’Azione Meridionale (‘Southern cians turn to literature, art, sports, philosophy, reli- emphasise the inactivity and ineffectiveness of the sition of the voter, with regard to his or her rational Action League’), Rosa per L’Italia (‘Rose for Italy’). gion, history or other cultural archetypes in order politician with this personification. Fantozzi is a political choice, but to the social emotion, trying Similar techniques are effectively used in other to present their political message more vividly and well-known loser character from a series of Italian to arouse the voter’s sympathy. For example, Silvio situations, for example, to attract sympathy of a persuasively to the mass audience. Manipulation films. Everything beautiful and brilliant that he en- Berlusconi’s national-conservative party is called wide audience for certain political, economic or seeks a conceptual and archetypical support that counters and where he can prove himself ends up Forza, Italia! (‘Forward, Italy!’). Forza, Italia! was social projects. Thus, the poem M’illumino d’im- would not arouse rejection, protest, denial, doubt, as a total failure. Italians are very familiar with this the slogan of the Italian national team in the 1982 menso (1918) by Giuseppe Ungaretti is widely irony, or any other negative attitude. The semantic comic film character. FIFA World Cup, where the team won the world ti- known in the Italian literary tradition. Critics are structure of manipulation operates in the speech tle. Understandably, the name evokes the most still arguing about the meaning of this brief poetic sign. 5. CONCLUSION positive emotions in Italians. The voter no longer phrase, which generally carries a positive emotion- Fascination at the lexical level is closely related In all of the above Italian party names and other thinks about the political content, but is attracted al sense and indicates something high and bright. to figurativeness and produces a symbolic effect. examples we see one general principle which, as by the external connotation, which appeals to A symbolic periphrasis of this phrase was used by The task of the symbol is to evoke the broadest we understand it, characterises all fascination on Italy’s sporting glory and is transferred to the cur- an Italian ministry to name a social project to possible semantic association, affecting the sensual the axiological level: what is subject to verification rent political situation. economise on energy. The element d’immenso has perception in a cumulative way. Thus, for his arti- from a factual point of view and, therefore, poten- In previous Italian political discourse, the old been replaced by di meno: mi illumino di meno. cle on the problem of migrants in Italy, Stella tially contestable, is replaced by the undeniable rational names of parties (communist, national, de- The very form of the project’s name carries a sym- (2002) chooses the title Bel paese brutta gente. from a cultural and moral point of view, for which mocratic, etc.) were also perceived in their own bolic meaning, as it associatively refers to the form This title literally repeats the title of the novel by the requirement of factual corroboration is redun- way at the evaluative level (people were quite of a poetic work known to all. The pragmatics of Claus Gatterer, which became famous in Italy and dant. The relative is replaced by the absolute, the emotionally defending their political beliefs). But the actual nomination of the energy project and which recounts the hostile attitude of the inhabi- conditional – by the unconditional.

18 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 19 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya these were all relative evaluative predicates (or the indirectly recognisable poetics of the original ‘As to political discourse, we are rather, political terms elevated to the rank of evalu- form come into discursive conflict, creating what ‘Fascination at the lexical level is closely interested in demonstrating the conceptual ative predicates) which could be challenged on a we call the fascinative effect. What can be called a related to figurativeness and produces a side of axiological asymmetry in speech rational level. Forza, Italia! is an irrational party false poetic re-identification of the form opens up: symbolic effect. The task of the symbol is name in which to challenge the connotation asso- we associatively recognise what we know well on signs, where the highest discursive ciated with it (the greatness and glory of Italy) is the rational and sensual levels, and at the same to evoke the broadest possible semantic conceptual association compensates for impossible, unacceptable. Of course, little by time we do not recognise it in its new pragmatic association, affecting the sensual the insufficiency and lack of factual little, even the most exalted political names are application. perception in a cumulative way’ relativised in political discourse. But they still The latent manipulative function of figurative corroboration of the pragmatic side of maintain their external appeal for a long time, ap- fascinative forms in political discourse is notewor- tants of South Tyrol towards the local Italian popu- evaluation. The highest and superior pealing to the voter’s sensibility. thy. Political discourse is mainly public. Any public lation. By the very title the author draws a symbol- fascinates the inferior’ Here are some other similar names for Italy’s re- communication, being evaluative, cannot escape ic parallel between the treatment of migrants from gional and national parties: Polo delle Libertà manipulation. Persuasion and manipulation are African and Arab countries in contemporary Eu- history, national or world culture that evokes a cer- (‘Pole of Freedoms’), Casa delle Libertà (‘House of common functions of any public discourse (Panina rope and the treatment of Austrians towards Ital- tain emotional attitude of the mass recipient can Freedoms’), Realtà Italia (‘Reality Italy’), Fermare il & Amerkhanova, 2018, p. 86). Figurative speech ians 150 years earlier. Racial animosity is com- be chosen as a deontic predicate. Superior deontic Declino (‘Stop the Decline’), Alto Adige nel Cuore means are relevant material for cognitive analysis pared to ethnic animosity. It is as though the au- predicates are archetypical, while inferior subjec- (‘Alto Adige in the Heart’), Io Sud (‘I the South’), of manipulation based on its inner contrast. As the thor offers to see himself in the other’s shoes, mak- tive predicates are relative and pragmatic. Forza Nuova (‘New Force’), Grande Sud (‘The analysis of a number of examples shows, manipu- ing it clear that an Italian who has experienced Interesting cases in this regard can be noted in Great South’). Some parties choose mixed rational- lation that is so common in political discourse re- something similar is easier to feel what a modern Italian political discourse, in particular in the irrational names: Fratelli d’Italia – Centrodestra veals itself at the semantic level as a mechanism of migrant is experiencing. Already in the very title names of political parties. By the end of the 20th Nazionale (‘Brothers of Italy – National Centre- subordination of the superior (aesthetic, poetic or the article calls for a more tolerant attitude to- century, the Italian voter had become increasingly right Party’), Movimento Sociale – Fiamma Tricol- moral concepts) to the inferior (pragmatic, rhetori- wards migrants. tired of the familiar historical names of political ore (‘Social Movement – Tricolour Flame’). Irra- cal, subjectively evaluative sense). In other words, Various kinds of metaphors, personifications parties. Parties using traditional ideological termi- tional names with a vague positive cultural associ- the author engages an external cultural and verbal and other figurative nominations in political dis- nology in their names (socialist, liberal, democrat- ation include: L’Ulivo (‘The Olive Tree’), Partito Pi- resource, sometimes even belonging to the sphere course are most often used to create the fascina- ic, conservative, Christian, etc.) are losing popular- rata (‘Pirate Party’), Movimento Cinque Stelle (‘Five of other discourses, in order to help solve a specif- tive effect. For instance, by naming the foreign ity. New parties are being formed, which by their Star Movement’), La Lega Nord (‘Northern ic pragmatic problem within his discourse. Politi- minister of the Italian Republic Fantozzi, once can very names appeal not to the possible political po- League’), Lega d’Azione Meridionale (‘Southern cians turn to literature, art, sports, philosophy, reli- emphasise the inactivity and ineffectiveness of the sition of the voter, with regard to his or her rational Action League’), Rosa per L’Italia (‘Rose for Italy’). gion, history or other cultural archetypes in order politician with this personification. Fantozzi is a political choice, but to the social emotion, trying Similar techniques are effectively used in other to present their political message more vividly and well-known loser character from a series of Italian to arouse the voter’s sympathy. For example, Silvio situations, for example, to attract sympathy of a persuasively to the mass audience. Manipulation films. Everything beautiful and brilliant that he en- Berlusconi’s national-conservative party is called wide audience for certain political, economic or seeks a conceptual and archetypical support that counters and where he can prove himself ends up Forza, Italia! (‘Forward, Italy!’). Forza, Italia! was social projects. Thus, the poem M’illumino d’im- would not arouse rejection, protest, denial, doubt, as a total failure. Italians are very familiar with this the slogan of the Italian national team in the 1982 menso (1918) by Giuseppe Ungaretti is widely irony, or any other negative attitude. The semantic comic film character. FIFA World Cup, where the team won the world ti- known in the Italian literary tradition. Critics are structure of manipulation operates in the speech tle. Understandably, the name evokes the most still arguing about the meaning of this brief poetic sign. 5. CONCLUSION positive emotions in Italians. The voter no longer phrase, which generally carries a positive emotion- Fascination at the lexical level is closely related In all of the above Italian party names and other thinks about the political content, but is attracted al sense and indicates something high and bright. to figurativeness and produces a symbolic effect. examples we see one general principle which, as by the external connotation, which appeals to A symbolic periphrasis of this phrase was used by The task of the symbol is to evoke the broadest we understand it, characterises all fascination on Italy’s sporting glory and is transferred to the cur- an Italian ministry to name a social project to possible semantic association, affecting the sensual the axiological level: what is subject to verification rent political situation. economise on energy. The element d’immenso has perception in a cumulative way. Thus, for his arti- from a factual point of view and, therefore, poten- In previous Italian political discourse, the old been replaced by di meno: mi illumino di meno. cle on the problem of migrants in Italy, Stella tially contestable, is replaced by the undeniable rational names of parties (communist, national, de- The very form of the project’s name carries a sym- (2002) chooses the title Bel paese brutta gente. from a cultural and moral point of view, for which mocratic, etc.) were also perceived in their own bolic meaning, as it associatively refers to the form This title literally repeats the title of the novel by the requirement of factual corroboration is redun- way at the evaluative level (people were quite of a poetic work known to all. The pragmatics of Claus Gatterer, which became famous in Italy and dant. The relative is replaced by the absolute, the emotionally defending their political beliefs). But the actual nomination of the energy project and which recounts the hostile attitude of the inhabi- conditional – by the unconditional.

What attracts attention is what could be called speech phenomenon based on figurative or other Ivanov, N. V., & Fedulova, M. N. (2019). Figure in dis- Panina, N. V., & Amerkhanova, O. O. (2018). Interjec- the ‘anticipatory’ force of axiological fascination in associative resources evoked by the cultural expe- course. Professional Discourse & Communica- tions in the speech of British royal family mem- relation to the function of referential or designative rience of the language. tion, 1(3), 9-25. https://doi.org/10.24833/2687- bers. Training, Language and Culture, 2(4), semantics. By using the highest valuation, the In political discourse, fascination has a constant 0126-2019-1-3-9-25 84-96. https://doi.org/10.29366/22018tlc.2.4.6 politician provokes a corresponding subjective fac- link to evaluation. Fascination serves to reinforce Kurochkina, E. V. (2006). Propositional figure of expres- Povarnitsyna, M. V. (2016). Manipulation, suggestion, sion in textual discourse [Doctoral dissertation, attraction and fascination in a creolised text. tual speculation. A party’s beautiful and flamboy- evaluation in speech. As a communicative opera- Military University of the Ministry of Defence of VSPU Bulletin, 2(106), 117-124. ant name suggests an association of everything tion in political discourse, fascination presents the the Russian Federation]. Russian State Library. Santulli, F. (2005). The words of power, the power of good in terms of its practical actions and attitudes replacement of a rational (pragmatic) connotation https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01003011202 words. Franco Angeli. (its programme, political plans, position on impor- by an irrational (socio-cultural) one. This substitu- Melnichuk, V. A. (2018). Axiological dynamics of Russ- Shnyakina, K. V. (2010). Discursive dynamics of figura- tant political and other issues). The voter gives his tion is symbolic and, being culturally undeniable, ian vocabulary [Doctoral dissertation, Saint Pe- tive forms in language and text [Doctoral disser- or her support to that party without additional ra- is manipulative. The phenomenon of fascination tersburg State University]. Russian State Library. tation, Military University of the Ministry of De- tional checking. Parties exploit the axiological trust presents a cultural view of language in profession- https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01009635349 fence of the Russian Federation]. Russian State placed in them by the voters. Large-scale strategies al and political discourse. Omelchenko, E. V. (2012). Fascinative phenomena of Library. https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/0100486 of political manipulation emerge with the purpose Cognitive-linguistic analysis of the phenomena Nabokov’s ‘Other shores’. Bulletin of Pushkin 0444 of maintaining their political credibility (or distrust of fascination and manipulation in the semantic Leningrad State University, 7(1), 18-26. Shpet, G. G. (1996). Psychology of social being. Insti- of their opponent). Any kind of manipulation in structure of a speech sign is very important, being Omelchenko, E. V. (2013a). Fascinative communicative tute of Practical Psychology. the political field seeks to create a system of axio- highly relevant in the context of the modern lin- strategy in various types of discourse. ChGPU Sidorov, E. V. (2011). Social communication. RSREU. logical biases, which become the focal points of guistic and discursive research. Political discourse Publishing House. Sinyachkin, V. P. (2011). Common human values in Omelchenko, E. V. (2013b). Fascinative strategy in Russian culture: A linguocultural analysis [Doc- political discourse and a criterion for considering offers the most characteristic and striking forms of Bekhtereva’s autobiographical discourse in the toral dissertation, Military University of the Min- any event that comes into their field of vision. communicative manipulation based on figurative ‘Magic Brain’ broadcast series. Bulletin of istry of Defence of the Russian Federation]. Russ- Fascination is the highest connotative property fascination. The verbal level of fascination is an Chelyabinsk State University, 1(292), 237-242. ian State Library. https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/ that the sign acquires in speech, encompassing the important and characteristic resource of manipula- https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=18808506& 01004804080 totality of socio-cultural (aesthetic, ethical, tion in political discourse. It rests on a substitution Omelchenko, E. V. (2015). Fascinating phenomena in Sokovnin, V. M. (2005). Fascinology: Prolegomena to stylistic, historical, etc.) symbolisations in dis- of the pragmatic evaluation for an archetypical the communication space films by Andrei the science of enchanting, dominant and intimi- course. Fascination is a discursive quality of a (conceptual) one. Tarkovsky. Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State Universi- dating communication between animals and hu- ty, 20(375), 88-93. https://www.elibrary.ru/item. mans. Urals State University Press. asp?id=25383705 Stella, G. A. (2002). Bel paese brutta gente. Istituto Omelchenko, E. V. (2016). Paradox as fascinative Statale Superiore Giovanni Paolo II Maratea. References means. Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical http://www.iismaratea.edu.it/images/Bel_pae- University, 4, 178-182. https://www.elibrary.ru/ se_brutta_gente.pdf Types of linguistic meanings. Arutyunova, N. D. (1988). course in socio-cultural and communicative di- item.asp?id=26421538 Tsutsieva, M. G. (2014). Institutionality of a politician’s Nauka. mensions [Doctoral dissertation, Military Univer- Osgood, C. E. (1960). Some effects of motivation on linguistic personality. Bulletin of Pushkin Lenin- . Arutyunova, N. D. (1990) Discourse. In V. N. Yartseva sity of the Ministry of Defence of the Russian style of encoding. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Style in grad State University, 3(1), 136-141. Linguistic encyclopaedic dictionary (Ed.), (pp. Federation]. Russian State Library. https://search. language (pp. 293-306). Massachusetts Institute Wolf, E. M. (1985). Functional semantics of evaluation. 136-137). Sovetskaya Encyclopedia. rsl.ru/ru/record/01010244827 of Technology Press. Nauka. Bebbington, B. (2018). The defeat of radical singularism Frank, D. (1999). The seven sins of pragmatics. New in in Russian, English and French literature. Train- Foreign Linguistics, 17, 254-264. NICOLAY V. IVANOV ing, Language and Culture, 2(4), 39-54. https:// Heidegger, M. (2014). German existentialism. Open MGIMO University | 76 Prospekt Vernadskogo, 119454 Moscow, Russia doi.org/10.29366/2018tlc.2.4.3 Road Media. [email protected] Belykh, E. N. (2019). Pragmatic and conceptual content Ivanov, N. V. (2010). The topical partitioning of the sen- of evaluation in political discourse [Doctoral dis- tence in textual discourse and language. Azbu- OLGA A. POGORETSKAYA MGIMO University | 76 Prospekt Vernadskogo, 119454 Moscow, Russia sertation, Military University of the Ministry of kovnik Publishing Centre. [email protected] Defence of the Russian Federation]. Russian State Ivanov, N. V. (2014). Interpretation antinomies: Intro- Library. https://search.rsl.ru/ru/record/01010128 duction to analysis. In Proceedings of the 8th In- 380 ternational Scientific Conference on Current Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader: An inquiry into Problems of Language Theory and Communica- the semiotics of the text. Symposium. tion (pp. 110-135). International Relations Pub- Fedulova, M. N. (2020). Interpretative nature of dis- lishing House.

20 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 21 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The phenomenon of fascination in political discourse (by Italian examples) Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 9-21 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-9-21 by Nicolay V. Ivanov and Olga A. Pogoretskaya

20 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 21 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova

and language levels of the speech-thinking activity in character, bringing together features of market- (Iriskhanova & Ivashko, 2011; Sanchez-Stockham- ing and political discourses, which is relevant to mer, 2012). The main direction of linguistic study achieving the aim of the present paper. Original Research of hybridisation seems to be the analysis of its pe- To illustrate the main findings of the research, culiarities and mechanisms of realisation in differ- we have selected texts containing examples of the ent genres of institutional communication, above cognitive metaphor that, in our opinion, can re- The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of all, in marketing and politics (Cap & Okulska, flect the points of interaction of the discourses. 2013; Guseynova, 2011; Mäntynen & Shore, The research was conducted within the scope marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English- 2014). Although the social practices of marketing of cognitive linguistics, linguopragmatics and so- and politics are undergoing convergence (Egorova- ciocultural linguistics. Apart from the general sci- language political advertising Gantman & Pleshakov, 1999, p. 16), as evidenced entific methods of analysis (synthesis, generalisa- by Ekaterina P. Murashova by the establishment and successful development tion, deduction, induction, and others), we have of the institution of political advertising, there is applied methods typical of modern linguistic re- Ekaterina P. Murashova Moscow State Linguistic University, Russia [email protected] still no complete linguistic description of the search, namely linguocultural analysis, conceptual Article history Received February 20, 2021 | Revised May 13, 2021 | June 14, 2021 points of intersection of marketing and political analysis, and cognitive modelling in line with the Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest discourses. conceptual integration theory. The empirical mate- Research funding No funding was reported for this research The aim of the present research is to reveal rial was analysed with the help of methods of doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 For citation Murashova, E. P. (2021). The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and those points of intersection of marketing and politi- quantitative research. political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising. Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 22-36. cal discourses that facilitate the process of their hybridisation, including with the help of cognitive, or 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The present article is devoted to the metaphorical hybridisation of marketing and political discourses. The aim of the conceptual, metaphors. The relevance of the study 3.1. Hybridisation as a notion of linguistics paper is to reveal the discursive characteristics shared by marketing and politics through an analysis of the cognitive is predetermined by two factors: firstly, the necessi- 3.1.1. Origin and meaning of hybridisation metaphor as a factor and instrument of their hybridisation. The material of the research is represented by texts of politi- ty to expand theoretical knowledge of the cogni- The term ‘hybridisation’ was initially borrowed cal spots (political TV and Internet commercials) of five different varieties of English published on the official YouTube tive mechanisms underlying discourse hybridisa- from biology where it is used to denote integration channels of political figures and organisations between 2007 and 2021, with a total video length of about 7 hours. The tion and, secondly, the need to increase the effec- of the genetic material of genotypically heteroge- texts were transcribed by the author of the paper. The study lies within the scope of cognitive linguistics, linguoprag- neous organisms (cells) with the aim of breeding a matics and sociocultural linguistics. The research methods include those of linguocultural analysis, conceptual analysis, tiveness of messages created and disseminated by cognitive modelling and quantitative analysis. Hybridisation is viewed in the article as a complex mechanism of knowl- advertising specialists. hybrid organism which is characterised by het- edge expansion via the resources of marketing and politics which ensures language vitality through a synergistic effect. erozygosity along several genes (Gilyarov, 1986, p. The most obvious product of the hybridisation of marketing and politics is political advertising discourse. It is argued 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 132). Heterozygosity is a genetic parameter ensur- that political advertising discourse is largely based on the ‘Politics as a Commodity’ cognitive metaphor which makes The material under analysis is formed of texts of ing the variability of a species, i.e. the ability of an explicit the value of choice in most Western European democracies. Having analysed the empirical material, the author political spots (short political TV or Internet com- organism to acquire genetic properties different determines the discursive characteristics that serve as points of intersection of marketing and politics and facilitate their mercials) representing five varieties of the English from those of its parents. As a rule, the final aim of hybridisation. The main discursive characteristics bringing together marketing and politics are agonality (aptness of language (American, British, Australian, Canadian hybridisation is achieving heterosis – the genetic competition), theatricality, commodification and personifiedness. Each of them is illustrated with examples of cognitive and New Zealand), retrieved from the official You- advantage of the hybrid over the parental forms metaphors pertaining to both marketing and politics. The discursive characteristics revealed manifest the modern ten- Tube channels of politicians and political organisa- which enhances the survivability of the species dencies towards marketisation and conversationalisation of media discourse. tions between 2007 and 2021. The total duration (Gilyarov, 1986, p. 130). The term ‘heterozygosity’ of the media material is about 7 hours. The texts is similar in meaning to the sociolinguistic term KEYWORDS: institutional discourse, hybridisation, marketing discourse, political discourse, political advertising dis- were transcribed by the author of the present ‘language vitality’ which is usually understood as course, cognitive metaphor, conceptual integration theory paper. The written component of the spots is indi- the capacity of a language for further develop- This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits cated in square brackets, the original font size be- ment, change or preservation of structural and, unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material ing preserved, while the oral component is given which is even more important, functional proper- for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) without any brackets. ties (Mikhalchenko, 2006, p. 37). We believe that 1. INTRODUCTION institutional discourse is the process of hybridisa- The material in question was chosen because just as biological hybridisation aims to ensure the The dynamic changes in modern society find tion which is hereinafter understood as creation of the political spot is one of the most representative survivability of a biological species, language hy- their full expression in the discourse of social insti- a more perfect communicative product through genres of political advertising (Murashova, 2018). bridisation aims to facilitate the vitality of a lan- tutions. One of the factors of the development of mixing heterogeneous elements of the cognitive Political advertising, in its turn, is explicitly hybrid guage.

© Ekaterina P. Murashova 2021 22 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 23 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova

(Sanchez-Stockhammer, 2012, p. 135). Iriskhanova guage heterosis’, the product of language hybridis- media have to design a large number of their prod- ‘In the 20th century, the term and Ivashko (2011) have developed criteria of hy- ation being different from its constituent parts and ucts as entertainment, which reflects the blurring ‘hybridisation’ was expanded to denote bridisation describing its sources, processes, and irreducible to them. Therefore, we believe political of boundaries between public affairs and enter- the process of mixing the properties of any results, and suggest a detailed classification of advertising discourse to be a qualitatively new en- tainment in media discourse. Fairclough (1995) types of hybridisation depending on the level of tity different from political and marketing discours- points out that marketisation and conversationali- heterogeneous objects and as an language, actual semiotic characteristics, the de- es, whose elements it borrows and adapts. sation are not only typical of the media but have organismal metaphor entered the gree of formal expression, etc. (Iriskhanova & also come to shape other social spheres like edu- terminology of most humanities Ivashko, 2011, p. 62-64). 3.1.3. Hybridisation of discourses cation, healthcare, art, politics and so on, which is Hybridisation as a continuous process of mutu- of great relevance to our research. disciplines, including linguistics’ 3.1.2. Hybridisation, interference, conver- al enrichment of discourse complicates the typolo- gence, and diffusion: the difference explained gy of discourse varieties and obstructs the devel- 3.2. The cognitive metaphor in political adver- In the 20th century, the term ‘hybridisation’ was To denote the process of the interaction of dis- opment of a single taxonomy of discourses. tising discourse expanded to denote the process of mixing the courses leading to the property of heterogeneity Wodak (1996) dwells on the properties of dy- 3.2.1. Modern linguistic approaches to the po- properties of any heterogeneous objects and as an apart from the term ‘hybridisation’ one uses such namism and heterogeneity inherent in institutional litical cognitive metaphor organismal metaphor entered the terminology of terms as ‘interference’ (Shevchenko, 2008), ‘con- discourse, approaching it as a continuum of inter- The present paper pays considerable attention most humanities disciplines, including linguistics. vergence’ (Baranov & Severskaya, 2016; Saakyan, connected discourses conflicting with each other to the cognitive metaphor for the following rea- The term was first applied to language phenomena 2019) and ‘diffusion’ (Guseynova, 2011). in a certain sociocultural context (Wodak, 1996, p. sons. First, developing models of the conceptual by the Russian philosopher and literary theorist The term ‘interference’ as applied to discourse 12). Kibrik (2009, p. 19) believes that to achieve metaphor and ways of their realisation in different Bakhtin (1975) in the context of studying po- refers to the imposition of the elements of one dis- the progress of discourse analysis as a scientific discourses is a topical research direction of mod- lyphony in a novel. He defines hybridisation as the course (the included one) on another discourse discipline it is necessary to study mixed discour- ern cognitive linguistics. Second, due to the ‘dis- mixing of two social languages within one utter- (the receiving one) which results in their combina- ses, because the four main parameters of classifi- cursive turn’ in linguistics in the 20th century, the ance, an encounter in the arena of this utterance tion, interaction, and mutual influence (Shevchen- cation, as suggested by him (the mode, the genre, role of the metaphor in organising human mental of two different language consciousnesses, sepa- ko, 2008, p. 3). Interference of discourses is a phe- the functional style and formality) are independent processes was redefined. Third, metaphorisation rated by either the epoch or social differentiation nomenon similar to intertextuality, e.g. as under- of each other and produce remarkably complex and hybridisation can be regarded as processes (or both) (Bakhtin, 1975, p. 170). The scholar stood by Kristeva (2013). The main difference be- combinations of different opportunities. with similar cognitive potential, as they consist in points out that hybridisation is achieved in two tween interference and intertextuality seems to be, The process of the mixing of discourses for all looking for points of intersection between different forms – the intended conscious hybridisation and above all, the unit of analysis – discourse as op- its dynamism is not chaotic. Using the term ‘order fields of reality to produce new knowledge. the unintended unconscious hybridisation. In a posed to text, which inevitably determines the of discourse’ to speak about the varieties of dis- According to the contemporary theory of novel, as a rule, two languages get mixed on the choice of research methods. course existing in society, Foucault (1996) remarks metaphor which replaced the traditional theories author’s initiative and as designed by him/her, and, Convergence is essentially the process of dis- that not all discourses are equally open and per- dating back to the times of Aristotle, the metaphor hence, the mixing has the status of a system of lit- courses coming together and intersecting at some meable. Social practice imposes certain limitations came to be studied as a way of learning and rea- erary devices. On the contrary, the status of a liter- points. The term ‘convergence’ is widely used in on the mutual permeability of discourses (Fou- soning about the world, as a display of analogue ary device cannot be attributed to the mixing that journalism meaning the fusion of different mass cault, 1996, p. 69). opportunities of the human mind (Chudinov, 2011, happens naturally and unconsciously during the media caused by digitalisation of the media Fairclough (1995), one of the founders of the p. 31). Hence, the political metaphor began to be historical evolution of a language. In Bakhtin’s sphere, including the integration of analogue and sociolinguistic approach to critical discourse studied as the key to understanding political (1975) view, hybridisation results in a language hy- digital technologies (Vartanova, 2000). analysis, when characterising modern media dis- reality, an instrument for realising, modelling and brid that comes in two varieties – the intended The term ‘diffusion’ primarily foregrounds the course, writes about two types of tensions shaping evaluating political processes, a means of influ- polyphonic hybrid that can be called the literary character of the interaction of discourses – mutual the language of the media: the tension between in- encing the collective consciousness (Budaev & image of a language and the unintended mono- penetration and the blurring of borders between formation and entertainment, and the tension be- Chudinov, 2008, p. 4). The political metaphor is phonic hybrid brought to life within an utterance. them (Sun et al., 2021; Sokolova, 2020). tween public and private. Both are indicative of studied within an interdisciplinary research direc- Hybridisation as a linguistic phenomenon can In our opinion, unlike the similar terms, ‘hy- the tendency towards ‘marketisation’ and ‘conver- tion called political metaphorology which ap- take place at different levels of language. Sanchez- bridisation’ is most adequate for the aim of the sationalisation’ correspondingly (Fairclough, 1995, peared at the intersection of two promising fields Stockhammer (2012) argues that hybridisation can present research because it accentuates the syner- p. 10-11). Marketisation is manifested in the grow- of linguistics – metaphorology and political lin- affect different units of language, such as sounds, gistic effect of the interaction of discourses. The ing share of entertainment in the media sphere. guistics. In political metaphorology since the be- morphemes, words, collocations, idioms, phrases, process of hybridisation is aimed at improving the Entertainment is largely believed to be more ginning of the 21st century against the backdrop of sentences, texts, text types and communication language system and creating the effect of ‘lan- saleable. That is why to withstand competition the the so-called ‘cognitive revolution’ (Kubryakova,

24 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 25 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova

1996, p. 69), there has been actively developing a As observed by the reputable Russian re- fully applied in a linguistic study of marketing and ties) (Karasik, 2000; Wodak, 1996). As a working new cognitive direction aimed at studying the searchers in the field of the political metaphor, Bu- political discourses because it highlights the role definition of institutional discourse we use the one metaphor in a broad historical, cultural, and social daev and Chudinov (2020, p. 107), in political lin- of language as a concentrate of national culture suggested by Karasik (2002, p. 195): institutional context with the use of the methods of cognitive guistics Fauconnier and Turner’s (2002) model of and helps to analyse and evaluate its embodiment discourse is a specialised clichéd variety of human linguistics (Chudinov, 2020, p. 3). metaphorisation is less spread than Lakoff and in the social institutions of marketing and politics communication, whose parties may not know Contemporary cognitive research into the politi- Johnson’s (2003) model. This is explained, on the (Likhachev, 1993, p. 9). each other but are supposed to communicate in cal metaphor mainly relies on the classical con- one hand, by the complexity of the quantitative The result of the metaphorical hybridisation of accordance with the norms of the given society. As ceptual metaphor theory of Lakoff and Johnson analysis considering the variety of the components the concept spheres of marketing and politics is most varieties of institutional discourse, marketing (2003) which defines the essence of metaphorisa- of a blend and the dynamism of their interaction the blend ‘Politics as a Commodity’ that justifies and political discourses are mass, mediatised tion as interaction of different knowledge struc- and, on the other hand, by the absence of a single the opportunity to ‘sell’ a politician or his/her (Klushina, 2014) and ritualised (Chudinov, 2012, tures like frames and scenarios of two conceptual methodology of statistical description that can be ideas like a commodity. It is widely believed that p. 56). Moreover, marketing and political discours- domains – the ‘source domain’ and the ‘target do- applied to each case of blending and takes into ac- the first person to suggest selling a politician in the es are formed and realised under the conditions of main’. The character of the interaction between the count the dynamism of metaphor-building. same way as toothpaste was the American adver- tough competition for the customer and for power two domains is defined in their theory as ‘meta- Regardless of adherence to one of the two pop- tising executive Rosser Reeves who is also famous correspondingly. phorical mapping’ which is understood as structur- ular theories of the cognitive metaphor, the as the originator of the Unique Sales Proposition ing of parts or the whole of the target domain in process of metaphorisation in cognitive linguistics and the pioneer of TV advertising (Donovan & 4. STUDY AND RESULTS the same way as the source domain. Conceptual is viewed as a process of hybridisation of hetero- Scherer, 1998, p. 103). In the 1950s, specially for 4.1. The cognitive model of metaphorisation in metaphors are therefore steady correspondences geneous structures of knowledge leading to a syn- the presidential election campaign of the 34th US political advertising discourse between the source and the target domains en- ergistic effect. president Dwight D. Eisenhower, Reeves issued a The process of metaphorical hybridisation in a shrined in the language and cultural tradition of Arutyunova (1999, p. 279) remarks that a series of TV commercials titled ‘Eisenhower An- single conceptual network of the two types of dis- the given community and conforming to its values, metaphor is a hybrid trope, a product of hybridisa- swers America’ modelled on TV commercials ad- course – marketing and political – can be repre- e.g. ‘Life as a Journey’. tion of equivalence and similarity. Kubryakova vertising goods and services. The idea of selling a sented as a conceptual integration scheme under Since the 1990s, an alternative approach to the (2002, p. 7) thinks that metaphor-production is not politician using TV advertising was innovative back the mental space theory developed by Fauconnier cognitive metaphor has been developing that is reduced to adding components and its point is cre- then. Reeves’s commercials grabbed the elec- and Turner (2002) (Figure 1). We have identified called the conceptual integration theory, or the ation of a new mental unit that is not the same as torate’s attention and became one of the factors two input spaces – ‘marketing’ and ‘politics’ that conceptual blending theory, by Fauconnier and the sum of its parts. that contributed to the candidate’s victory. The suc- under the influence of the generic space as a result Turner (2002). In the conceptual integration In conceptual integration theory, the synergistic cess of the new format of political advertising fa- of the conceptual integration process form the theory, metaphorisation is based not on a single effect of hybridisation is termed ‘emergence’ cilitated the emergence and popularisation of the ‘Politics as a Commodity’ blend. The generic domain mapping but a set of dynamic processes of which denotes the ability of a blend to add mean- genre of the political spot which, as a rule, is an space, as we think, contains the features of institu- integration of mental spaces within one mental ing and create new knowledge (Fauconnier & essential tool of any large-scale election campaign tional discourse typical of both input spaces. Rely- space called a ‘blend’. As an alternative to the Turner, 2002). in countries where competition policy is imple- ing on the nine constitutive features of institutional two-domain model, in their theory Fauconnier and mented (Murashova, 2018, p. 5). It is quite possi- discourse developed by Karasik (1999), we suggest Turner (2002) suggest a model of four mental spa- 3.2.2. The ‘Politics as a Commodity’ cognitive ble that, in the course of the development political seven features of marketing and political discours- ces in the form of a conceptual integration net- metaphor advertising as a practice, the ‘Politician as a Com- es relevant to explaining the emergent structure: work consisting of two ‘input spaces’, a ‘generic The discussion of the cognitive metaphor when modity’ blend that helped Reeves advertise Eisen- the aim, the object, the addresser, the addressee, space’ and a ‘blended space’. In fact, the process studying the points of the intersection of marketing hower was transposed to any political actor or po- the instruments, the working space, and the proce- of conceptual integration is a manifestation of hy- and political discourses is relevant, first and fore- litical product like a political party or a manifesto, dure. bridisation and the resulting blend is nothing but a most, because political advertising, being a prod- hence the ‘Politics as a Commodity’ metaphor. As follows from the scheme, the central feature hybrid. uct of their hybridisation, emerged as a result of which serves as the basis for the mapping of the The difference in the approaches to modelling redefining the concept sphere of politics through 3.2.3. Extralinguistic factors of hybridisation of input spaces in the blended space is the presence the cognitive metaphor within the two theories is the concept sphere of marketing. marketing and political discourses of the right to choose and the opportunity of explained by the difference in their aims. In the The term ‘concept sphere’ was first introduced The prerequisite for the mixing of marketing choice in the context of competition. Choice is to conceptual metaphor theory, a metaphor is studied in Russian science by Likhachev (1993) and is de- and political discourses, in our opinion, is the fact be considered the key value in Western European as a static product of culture and in the conceptual fined by him as a set of a nation’s concepts formed that they both fall into the category of institutional democracies and as such determines the constitu- integration theory it is approached as a dynamic by all the potencies of the concepts of native discourse (the discourse of institutions) as opposed tive features of marketing and political discourses product of individual thinking. speakers. We believe that the term can be success- to personal discourse (the discourse of personali- suggested by Karasik (1999) and us. For example,

26 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 27 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova the use of strategies, tactics and means of persua- comes urgent to address issues of linguistic manip- 4.2. The discursive characteristics facilitating my accident, I had to rebuild my strength. I would sive communication in political advertising is ulation in political advertising and study the strate- the hybridisation of marketing and politics roll up an eight-story parking garage, spending prompted by the need to win the addressee over gies and tactics of the two ‘modes’ of manipula- The analysis of the empirical material yielded hours going up the ramps. With each floor, it got and persuade him/her to make a certain choice. tion – cooperation and competition (Malyuga & discursive characteristics shared by marketing harder and harder, but I wouldn’t quit. ‘Just one Due to competition in marketing and politics it be- Tomalin, 2017). communication and political communication that more,’ I’d tell myself. ‘Just one more.’ I see life that facilitate the hybridisation of marketing and poli- way. And it’s how I’ll govern Texas. To get to the tics. The ways of hybridisation are illustrated using top we must push ourselves to do just one cognitive metaphor groups based on the classifica- more’ (Greg Abbot, 2014). tion of metaphorical models suggested by Chudi- The rival is a zombie/ill person. The spot repre- nov (2001): anthropomorphic (physiological, mor- sents Joe Biden, a presidential candidate, as a bial, kinship metaphor, sexual), the metaphor of zombie: Here’s how you can spot a zombie. Look nature (zoomorphic, phytomorphic), social (crimi- for someone who has a corpse-like appearance, nal, military, theatrical, sports metaphor, game exhibits aggressive behaviour, craves human flesh, metaphor) and the artefact metaphor (housing and utters incoherent moans and groans. With metaphor, mechanism metaphor). your help we can prevent the zombie uprising (Donald J Trump, 2020a). 4.2.1. Agonality The country is an ill organism: These hands are Marketing and politics share the aim of per- working to heal America (CampaignTVAds, suading a mass addressee to adopt a particular be- 2015a). haviour – consumer behaviour (to buy a product or 2. Zoomorphic metaphors. a service) and political behaviour (e.g. to vote for a The rival is a wild animal (an alligator/turtle/ particular candidate at elections) correspondingly. scorpion, etc.). In the following example it is The aim of marketing and politics is achieved, as meaningful that the alligator is the unofficial sym- has already been said, under the conditions of bol of the state of Louisiana: I am Rob Maness and tough competition and that is why it presupposes a here in Louisiana you learn to be tough. One mo- competitive struggle for the addressee’s attention. ment of weakness, and the alligators can eat you Sheigal (2000) considers that aptness of compe- alive. So, when I get to Washington, I’ll stand up to tition, or ‘agonality’, constitutes the basis of the the big spenders. I’ll fight to repeal Obamacare. semiotic organisation of political discourse, bring- And I’ll protect our gun rights. I’m Colonel Rob ing it closer to sports discourse. The competition Maness and I approve this message because Lou- that underlies political discourse is that between isiana needs a senator that will stand up to the ca- the party in power and the opposition or between reer politicians and the alligators (The Rob Maness political candidates. In marketing, competition, as Show, 2014). a rule, takes place between producers of the same The rival is a domesticated animal (a pig/chick- kind of goods and services. Both in politics and en/sheep/lapdog, etc.): I’m Joni Ernst. I grew up marketing, agonality is mainly realised through castrating hogs on an Iowa farm. So, when I get to creation of a positive image of the institutional Washington, I'll know how to cut pork. Washing- agent (a representative of the institute) and his/her ton’s full of big spenders. Let’s make them squeal product and tarnishing the image of the rival and (Captioning for Everyone, 2014). his/her product. 3. Phytomorphic metaphors. Here are some cognitive metaphors that The rival is fruit/vegetable. In the excerpt the demonstrate the agonality of political advertising. name Kevin O’Lemon is word play including the 1. Morbial metaphors. name of Kevin Rudd, the 26th Prime Minister of Politics is a difficult ascent in a wheelchair. The Australia: The faceless men are desperate again, narrator in the example is Greg Abbott, a candi- and it looks like Kevin O’Lemon is coming back. Figure 1. The conceptual integration scheme of the ‘Politics as a Commodity’ blend date in the 2014 Texas gubernatorial election: After Or will Julia survive? Maybe they’ll try someone

28 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 29 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova new. It doesn’t matter who they give you. Because candidate for the 2014 US Senate election in Min- indecent, etc.). Carnivalisation of culture enables abstract spheres with the help of the structures of they’re all Labor lemons and Labor lemons never nesota, as both a skilful youth football coach and a critical analysis of the existing official culture and bodily experience that are already familiar to him/ change their spots (Liberal Party of Australia, promising politician: Now Coach McFadden’s the can lead to a shift in values and trigger a fight her. Therefore, the understanding of politics as a 2013). one running (Mike McFadden, 2014). against wide-spread misconceptions. One of the commodity is based on the same psychological The government is a swamp: Did you know The election race is a job interview. The politi- manifestations of the carnivalisation of culture is mechanisms as the ‘bodily metaphor’ in the theory Washington is built on a swamp? Massive govern- cian being discussed in the spot is Justin Trudeau, the tendency towards putting on a show and the of Lakoff and Johnson (2003). The commodifica- ment debt. Stifling regulation. Special interest poli- a candidate for the 42nd Canadian general elec- theatricalisation of politics. The three processes tion of political advertising is expressed with the tics. Partisan dysfunction. Now it all makes sense. tion: can be represented as reassessing social stereo- help of the following metaphors. Washington is broken. The political class broke it. – Oh, some interesting resumes we have here. types by means of entertainment – the show, the 1. Food metaphors. Together we can drain the swamp and protect our Let’s talk about Justin. theatre or the circus (Bakhtin, 1990; Fairclough, The budget is tasty food (e.g. a biscuit) or a visit children’s future (CampaignTVAds, 2015b). – I see he’s included his picture. Let’s start with 1995). to a restaurant: When Rodney Davis got to Wash- 4. Military metaphors. the experience section. Nothing about balancing a Theatricality is realised with the help of the fol- ington he ordered Congress every perk on the The political struggle is war: Mitt Romney’s neg- budget or making a payroll. lowing metaphors. menu. Rodney Davis – only serving himself (DCC- ative attack machine is back on full throttle. This – Didn’t he say budgets balance themselves? 1. Theatrical metaphors. CVideo, 2014a). time Romney’s firing his mud at Rick Santorum. – And what does the experience section say The rival is a puppet: Joe Biden: China’s puppet A politician or their target audience is food/drink. Romney and his Super PAC have spent a stagger- about keeping us safe? (Donald J Trump, 2020b). In the spot promoting Linda McMahon, a candidate ing 20 million brutally attacking fellow Republi- – Well, he wants to send winter jackets to Syria. The rival is a circus artist: [Clowning around] for the 2010 US Senate election in Connecticut, the cans. Why? Because Romney’s trying to hide from – People, being Prime Minister is not an entry- Male voiceover: With unemployment at 9% what’s jobless are likened to lunch boxes, which must be his big government Romneycare, and his support level job. [Silly Liberal Doug Berger] Doug Berger doing? Ig- both, a metaphor, and a metonymy: A lot of people for job-killing cap and trade. And in the end Mitt – I’m not saying no forever, but not now. noring the real problems, he wasted time on silly ask me why I’m running for Senate. Here’s why: this Romney’s ugly attacks are going to backfire (Rick – Nice hair though. stuff like regulating grocery bags. Regulating bar- lunch box. It represents a lot of people who’ve lost Santorum, 2012). Justin Trudeau. He’s just not ready (Conserva- ber poles, banning grocery bags. Doug Berger: jobs. <…> I’m Linda McMahon, and I approve this The rival’s rise to power is a military invasion. teur, 2015). silliness, not substance (ChadBarefoot, 2012). message because we need this lunch box and a lot In this example there is word play involving the 6. The mechanism metaphor. The rival is a celebrity. In the example, the lead- more like it back at work (LindaMcMahon2010, name of Alex Salmond, who is addressed as the The rival is a weathervane. The mechanism ership qualities of Barack Obama, a candidate in 2010). head of the Scottish National Party (SNP) in the metaphor is mainly verbalised in political advertis- the 2008 US presidential election, are questioned: 2. Economic metaphors. spot: Salmond Alert. With fifty SNP seats predicted ing through the juxtaposition of statements. In the He’s the biggest celebrity in the world. But is he Economy is a cargo: America’s economy is in the next Parliament, Miliband and then the Canadian spot ‘Same weak leadership. Same old ready to lead? (John McCain, 2008a). hanging by a thread. Under the weight of high un- country would be in their grip. To combat this, NDP’ of 2016 the metaphor is expressed both ver- 2. Religious metaphors. employment, soaring gas prices, Medicare nearly emergency polling stations are being set up Thurs- bally with the help of contradictory statements and The rival is a messiah. Just like in the previous bankrupt, reckless spending, a failed stimulus, and day. Vote Conservative (Conservatives, 2015). visually as John Horgan, head of the British Co- example, Barack Obama is meant: And he has a $14 trillion-dollar debt, much of it owned by Chi- The rival is an autocrat. In a democracy the ‘Ri- lumbia New Democratic Party, is represented as a anointed himself ready to carry the burden of The na, we are near the breaking point. Maybe we val Is an Autocrat’ metaphor reflects the conflict weathervane pointing left and right at juxtaposed One. To quote Barack: ‘I have become a symbol of won’t be crushed when our economy snaps, but between the politician and the people in case the written remarks: For: ‘I think it’s appropriate that America returning to our best traditions’ (John Mc- someone will (CrossroadsGPSChannel, 2011). former is considered to be striving to gain unlimit- Kinder Morgan be allowed’. Against: ‘I’m very Cain, 2008b). A debt crisis is a hole: When you’re in a hole, ed power. When this metaphor is applied to a po- pleased we’re saying no to Kinder Morgan’ (BCLib- you stop digging. But Mark Begich? He keeps dig- litical rival, he/she is represented as a monarch erals, 2016). 4.2.3. Commodification ging deeper in the wrong direction. Begich voted wearing the attributes of power like a crown. In The phenomena and events of political life in four times to help Obama pile up record debts. the given example Robert J. Bentley, a candidate in 4.2.2. Theatricality political advertising are often conceptualised in Mark Begich: digging Alaska a hole we can’t afford the 2014 Alabama gubernatorial election, is repre- Theatricality as a feature of social discourse is terms of marketing. For example, the concepts (NRSC, 2014). sented like this: Emperor Bentley has no clothes accounted for in Bakhtin’s (1990) theory of carni- ‘politician’, ‘politics’ and ‘political product’ (a (Parker Griffith, 2014). val. The point of the theory is that culture is sub- manifesto, a movement, an idea or a symbol) un- 4.2.4. Personifiedness 5. Sports and game metaphors. jected to an inversion of binary oppositions. A new dergo metaphorical redefinition and get closer to Nowadays the boundaries between institutional The election race is a running race. The follow- alternative world is built with the help of laughter the concept of ‘commodity’. From the psychologi- and personal discourses are getting blurred, which ing example contains a combination of a and gets filled with ambivalent cultural meanings cal point of view, commodification of metaphors is is explained by the commitment of institutions to metaphor and a pun, showing Mike McFadden, a and images (up – down, serious – funny, decent – explained by a human’s desire to learn more about the task of seeking ways to influence the addressee

30 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 31 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova new. It doesn’t matter who they give you. Because candidate for the 2014 US Senate election in Min- indecent, etc.). Carnivalisation of culture enables abstract spheres with the help of the structures of they’re all Labor lemons and Labor lemons never nesota, as both a skilful youth football coach and a critical analysis of the existing official culture and bodily experience that are already familiar to him/ change their spots (Liberal Party of Australia, promising politician: Now Coach McFadden’s the can lead to a shift in values and trigger a fight her. Therefore, the understanding of politics as a 2013). one running (Mike McFadden, 2014). against wide-spread misconceptions. One of the commodity is based on the same psychological The government is a swamp: Did you know The election race is a job interview. The politi- manifestations of the carnivalisation of culture is mechanisms as the ‘bodily metaphor’ in the theory Washington is built on a swamp? Massive govern- cian being discussed in the spot is Justin Trudeau, the tendency towards putting on a show and the of Lakoff and Johnson (2003). The commodifica- ment debt. Stifling regulation. Special interest poli- a candidate for the 42nd Canadian general elec- theatricalisation of politics. The three processes tion of political advertising is expressed with the tics. Partisan dysfunction. Now it all makes sense. tion: can be represented as reassessing social stereo- help of the following metaphors. Washington is broken. The political class broke it. – Oh, some interesting resumes we have here. types by means of entertainment – the show, the 1. Food metaphors. Together we can drain the swamp and protect our Let’s talk about Justin. theatre or the circus (Bakhtin, 1990; Fairclough, The budget is tasty food (e.g. a biscuit) or a visit children’s future (CampaignTVAds, 2015b). – I see he’s included his picture. Let’s start with 1995). to a restaurant: When Rodney Davis got to Wash- 4. Military metaphors. the experience section. Nothing about balancing a Theatricality is realised with the help of the fol- ington he ordered Congress every perk on the The political struggle is war: Mitt Romney’s neg- budget or making a payroll. lowing metaphors. menu. Rodney Davis – only serving himself (DCC- ative attack machine is back on full throttle. This – Didn’t he say budgets balance themselves? 1. Theatrical metaphors. CVideo, 2014a). time Romney’s firing his mud at Rick Santorum. – And what does the experience section say The rival is a puppet: Joe Biden: China’s puppet A politician or their target audience is food/drink. Romney and his Super PAC have spent a stagger- about keeping us safe? (Donald J Trump, 2020b). In the spot promoting Linda McMahon, a candidate ing 20 million brutally attacking fellow Republi- – Well, he wants to send winter jackets to Syria. The rival is a circus artist: [Clowning around] for the 2010 US Senate election in Connecticut, the cans. Why? Because Romney’s trying to hide from – People, being Prime Minister is not an entry- Male voiceover: With unemployment at 9% what’s jobless are likened to lunch boxes, which must be his big government Romneycare, and his support level job. [Silly Liberal Doug Berger] Doug Berger doing? Ig- both, a metaphor, and a metonymy: A lot of people for job-killing cap and trade. And in the end Mitt – I’m not saying no forever, but not now. noring the real problems, he wasted time on silly ask me why I’m running for Senate. Here’s why: this Romney’s ugly attacks are going to backfire (Rick – Nice hair though. stuff like regulating grocery bags. Regulating bar- lunch box. It represents a lot of people who’ve lost Santorum, 2012). Justin Trudeau. He’s just not ready (Conserva- ber poles, banning grocery bags. Doug Berger: jobs. <…> I’m Linda McMahon, and I approve this The rival’s rise to power is a military invasion. teur, 2015). silliness, not substance (ChadBarefoot, 2012). message because we need this lunch box and a lot In this example there is word play involving the 6. The mechanism metaphor. The rival is a celebrity. In the example, the lead- more like it back at work (LindaMcMahon2010, name of Alex Salmond, who is addressed as the The rival is a weathervane. The mechanism ership qualities of Barack Obama, a candidate in 2010). head of the Scottish National Party (SNP) in the metaphor is mainly verbalised in political advertis- the 2008 US presidential election, are questioned: 2. Economic metaphors. spot: Salmond Alert. With fifty SNP seats predicted ing through the juxtaposition of statements. In the He’s the biggest celebrity in the world. But is he Economy is a cargo: America’s economy is in the next Parliament, Miliband and then the Canadian spot ‘Same weak leadership. Same old ready to lead? (John McCain, 2008a). hanging by a thread. Under the weight of high un- country would be in their grip. To combat this, NDP’ of 2016 the metaphor is expressed both ver- 2. Religious metaphors. employment, soaring gas prices, Medicare nearly emergency polling stations are being set up Thurs- bally with the help of contradictory statements and The rival is a messiah. Just like in the previous bankrupt, reckless spending, a failed stimulus, and day. Vote Conservative (Conservatives, 2015). visually as John Horgan, head of the British Co- example, Barack Obama is meant: And he has a $14 trillion-dollar debt, much of it owned by Chi- The rival is an autocrat. In a democracy the ‘Ri- lumbia New Democratic Party, is represented as a anointed himself ready to carry the burden of The na, we are near the breaking point. Maybe we val Is an Autocrat’ metaphor reflects the conflict weathervane pointing left and right at juxtaposed One. To quote Barack: ‘I have become a symbol of won’t be crushed when our economy snaps, but between the politician and the people in case the written remarks: For: ‘I think it’s appropriate that America returning to our best traditions’ (John Mc- someone will (CrossroadsGPSChannel, 2011). former is considered to be striving to gain unlimit- Kinder Morgan be allowed’. Against: ‘I’m very Cain, 2008b). A debt crisis is a hole: When you’re in a hole, ed power. When this metaphor is applied to a po- pleased we’re saying no to Kinder Morgan’ (BCLib- you stop digging. But Mark Begich? He keeps dig- litical rival, he/she is represented as a monarch erals, 2016). 4.2.3. Commodification ging deeper in the wrong direction. Begich voted wearing the attributes of power like a crown. In The phenomena and events of political life in four times to help Obama pile up record debts. the given example Robert J. Bentley, a candidate in 4.2.2. Theatricality political advertising are often conceptualised in Mark Begich: digging Alaska a hole we can’t afford the 2014 Alabama gubernatorial election, is repre- Theatricality as a feature of social discourse is terms of marketing. For example, the concepts (NRSC, 2014). sented like this: Emperor Bentley has no clothes accounted for in Bakhtin’s (1990) theory of carni- ‘politician’, ‘politics’ and ‘political product’ (a (Parker Griffith, 2014). val. The point of the theory is that culture is sub- manifesto, a movement, an idea or a symbol) un- 4.2.4. Personifiedness 5. Sports and game metaphors. jected to an inversion of binary oppositions. A new dergo metaphorical redefinition and get closer to Nowadays the boundaries between institutional The election race is a running race. The follow- alternative world is built with the help of laughter the concept of ‘commodity’. From the psychologi- and personal discourses are getting blurred, which ing example contains a combination of a and gets filled with ambivalent cultural meanings cal point of view, commodification of metaphors is is explained by the commitment of institutions to metaphor and a pun, showing Mike McFadden, a and images (up – down, serious – funny, decent – explained by a human’s desire to learn more about the task of seeking ways to influence the addressee

30 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 31 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova more effectively. To win the addressee over one is 5. DISCUSSION to become closer to him/her using different means, In political advertising the cognitive metaphor including conversationalisation. Conversational is treated as a tool for raising the efficiency of the speech helps to make the relationships between message and, thus, outrivalling competitors in the the participants more intimate and establish a struggle for the addressee’s attention and trust. The steady communicative contact between them. Per- individualised and creative character of the cogni- sonifiedness is associated with the following tive metaphor provides for an almost unlimited metaphors. number of options of metaphorical hybridisation. 1. Kinship metaphors. Though metaphorical hybridisation seems to be The rival is a child: When Congresswoman Ann productive and highly demanded in political ad- Kirkpatrick doesn’t get her way, she throws vertising, the quantitative analysis of the empirical tantrums. During the government shutdown we material shows that the number of spots in which needed Kirkpatrick to fight for Arizona. Instead, the cognitive metaphor is used is relatively small she threw a tantrum and voted against funding for and only amounts to 15%. In most cases the ad- border security and against opening the Grand dresser tries to make the most of the cognitive po- Canyon. Ann Kirkpatrick. Tantrums in Congress tential of the metaphor and, hence, mainly uses Figure 2. The use of cognitive metaphors in political spots that hurt Arizona (American Action Network, sustained metaphors accompanied by other cogni- 2014). tive devices like the metonymy or the pun. The 2. Housing metaphors. cognitive metaphor seems to be the most widely tries to make use of all the modes of perception to of politics through marketing terms. The central The rival is darkness/ignorance: Education leads used cognitive mechanism, with others like the influence the addressee and, therefore, the linguis- cognitive metaphor structuring the concept sphere to a bright future. But Cresent Hardy would turn metonymy or the pun used separately amounting tic metaphor is most often backed by visual and/or of political advertising is the ‘Politics as a Com- out the lights on our schools. Cresent Hardy’s to only 5% (Figure 2). audial means. Yet, we have not detected any in- modity’ metaphor. Among the factors facilitating ideas on education would leave Nevada students The limited use of the cognitive metaphor can stances of the use of visual or audial metaphors metaphorical hybridisation of the two varieties of in the dark (DCCCVideo, 2014b). be explained by three interrelated factors. First, the only without the participation of language, which discourse are, on the one hand, their institutionali- The points of the electoral manifesto are cognitive metaphor most often relies on immense goes to show the importance of the linguistic ty and, on the other hand, the acknowledgement presents. In the following example tags with the background knowledge of economy, politics, cul- metaphor as a tool of persuasion in political adver- of the primacy of choice as a basic democratic val- names of the manifesto points are attached to ture, etc. So, when using the cognitive metaphor, tising. ue of the Western European culture. Christmas presents: [Universal health care. Alterna- the addresser has to consider the psychological A promising continuation of the current re- Second, having analysed texts of political ad- tive energy. Bring troops home. Middle class tax and physiological mechanisms and motives under- search would be further quantitative analysis of vertising, we have revealed a number of discursive breaks]. Hillary Clinton: Where did I put universal lying perception and interpretation. Second, the different models of cognitive metaphors in politi- characteristics that could be considered points of pre-K? Ah, here it is. [Universal Pre-K. Happy holi- decoding of the cognitive metaphor is not always cal advertising and comparison of their functions intersection of marketing and politics in the course days] (Sincerely Right, 2015). predictable and can be individually coloured, so and role in the process of hybridisation of market- of their hybridisation: agonality, theatricality, com- The rival is baggage/garbage. In the example there is always a chance of misinterpretation and ing and political discourses. modification and personifiedness. These discursive the allegedly unsuccessful points of the Australian misunderstanding, which is certainly highly unde- characteristics are determined and shaped by two Labour Party’s manifesto are represented as in- sirable for the advertiser. Third, it takes more tech- 6. CONCLUSION types of conflicts leading to the marketisation and scriptions on bags filled with garbage: Voiceover nical resources, more time, and more money to re- Hybridisation in all its forms and manifesta- conversationalisation of political advertising – the (male): Bill Shorten is not a leader. He’s got too alise the metaphor in certain genres of political ad- tions, including metaphorical hybridisation, is a one between information and entertainment and much baggage from his six disastrous years with vertising, especially those that presuppose the use productive process of enriching language and en- the other between public and private. Rudd and Gillard. Too much baggage from knifing of TV and the Internet. The dilemma is, as a rule, suring its vitality. Following an analysis of the pe- Third, the discursive characteristics of political two sitting prime ministers. [Boats. Waste. Carbon overcome with the help of the use of familiar cog- culiarities of the hybridisation of marketing and advertising can be illustrated with the help of those tax. Unions. Debt. Chaos]. Bill Shorten and Labour nitive metaphors, e.g. the ‘Politician Is a Puppet’. political discourses based on the cognitive cognitive metaphors that are most typical of the have got too much baggage (Liberal Party of Aus- As was shown in the examples above, the metaphor, several conclusions can be drawn. variety of discourse under discussion. Due to the tralia, 2015). metaphor mainly serves as a tool of defaming the First, the most obvious product of the hybridisa- general tendency towards negativity in political Certainly, the number of cognitive metaphors political rival, which is in line with the general tion of marketing and political discourse is politi- advertising, the cognitive metaphor usually has a used in political advertising discourse is not limit- tendency towards negativity in political advertising cal advertising discourse. Political advertising can negative connotation and aims to tarnish the polit- ed to the above-mentioned ones. (Murashova, 2018, p. 154-155). The advertiser be seen as a result of the metaphorical redefinition ical rival’s image.

32 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 33 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova more effectively. To win the addressee over one is 5. DISCUSSION to become closer to him/her using different means, In political advertising the cognitive metaphor including conversationalisation. Conversational is treated as a tool for raising the efficiency of the speech helps to make the relationships between message and, thus, outrivalling competitors in the the participants more intimate and establish a struggle for the addressee’s attention and trust. The steady communicative contact between them. Per- individualised and creative character of the cogni- sonifiedness is associated with the following tive metaphor provides for an almost unlimited metaphors. number of options of metaphorical hybridisation. 1. Kinship metaphors. Though metaphorical hybridisation seems to be The rival is a child: When Congresswoman Ann productive and highly demanded in political ad- Kirkpatrick doesn’t get her way, she throws vertising, the quantitative analysis of the empirical tantrums. During the government shutdown we material shows that the number of spots in which needed Kirkpatrick to fight for Arizona. Instead, the cognitive metaphor is used is relatively small she threw a tantrum and voted against funding for and only amounts to 15%. In most cases the ad- border security and against opening the Grand dresser tries to make the most of the cognitive po- Canyon. Ann Kirkpatrick. Tantrums in Congress tential of the metaphor and, hence, mainly uses Figure 2. The use of cognitive metaphors in political spots that hurt Arizona (American Action Network, sustained metaphors accompanied by other cogni- 2014). tive devices like the metonymy or the pun. The 2. Housing metaphors. cognitive metaphor seems to be the most widely tries to make use of all the modes of perception to of politics through marketing terms. The central The rival is darkness/ignorance: Education leads used cognitive mechanism, with others like the influence the addressee and, therefore, the linguis- cognitive metaphor structuring the concept sphere to a bright future. But Cresent Hardy would turn metonymy or the pun used separately amounting tic metaphor is most often backed by visual and/or of political advertising is the ‘Politics as a Com- out the lights on our schools. Cresent Hardy’s to only 5% (Figure 2). audial means. Yet, we have not detected any in- modity’ metaphor. Among the factors facilitating ideas on education would leave Nevada students The limited use of the cognitive metaphor can stances of the use of visual or audial metaphors metaphorical hybridisation of the two varieties of in the dark (DCCCVideo, 2014b). be explained by three interrelated factors. First, the only without the participation of language, which discourse are, on the one hand, their institutionali- The points of the electoral manifesto are cognitive metaphor most often relies on immense goes to show the importance of the linguistic ty and, on the other hand, the acknowledgement presents. In the following example tags with the background knowledge of economy, politics, cul- metaphor as a tool of persuasion in political adver- of the primacy of choice as a basic democratic val- names of the manifesto points are attached to ture, etc. So, when using the cognitive metaphor, tising. ue of the Western European culture. Christmas presents: [Universal health care. Alterna- the addresser has to consider the psychological A promising continuation of the current re- Second, having analysed texts of political ad- tive energy. Bring troops home. Middle class tax and physiological mechanisms and motives under- search would be further quantitative analysis of vertising, we have revealed a number of discursive breaks]. Hillary Clinton: Where did I put universal lying perception and interpretation. Second, the different models of cognitive metaphors in politi- characteristics that could be considered points of pre-K? Ah, here it is. [Universal Pre-K. Happy holi- decoding of the cognitive metaphor is not always cal advertising and comparison of their functions intersection of marketing and politics in the course days] (Sincerely Right, 2015). predictable and can be individually coloured, so and role in the process of hybridisation of market- of their hybridisation: agonality, theatricality, com- The rival is baggage/garbage. In the example there is always a chance of misinterpretation and ing and political discourses. modification and personifiedness. These discursive the allegedly unsuccessful points of the Australian misunderstanding, which is certainly highly unde- characteristics are determined and shaped by two Labour Party’s manifesto are represented as in- sirable for the advertiser. Third, it takes more tech- 6. CONCLUSION types of conflicts leading to the marketisation and scriptions on bags filled with garbage: Voiceover nical resources, more time, and more money to re- Hybridisation in all its forms and manifesta- conversationalisation of political advertising – the (male): Bill Shorten is not a leader. He’s got too alise the metaphor in certain genres of political ad- tions, including metaphorical hybridisation, is a one between information and entertainment and much baggage from his six disastrous years with vertising, especially those that presuppose the use productive process of enriching language and en- the other between public and private. Rudd and Gillard. Too much baggage from knifing of TV and the Internet. The dilemma is, as a rule, suring its vitality. Following an analysis of the pe- Third, the discursive characteristics of political two sitting prime ministers. [Boats. Waste. Carbon overcome with the help of the use of familiar cog- culiarities of the hybridisation of marketing and advertising can be illustrated with the help of those tax. Unions. Debt. Chaos]. Bill Shorten and Labour nitive metaphors, e.g. the ‘Politician Is a Puppet’. political discourses based on the cognitive cognitive metaphors that are most typical of the have got too much baggage (Liberal Party of Aus- As was shown in the examples above, the metaphor, several conclusions can be drawn. variety of discourse under discussion. Due to the tralia, 2015). metaphor mainly serves as a tool of defaming the First, the most obvious product of the hybridisa- general tendency towards negativity in political Certainly, the number of cognitive metaphors political rival, which is in line with the general tion of marketing and political discourse is politi- advertising, the cognitive metaphor usually has a used in political advertising discourse is not limit- tendency towards negativity in political advertising cal advertising discourse. Political advertising can negative connotation and aims to tarnish the polit- ed to the above-mentioned ones. (Murashova, 2018, p. 154-155). The advertiser be seen as a result of the metaphorical redefinition ical rival’s image.

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34 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 35 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The role of the cognitive metaphor in the hybridisation of marketing and political discourses: An analysis of English-language political advertising Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 by Ekaterina P. Murashova

34 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 35 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 22-36 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-22-36 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50

Sokolova, N. V. (2020). Multimodal IT marketing The Rob Maness Show. (2014, May 8). Rob Maness TV discourse: An integrated approach investigation. ad – Gator [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/ Russian Journal of Linguistics, 24(2), 366-385. aBNQBx6JOcw https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-2- Vartanova, E. L. (2000). Convergence as inevitability: Original Research 366-385 About the role of the technological factor in the Sun, Y., Kalinin, O. I., & Ignatenko, A. V. (2021). The use transformation of the modern media systems. In of metaphor power indices for the analysis of Y. N. Zasurskiy & E. L. Vartanova (Eds.), From the speech impact in political public speeches. book to the Internet: Journalism and literature at The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Russian Journal of Linguistics, 25(1), 250-277. the turn of the new millennium (pp. 37-55). https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2021-25-1- Moscow State University Press. Interaction with the customer 250-277 Wodak, R. (1996). Disorders of discourse. Longman. by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya

Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya Ural Federal University, Russia [email protected] EKATERINA P. MURASHOVA Article history Received April 18, 2021 | Revised May 17, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 Moscow State Linguistic University | 38 Ostozhenka Street, bld. 1, 119034 Moscow, Russia Conﬂicts of interest The author declared no conﬂicts of interest [email protected] Research funding The study is supported by Russian Science Foundation, Project No. 20-68-46003 ‘The Semantics of Unity and Animosity in Russian Lexis and Phraseology: Language System and Discourse’ doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 For citation Dubrovskaya, T. V. (2021). The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer. Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 37-50.

This paper discusses touristic communication practices, speciﬁcally the tourist booklets as a genre of professional discourse. Using the framework that is informed by discourse analysis, multimodal discourse analysis, genre studies and professional discourse studies, the author views a tourist booklet as a complex multimodal genre and sets the goal to reveal how booklets construct interaction between professional agents and non-professional customers. Using a set of tourist (predominantly English language) booklets collected in 2005-2019 around the world, the author discovers professional agents seeking to strike a balance between their image as experts in tourism and the need to construct rapport with the customers. These goals are achieved through the employment of various strategies, which are implement- ed through a range of linguistic and visual techniques. The validity of the professional image relies on such discursive mechanisms as providing expert knowledge on the touristic objects and services, explicit indications of expertise, presentations of professional agents as law-abiding and formally recognised businesses, and references to socially important values. The meanings evoked by the linguistic resources are reinforced visually. To mitigate the asymmetry of sta- tuses, rapport with the customers is developed by means of offering biographies and interviews with the company representatives, the demonstration of attention to the customer, the construction of common emotional space, and the conversational style strategy. The customer is also involved in cognitively entertaining or challenging activities. Thus, the study shows that professional-to-layperson communication is a multi-faceted phenomenon, whose complexity is predetermined by the combination of various intentions and multimodal resources that help implement these intentions discursively.

KEYWORDS: tourist booklet, genre, professional discourse, multimodal, strategy, interaction

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

1. INTRODUCTION strategies and solutions to overcome the crisis. Ac- Although a steady growth in tourism witnessed cording to the report prepared by the European in recent decades has stalled due to the unprece- Commission’s science and knowledge service, ‘the dented situation of the Covid-19 outbreak, the solution is likely to be local’ and ‘changing con- sphere remains aﬂoat and is looking for new sumer preferences hold opportunities for more di-

KEYWORDS: tourist booklet, genre, professional discourse, multimodal, strategy, interaction

© Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya 2021 36 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 37 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya versified and sustainable forms of tourism’ (Mar- The majority of booklets are in the English lan- analysis I resort to brief descriptions of the ‘In this paper we adopt a wide approach quez Santos et al., 2020, p. 7). Apparently, behav- guage. There are also bilingual booklets (English- pictures. With this paper, I aspire to contribute to ioural changes and changes in consumer prefer- German, Russian-English), and some are written in the field of professional discourse studies through to professional communication taking it to ences will require extensive communicational al- national languages (Polish, Russian). In the paper I the exploration of tourist booklets as a complex embrace contacts between professionals terations. The tourism industry will have to adapt provide examples predominantly in English and multimodal genre, in which language and visuals and non-professionals, and genres its communicative practices to respond to newly quote them in their original wording, keeping the constitute a unity. produced by professionals and targeted at emerged challenges, on the one hand, and to cre- spelling, punctuation, bold type and block letters. ate new tourism practices, on the other. Bold type added by me is commented on in all 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND laypeople, the tourist booklet being an Tourism communication practices are at the cases. The body of literature that is relevant to the example of such genre’ centre of the present study. Although the research Methodologically, I draw on discourse analysis present study is vast. As Candlin (2009, p. 7) is based on pre-pandemic data, its results can shed in a wide understanding of the term. Discourse claims in the preface to a volume on professional ‘anyone for whom communication is a major as- light on how professionals in the sphere achieve analysis views texts as elements of social events communication, ‘the study of language in the con- pect of his or her work’. Although they do not state their goals through the use of varied semiotic re- and social life. Fairclough (2004, p. 3) indicates text of professional communication – for example explicitly whether professional communication is sources and what dominant interactional tenden- that ‘text analysis is an essential part of discourse in the domains and fields of law, education, busi- performed in a closed community of professionals cies can be revealed. I seek to answer the follow- analysis, but discourse analysis is not merely the ness, healthcare, social welfare, bureaucratic pro- only or can involve non-professionals as well, the ing research questions. linguistic analysis of texts’. Therefore, apart from cesses, media – from the perspective of language list of professional communicators offered includes 1. What are the semiotic features of a tourist linguistic analysis proper, the analytical procedure and communication (in the broad sense of dis- positions in business such as a sales executive, a booklet as a multimodal phenomenon? embraces the consideration of the pragmatic con- course) has a long-standing history, beginning with tour guide and a translator. From this it can be in- 2. How do professional agents demonstrate au- text, including the social agents and their explicit the mid nineteen seventies and early nineteen ferred that a non-professional actor may be a part- thority and expertise to the customer? What lin- and hidden goals and strategies. After Reisigl and eighties’. That is why I will focus on the three ma- ner of a professional communicator. In this paper guistic and visual resources are employed strategi- Wodak (2009, p. 94), we take strategy to be ‘a jor categories of papers covering the following we adopt a wide approach to professional com- cally? more or less intentional plan of practices (includ- subjects: professional discourse/communication, munication taking it to embrace contacts between 3. What strategies are used by professionals to ing discursive practices) adopted to achieve a par- genre theory and the study of tourist discourse. In professionals and non-professionals, and genres mitigate the asymmetry of the roles and develop ticular social, political, psychological or linguistic this section, I make an attempt to briefly outline produced by professionals and targeted at laypeo- rapport with the customer? goal’. some seminal works in these fields and isolate the ple, the tourist booklet being an example of such 4. What multimodal techniques enhance the in- Along with the analysis of rhetorical techniques basic assumptions that I draw on in my study. genre. teraction between the professional and the cus- (types of descriptions, strategies) and linguistic In what follows, I discuss tourist booklets as Gunnarsson (2009) identifies a set of features of tomer? means (choice of lexical units, grammar and sen- texts of professional discourse. Therefore, it is ex- professional discourse, which includes the expert tence structures), I resort to multimodal analysis. pedient to first outline how ‘professional dis- character, goal-orientation typical of a specific 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS The principle of multimodal analysis is explained course’ is construed in modern linguistic scholar- professional environment, situatedness, strongly For the present study I use a collection of tourist by O’Halloran (2004, p. 1): ‘In addition to linguis- ship. Gunnarsson (2009, p. 5) defines professional conventionalised forms and established patterns, a booklets collected by me in 2005-2019 in a num- tic choices and their typographical instantiation on discourse as ‘text and talk – and the intertwine- leading role in creating and recreating social ber of countries of the world, including Germany, the printed page, multimodal analysis takes into ment of these modalities – in professional contexts groups and structures, its dependence on various Poland, Australia, the UK, Romania, Hungary, Italy account the functions and meaning of the visual and for professional purposes’. Depending on the societal framework systems, as well as dynamic and Russia. The total number of booklets analysed images, together with the meaning arising from the agents involved in communication, the scholar dif- changes in the language and discourse that reflect amounts to 80. integrated use of the two semiotic resources’. Ar- ferentiates three types of texts produced: ‘Profes- social transformations (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. Because the booklets have different volumes, guing in favour of multimodal discourse analysis, sional discourse includes written texts produced by 5-11). As can be seen, the scholar focuses on rele- which vary from only a few pages to over a hun- O’Halloran (2004, p. 1) writes: ‘To date, the major- professionals and intended for other professionals vant pragmatic features while also pointing to the dred pages, and include a different number of il- ity of research endeavours in linguistics have tend- with the same or different expertise, for semi-pro- linguistic side of the phenomenon. In this paper, lustrations, it would be extremely difficult to per- ed to concentrate solely on language while ignor- fessionals, i.e. learners, or for non-professionals, the discussion of the pragmatic characteristics is form any calculations of the exact word count in ing, or at least downplaying, the contributions of i.e. lay people. It also means that it includes talk in- intertwined with the analysis of linguistic and mul- the corpus explored. However, I focus on qualita- other meaning-making resources. This has resulted volving at least one professional’ (Gunnarsson, timodal aspects of the genre. tive analysis, rather than quantitative or statistical in rather an impoverished view of functions and 2009, p. 5). In their discussion of professional In linguistic scholarship professional communi- analysis, and the indicated number of booklets, meaning of discourse’. Unfortunately, it is not al- communication, Scollon and Scollon (2005, p. 3) cation is often viewed in terms of genre. Scollon which belong to eight cultures, should guarantee ways possible to offer visuals due to copyright re- approach the concept through the definition of and Scollon (2005, p. 35) define genre as ‘any the validity of the results. strictions, and in most instances of multimodal ‘professional communicators’, who they take to be speech event, whether it is spoken or in writing,

38 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 39 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya versified and sustainable forms of tourism’ (Mar- The majority of booklets are in the English lan- analysis I resort to brief descriptions of the ‘In this paper we adopt a wide approach quez Santos et al., 2020, p. 7). Apparently, behav- guage. There are also bilingual booklets (English- pictures. With this paper, I aspire to contribute to ioural changes and changes in consumer prefer- German, Russian-English), and some are written in the field of professional discourse studies through to professional communication taking it to ences will require extensive communicational al- national languages (Polish, Russian). In the paper I the exploration of tourist booklets as a complex embrace contacts between professionals terations. The tourism industry will have to adapt provide examples predominantly in English and multimodal genre, in which language and visuals and non-professionals, and genres its communicative practices to respond to newly quote them in their original wording, keeping the constitute a unity. produced by professionals and targeted at emerged challenges, on the one hand, and to cre- spelling, punctuation, bold type and block letters. ate new tourism practices, on the other. Bold type added by me is commented on in all 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND laypeople, the tourist booklet being an Tourism communication practices are at the cases. The body of literature that is relevant to the example of such genre’ centre of the present study. Although the research Methodologically, I draw on discourse analysis present study is vast. As Candlin (2009, p. 7) is based on pre-pandemic data, its results can shed in a wide understanding of the term. Discourse claims in the preface to a volume on professional ‘anyone for whom communication is a major as- light on how professionals in the sphere achieve analysis views texts as elements of social events communication, ‘the study of language in the con- pect of his or her work’. Although they do not state their goals through the use of varied semiotic re- and social life. Fairclough (2004, p. 3) indicates text of professional communication – for example explicitly whether professional communication is sources and what dominant interactional tenden- that ‘text analysis is an essential part of discourse in the domains and fields of law, education, busi- performed in a closed community of professionals cies can be revealed. I seek to answer the follow- analysis, but discourse analysis is not merely the ness, healthcare, social welfare, bureaucratic pro- only or can involve non-professionals as well, the ing research questions. linguistic analysis of texts’. Therefore, apart from cesses, media – from the perspective of language list of professional communicators offered includes 1. What are the semiotic features of a tourist linguistic analysis proper, the analytical procedure and communication (in the broad sense of dis- positions in business such as a sales executive, a booklet as a multimodal phenomenon? embraces the consideration of the pragmatic con- course) has a long-standing history, beginning with tour guide and a translator. From this it can be in- 2. How do professional agents demonstrate au- text, including the social agents and their explicit the mid nineteen seventies and early nineteen ferred that a non-professional actor may be a part- thority and expertise to the customer? What lin- and hidden goals and strategies. After Reisigl and eighties’. That is why I will focus on the three ma- ner of a professional communicator. In this paper guistic and visual resources are employed strategi- Wodak (2009, p. 94), we take strategy to be ‘a jor categories of papers covering the following we adopt a wide approach to professional com- cally? more or less intentional plan of practices (includ- subjects: professional discourse/communication, munication taking it to embrace contacts between 3. What strategies are used by professionals to ing discursive practices) adopted to achieve a par- genre theory and the study of tourist discourse. In professionals and non-professionals, and genres mitigate the asymmetry of the roles and develop ticular social, political, psychological or linguistic this section, I make an attempt to briefly outline produced by professionals and targeted at laypeo- rapport with the customer? goal’. some seminal works in these fields and isolate the ple, the tourist booklet being an example of such 4. What multimodal techniques enhance the in- Along with the analysis of rhetorical techniques basic assumptions that I draw on in my study. genre. teraction between the professional and the cus- (types of descriptions, strategies) and linguistic In what follows, I discuss tourist booklets as Gunnarsson (2009) identifies a set of features of tomer? means (choice of lexical units, grammar and sen- texts of professional discourse. Therefore, it is ex- professional discourse, which includes the expert tence structures), I resort to multimodal analysis. pedient to first outline how ‘professional dis- character, goal-orientation typical of a specific 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS The principle of multimodal analysis is explained course’ is construed in modern linguistic scholar- professional environment, situatedness, strongly For the present study I use a collection of tourist by O’Halloran (2004, p. 1): ‘In addition to linguis- ship. Gunnarsson (2009, p. 5) defines professional conventionalised forms and established patterns, a booklets collected by me in 2005-2019 in a num- tic choices and their typographical instantiation on discourse as ‘text and talk – and the intertwine- leading role in creating and recreating social ber of countries of the world, including Germany, the printed page, multimodal analysis takes into ment of these modalities – in professional contexts groups and structures, its dependence on various Poland, Australia, the UK, Romania, Hungary, Italy account the functions and meaning of the visual and for professional purposes’. Depending on the societal framework systems, as well as dynamic and Russia. The total number of booklets analysed images, together with the meaning arising from the agents involved in communication, the scholar dif- changes in the language and discourse that reflect amounts to 80. integrated use of the two semiotic resources’. Ar- ferentiates three types of texts produced: ‘Profes- social transformations (Gunnarsson, 2009, p. Because the booklets have different volumes, guing in favour of multimodal discourse analysis, sional discourse includes written texts produced by 5-11). As can be seen, the scholar focuses on rele- which vary from only a few pages to over a hun- O’Halloran (2004, p. 1) writes: ‘To date, the major- professionals and intended for other professionals vant pragmatic features while also pointing to the dred pages, and include a different number of il- ity of research endeavours in linguistics have tend- with the same or different expertise, for semi-pro- linguistic side of the phenomenon. In this paper, lustrations, it would be extremely difficult to per- ed to concentrate solely on language while ignor- fessionals, i.e. learners, or for non-professionals, the discussion of the pragmatic characteristics is form any calculations of the exact word count in ing, or at least downplaying, the contributions of i.e. lay people. It also means that it includes talk in- intertwined with the analysis of linguistic and mul- the corpus explored. However, I focus on qualita- other meaning-making resources. This has resulted volving at least one professional’ (Gunnarsson, timodal aspects of the genre. tive analysis, rather than quantitative or statistical in rather an impoverished view of functions and 2009, p. 5). In their discussion of professional In linguistic scholarship professional communi- analysis, and the indicated number of booklets, meaning of discourse’. Unfortunately, it is not al- communication, Scollon and Scollon (2005, p. 3) cation is often viewed in terms of genre. Scollon which belong to eight cultures, should guarantee ways possible to offer visuals due to copyright re- approach the concept through the definition of and Scollon (2005, p. 35) define genre as ‘any the validity of the results. strictions, and in most instances of multimodal ‘professional communicators’, who they take to be speech event, whether it is spoken or in writing,

38 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 39 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya which has fairly predictable sets of speech acts, policy becomes the research objective in De Jong of its utilitarian purpose: it is the right size to hold participants, topics, settings, or other regularly oc- and Varley (2017), where the authors reveal ‘the ‘Booklets also possess certain spacial in hands, consult or put in a handbag or pocket, curring and conventional forms’. Conventions are ways Scotland’s tourist policy landscape privileges semiotics, since they can be found in some especially while travelling or being on tour. De- seen as a basis for genre building and professional the cultural symbols of the middle class, whilst traditional loci: information desks at pending on the amount of information provided, communication in general. Bhatia (2010, p. 33) of- marginalising particular foods positioned as work- the booklet contains from only a few to over a fers a list of factors that contribute to the construc- ing class, through the promotion of Scottish airports, hotel receptions, tourist hundred pages. tion of professional artefacts: ‘the genre in ques- food’ (De Jong & Varley, 2017, p. 220). Medical information points, travel agencies, However, irrespective of the size, booklets are tion, the understanding of the professional practice tourism and its discursive practices are also dis- booking offices in theatres and museums, often published on high-quality glossy paper, in which the genre is embedded, and the culture cussed in marketing terms and as a locus where which guarantees their attractiveness as well as of the profession, discipline, or institution, which ethical voices surrender to the market logic (Mainil etc. These loci as well as the accessibility durability. Tourist booklets are always polychro- constrains the use of textual resources for a partic- et al., 2011). of booklets signal to a potential user that matic and accommodate a lot of visuals, including ular discursive practice’. In other words, genres of I should also point to the scholarly interest to- they are distributed free of charge’ pictures, photos, schemes, maps, symbols, logos, professional communication are context-depen- wards the genres of tourist discourse, specifically etc. The combination of verbal and visual compo- dent and, in turn, predetermine the use of specific guidebooks (Metro-Roland, 2011), travel guides brochures and show how moves and strategies im- nents constitutes their essential feature. Paper em- rhetorical and lexical-grammatic means. As will be (Holovach, 2016; Olszańska & Olszański, 2004), plement the communicative purpose of shaping bossing on the cover, which appeals to the tactile shown, the tourist booklet as a whole represents a tourism brochures (Luo & Huang, 2015) and destination image. Guidebooks are taken in a perception, can add to the non-verbal side of the complex multimodal genre with a conventional tourist website texts (Abramova, 2020; Manca, wider framework of semiotic approach to urban object. structure, typical strategies and regular linguistic 2013). The authors focus on various aspects of studies by Metro-Roland (2011, p. 3), who views Booklets also possess certain spacial semiotics, and multimodal resources. tourist discourse as a multi-faceted phenomenon. them as instruments of meaning-making and ‘un- since they can be found in some traditional loci: The study of tourism discourse has gained pop- Holovach (2016, p. 14) is concerned with how derstanding the way in which meaning is educed information desks at airports, hotel receptions, ularity in the recent decades, and the linguistic culturally relevant information is transferred from from the built environment’. tourist information points, travel agencies, booking and sociological scholarship on the topic reflects one culture to another through travel guides and While drawing on previous studies on profes- offices in theatres and museums, etc. These loci as the emergence of new forms of tourism, such as claims that ‘the comparison and contrast of ‘home’ sional communication, genres and tourist dis- well as the accessibility of booklets signal to a po- ecotourism (Mühlhäusler & Peace, 2001; Spinzi, and ‘foreign’ is one of the organising principles’. course, I choose to look at tourist booklets from a tential user that they are distributed free of charge. 2013), medical tourism (Mainil et al., 2011), food The paper, however, has a purely speculative char- different angle. I am particularly interested to ex- Altogether, the aforementioned features provide tourism (De Jong & Varley, 2017), music tourism acter and is based on reviewing others’ contribu- plore how this genre conceptualises interaction for the recognisability of the booklet as a physical (D’Andrea, 2013), etc. Increasingly, discourses of tions to the field, rather than original data analysis. between professional actors and the customer, and item that contains information for the target con- diverse types of tourism are viewed in terms of Abramova (2020) also opts for a cross-cultural ap- what discursive mechanisms and semiotic re- sumer of a specific touristic product. power relations and social construction, and take proach to tourism discourse, but performs it sources are used by the professional actors to con- At the same time, the tourist booklet as a whole theoretical perspectives from leading power theo- through considering lexical units, in particular struct their status as experts and to involve layper- represents a conventional type of a multimodal rists such as Foucault (Church & Coles, 2009). Gaelic foreign elements and their function in Eng- sons in touristic activities. text, which has a specific communicative goal (or Peace (2005) discusses the myth of ecotourism to lish language texts from Scottish tourist websites. a set of goals) as well as regular structural charac- explicate the contradictions between ideological Manca (2013) performs a contrastive analysis of 4. STUDY AND RESULTS teristics, contents and stylistic qualities. Thus, the claims on sustainability and actual ecotourism Italian and British tourist websites with the aim to 4.1. Booklet: general characteristics tourist booklet should be viewed as a genre within practices that lead to a significant ecological foot- discover how references to the five senses are used The tourist booklet can be viewed as both a touristic social practices. print. The dramatic rip that divides discourses and by farmhouse, hotel and campsite owners to pro- material object and a type of multimodal text that Defining the category ‘social practice’, Fair- real ecotourism practices is pointed out by mote the holiday they offer. The study convincing- has specific communicative goals achieved clough (2004, p. 25) offers the following explana- Mühlhäusler and Peace (2001), who refer to se- ly demonstrates cross-cultural differences in the through an array of verbal and multimodal re- tion: ‘Social practices can be seen as articulations mantic changes in discourse that help to disguise marketing strategies employed in the two sources. As a material object, a booklet receives of different types of social element which are asso- consumerist practices: ‘Over the years the prefix countries. the following definition: ‘a very short book that ciated with particular areas of social life <...> The eco- has experienced severe semantic bleaching. While digital genres such as tourist websites are usually contains information on one particular sub- important point about social practices <...> is that Rather than referring to functional interrelation- attracting more and more attention (Zuliani, 2013), ject’ (Longman Dictionary, 2006, p. 161). This very they articulate discourse (hence language) togeth- ships between the inhabitants of an ecology, it has traditional brochures and guidebooks still remain brief definition can be complemented with a few er with other non-discoursal social elements’. So- come to mean something like ‘having to do with the objects of scrutiny. Drawing on Bhatia’s (2010) more details, based on my data observations. The cial elements and language are interrelated: ‘Social nature’ (Mühlhäusler & Peace, 2001, p. 378). De- theoretical framework, Luo and Huang (2015) de- most common size of the booklet is one-third of a relations are partly discoursal in nature, discourse construction of the classed dimensions of tourism velop a specific generic structure for tourism standard A4 page, which is predetermined in terms is partly social relations’ (Fairclough, 2004, p. 25).

40 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 41 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya which has fairly predictable sets of speech acts, policy becomes the research objective in De Jong of its utilitarian purpose: it is the right size to hold participants, topics, settings, or other regularly oc- and Varley (2017), where the authors reveal ‘the ‘Booklets also possess certain spacial in hands, consult or put in a handbag or pocket, curring and conventional forms’. Conventions are ways Scotland’s tourist policy landscape privileges semiotics, since they can be found in some especially while travelling or being on tour. De- seen as a basis for genre building and professional the cultural symbols of the middle class, whilst traditional loci: information desks at pending on the amount of information provided, communication in general. Bhatia (2010, p. 33) of- marginalising particular foods positioned as work- the booklet contains from only a few to over a fers a list of factors that contribute to the construc- ing class, through the promotion of Scottish airports, hotel receptions, tourist hundred pages. tion of professional artefacts: ‘the genre in ques- food’ (De Jong & Varley, 2017, p. 220). Medical information points, travel agencies, However, irrespective of the size, booklets are tion, the understanding of the professional practice tourism and its discursive practices are also dis- booking offices in theatres and museums, often published on high-quality glossy paper, in which the genre is embedded, and the culture cussed in marketing terms and as a locus where which guarantees their attractiveness as well as of the profession, discipline, or institution, which ethical voices surrender to the market logic (Mainil etc. These loci as well as the accessibility durability. Tourist booklets are always polychro- constrains the use of textual resources for a partic- et al., 2011). of booklets signal to a potential user that matic and accommodate a lot of visuals, including ular discursive practice’. In other words, genres of I should also point to the scholarly interest to- they are distributed free of charge’ pictures, photos, schemes, maps, symbols, logos, professional communication are context-depen- wards the genres of tourist discourse, specifically etc. The combination of verbal and visual compo- dent and, in turn, predetermine the use of specific guidebooks (Metro-Roland, 2011), travel guides brochures and show how moves and strategies im- nents constitutes their essential feature. Paper em- rhetorical and lexical-grammatic means. As will be (Holovach, 2016; Olszańska & Olszański, 2004), plement the communicative purpose of shaping bossing on the cover, which appeals to the tactile shown, the tourist booklet as a whole represents a tourism brochures (Luo & Huang, 2015) and destination image. Guidebooks are taken in a perception, can add to the non-verbal side of the complex multimodal genre with a conventional tourist website texts (Abramova, 2020; Manca, wider framework of semiotic approach to urban object. structure, typical strategies and regular linguistic 2013). The authors focus on various aspects of studies by Metro-Roland (2011, p. 3), who views Booklets also possess certain spacial semiotics, and multimodal resources. tourist discourse as a multi-faceted phenomenon. them as instruments of meaning-making and ‘un- since they can be found in some traditional loci: The study of tourism discourse has gained pop- Holovach (2016, p. 14) is concerned with how derstanding the way in which meaning is educed information desks at airports, hotel receptions, ularity in the recent decades, and the linguistic culturally relevant information is transferred from from the built environment’. tourist information points, travel agencies, booking and sociological scholarship on the topic reflects one culture to another through travel guides and While drawing on previous studies on profes- offices in theatres and museums, etc. These loci as the emergence of new forms of tourism, such as claims that ‘the comparison and contrast of ‘home’ sional communication, genres and tourist dis- well as the accessibility of booklets signal to a po- ecotourism (Mühlhäusler & Peace, 2001; Spinzi, and ‘foreign’ is one of the organising principles’. course, I choose to look at tourist booklets from a tential user that they are distributed free of charge. 2013), medical tourism (Mainil et al., 2011), food The paper, however, has a purely speculative char- different angle. I am particularly interested to ex- Altogether, the aforementioned features provide tourism (De Jong & Varley, 2017), music tourism acter and is based on reviewing others’ contribu- plore how this genre conceptualises interaction for the recognisability of the booklet as a physical (D’Andrea, 2013), etc. Increasingly, discourses of tions to the field, rather than original data analysis. between professional actors and the customer, and item that contains information for the target con- diverse types of tourism are viewed in terms of Abramova (2020) also opts for a cross-cultural ap- what discursive mechanisms and semiotic re- sumer of a specific touristic product. power relations and social construction, and take proach to tourism discourse, but performs it sources are used by the professional actors to con- At the same time, the tourist booklet as a whole theoretical perspectives from leading power theo- through considering lexical units, in particular struct their status as experts and to involve layper- represents a conventional type of a multimodal rists such as Foucault (Church & Coles, 2009). Gaelic foreign elements and their function in Eng- sons in touristic activities. text, which has a specific communicative goal (or Peace (2005) discusses the myth of ecotourism to lish language texts from Scottish tourist websites. a set of goals) as well as regular structural charac- explicate the contradictions between ideological Manca (2013) performs a contrastive analysis of 4. STUDY AND RESULTS teristics, contents and stylistic qualities. Thus, the claims on sustainability and actual ecotourism Italian and British tourist websites with the aim to 4.1. Booklet: general characteristics tourist booklet should be viewed as a genre within practices that lead to a significant ecological foot- discover how references to the five senses are used The tourist booklet can be viewed as both a touristic social practices. print. The dramatic rip that divides discourses and by farmhouse, hotel and campsite owners to pro- material object and a type of multimodal text that Defining the category ‘social practice’, Fair- real ecotourism practices is pointed out by mote the holiday they offer. The study convincing- has specific communicative goals achieved clough (2004, p. 25) offers the following explana- Mühlhäusler and Peace (2001), who refer to se- ly demonstrates cross-cultural differences in the through an array of verbal and multimodal re- tion: ‘Social practices can be seen as articulations mantic changes in discourse that help to disguise marketing strategies employed in the two sources. As a material object, a booklet receives of different types of social element which are asso- consumerist practices: ‘Over the years the prefix countries. the following definition: ‘a very short book that ciated with particular areas of social life <...> The eco- has experienced severe semantic bleaching. While digital genres such as tourist websites are usually contains information on one particular sub- important point about social practices <...> is that Rather than referring to functional interrelation- attracting more and more attention (Zuliani, 2013), ject’ (Longman Dictionary, 2006, p. 161). This very they articulate discourse (hence language) togeth- ships between the inhabitants of an ecology, it has traditional brochures and guidebooks still remain brief definition can be complemented with a few er with other non-discoursal social elements’. So- come to mean something like ‘having to do with the objects of scrutiny. Drawing on Bhatia’s (2010) more details, based on my data observations. The cial elements and language are interrelated: ‘Social nature’ (Mühlhäusler & Peace, 2001, p. 378). De- theoretical framework, Luo and Huang (2015) de- most common size of the booklet is one-third of a relations are partly discoursal in nature, discourse construction of the classed dimensions of tourism velop a specific generic structure for tourism standard A4 page, which is predetermined in terms is partly social relations’ (Fairclough, 2004, p. 25).

Because the general aim of the booklet consists 4.2. Constructing the status of experts A successful history of work also contributes to in promoting and – ultimately – selling some As has been pointed out earlier, the tourist the positive image of the professional actor: ‘As has been pointed out earlier, the touristic products (city tours, hotels, museums, the- booklet presents a type of professional text that is (6) 29 years operations, over 30,000 happy cus- tourist booklet presents a type of atres, concerts, restaurants, various leisure activi- conveyed from a professional to a lay person. In tomers, professional and award-winning team professional text that is conveyed from a ties, etc.), I define it as a genre of advertising dis- this communicational configuration the status of (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). course. Thus, there is a professional agent on one an expert predetermines the asymmetry of rela- By making all these claims and promises, tour professional to a lay person. In this side of the interaction, who acts as an addresser, tions, which is made manifest through language organisers commit themselves before both a po- communicational configuration the status and a layperson on the other side, who acts as a and other semiotic resources. The study reveals a tential customer and the law. Taking responsibility of an expert predetermines the asymmetry potential addressee. In that, the touristic booklet as few discursive mechanisms involved in the con- for customers, the activities and their conse- a genre enacts social agents, professional and non- struction of expertise. A very popular way to claim quences should be viewed as a sign of a profes- of relations, which is made manifest professional, and relations between them through the status of professionals is realised in the explicit sional status. Its importance can be reinforced vi- through language and other semiotic various semiotic resources. indications of expertise through the lexemes ‘expe- sually, with a photo portrait of a local government resources’ I assume that Goffman’s (1981) concept of par- rience’, ‘experienced’ and ‘professional’ (bold type official within the booklet, thus giving validity to ticipation framework can be mapped on to the mine): all the information inside it. The official status of Another way to demonstrate expertise and con- genre of booklet. The three roles of the speaker (1) WA’s premier ballooning company invites the person is made manifest in their formal look struct the asymmetry of relations concerns the rep- distinguished by Goffman (1981) include: the prin- you to experience breathtaking scenery above the and clothing, as is the case of the photo of Dr Kim resentations of promoted products. For instance, cipal, i.e. ‘someone whose position is established picturesque Avon Valley in our safe and experi- Hames, Minister for tourism of Western Australia general characteristics of architectural structures by the words that are spoken, someone whose be- enced hands (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). normally include the date and circumstances of liefs have been told’; the author, i.e. ‘someone (2) The experienced staff can arrange for any Apart from this, the booklets offer a lot of factu- construction, the size of the building, its historical who has selected the sentiments that are being ex- type of dive (Countrywide Publications, 2012). al information, thus representing the professional background and current location, as in the follow- pressed and the words in which they are (3) Step inside and do time with Fremantle agents as knowledgeable and well-informed in the ing example (the spelling mistake it’s comes from encoded’; and the animator, i.e. ‘an individual ac- Prison’s experiences guides (Countrywide Publica- sphere. For instance, the promotion of city tours the original version): tive in the role of utterance production’ (Goffman, tions, 2012). always contains the references to historical (8) To the right, there is a baroque Kamienica 1981, p. 144). If applied to the tourist booklet, this (4) You will receive personal training by experi- periods, events and prominent people participat- pod Gwiazdą dating from the end of 17th century framework helps us recognise that tourism compa- enced competition shooters in a safe enclosed in- ing in them (bold type original): and believed to be one of the most beautiful tene- nies, bodies and organisations as well as local au- door venue (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). (7) Our No.1 tour shows you All the Main Sites ment houses in Toruń. It’s history begins in the thorities play the role of ‘the principal’. This im- As can be seen from the examples quoted, the (and the hidden ones others pass by!). Berlin Middle Ages when it belonged to the tutor of the plies that they are ‘stakeholders’, who promote issue of safety also comes to the fore when it through the ages – from its humble beginnings as a king Kazimierz Jagiellonczyk’s sons (Idea Studio, their interests, which are not necessarily purely fi- comes to the proofs of professionalism (safe Slavic fishing village, to the age of the Teutonic 2010). nancial. For instance, local authorities might aspire hands, a safe venue). It should be added here that Knights, through the Bismarck era, and onto the However, a typical pattern for the information to develop the area and improve its image nation- the issue of safety may acquire even greater value tumultuous events of the 20th century – the Nazi presentation is not prescriptive, and the authors of ally or internationally. The actual ‘authors’ of in the post-pandemic world, while at the same period and the Cold War (Insider Tour, 2017). texts exercise their privilege to select facts for the booklets are not known; they are invisible to the time shifting the focus of the issue to protection Interestingly, the authors of the text highlight presentation, adding value to some of them and general public, and this fact is not really important from potential epidemic threats. specific words and word combinations for em- revaluing or ignoring others. A German booklet to the customer. Finally, in this participation frame- Another aspect that might be pointed out by phatic purposes, and, in this way, they manage entitled Let’s go up!, which provides information work the booklet performs the function of the ani- tourist professionals as validating their expertise is both the selection of important facts and the per- on the Berlin TV Tower (Berliner Fernsehturm), mator in that it is instrumental in conveying views adherence to the law. In such contexts, guides are ception of the consumer. Phrases in bold type at- opens with a general characteristic of the building of the principals, who, in turn, resort to the ser- characterised as ‘licensed’, and hotels refer to their tract more attention, while those in simple fonts and the entertaining opportunities it has to offer: vices of invisible authors. These three roles merge formal recognition by referring to the certificates are viewed as less essential, and this information (9) Towering 368m above Berlin, the TV Tower together to form a collective professional agent. granted: might be overlooked. dominates the city’s skyline like no other building. Therefore, I will use the terms ‘the professionals’ (5) The VENETS hotel gained recognition for a The authors understand that tourists are often in In just 40 seconds, the two high-speed lifts will and ‘the authors’ indiscriminately throughout the high level of service quality. The confirmations are a hurry, trying to absorb information about com- whisk you 203 metres above the city to the Obser- paper, meaning that the actual authors of the texts grateful responses of our guests and the certificate peting tourist attractions and make decisions about vation Deck and Berlin’s highest bar. Another four write on behalf of tourism companies and authori- of ‘Three-star qualification’, the certificate of ‘Busi- which to visit. Under such circumstances, words metres up at 207m is Germany’s highest restau- ties. One of the linguistic signs of this merger is the ness and Conference Hotel’ and the certificate in bold facilitate ‘skim reading’ and manage the rant. The Berlin TV Tower – a must-see for visitors use of the first-person pronouns in the texts. ‘China Friendly’ (The ‘Venets’ Hotel, 2019). customer’s choice. to Berlin. Let’s go up! (Berliner Fernsehturm, 2017).

42 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 43 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya

The linguistic description of the tower con- expert and a layperson, although traceable and formal manner, telling their names and personal structs an attractive object through both veritable ‘Indications of power, as it is practised in visible, should not discourage laypersons from us- life stories, as well as showing their photos. Alto- details related to sizes, distances, quantities and professional discourse, also include ing the promoted services. As a result, a whole ar- gether, such introductions give the impression of time (368m, 40 seconds, two lifts, 203 metres, four evaluative comments targeted at both the ray of strategies is used to develop rapport be- personal acquaintance with these people even be- metres, 207m), and persuasive rhetoric that con- tween professionals and customers. fore meeting them. Intriguing life stories of the tributes to the image of an impressive structure. touristic objects promoted and historical 1. One of the strategies consists in telling per- guides show them not only as professionals, but The latter receives expression in the lexis of superi- figures referred to. Such comments are not sonal stories and providing personal information also as fascinating characters who can attract at- ority (dominates, like no other, high-speed), the necessarily shaped as assertives; more about those who represent the touristic business. I tention. Visually, the guides are smiling in the pho- superlative adjectives (highest used twice), the lex- suggest calling this strategy ‘personalisation’. Ger- tos, which is an apparent sign of friendliness and eme a must-see with the meaning of obligation, commonly, they are part of a syntactic man booklets introduce their guides in a very in- openness (Figure 1). and the imperative Let’s go up! used as an invita- presupposition’ tion. Because a booklet is an inherently multimodal genre, the text in example (9) constitutes a parently strategic and rooted in the authors’ aspira- multimodal complex with the picture placed on a tion to disconnect the tower from its past, and neighbouring page. The picture, in its turn, is a present it as belonging to the reunited Berlin. From combination of a photo and graphic elements: the this example, it can be inferred that facts stated in photo shows the Berlin TV Tower beautifully lit booklets go through a selection process that is with electric lights against the background of the based on the authors’ discretion and strategic Berlin view at night. The graphic elements annotat- goals. ing the photo indicate schematically the facts Indications of power, as it is practised in pro- mentioned in the written text. Thus, a strong con- fessional discourse, also include evaluative com- nection is established between the written text and ments targeted at both the touristic objects pro- the picture, which helps both manifest the expert moted and historical figures referred to. Such com- knowledge and perform the function of persua- ments are not necessarily shaped as assertives; sion. more commonly, they are part of a syntactic pre- What should be noted, however, is that the de- supposition. Let’s consider the following example: scription of the Berlin TV Tower offered in the (10) We will show you where Marx and Engels, booklet omits the story of its construction. No in- Einstein, J.F.K., Gorbachev and Reagan, all stood in formation is furnished on the date when the build- their efforts to change the world from this city (In- ing was erected, or the people involved in this ar- sider Tour, 2017). chitectural project. The tower dates from the GDR The main clause of the sentence presents a Figure 1. Information on the guides in the Fat Tire Tours (2017) booklet (German Democratic Republic) times, as it started promise, a commissive speech act (we will show). functioning in 1969 as a utilitarian edifice, but Yet, the presupposition for the claim includes the One of the Australian visitor guides implements Again, the verbal constituent of the interview is also as a symbol of a newly formed state – the authors’ acknowledgement of the fact that all the the personalisation strategy through accommodat- reinforced visually with a photo of the smiling per- GDR, established after WW2 in the Soviet zone of people on the list made efforts to change the world ing an interview with the Head Concierge of the son. influence in Europe: ‘It served as a symbol of com- and did that in Berlin. The readers are expected to Parmelia Hilton Hotel in Perth. The interview is 2. The other side of imitating interpersonal rela- munist power and remains a remarkable landmark have certain background knowledge in order to short, it contains only three questions; however, all tions in professional discourse employs the strate- of the now reunited city <...> The head of the East understand why Marx and Engels are coupled as of them are personally oriented: gy of personal attention to the customer. In his German state, Walter Ulbricht, inaugurated the well as Gorbachev and Reagan, and who the ab- (11) What do you find is the most enjoyable characteristic of institutional discourse Fairclough building to mark the 20th anniversary of the foun- breviation J.F.K. refers to. part of your role as a Concierge? (1989, p. 62) introduces the category of synthetic dation of the GDR, on October 3, 1969. The struc- What would you suggest to any of your guests personalisation, a tendency ‘to give the impression ture served as a demonstration of the power of the 4.3. Constructing rapport with the customer who are new to Perth, particularly in terms of ex- of handling each of the people handled en masse communist state. The tower was indeed a master- While maintaining their professional status is periencing the city and surrounding areas? as an individual’. The impression of being treated piece of engineering — even West German experts essential for both touristic businesses and local What is the best restaurant you have visited or individually may be constructed through a number were ready to admit that’ (Dege, 2019). Omission councils, it is equally important to establish a good are currently recommending and why? (Eyezone of tactics (bold type throughout examples 12-20 of these basic historical facts in the booklet is ap- rapport with a customer. The distance between an Consolidated Media, 2012). mine).

44 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 45 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya

Showing care for the customer: course these resources give the impression of casu- ‘Maps are an indispensable part of tourist ever, this resemblance is relative: while offering a (12) Paved pathways give easy access to wheel- al communication and, thus, a closer contact be- general schematic and simplified view of the chairs and prams (Eyezone Consolidated Media, tween the interactants, i.e. the actors of tourist booklets; they can be considered as a place, a map also adds other information ‘layers’ 2012). business and the customers. I will denote this as a structural generic feature of the booklet. to it: information on transportation, special facili- (13) We trust this guide will assist you to enjoy ‘conversational style’ strategy. Because a deeply semiotic approach is ties, telephone numbers, directions, etc. What is your stay here as well as be your constant com- Among the conversational resources discovered more, along with the pragmatic function of guid- panion to navigate your way around this beautiful are the following. taken to communicating information in ing a tourist through the site, a map often serves an place (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). Conversational syntax, including grammatically booklets, almost any guide accommodates entertaining function. Such maps are densely illus- (14) Your instructor takes care of you all the incomplete sentences: a map of the place, whether of the city or trated with bright sketches and looking at and way (Travelwest Publications, 2012). (22) Looking for special souvenirs? (Eyezone area as a whole, or a specific site – an scrutinising them turns into a rather involving ac- An emphasis on the exclusive bonuses that the Consolidated Media, 2012). tivity. The map of the Aquarium in Krakow, Poland customer can get. The use of the lexemes ‘special’ (23) How it begins? How it continues? How it exhibition, a museum, a park, etc. Maps (Muzeum Przyrodnicze Krakow, 2011) is apparent- and ‘exclusive’ implies that nobody else can get ends? (Castelul Bran, 2019). differ in terms of their purposes, contents ly targeted at children: it is colourful and filled this bonus: For an even more convincing imitation of a (information provided), as well as with sketches, which symbolically indicate differ- (15) You will receive a special bonus (Berlin- conversational style, conversational syntax can be ent rooms, exhibits and animals. The suggested Highlights GmbH, 2017). reinforced through the usage of interjections, technical performance: detailing, type of route shows the navigation and is painted deep (16) You’ll even get an exclusive reward (Berlin- which according to English language grammarians graphical representation, visuals red, so it cannot be missed. The utilitarian and en- Highlights GmbH, 2017). ‘have an exclamatory function, expressive of the employed and colours’ tertaining aspects of the map are complemented (17) You will get an exclusive gift (Berlin-High- speaker’s emotion’ (Biber et al., 2007, p. 1083). with the educational one: the panel on the left ac- lights GmbH, 2017). The role of ‘oops’ and ‘whoops’ is explained as Also, few instances of ungrammatical usage commodates brief descriptions of the animals ex- An approval of the customer’s decision to travel follows: ‘They are used at the moment when a mi- have been spotted; however, I cannot be sure if hibited. Thus, the three functions performed by the to a specific place: nor mishap occurs’ (Biber et al., 2007, p. 1084). these are typos, or inadvertent errors, or deliberate map (navigation, education, and entertainment) (18) A visit to the German capital is always a From example (24), it becomes clear that the mistakes used strategically: presuppose the intense involvement of the visitors good decision (Berlin-Highlights GmbH, 2017). mishap involves forgetting the recommendation to (28) If your thinking of your next function, then and their response to the map with particular ac- Appeals to the customers shaped as impera- visit an important attraction: have a game of Supa Golf (Eyezone Consolidated tivities (following the specific directions as they tives: (24) OOPS… nearly forgot – a visit to Kings Media, 2012). are indicated on the map, reading and learning (19) Take a step back in time at our Dales Park for a view over Perth & Swan River by day things, and having fun). Countryside Museum in Hawes (Yorkshire Dales and night is a MUST! (Eyezone Consolidated Me- 4.4. Multimodal techniques of involvement 2. Involvement of the customers might be trig- National Park, 2007). dia, 2012). The multimodal nature of a booklet entails the gered by offering interactive tasks. For instance, (20) Enjoy the bustle of market days, and sam- Interestingly, this fragment combines features of special techniques it employs to enhance the inter- that same booklet of the Aquarium offers a page ple delicious local produce from cheese and beer conversational speech with the efficient use of action between the professionals and the cus- with a quiz on animals. The quiz is intended for to Yorkshire curd tart (Yorkshire Dales National graphic resources: block letters emphasise the in- tomers. children aged 6 to 16, who are expected to tick Park, 2007). terjection oops and the insistent recommendation 1. Maps are an indispensable part of tourist the correct answers and return the page to the staff 3. Rapport between the provider of tourist ser- a must. booklets; they can be considered as a structural of the exhibition. Because the page contains the vices and the customer is also constructed through Phrasal verbs and idioms typical of informal in- generic feature of the booklet. Because a deeply boxes for personal details, one can assume that the the building of a common emotional space. For interaction (bold type mine): semiotic approach is taken to communicating in- participants in the quiz will be contacted later in stance, the organisers of tourist activities in Perth, (25) Have a go at chiming (Eyezone Consolidat- formation in booklets, almost any guide accom- case of their success. Such involvement may also Australia, exhibit their aspiration to share with the ed Media, 2012). modates a map of the place, whether of the city or be thought of as a marketing tool – having the cus- customers their love of Perth: (26) Jump on the Hop on Hop off City Sightsee- area as a whole, or a specific site – an exhibition, tomers’ contact details means the organisers can (21) We want you to love Perth, Fremantle & ing Bus Tour (Eyezone Consolidated Media, 2012). a museum, a park, etc. Maps differ in terms of send them information about other attractions or Surrounds as much as we do (Eyezone Consolidat- (27) Hop on an open air bus up to Kings Park their purposes, contents (information provided), as repeat visits, etc. ed Media, 2012). (Travelwest Publications, 2012). well as technical performance: detailing, type of Another example of interactivity can be found 4. Finally, the results of the study show that one The phrasal verbs and idioms in examples graphical representation, visuals employed and in the guide booklet ‘Berlin Highlights’ (Berlin- rapport strategy has a purely linguistic character, 25-27 have the grammatical form of the impera- colours. In his classification of signs, Peirce (2000) Highlights GmbH, 2017), which encourages the as it involves linguistic resources typical of conver- tive, thus directing the customer to perform specif- places maps in the category of icons, i.e. signs that tourists to collect special stamps while visiting par- sational style. In the context of professional dis- ic activities. are related to their objects by resemblance. How- ticular landmarks, stick these stamps in the desig-

46 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 47 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya nated spaces on the booklet’s special page, cut out visually through the photo images of public offi- References the page (the cutting line is indicated with an im- cials or company representatives, who embody age of scissors), hand it in at Berlin-Highlights power and influence. In fact, power is exercised Abramova, E. I. (2020). Foreign elements and exotic Gunnarsson, B.-L. (2009). Professional discourse. partners and receive a reward. The page for stamps discursively, too. The selection of facts that are lexis in the tourist website texts: Forms and Continuum. is arranged as a multimodal space with concise made available to the consumer and the evaluative functions. Modern Linguistic and Methodical- Holovach, T. (2016). The English travel guide as a genre verbal instructions to the customers (e.g. ‘Collect comments are the privilege of the professionals. and-Didactic Research, 2(29), 117-125. of intercultural communication. SocioBrains, 19, the stamps & get your rewards!’) and a schema- Also, commissive speech acts are the signs of ac- Bhatia, V. K. (2010). Interdiscursivity in professional 10-15. http://sociobrains.com/website/w1465/ tised route with the images of landmarks and spots cepting responsibility. communication. Discourse and Communication, file/repository/10_15_Tetiana_Holovach_The_ 21(1), 32-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/175048130 english_travel_guide_as_a_genre_of_intercultural for stamps designated on it. The customers become To mitigate the asymmetry of status, rapport 9351208 _communication.PDF involved into a whole sequence of actions organ- with the customers is developed by means of a Berlin-Highlights GmbH. (2017). Berlin Highlights. Best Idea Studio. (2010). Toruń city guide. 100 entries ised as a game, which promotes associated tourist few strategies, which include the personalisation of: Attractions, museums, entertainment & more [Brochure]. attractions. of the company by offering biographies and inter- [Brochure]. Insider Tour. (2017). Walks in English [Brochure]. 3. The authors and designers of tourist booklets views with the company representatives, the Berliner Fernsehturm. (2017). Let’s go up! [Brochure]. Longman Dictionary. (2006). Booklet. In M. Mayor may also include an empty page for notes, which demonstration of attention to the customers, the Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Fine- (Ed.), Longman dictionary of contemporary motivates the customers to make their own person- construction of a common emotional space, and gan, E. (2007). Longman grammar of spoken and English (pp. 161-162). Pearson, Longman. al written contributions to the booklet. Personalis- the conversational style strategy. These strategies written English. Pearson. Luo, J., & Huang, T. (2015). Genre-based analysis of ing the book adds to its value in the understanding imitate interpersonal relations in professional dis- Candlin, C. N. (2009). Preface. In V. K. Bhatia, W. American tourism brochure. Open Journal of of the customer. The customer’s own notes give course. Relying on linguistic resources, they also Cheng, B. Du-Babcock, & J. Lung (Eds.), Lan- Social Sciences, 3(9), 200-208. http://dx.doi.org/ ownership to the booklet, making them more in- make use of multimodality, e.g. a visual compo- guage for professional communication: Research, 10.4236/jss.2015.39028 clined to retain it and keep using it. In this respect, nent is essential in implementing personalisation. practice and training (pp. 6-10). The Hong Kong Mainil, T., Platenkamp, V., & Meulemans, H. (2011). the customer becomes a co-author of the booklet, Another shared feature of booklets is their at- Polytechnic University Press. The discourse of medical tourism in the media. Castelul Bran. (2019). An entire day at Bran castle! which reflects more general communication trends tempt to interact with the customers by involving Tourism Review, 66(1-2), 31-44. https://doi.org/ [Brochure]. 10.1108/16605371111127215 – ubiquitous authorship and blurred boundaries them in cognitively entertaining or challenging ac- Church, A., & Coles, T. (Eds.). (2009). Tourism, power Manca, E. (2013). Describing through the five senses. A between the author and the addressee in modern tivities (like scrutinising a beautifully illustrated and space. Routledge. contrastive socio-cultural and linguistic analysis communication space. map or doing a quiz), or urging them to undertake Countrywide Publications. (2012). Your guide to Perth of Italian and British tourist websites. In E. Manca some physical actions (like following a designated and Freemantle [Brochure]. & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and tourist promo- 5. CONCLUSION route or taking notes). D’Andrea, G. (2013). Linguistic notes on French music tion around the world: A linguistic and socio- The study presented in this paper analyses the Thus, the study shows that professional-to- tourism. The case of La Fugue website. In E. cultural perspective (pp. 109-124). Universita del tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse layperson communication is a multi-faceted phe- Manca & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and tourist Salento. produced by professional agents in the field and nomenon, whose complexity is predetermined by promotion around the world: A linguistic and Marques Santos, A., Madrid, C., Haegeman, K., & aimed at potential consumers of touristic services. the combination of various intentions and multi- socio-cultural perspective (pp. 95-108). Universi- Rainoldi, A. (2020). Behavioural changes in The professional agents in tourism seek to strike a modal resources that help implement these inten- ta del Salento. tourism in times of COVID-19. Publications balance between their image as experts in tourism, tions discursively. The potential avenues in explor- Dege, S. (2019, October 3). Berlin TV Tower turns 50. Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10. which presupposes the asymmetry of the roles in ing tourist booklets as part of social practices in- Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/en/berlin- 2760/00411 tv-tower-turns-50/a-50681352 communication, and the need to construct rapport clude the choice of languages, promoted values, Metro-Roland, M. M. (2011). Tourists, signs and the De Jong, A., & Varley, P. (2017). Food tourism policy: city. The semiotics of culture in an urban land- with the customers in order to encourage them to emotions referred to, and types of company pre- Deconstructing boundaries of taste and class. scape. Ashgate. use the services promoted. sentations. It would also be relevant to investigate Tourism Management, 60, 212-222. https:// Mühlhäusler, P., & Peace, A. (2001). Discourses of The validity of the professional image relies on how transformations in touristic practices in the doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.009 ecotourism: The case of Fraser Island, Queens- such discursive mechanisms as providing expert post-pandemic period will be reflected in dis- Eyezone Consolidated Media. (2012). What’s on in land. Language and Communication, 21(4), knowledge on the touristic objects and services, course. Perth, Freemantle and Surrounds [Brochure]. 359-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309 explicit indications of expertise, presentations of Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. Longman. (01)00006-4 themselves as law-abiding and formally recog- FUNDING Fairclough, N. (2004). Analysing discourse. Textual ana- Muzeum Przyrodnicze Krakow. (2011). The largest nised businesses, and references to socially impor- The study is supported by Russian Science lysis for social research. Routledge. aquarium and exotarium in Poland [Brochure]. tant values (e.g. safety). Because booklets are com- Foundation, Project No. 20-68-46003 ‘The Seman- Fat Tire Tours. (2017). City Segway Tours [Brochure]. O’Halloran, K. (2004). Introduction. In K. O’Halloran plex multimodal phenomena, the meanings tics of Unity and Animosity in Russian Lexis and Goffman, E. (1981). Forms of talk. University of Penn- (Ed.), Multimodal discourse analysis: Systemic evoked by the linguistic resources are reinforced Phraseology: Language System and Discourse’. sylvania Press. functional perspectives (pp. 1-7). Continuum.

48 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 49 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse: Interaction with the customer Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 by Tatiana V. Dubrovskaya nated spaces on the booklet’s special page, cut out visually through the photo images of public offi- References the page (the cutting line is indicated with an im- cials or company representatives, who embody age of scissors), hand it in at Berlin-Highlights power and influence. In fact, power is exercised Abramova, E. I. (2020). Foreign elements and exotic Gunnarsson, B.-L. (2009). Professional discourse. partners and receive a reward. The page for stamps discursively, too. The selection of facts that are lexis in the tourist website texts: Forms and Continuum. is arranged as a multimodal space with concise made available to the consumer and the evaluative functions. Modern Linguistic and Methodical- Holovach, T. (2016). The English travel guide as a genre verbal instructions to the customers (e.g. ‘Collect comments are the privilege of the professionals. and-Didactic Research, 2(29), 117-125. of intercultural communication. SocioBrains, 19, the stamps & get your rewards!’) and a schema- Also, commissive speech acts are the signs of ac- Bhatia, V. K. (2010). Interdiscursivity in professional 10-15. http://sociobrains.com/website/w1465/ tised route with the images of landmarks and spots cepting responsibility. communication. Discourse and Communication, file/repository/10_15_Tetiana_Holovach_The_ 21(1), 32-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/175048130 english_travel_guide_as_a_genre_of_intercultural for stamps designated on it. The customers become To mitigate the asymmetry of status, rapport 9351208 _communication.PDF involved into a whole sequence of actions organ- with the customers is developed by means of a Berlin-Highlights GmbH. (2017). Berlin Highlights. Best Idea Studio. (2010). Toruń city guide. 100 entries ised as a game, which promotes associated tourist few strategies, which include the personalisation of: Attractions, museums, entertainment & more [Brochure]. attractions. of the company by offering biographies and inter- [Brochure]. Insider Tour. (2017). Walks in English [Brochure]. 3. The authors and designers of tourist booklets views with the company representatives, the Berliner Fernsehturm. (2017). Let’s go up! [Brochure]. Longman Dictionary. (2006). Booklet. In M. Mayor may also include an empty page for notes, which demonstration of attention to the customers, the Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Fine- (Ed.), Longman dictionary of contemporary motivates the customers to make their own person- construction of a common emotional space, and gan, E. (2007). Longman grammar of spoken and English (pp. 161-162). Pearson, Longman. al written contributions to the booklet. Personalis- the conversational style strategy. These strategies written English. Pearson. Luo, J., & Huang, T. (2015). Genre-based analysis of ing the book adds to its value in the understanding imitate interpersonal relations in professional dis- Candlin, C. N. (2009). Preface. In V. K. Bhatia, W. American tourism brochure. Open Journal of of the customer. The customer’s own notes give course. Relying on linguistic resources, they also Cheng, B. Du-Babcock, & J. Lung (Eds.), Lan- Social Sciences, 3(9), 200-208. http://dx.doi.org/ ownership to the booklet, making them more in- make use of multimodality, e.g. a visual compo- guage for professional communication: Research, 10.4236/jss.2015.39028 clined to retain it and keep using it. In this respect, nent is essential in implementing personalisation. practice and training (pp. 6-10). The Hong Kong Mainil, T., Platenkamp, V., & Meulemans, H. (2011). the customer becomes a co-author of the booklet, Another shared feature of booklets is their at- Polytechnic University Press. The discourse of medical tourism in the media. Castelul Bran. (2019). An entire day at Bran castle! which reflects more general communication trends tempt to interact with the customers by involving Tourism Review, 66(1-2), 31-44. https://doi.org/ [Brochure]. 10.1108/16605371111127215 – ubiquitous authorship and blurred boundaries them in cognitively entertaining or challenging ac- Church, A., & Coles, T. (Eds.). (2009). Tourism, power Manca, E. (2013). Describing through the five senses. A between the author and the addressee in modern tivities (like scrutinising a beautifully illustrated and space. Routledge. contrastive socio-cultural and linguistic analysis communication space. map or doing a quiz), or urging them to undertake Countrywide Publications. (2012). Your guide to Perth of Italian and British tourist websites. In E. Manca some physical actions (like following a designated and Freemantle [Brochure]. & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and tourist promo- 5. CONCLUSION route or taking notes). D’Andrea, G. (2013). Linguistic notes on French music tion around the world: A linguistic and socio- The study presented in this paper analyses the Thus, the study shows that professional-to- tourism. The case of La Fugue website. In E. cultural perspective (pp. 109-124). Universita del tourist booklet as a genre of professional discourse layperson communication is a multi-faceted phe- Manca & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and tourist Salento. produced by professional agents in the field and nomenon, whose complexity is predetermined by promotion around the world: A linguistic and Marques Santos, A., Madrid, C., Haegeman, K., & aimed at potential consumers of touristic services. the combination of various intentions and multi- socio-cultural perspective (pp. 95-108). Universi- Rainoldi, A. (2020). Behavioural changes in The professional agents in tourism seek to strike a modal resources that help implement these inten- ta del Salento. tourism in times of COVID-19. Publications balance between their image as experts in tourism, tions discursively. The potential avenues in explor- Dege, S. (2019, October 3). Berlin TV Tower turns 50. Office of the European Union. https://doi.org/10. which presupposes the asymmetry of the roles in ing tourist booklets as part of social practices in- Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/en/berlin- 2760/00411 tv-tower-turns-50/a-50681352 communication, and the need to construct rapport clude the choice of languages, promoted values, Metro-Roland, M. M. (2011). Tourists, signs and the De Jong, A., & Varley, P. (2017). Food tourism policy: city. The semiotics of culture in an urban land- with the customers in order to encourage them to emotions referred to, and types of company pre- Deconstructing boundaries of taste and class. scape. Ashgate. use the services promoted. sentations. It would also be relevant to investigate Tourism Management, 60, 212-222. https:// Mühlhäusler, P., & Peace, A. (2001). Discourses of The validity of the professional image relies on how transformations in touristic practices in the doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.009 ecotourism: The case of Fraser Island, Queens- such discursive mechanisms as providing expert post-pandemic period will be reflected in dis- Eyezone Consolidated Media. (2012). What’s on in land. Language and Communication, 21(4), knowledge on the touristic objects and services, course. Perth, Freemantle and Surrounds [Brochure]. 359-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309 explicit indications of expertise, presentations of Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. Longman. (01)00006-4 themselves as law-abiding and formally recog- FUNDING Fairclough, N. (2004). Analysing discourse. Textual ana- Muzeum Przyrodnicze Krakow. (2011). The largest nised businesses, and references to socially impor- The study is supported by Russian Science lysis for social research. Routledge. aquarium and exotarium in Poland [Brochure]. tant values (e.g. safety). Because booklets are com- Foundation, Project No. 20-68-46003 ‘The Seman- Fat Tire Tours. (2017). City Segway Tours [Brochure]. O’Halloran, K. (2004). Introduction. In K. O’Halloran plex multimodal phenomena, the meanings tics of Unity and Animosity in Russian Lexis and Goffman, E. (1981). Forms of talk. University of Penn- (Ed.), Multimodal discourse analysis: Systemic evoked by the linguistic resources are reinforced Phraseology: Language System and Discourse’. sylvania Press. functional perspectives (pp. 1-7). Continuum.

48 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 49 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61

Olszańska, B., & Olszański, T. (2004). Eyewitness travel tourist promotion around the world: A linguistic guides. Dorling Kindersley. and socio-cultural perspective (pp. 81-89). Peace, A. (2005). Managing the myth of ecotourism: A Universita del Salento. Queensland case study. The Australian Journal of The ‘Venets’ Hotel. (2019). The ‘Venets’ hotel. Warmth Original Research Anthropology, 16(3), 321-334. https://doi.org/10. of hospitality [Brochure]. 1111/j.1835-9310.2005.tb00314.x Travelwest Publications. (2012). Hello Perth and Peirce, Ch. S. (2000). Selected works in philosophy. Freemantle [Brochure]. Logos. Yorkshire Dales National Park. (2007). Yorkshire Dales When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and Reisigl, M., & Wodak, R. (2009). The discourse- National Park. One of Britain’s breathing spaces historical approach. In R. Wodak & M. Meyer [Brochure]. professional discourse Zuliani, A. (2013). A journey to Portugal. The official (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. by Jean Langlois 87-121). Sage Publications. tourist promotion of Turismo de Portugal. In E. Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2005). Intercultural Manca & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and tourist Jean Langlois Sciences Po, France [email protected] communication: A discourse approach. Black- promotion around the world: A linguistic and Article history Received February 28, 2021 | Revised June 1, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 well Publishing. socio-cultural perspective (pp. 61-80). Universita Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest Spinzi, C. (2013). Treading lightly on the Earth. del Salento. http://siba-ese.unisalento.it/ Research funding No funding was reported for this research Metaphorical frames in the discourse of ecotour- index.php/tourismandtourist/article/view/13603/ doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 ism. In E. Manca & F. Bianchi (Eds.), Tourism and 12021 For citation Langlois, J. (2021). When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse. Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 51-61.

TATIANA V. DUBROVSKAYA In an 1887 article, The Characteristic Curves of Composition, published in the journal ‘Science’ and resulting from dis- Ural Federal University | 11 Kominterna Str., 620078 Ekaterinbourg, Russia cussions with the logician Augustus de Morgan, Mendenhall (1888) asserted that the length of words was a character- [email protected] istic capable of distinguishing authors of a literary text. This study is often considered one of the founders of stylometry as a discipline. This paper analyses the development of stylometry and its use as a computerised analytical tool and explores its potential as a way of identifying authors of online professional communication by the vocabulary and style they use. The objective of this paper is to explain the concept of stylometry as an academic methodology, how it has been adapted to computers and how it is used in online investigation of author and narrative identity. The methodology is based on secondary research to explain how stylometry can be used in author deﬁnition and attribution and iden- tiﬁcation of texts. It goes on to analyse the types of stylometric entities and examines the role of computers in stylometry and its application to professional discourse. The study concludes that although the use of computers is an important quantitative tool in stylometric research, in the end it is human judgement that counts.

KEYWORDS: stylometry, professional discourse, lexis, structural analysis, content analysis, Enron

1. INTRODUCTION try and its current uses and explores its potential The moment of crystallisation and theorisation application to professional discourse. of the methods of stylometry came in the second Stylometry is based on the principle that each half of the 19th century with academics close to author or organisation develops its own linguistic the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal. style and expression. Therefore, documents from The researchers who participated in the early de- an individual or an organisation can be analysed velopment of stylometry were generally both to identify most probable authorship. Stylometry is philosophers and mathematicians and participated also a valuable tool in professional discourse, not in the mathematical-logical foundation of comput- just for identifying who wrote what and when and er science. This paper traces the history of stylome- why, but also for identifying lexical and grammati-

© Jean Langlois 2021 50 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 51 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 37-50 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-37-50 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61

KEYWORDS: stylometry, professional discourse, lexis, structural analysis, content analysis, Enron

© Jean Langlois 2021 50 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 51 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois

widely confirmed by scientific literature: the lin- tween true stylistic differences and variations that ‘Stylometry is also a valuable tool in guistic style of an individual is so particular that it are only due to chance. The best tool to perform ‘Writing style is an unconscious habit, professional discourse, not just for can be used to distinguish their writing. Even a stylometric analysis of a text, that is to say con- which is different from author to author in identifying who wrote what and when and writer who flaunts an abstruse vocabulary will also cretely to derive interpretable statistical indicators, that to express an idea an individual will need to use many mundane words. Stylisticians re- is computer science. However, computational lin- why, but also for identifying lexical and gard style as a general predisposition toward a par- guistics software cannot analyse a text with the have personal use of grammar, words grammatical devices used in written ticular mode of expression rather than an invariant same depth as a human researcher. and punctuation. Although the style of communication, which can be compared habit or constant. Stylometry is based on a very The objects of computer analysis are of two writing can change a bit over time, each simple theory: just as each person has their own types: the so-called ‘raw’ data (punctuation, char- with what is taught to students in business fingerprints or their own genome, each individual acter strings, syllables, etc.) and data which is in author actually has a recognisable language textbooks’ has their own style of writing and expression. The the order of content (themes, lexical fields, formu- stylistic tendency’ most obvious examples of this kind of style speci- lations, language registers, vocabulary, etc.). cal devices used in written communication, which ficity are repetitions of the same spelling mistakes. Writing style is an unconscious habit, which is 3. DEFINING THE AUTHOR can be compared with what is taught to students Lowe and Matthews (1995) call stylometry ‘styl- different from author to author in that to express an 3.1. Author verification in business language textbooks. In this sense, it is istic statistics’ and define it as the application of idea an individual will have personal use of gram- Paternity verification using stylometry for online potentially an important source of authentic lan- mathematical methods to extract quantitative mea- mar, words and punctuation. Although the style of documents (e.g. emails, tweets) poses significant guage used in professional discourse. sures from a text. The main data that stylometry fo- writing can change a bit over time, each author ac- challenges due to the unstructured nature of these This study examines the background of stylom- cuses on is the word and its articulation in a sen- tually has a recognisable stylistic tendency. documents. In addition, a major requirement is etry and analyses the key types of stylometric enti- tence (hence the issue of punctuation). Word and Almost all of the literature on stylometry shows that (repeated) authentication decisions must oc- ties used to identify and verify manuscript author- punctuation are the raw materials of this science. that this methodology has three main objectives. cur over a short period of time or over short texts ship. It then goes on to discuss the advantages and Holmes (1994), one of the most influential re- 1. The question of authorship: who is the author or messages. Stylometric analysis of short mes- disadvantages of automatic word processing and searchers in the field of stylometry, explains that of this text? sages is difficult due to the limited amount of in- concludes with its application to professional and each text can be defined by a set of measurable 2. The question of verifiability: is this text from formation available for decision making. Likewise, organisational discourse. Based on secondary re- statistical characteristics: if several documents em- author X (specialists call it ‘matching’), is it from most of the stylometry analysis approaches pro- search, the study also includes a case study of En- anating from the same individual have the same author Y or from X and Y? posed in the literature use a relatively large docu- ron, the leading US finance firm that crashed in characteristics, then we can think that the author is 3. The question of characterisation also called ment size which is not acceptable for continuous 2001, the responsibility for which was identified making recurring use of a particular style. Holmes ‘profiling’: what constitutes X’s style? authentication. through the stylometric analysis of employees’ (1994) explains that there are no better criteria for To these we can add a fourth and fifth Another important challenge to address when emails using the Adaboost and SVM classifiers. It making a comparison work between authors than objective. using stylometry is the threat of counterfeiting. An also examines the difference between the profes- those used in stylometric analysis. ‘The lexical lev- 4. How can stylometry be applied to profes- adversary with access to a user’s sample writing sional discourse language exponents taught in el is the obvious place to initiate stylistic investiga- sional discourse in a way that can be used to iden- may be able to efficiently reproduce many existing business language classes and the use of authentic tions, since questions about style are essentially tify authors of social media posts and emails? stylometric features. It is essential to integrate spe- language in business meetings to ultimately draw comparative and more data exist at the lexical level 5. How can stylometry be used in written pro- cific mechanisms into the authentication system conclusions about the function of each in teaching than at any other in the form of computed concor- fessional discourse to reinforce accepted ways of that would mitigate tampering attacks. professional discourse. Stylometric analysis is po- dances’ (Holmes, 1994, p. 87-88). expressing content in emails and social media Author verification follows a typical biometric tentially an important technology not just in verify- In order to be able to study the stylistic charac- posts? verification process, in which the identity of an au- ing literary narrative, but also revealing identity of teristics of a text by computer, they must meet a The Internet is supposed to be a space of great thor is verified by one-to-one matching. Some re- key actors in organisational fraud and mismanage- number of conditions described by Bailey (1969, freedom, which is particularly linked to the sup- searchers have studied authorship verification as a ment and identifying authentic business language p. 219): they should be ‘salient, structural, fre- posedly anonymous nature of our actions on the similarity detection problem, where the problem is which can serve as a teaching resource. quent and easily quantifiable, and relatively im- web. However, not only do we know that our navi- to determine the degree of similarity given by two mune from conscious control’. When we measure gation path can be easily traced thanks to our IP texts, by measuring the distance between them. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND such characteristics, we try to highlight the address in particular, but the writings that we pub- Other researchers have studied this question as a As Sigelman and Jacoby (1996) point out, sty- uniqueness of an individual’s handwriting and dis- lish in various social networks, forums, commer- problem with one or two classes, one class con- lometry is a very reliable technique and is widely tinguish what makes their style unique from that of cial sites, etc. constitute different traces of our pas- sisting of documents written by the author and a used in literary studies but not yet in business another individual. As Holmes (2004) reminds us, sage in these virtual places and above all can help second class consisting of documents written by communication. Stylometry is based on a principle stylometry makes it possible to distinguish be- to reconstitute our style of writing. other authors.

52 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 53 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois widely confirmed by scientific literature: the lin- tween true stylistic differences and variations that ‘Stylometry is also a valuable tool in guistic style of an individual is so particular that it are only due to chance. The best tool to perform ‘Writing style is an unconscious habit, professional discourse, not just for can be used to distinguish their writing. Even a stylometric analysis of a text, that is to say con- which is different from author to author in identifying who wrote what and when and writer who flaunts an abstruse vocabulary will also cretely to derive interpretable statistical indicators, that to express an idea an individual will need to use many mundane words. Stylisticians re- is computer science. However, computational lin- why, but also for identifying lexical and gard style as a general predisposition toward a par- guistics software cannot analyse a text with the have personal use of grammar, words grammatical devices used in written ticular mode of expression rather than an invariant same depth as a human researcher. and punctuation. Although the style of communication, which can be compared habit or constant. Stylometry is based on a very The objects of computer analysis are of two writing can change a bit over time, each simple theory: just as each person has their own types: the so-called ‘raw’ data (punctuation, char- with what is taught to students in business fingerprints or their own genome, each individual acter strings, syllables, etc.) and data which is in author actually has a recognisable language textbooks’ has their own style of writing and expression. The the order of content (themes, lexical fields, formu- stylistic tendency’ most obvious examples of this kind of style speci- lations, language registers, vocabulary, etc.). cal devices used in written communication, which ficity are repetitions of the same spelling mistakes. Writing style is an unconscious habit, which is 3. DEFINING THE AUTHOR can be compared with what is taught to students Lowe and Matthews (1995) call stylometry ‘styl- different from author to author in that to express an 3.1. Author verification in business language textbooks. In this sense, it is istic statistics’ and define it as the application of idea an individual will have personal use of gram- Paternity verification using stylometry for online potentially an important source of authentic lan- mathematical methods to extract quantitative mea- mar, words and punctuation. Although the style of documents (e.g. emails, tweets) poses significant guage used in professional discourse. sures from a text. The main data that stylometry fo- writing can change a bit over time, each author ac- challenges due to the unstructured nature of these This study examines the background of stylom- cuses on is the word and its articulation in a sen- tually has a recognisable stylistic tendency. documents. In addition, a major requirement is etry and analyses the key types of stylometric enti- tence (hence the issue of punctuation). Word and Almost all of the literature on stylometry shows that (repeated) authentication decisions must oc- ties used to identify and verify manuscript author- punctuation are the raw materials of this science. that this methodology has three main objectives. cur over a short period of time or over short texts ship. It then goes on to discuss the advantages and Holmes (1994), one of the most influential re- 1. The question of authorship: who is the author or messages. Stylometric analysis of short mes- disadvantages of automatic word processing and searchers in the field of stylometry, explains that of this text? sages is difficult due to the limited amount of in- concludes with its application to professional and each text can be defined by a set of measurable 2. The question of verifiability: is this text from formation available for decision making. Likewise, organisational discourse. Based on secondary re- statistical characteristics: if several documents em- author X (specialists call it ‘matching’), is it from most of the stylometry analysis approaches pro- search, the study also includes a case study of En- anating from the same individual have the same author Y or from X and Y? posed in the literature use a relatively large docu- ron, the leading US finance firm that crashed in characteristics, then we can think that the author is 3. The question of characterisation also called ment size which is not acceptable for continuous 2001, the responsibility for which was identified making recurring use of a particular style. Holmes ‘profiling’: what constitutes X’s style? authentication. through the stylometric analysis of employees’ (1994) explains that there are no better criteria for To these we can add a fourth and fifth Another important challenge to address when emails using the Adaboost and SVM classifiers. It making a comparison work between authors than objective. using stylometry is the threat of counterfeiting. An also examines the difference between the profes- those used in stylometric analysis. ‘The lexical lev- 4. How can stylometry be applied to profes- adversary with access to a user’s sample writing sional discourse language exponents taught in el is the obvious place to initiate stylistic investiga- sional discourse in a way that can be used to iden- may be able to efficiently reproduce many existing business language classes and the use of authentic tions, since questions about style are essentially tify authors of social media posts and emails? stylometric features. It is essential to integrate spe- language in business meetings to ultimately draw comparative and more data exist at the lexical level 5. How can stylometry be used in written pro- cific mechanisms into the authentication system conclusions about the function of each in teaching than at any other in the form of computed concor- fessional discourse to reinforce accepted ways of that would mitigate tampering attacks. professional discourse. Stylometric analysis is po- dances’ (Holmes, 1994, p. 87-88). expressing content in emails and social media Author verification follows a typical biometric tentially an important technology not just in verify- In order to be able to study the stylistic charac- posts? verification process, in which the identity of an au- ing literary narrative, but also revealing identity of teristics of a text by computer, they must meet a The Internet is supposed to be a space of great thor is verified by one-to-one matching. Some re- key actors in organisational fraud and mismanage- number of conditions described by Bailey (1969, freedom, which is particularly linked to the sup- searchers have studied authorship verification as a ment and identifying authentic business language p. 219): they should be ‘salient, structural, fre- posedly anonymous nature of our actions on the similarity detection problem, where the problem is which can serve as a teaching resource. quent and easily quantifiable, and relatively im- web. However, not only do we know that our navi- to determine the degree of similarity given by two mune from conscious control’. When we measure gation path can be easily traced thanks to our IP texts, by measuring the distance between them. 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND such characteristics, we try to highlight the address in particular, but the writings that we pub- Other researchers have studied this question as a As Sigelman and Jacoby (1996) point out, sty- uniqueness of an individual’s handwriting and dis- lish in various social networks, forums, commer- problem with one or two classes, one class con- lometry is a very reliable technique and is widely tinguish what makes their style unique from that of cial sites, etc. constitute different traces of our pas- sisting of documents written by the author and a used in literary studies but not yet in business another individual. As Holmes (2004) reminds us, sage in these virtual places and above all can help second class consisting of documents written by communication. Stylometry is based on a principle stylometry makes it possible to distinguish be- to reconstitute our style of writing. other authors.

3.2. Attribution and identification ‘Author attribution is similar to text In their famous study Chen et al. (2011) devel- ‘Another method to define a set of lexical Author attribution follows a typical biometric op a framework for the identification of the author identification process, where the system recognis- classifica-tion. A key difference, however, in online messages to address the problem of iden- features consists in extracting the most es an author by a ‘one to several’ comparison. The is that author attribution is subject tity tracing. Within this framework, four types of frequent words in the corpus. It is also process consists of extracting features from sample independent, while in text classification writing style features (lexical, syntactic, structural, possible to provide various clerical error texts and labelling the classes according to the au- class labels are based on the subject of the and content-specific) are extracted from English thors of the documents. Typical entity categories and Chinese online newsgroup posts. A compari- metrics to capture idiosyncrasies of an include lexical, semantic, syntactic, and applica- document and features include subject son was made between three classification tech- author’s style. To do this, we must define a tion-specific characteristics. This can also apply to dependent words’ niques: decision tree, SVM and backpropagation set of spelling errors and formatting and SFL and professional discourse where different neural networks. Experimental results showed that propose a methodology to automatically types and styles of online communication can be tion decreased from 80.5% to 77% as the size of this framework is able to identify authors with sat- attributed to authors and organisations by the type the perpetrator population increased from 6 to 10. isfactory accuracy of 70-95% and that the SVM extract these measures using a spell of language they use. This is particularly important Hadjij et al. (2009) used the C4.5 and SVM classi- classifier outperformed the other two. checker’ in the analysis of text classification. fiers to determine authorship and assessed the pro- Author attribution is similar to text classifica- posed approach using a subset of three authors 3.3. Author characterisation of characters per word, the average number of tion. A key difference, however, is that author attri- from the Enron dataset. They obtained correct clas- Author characterisation is used to detect soci- characters per sentence and compliance with bution is subject independent, while in text classi- sification rates of 77% / 71% for sender identifica- olinguistic attributes such as gender, age, occupa- punctuation rules. fication class labels are based on the subject of the tion, 73% / 69% for sender-recipient identification, tion and educational level of the potential author A text can be thought of as a sequence of char- document and features include subject dependent and 83% / 83% for sender identification. of an anonymous document. Stylistics or the study acters. Different character-level metrics can then words. By being able to recognise the use of sub- The issue of author attribution is particularly of stylometric characteristics shows that individu- be defined, including number of alphabetic char- ject dependent words relevant to a particular type important in identifying the actual author of a dis- als can be identified by the redundancy of their acters, total number of characters, number of up- of communication, stylometry can be used to im- puted anonymous document. In the literature, au- writing styles. Olsen (1993) attempted to define per- and lower-case characters, letter frequency prove knowledge and application of appropriate thor identification is considered to be a problem of what constitutes the ‘singular style’ of a given per- and number of punctuation marks. means of expression in emails and social media text categorisation or text classification. The son: an individual’s writing style is defined by the Vocabulary richness functions quantify the vo- posts. process begins with data cleansing followed by terms used, the selection of special characters and cabulary diversity of a text. Some examples of this Despite the significant progress made in identi- feature extraction and normalisation. Each suspect the composition of sentences. Studies in the litera- measure are: the V/N ratio (V is the size of the vo- fying an author among a small group of people, it document is converted into a feature vector; the ture show that there are no such optimised func- cabulary and N is the total number of tokens in the remains difficult to identify an author when the suspect represents the class label. The extracted tionalities applicable to all fields. text), the measure of Yule, the number of hapax number of applicants increases or when the sam- entities are classified into two groups: training and legomena (words appearing once) and the number ple text is short as in the case of emails or online testing sets. The training set is used to develop a 4. FOUR TYPES OF STYLOMETRIC ENTITIES of hapax dislegomena (words appearing twice). messages. For example, while Chaski (2005) re- classification model while the test set is used to 4.1. Lexical features However, the richness of the vocabulary strongly ported an accuracy of 95.70% in his work on au- validate the developed model assuming that the A text can be seen as a sequence of ‘tokens’ depends on the length of the text. thor identification, the evaluation sample came class labels are not known. Common classifiers in- which are grouped into sentences. A token can be Various functions have been proposed to from a corpus of only 10 authors. clude decision trees, neural networks and SVM a word, a number or a punctuation mark. Many achieve stability over text length, including Yule Likewise, Hadjij et al. (2009) obtained, using (Support Vector Machine). Author attribution stud- studies of author attribution rely primarily on sim- measure, Simpson measure, Sichel measure, the K-means algorithm for author identification, a ies differ in terms of the stylometric characteristics ple measures such as the number and length of Brunet measure, and Honore measure (Eder, classification accuracy of 90% with only 3 used and the type of classifiers employed. Cho et sentences and the number and length of words. 2017). authors; the rate decreased to 80% when the num- al. (2013) propose two approaches that attempt to The advantage of these features is that they can be Another method to define a set of lexical fea- ber of authors increased to 10. Hadjij et al. (2009) extract authorship from emails in the context of applied to any corpus in any language and without tures consists in extracting the most frequent also proposed another approach called Author- computer forensics. The authors extract various additional requirements (Schuster et al., 2020). words in the corpus. It is also possible to provide Miner, which consists of an algorithm that cap- characteristics from email documents, including Lexical features allow you to understand how various clerical error metrics to capture idiosyn- tures frequent lexical, syntactic, structural and linguistic characteristics, header characteristics, an individual or a business organisation or a par- crasies of an author’s style. To do this, we must de- content-specific patterns. The experimental evalua- linguistic models and structural characteristics. All ticular profession uses characters and words. For fine a set of spelling errors (omissions and inser- tion used a subset of the Enron dataset, varying of these features are used with the SVM learning example, these characteristics may be represented tions of letters) and formatting (capital letters) and from 6 to 10 authors, with 10 to 20 text samples algorithm to assign authorship of email messages in the frequency of special characters, the total propose a methodology to automatically extract per author. The accuracy of perpetrator identifica- to an author. number of capital letters used, the average number these measures using a spell checker.

54 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 55 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois

4.2. Syntactic characteristics 5. DISCUSSION Laffal (1995) has worked extensively on Holmes (1998) defines syntactic characteristics ‘As Fortier (1995) recalls, software is 5.1. Advantages of automatic word processing analysing the works of Irish writer Jonathan Swift. as the patterns used to form sentences. This cate- capable of analysing large amounts of There are indeed many advantages of automatic As this author not only wrote in English, Laffal gory of entities includes the tools used to structure information in record time, the tasks word processing. Burrows and Craig (1994) have (1995) also translated words from works that were sentences. These include punctuation and function performed by specialised software are shown in a long article on scientific debates in the in languages other than English and replaced prop- words. Function words are common words (arti- field of textual analysis, that statistical computer er names with names or places, whichever they re- cles, prepositions, pronouns) like while, upon, long and laborious, even impossible for analysis of literary texts has been an unprecedent- ferred to. The scholar identified the various words though, where, your. humans alone. Moreover, unlike human ed revolution, not so much in that it brings a tech- whose spelling had changed since the writing of analysis, the automated processing of data nical renewal to the field of study, but quite simply these texts and associated them with correspond- 4.3. Structural features in that it has given a firmer basis to many method- ing words according to modern spelling. As Laffal Structural characteristics are useful in under- by specialised software is objective a ological debates which, until then, were lost in (1995) explains at length in his article, he even standing how an individual organises the structure priori. The algorithms allow the conjecture (Vartanova et al., 2020; Zvereva, 2021). had to intervene during the analysis to counter the of their written speech. For example, how sen- examination of a whole text without Olsen (1993) reminds us that the automatic problems of polysemy. From then on, he had to tences are organised in paragraphs and paragraphs special attention being drawn to a analysis of texts must be defined in a simple and use two software: one read the text to be analysed in a given document. Structural characteristics are limited way. It does this by highlighting the aspects and marked all words which had more than one generally suggested for email author attribution. In particular passage more than on another’ of a text or of a series of texts which would be dif- meaning in the dictionary, and the other advanced addition to general structural characteristics, sever- ficult to see with the naked eye. The computer is through the marked text, stopping at each marked al researchers have used specific characteristics of volving 108 authors from the Enron dataset yield- therefore above all what Olsen (1993) describes as word with a display of numbered dictionary choic- emails, such as the presence/absence of greetings ed classification accuracies of 73% and 82.23%, an accelerator and a facilitator. es. The human editor selected the proper meaning and signatures and their position in the body of the respectively, for Adaboost and SVM. Automatic data processing can be used to an- by keying the relevant number. email (Savoy, 2020). Abbasi and Chen (2008) analysed the individ- alyse data from entire literary works rather than ual characteristics of participants in an extremist from individual texts themselves. The place of hu- 5.2. Criticisms and limits 4.4. Content-specific features group web forum using the decision tree and SVM mans is then much more important, their involve- For some computer text analysis experts, led by Content-specific features can be used to char- classifiers. The experimental evaluation gave suc- ment is more important, they must indeed collect, Olsen (1993), computing has a lot to offer to sty- acterise the authors of certain texts in interaction cess rates of 90.1% and 97% in identifying the organise, classify and process data, etc. prior to lometry, but software is often misused and the re- situations such as in discussion forums using key- correct author among 5 possible individuals for automated processing. sults do not have the impact they might have. The words. Work on the characterisation of authors has the decision tree and the SVM, respectively. In their research on the importance of female scholar considers that it is necessary to reassess targeted the determination of various traits or char- Kucukyilmas et al. (2008) used the k-NN classi- characters in French-speaking African literature, the role of informatics in the analysis of the litera- acteristics of an author such as sex, age or level of fier to identify a user’s gender, age, and education- Ormerod et al. (1994) used several computer soft- ture and to move in new directions. He quotes education according to the use of a particular key- al background. The experimental evaluation of 100 ware programmes. The three researchers have as- Potter (1989) who says that specialists using com- word repeatedly or of a specific formulation. The participants grouped by sex (2 groups), age (4 sembled a representative corpus of ten novels writ- puter science in literature too often tend to make general approach is to create sociolinguistic groups) and educational background (10 groups) ten by male authors and ten written by women. their reports very ‘technical’, which does not help groups from documents written by the same popu- gave precision of 82.2%, 75.4% and 68.8%, re- The data submitted for the software review consist- to gain a readership of literary works. lation, then to deduce to which group(s) an anony- spectively. ed of an exhaustive list of the characters in these There would then be a ‘complex encountered mous document could be linked. As Fortier (1995) recalls, software is capable of twenty novels. by computer engineers’ seeking to hide behind a Cheng et al. (2011) studied author gender iden- analysing large amounts of information in record The characters were assigned three ratings from technical vocabulary – too often poorly mastered. tification from text using the Adaboost and SVM time, the tasks performed by specialised software 1 to 5 (according to pre-established criteria): one Potter (1989) also notes that this type of study is classifiers to analyse 101 lexical features, 10 syn- are long and laborious, even impossible for hu- corresponding to the importance given to the char- mostly limited to a small number of works. tactic features, 13 structural features, and 392 mans alone. Moreover, unlike human analysis, the acter, another to the power conferred on them in Brunet (2003), for his part, raises the dangers of functional features. automated processing of data by specialised soft- the social and professional field, and the last to what he calls ‘statistical stubbornness’. When a re- In December 2001 a leading US financial firm, ware is objective a priori. The algorithms allow the their attitude in the novel. It is therefore at this lev- searcher wishes, for example, to determine the au- Enron, collapsed amidst accusations of fraud. In examination of a whole text without special atten- el that the most important part of human interven- thorship of a text, he will begin by formulating a order to trace what had caused the crash and who tion being drawn to a particular passage more than tion was located before automated processing. The hypothesis first and then subjecting the text to tests was involved, the FERC subpoenaed for examina- on another. ‘An algorithm has the immense advan- researchers then highlighted the difference be- in order to verify or refute his hypothesis. When it tion of 600,000 emails generated by 158 employ- tage of not being subject to distractions, nor to tween texts by male authors and those by female does not achieve the desired results and does not ees. The evaluation of the proposed approach in- preconceived ideas’ (Fortier, 1995, p. 101). authors. want its efforts to be in vain, there is a high risk

56 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 57 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois

of a higher and more complex order. To date no words that make up the works they are studying, ‘To date no known algorithm makes it known algorithm makes it possible to grasp ‘Computer analysis of text can add to as well as on syllables, punctuation marks, vocab- possible to grasp whether a given word is whether a given word is used in a figurative or lit- professional discourse in two ways – ulary, themes and lexical fields, etc. These results used in a figurative or literary sense. To erary sense. To do this, it would in fact be neces- security and modelling. As we saw in the can then be used to compare authors or texts with sary for the researcher to carry out encoding work each other. In particular, they can help the re- do this, it would in fact be necessary for beforehand, which constitutes a long and tedious analysis of the Enron email database, searcher to determine the authorship of a text, to the researcher to carry out encoding work task. According to Miall (1995), to predict a new computer analysis can help identify who distinguish imitations from authentic works, to un- beforehand, which constitutes a long and era in which a computer would be able to grasp wrote what in emails and potentially in derstand the rhythmic patterns in verses or to and understand a literary work would underesti- grasp how a given author has contributed to the tedious task. According to Miall (1995), to mate the complexity of the process of reading a social media, thereby enhancing openness evolution of language’ (Fortier, 1995, p. 108). predict a new era in which a computer text by a human being. and transparency of authorship’ Stylometry has mainly been used in literature would be able to grasp and understand a Nonetheless, one can agree with Olsen (1993) and author identification by analysing writing style literary work would underestimate the that automated word processing allows data to be tion but know what language it is appropriate to and use of lexis. As this paper suggests, it can also updated which can form the basis of human deep- use, and in what type and style of communication. be used to identify styles of communication in complexity of the process of reading a text er work. It would seem that the approach of using An important point to consider is the difference electronic written professional discourse, differen- by a human being’ computers to analyse the linguistic and symbolic between more formal and informal communica- tiate between the vocabulary and expressions used environment – the collective and social elements tion. Social media communication tends towards by different organisations and professions, distin- that it will push hard and try to interpret the results of language – in order to understand individual the informal whereas email can be both formal or guish between formal and informal communica- in a way that makes them say the right thing. texts and rhetorical stances, suggests that comput- informal. Understanding and observing the differ- tion styles, thereby showing respect and building Brunet (2003) recalls that there is a strong tenden- er analysis of text should play a central and well- ence in language usage when reading or writing is good relations and analysing and updating cy in stylometry to give figures an almost divine defined role in our understanding of text. On the important as it has an influence on cultural under- changes in the language used. superiority over words because they seem other hand, while some aspects of literary texts are standing and on building good relations. Automated text processing using algorithms absolute, ‘but this apparent incontrovertibility, quantifiable, others can never be. One of the key areas of research in language should never be seen as anything other than a sim- however impressive, often conceals relative and and professional discourse is the relationship be- ple tool, which, while aiding the researcher, is by contingent procedures that have nothing essential 5.3. Application to professional discourse tween what is taught in textbooks and what takes no means sufficient on its own. The researcher about them’ (Brunet, 2003, p. 70). As mentioned above, computer analysis of text place in real life meetings, described as ‘authentic’ must indeed intervene before and after the auto- According to Olsen (1993), the main errors that can add to professional discourse in two ways – English. Authenticity is defined as something of mated analysis. Computer-assisted text analysis is are made by people using automated processing in security and modelling. As we saw in the analysis undisputed origin and not a copy, based on facts, not universally accepted, and experts have to con- the field of stylometry are not technical, but rather of the Enron email database, computer analysis accurate and reliable. Williams (1988) identified tend with the limitations of this method. theoretical and methodological. Olsen (1993) ex- can help identify who wrote what in emails and the language used in real business meetings she at- Computer text analysis is marginalised by liter- plains that computer text analyses are usually potentially in social media, thereby enhancing tended: ‘On reading the transcripts, the real meet- ary people. Most of them do not believe that com- done on the basis of too simple things like word openness and transparency of authorship. Of more ings were almost unintelligible. The language con- puter tools can offer them any real help in their length and what he describes as ‘type-token’ value to teachers and researchers, however, is the tained a large number of unfinished sentences, work and do not seem to have the curiosity to dis- ratios, when these measurements give unsatisfacto- potential of computer analysis to identify areas of false starts, overlapping utterances, interruptions cover the possibilities of this tool. Unfortunately, a ry results on their own. This is also the opinion of content and lexis used by native speakers to con- and fillers, such as ‘um’, ‘er’ and ‘you know’. A large number of articles dealing with automatic Miall (1995), who believes that ‘the frequencies of vey information and understanding through emails large proportion of the language contained jokes, data processing in the field of computer text analy- words, collocations, or particular stylistic features and other social media. In doing so, learners will quips, repetitions and asides. Some of the sen- sis are quite technical and sometimes off-putting tell us rather little about the literary qualities of a improve both their ability and fluency in written tences were not grammatically correct’ (Williams, for those who are not very familiar with statistics text, since these aspects of a text find their mean- communication through electronic media. Another 1988, p. 45-58). and computers. The human brain is able to grasp ing only within the larger and constantly shifting factor in professional discourse is that the use of the meaning behind expressions, make associa- context constituted by the reading process’ (Miall, language and particularly jargon changes rapidly 6. CONCLUSION tions of ideas, create and interpret metaphors, and 1995, p. 275). and can be difficult to keep up with, even by na- The computer allows researchers interested in even find new meanings in words that make up As Fortier (1995) explains, it is by no means tive speakers. The value of computer analysis is to the analysis of texts (literary or not) to add a valu- everyday vocabulary. No computer, even armed easy to transform textual qualities into analysable identify these changes and, with professional hu- able quantitative tool to their analyses. As Fortier with the most advanced software, will ever be able statistics. Although the texts are composed of man support, explain them and teach them in a (1995) writes, ‘Using different software, specialists to compete in intelligence and insight with a hu- words, their effects are produced by phenomena way that learners will not only gain new informa- can obtain tables, graphs and statistics on the man author or reader.

58 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 59 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois of a higher and more complex order. To date no words that make up the works they are studying, ‘To date no known algorithm makes it known algorithm makes it possible to grasp ‘Computer analysis of text can add to as well as on syllables, punctuation marks, vocab- possible to grasp whether a given word is whether a given word is used in a figurative or lit- professional discourse in two ways – ulary, themes and lexical fields, etc. These results used in a figurative or literary sense. To erary sense. To do this, it would in fact be neces- security and modelling. As we saw in the can then be used to compare authors or texts with sary for the researcher to carry out encoding work each other. In particular, they can help the re- do this, it would in fact be necessary for beforehand, which constitutes a long and tedious analysis of the Enron email database, searcher to determine the authorship of a text, to the researcher to carry out encoding work task. According to Miall (1995), to predict a new computer analysis can help identify who distinguish imitations from authentic works, to un- beforehand, which constitutes a long and era in which a computer would be able to grasp wrote what in emails and potentially in derstand the rhythmic patterns in verses or to and understand a literary work would underesti- grasp how a given author has contributed to the tedious task. According to Miall (1995), to mate the complexity of the process of reading a social media, thereby enhancing openness evolution of language’ (Fortier, 1995, p. 108). predict a new era in which a computer text by a human being. and transparency of authorship’ Stylometry has mainly been used in literature would be able to grasp and understand a Nonetheless, one can agree with Olsen (1993) and author identification by analysing writing style literary work would underestimate the that automated word processing allows data to be tion but know what language it is appropriate to and use of lexis. As this paper suggests, it can also updated which can form the basis of human deep- use, and in what type and style of communication. be used to identify styles of communication in complexity of the process of reading a text er work. It would seem that the approach of using An important point to consider is the difference electronic written professional discourse, differen- by a human being’ computers to analyse the linguistic and symbolic between more formal and informal communica- tiate between the vocabulary and expressions used environment – the collective and social elements tion. Social media communication tends towards by different organisations and professions, distin- that it will push hard and try to interpret the results of language – in order to understand individual the informal whereas email can be both formal or guish between formal and informal communica- in a way that makes them say the right thing. texts and rhetorical stances, suggests that comput- informal. Understanding and observing the differ- tion styles, thereby showing respect and building Brunet (2003) recalls that there is a strong tenden- er analysis of text should play a central and well- ence in language usage when reading or writing is good relations and analysing and updating cy in stylometry to give figures an almost divine defined role in our understanding of text. On the important as it has an influence on cultural under- changes in the language used. superiority over words because they seem other hand, while some aspects of literary texts are standing and on building good relations. Automated text processing using algorithms absolute, ‘but this apparent incontrovertibility, quantifiable, others can never be. One of the key areas of research in language should never be seen as anything other than a sim- however impressive, often conceals relative and and professional discourse is the relationship be- ple tool, which, while aiding the researcher, is by contingent procedures that have nothing essential 5.3. Application to professional discourse tween what is taught in textbooks and what takes no means sufficient on its own. The researcher about them’ (Brunet, 2003, p. 70). As mentioned above, computer analysis of text place in real life meetings, described as ‘authentic’ must indeed intervene before and after the auto- According to Olsen (1993), the main errors that can add to professional discourse in two ways – English. Authenticity is defined as something of mated analysis. Computer-assisted text analysis is are made by people using automated processing in security and modelling. As we saw in the analysis undisputed origin and not a copy, based on facts, not universally accepted, and experts have to con- the field of stylometry are not technical, but rather of the Enron email database, computer analysis accurate and reliable. Williams (1988) identified tend with the limitations of this method. theoretical and methodological. Olsen (1993) ex- can help identify who wrote what in emails and the language used in real business meetings she at- Computer text analysis is marginalised by liter- plains that computer text analyses are usually potentially in social media, thereby enhancing tended: ‘On reading the transcripts, the real meet- ary people. Most of them do not believe that com- done on the basis of too simple things like word openness and transparency of authorship. Of more ings were almost unintelligible. The language con- puter tools can offer them any real help in their length and what he describes as ‘type-token’ value to teachers and researchers, however, is the tained a large number of unfinished sentences, work and do not seem to have the curiosity to dis- ratios, when these measurements give unsatisfacto- potential of computer analysis to identify areas of false starts, overlapping utterances, interruptions cover the possibilities of this tool. Unfortunately, a ry results on their own. This is also the opinion of content and lexis used by native speakers to con- and fillers, such as ‘um’, ‘er’ and ‘you know’. A large number of articles dealing with automatic Miall (1995), who believes that ‘the frequencies of vey information and understanding through emails large proportion of the language contained jokes, data processing in the field of computer text analy- words, collocations, or particular stylistic features and other social media. In doing so, learners will quips, repetitions and asides. Some of the sen- sis are quite technical and sometimes off-putting tell us rather little about the literary qualities of a improve both their ability and fluency in written tences were not grammatically correct’ (Williams, for those who are not very familiar with statistics text, since these aspects of a text find their mean- communication through electronic media. Another 1988, p. 45-58). and computers. The human brain is able to grasp ing only within the larger and constantly shifting factor in professional discourse is that the use of the meaning behind expressions, make associa- context constituted by the reading process’ (Miall, language and particularly jargon changes rapidly 6. CONCLUSION tions of ideas, create and interpret metaphors, and 1995, p. 275). and can be difficult to keep up with, even by na- The computer allows researchers interested in even find new meanings in words that make up As Fortier (1995) explains, it is by no means tive speakers. The value of computer analysis is to the analysis of texts (literary or not) to add a valu- everyday vocabulary. No computer, even armed easy to transform textual qualities into analysable identify these changes and, with professional hu- able quantitative tool to their analyses. As Fortier with the most advanced software, will ever be able statistics. Although the texts are composed of man support, explain them and teach them in a (1995) writes, ‘Using different software, specialists to compete in intelligence and insight with a hu- words, their effects are produced by phenomena way that learners will not only gain new informa- can obtain tables, graphs and statistics on the man author or reader.

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60 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 61 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse When linguistics meets computer science: Stylometry and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 51-61 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-51-61 by Jean Langlois

60 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 61 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso

dominated linguistic studies. First was Chomsky’s These are some of the most important develop- (2011) analysis of the structure of language, which ments in the focus on how we communicate stressed the importance of grammar and posited meaning in professional discourse, but they are Original Research that grammar is an innate system. That was fol- not the only ones. As business theory and practice lowed by Halliday (1975) who focused on lan- develops, new communication ideas and princi- guage as communication and developed what is ples are being discussed, particularly the impor- known as the functional approach or, more formal- tance of authenticity and transparency in leader- The functional approach, semiotics and professional ly, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). ship and its influence on professional discourse discourse Since the late 20th century we have seen the and the use of language. The results will demon- explosion of information technology through the strate that the theory of SFL and its focus on the by Marina Peluso use of information and communications technolo- communication of meaning will develop in its Marina Peluso University of Bologna, Italy [email protected] gies. We have also seen the huge development of range of applications, especially in professional Article history Received March 11, 2021 | Revised April 29, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 international trade and the development of cross discourse, opening up new areas of language and Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest border supply chains involving the business com- cultural research. Research funding No funding was reported for this research munication between non-native speakers of Eng- doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 lish around the world and between native and 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND For citation Peluso, M. (2021). The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse. Training, Language and non-native speakers. In addition to the use of lan- 2.1. Language is a communicative function Culture, 5(2), 62-72. guage in professional communication (mainly Eng- Meaning is the effect of communication and lish as a lingua franca), we experience more and the manipulation of signs. In doing so we try to Michael Halliday, the founder of Systemic Functional Linguistics, was the key figure in linguistics to focus on the mean- more the interaction of different cultures with dif- find the right signs, words and gestures to make ing of language as communication rather than just its structural form. He saw language as meaning and as a semiotic ferent interpretations of how language is used (reg- sure we are understood and also to achieve certain representation of values, attitudes and behaviours and in doing so introduced a vital area of academic study of lan- ister) and the meaning of cultural symbols all af- social purposes. In SFL the primary function of languages. This paper explores the origins of Systemic Functional Linguistics and semiology, as well as the relationship be- fecting professional discourse. This has affected guage is to communicate a message. Structure and tween them, especially in applied professional discourse, both spoken and written. It analyses the use of Systemic how we understand the development of profes- form exist to help this happen. Without function, Functional Linguistics in three case studies based on communication, semantics and non-verbal communication, and sional discourse and the use of language (Mukhor- the structure of a language has no point. However, examines the implications for foreign language learning and teaching. The objective of the paper is to analyse Systemic tov & Poletaeva, 2020; Aleksandrova & Strelets, you need to understand structure in order to un- Functional Linguistics (SFL) and to show how it is exploited in newer communication approaches of Semiotics and 2021). derstand how a particular function is achieved. UXD in intercultural business communication in English. The methodology is based on secondary research and focuses The objective of this paper is first to analyse the Function and structure are two sides of the same on three case studies, each presenting a new dimension of professional communication discourse. The first is the intro- functional approach (SFL) and to apply it to the coin. duction of Globish, a simplified business vocabulary and grammar based on the requirements of international business Halliday (2013) emphasised that any theory of negotiation. The second is the use of semiotics – signs that convey meaning and register. The third is the use of non- newer communication approaches of semiotics, as verbal communication based on the experiments of Albert Mehrabian. The results show that in a globalising economy well as to UXD (User Experience Design). To do so language must incorporate the functional use of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics is an essential tool in managing international intercultural communication it uses secondary source research to analyse three language. He went on to say that language must and professional discourse, but that ways of using discourse to convey meaning need to be considered. case studies in professional communication as a be seen as a social semiotic system whose mean- way of negotiating meaning. The three case studies ing and form are driven by the communication KEYWORDS: Systemic Functional Linguistics, semiotics, communication, transitivity, Globish are: the introduction of ‘Globish’ in 1999 by Jean- aims of the speaker and the context in which the Paul Nerriere as a simplified use of language vo- message is delivered. He saw language as a social

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits cabulary and grammar to ease business negotia- semiotic system, in other words a system whose unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material tions between non-native and native users; the im- structure was driven by the communicative goals for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) portance of semiotics in brand management and of the user. Therefore, it must include the functions international advertising, and the use of UXD to of language as it is used (Fontaine, 2012). 1. INTRODUCTION guages and particularly their relationship to key re- develop and adapt products and presentation in Halliday and Matthiesen (2004) analysed the Over the centuries and particularly in the 20th ligious texts (Campbell, 2003). However, in the response to international user needs and cultural functions of Systemic Functional Linguistics to in- century, observers of languages have analysed 20th century De Saussure (2011) shifted the em- sensitivities; and, ﬁnally, the importance of non- clude expression, content and context. Expression what language is, where it comes from and how it phasis on historical languages to focus on the linguistic expression through body language as a involves analysing phonetics and phonology. Con- is used. In the comparative historical linguistic tra- structures and systems of living languages. As the way of negotiating meaning, especially in profes- tent involves analysing lexico-grammar and se- dition observers noted the similarities between lan- 20th century progressed, two leading theories sional discourse between different cultures. mantics, and context involves analysing meaning

© Marina Peluso 2021 62 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 63 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso making, the speaker’s communicative goals (Halli- was an act of meaning and that meaning meant cally, it is obviously relational and interpersonal, rate brands and products. These are useful topics of day & Matthiesen, 2004). For Halliday (1978), the acting semiotically. Therefore, every use of lan- in Halliday’s (2013) terms. It is interesting as Toma- study as are non-verbal communication in the use context was key. Text analysis should begin with guage reflects a social reality and in international lin and Nicks (2014) explain, how in international of verbal gestures such as the thumbs up sign or context – the study of register and genre. He iden- business it needs to express a professional social professional communication people often get it so the A-OK symbol of forefinger and thumb joined to tified three variables: field (the topic), tenor (the reality which is recognised and hopefully accepted wrong by sounding too informal too soon or make a circle. In North America and Western Eu- communication participants’ relationship) and by the interlocutors. sounding more formal than they need to be. As rope, the A-OK gesture means good whereas in mode (the communication channel used) (Halliday Any message, visual, speech or textual, presents Kress (1976) points out, any situation where a ver- Brazil it means the opposite, nul. The thumbs-up & Matthiesen, 2004). a range of semiotic options to the user. One of the bal or written exchange takes place needs to be gesture traditionally means good whereas thumbs Halliday and Matthiesen (2004) identified the most obvious visual images is traffic signals. In all understood as a semiotic structure. The words used down means bad or even death. This paper goes meta-functions of any communication in three countries, a red traffic signal means stop and a have a social meaning and express a social value more deeply into the significance of body lan- components: ideational, interpersonal and textual. green traffic signal means go. However, in the UK or values. guage in relation to speech in the discussion of Ideational is about the ability to organise experi- an additional semiotic option exists – yellow, Mehrabian’s (1972) research. ence into categories (experiential) and express the which occurs between the red and green lights. 2.3. Semiotics and language use A leading figure into research into semiotic experience in a logical format. This is what they This means drivers can proceed with caution. Hal- In his lectures which treated language as a sys- symbols was Barthes (2009), whose book of essays, described as transitivity, made up of three main el- liday identified three semantic options categories tem of signs, De Saussure (2011) distinguished be- entitled Mythologies, is still a basic research tool. ements: processes, participants and circumstances for the use of language which he called transitivity. tween the signifier, the actual symbol, and the sig- Barthes (2009) argued that any communication and ideational metaphors. The interpersonal meta- The first is material (doing), talking or writing nified, the concept or meaning behind the presents a myth – an unconscious belief or a pro- function covers social roles and attitudes and di- about actions. The second is mental (sensing) and signifier. He went on to distinguish between parole fessional or personal representation of reality. We vides into the study of mood, modality, speech the third is relational (relating). Systemic Function- (the words you use in speech or writing) and unconsciously accept or reject the myth we per- acts and interpersonal metaphors. Finally, the tex- al Linguistics goes on to describe three main func- langue (the conventions that make the words used ceive behind any communication and that is why tual function covers discourse, involving the study tions of language as meaning. Experiential mean- understandable and acceptable). It is the langue language teachers need to help students analyse of rhyme, rheme and cohesive devices at lexical ing is how people talk about their experiences. In- that semioticians and Systemic Functional Linguis- professional discourse and learn to distinguish be- and grammatical levels (Halliday & Matthiesen, terpersonal meaning describes the processes of tics experts are most interested in especially in tween the seen, what is said, written or shown and 2004). asking questions, giving information and instruc- professional discourse. the unseen, the myth that lies behind it and which SFL is at the basis of what is known as critical tions and also describes how users express their Let us take a common example from French. If I will determine professional acceptability or unac- discourse analysis, the analysis of a text from the own judgements and opinions. Finally, textual make an offer or a request in French from some- ceptability. point of view of how meaning is conveyed and meaning indicates the context in which the lan- body I know well, the answer may well be, Si tu how it is interpreted. It studies the choices users guage is presented, in our case a professional con- veux (If you want). In French it is simply a phrase 2.5. Language and narrative have made from a range of alternative ways of get- text. All these are expressed in a clause. The prin- of acceptance but in English it often has a semiotic According to Barthes (2009) and others, the key ting their message across. This becomes an effec- ciple is that to understand the semiotic meaning of connotation which is completely different and can was the narrative. In the use of language in a pro- tive way of studying not just conversations but po- what is said or written the clause needs to be an- be explained as If you want, but I don’t. In other fessional environment, what narrative will convey litical commentary, media, advertising and, effec- alysed for its semantic connotations. words, positive acceptance in French may be con- competence, courtesy and assurance and what tively, all forms of communication whether Let us take a simple phrase, often used in Eng- strued as negative or reluctant acceptance in Eng- narrative will suggest the opposite? A language through speech, music, text or images. lish in the greeting in a business email or letter, If I lish. This is a common problem experienced by speaker may be perfectly confident and competent may as in Dear Marina, if I may. This is considered English speaking expats living in France. The impli- in delivering the narrative required in their own 2.2. Semiotics and the functional communica- a polite way of bridging the gap between formality cations for foreign language teachers are obvious. mother tongue but be totally incompetent in doing tion of meaning and informality when writing to someone you We need to pay attention not only to the literal so in a foreign language. Even though they are rea- Semiotics is defined as the science of signs and don’t know. Normally, I might expect Dear Dr translation but also to the semiotic context. In this sonably good at the structure of the language they symbols and dates from the 17th century in the Peluso but in using the phrase If I may the writer is case, Si tu veux may be more efficiently translated are using (the parole or language form) but need UK. However, our modern understanding of semi- assuming a degree of commonality, maybe of pro- as Yes, certainly. experience in finding the right words or phrases to otics comes from the research of De Saussure fession or discipline or maybe of public status. In express the appropriate narrative (the langue). (2011) in a series of lectures. Halliday (1975) was the same way, if called on a help line by phone, 2.4. Semiotics and symbols As Thussu (2006) writes, foreign language users noteworthy for following De Saussure’s theory. He the caller may ask you, May I call you, Marina?, in As well as language we use symbols, such as should never assume that the terminology, sounds conceived of language as a resource for construing order to establish a more personal relationship be- signs, slogans, logos and advertisements all of and graphics used in their culture will be accepted meaning and described language as a social semi- fore continuing the conversation. If we examine which play a significant role in international busi- by speakers of a foreign language. They should otic. So, for Halliday (2013) every language act the clauses If I may and May I call you…? semioti- ness communication, raising awareness of corpo- check all names and references for use in other ter-

64 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 65 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso making, the speaker’s communicative goals (Halli- was an act of meaning and that meaning meant cally, it is obviously relational and interpersonal, rate brands and products. These are useful topics of day & Matthiesen, 2004). For Halliday (1978), the acting semiotically. Therefore, every use of lan- in Halliday’s (2013) terms. It is interesting as Toma- study as are non-verbal communication in the use context was key. Text analysis should begin with guage reflects a social reality and in international lin and Nicks (2014) explain, how in international of verbal gestures such as the thumbs up sign or context – the study of register and genre. He iden- business it needs to express a professional social professional communication people often get it so the A-OK symbol of forefinger and thumb joined to tified three variables: field (the topic), tenor (the reality which is recognised and hopefully accepted wrong by sounding too informal too soon or make a circle. In North America and Western Eu- communication participants’ relationship) and by the interlocutors. sounding more formal than they need to be. As rope, the A-OK gesture means good whereas in mode (the communication channel used) (Halliday Any message, visual, speech or textual, presents Kress (1976) points out, any situation where a ver- Brazil it means the opposite, nul. The thumbs-up & Matthiesen, 2004). a range of semiotic options to the user. One of the bal or written exchange takes place needs to be gesture traditionally means good whereas thumbs Halliday and Matthiesen (2004) identified the most obvious visual images is traffic signals. In all understood as a semiotic structure. The words used down means bad or even death. This paper goes meta-functions of any communication in three countries, a red traffic signal means stop and a have a social meaning and express a social value more deeply into the significance of body lan- components: ideational, interpersonal and textual. green traffic signal means go. However, in the UK or values. guage in relation to speech in the discussion of Ideational is about the ability to organise experi- an additional semiotic option exists – yellow, Mehrabian’s (1972) research. ence into categories (experiential) and express the which occurs between the red and green lights. 2.3. Semiotics and language use A leading figure into research into semiotic experience in a logical format. This is what they This means drivers can proceed with caution. Hal- In his lectures which treated language as a sys- symbols was Barthes (2009), whose book of essays, described as transitivity, made up of three main el- liday identified three semantic options categories tem of signs, De Saussure (2011) distinguished be- entitled Mythologies, is still a basic research tool. ements: processes, participants and circumstances for the use of language which he called transitivity. tween the signifier, the actual symbol, and the sig- Barthes (2009) argued that any communication and ideational metaphors. The interpersonal meta- The first is material (doing), talking or writing nified, the concept or meaning behind the presents a myth – an unconscious belief or a pro- function covers social roles and attitudes and di- about actions. The second is mental (sensing) and signifier. He went on to distinguish between parole fessional or personal representation of reality. We vides into the study of mood, modality, speech the third is relational (relating). Systemic Function- (the words you use in speech or writing) and unconsciously accept or reject the myth we per- acts and interpersonal metaphors. Finally, the tex- al Linguistics goes on to describe three main func- langue (the conventions that make the words used ceive behind any communication and that is why tual function covers discourse, involving the study tions of language as meaning. Experiential mean- understandable and acceptable). It is the langue language teachers need to help students analyse of rhyme, rheme and cohesive devices at lexical ing is how people talk about their experiences. In- that semioticians and Systemic Functional Linguis- professional discourse and learn to distinguish be- and grammatical levels (Halliday & Matthiesen, terpersonal meaning describes the processes of tics experts are most interested in especially in tween the seen, what is said, written or shown and 2004). asking questions, giving information and instruc- professional discourse. the unseen, the myth that lies behind it and which SFL is at the basis of what is known as critical tions and also describes how users express their Let us take a common example from French. If I will determine professional acceptability or unac- discourse analysis, the analysis of a text from the own judgements and opinions. Finally, textual make an offer or a request in French from some- ceptability. point of view of how meaning is conveyed and meaning indicates the context in which the lan- body I know well, the answer may well be, Si tu how it is interpreted. It studies the choices users guage is presented, in our case a professional con- veux (If you want). In French it is simply a phrase 2.5. Language and narrative have made from a range of alternative ways of get- text. All these are expressed in a clause. The prin- of acceptance but in English it often has a semiotic According to Barthes (2009) and others, the key ting their message across. This becomes an effec- ciple is that to understand the semiotic meaning of connotation which is completely different and can was the narrative. In the use of language in a pro- tive way of studying not just conversations but po- what is said or written the clause needs to be an- be explained as If you want, but I don’t. In other fessional environment, what narrative will convey litical commentary, media, advertising and, effec- alysed for its semantic connotations. words, positive acceptance in French may be con- competence, courtesy and assurance and what tively, all forms of communication whether Let us take a simple phrase, often used in Eng- strued as negative or reluctant acceptance in Eng- narrative will suggest the opposite? A language through speech, music, text or images. lish in the greeting in a business email or letter, If I lish. This is a common problem experienced by speaker may be perfectly confident and competent may as in Dear Marina, if I may. This is considered English speaking expats living in France. The impli- in delivering the narrative required in their own 2.2. Semiotics and the functional communica- a polite way of bridging the gap between formality cations for foreign language teachers are obvious. mother tongue but be totally incompetent in doing tion of meaning and informality when writing to someone you We need to pay attention not only to the literal so in a foreign language. Even though they are rea- Semiotics is defined as the science of signs and don’t know. Normally, I might expect Dear Dr translation but also to the semiotic context. In this sonably good at the structure of the language they symbols and dates from the 17th century in the Peluso but in using the phrase If I may the writer is case, Si tu veux may be more efficiently translated are using (the parole or language form) but need UK. However, our modern understanding of semi- assuming a degree of commonality, maybe of pro- as Yes, certainly. experience in finding the right words or phrases to otics comes from the research of De Saussure fession or discipline or maybe of public status. In express the appropriate narrative (the langue). (2011) in a series of lectures. Halliday (1975) was the same way, if called on a help line by phone, 2.4. Semiotics and symbols As Thussu (2006) writes, foreign language users noteworthy for following De Saussure’s theory. He the caller may ask you, May I call you, Marina?, in As well as language we use symbols, such as should never assume that the terminology, sounds conceived of language as a resource for construing order to establish a more personal relationship be- signs, slogans, logos and advertisements all of and graphics used in their culture will be accepted meaning and described language as a social semi- fore continuing the conversation. If we examine which play a significant role in international busi- by speakers of a foreign language. They should otic. So, for Halliday (2013) every language act the clauses If I may and May I call you…? semioti- ness communication, raising awareness of corpo- check all names and references for use in other ter-

Precision/ Suggestions the truth; in other words, a liar. word to use is just, which suggests speed and I go into detail The key issue is how to resolve potential ten- brevity in English. A very good example is inter- I avoid detail – I leave room for creativity of interpretation sion and disagreement and this is where the use of ruption in meetings. If a speaker can say some- What/Why – Why/What language appropriate to the situation comes in. thing like Can I just interrupt? or Can I just come I say what I want then why I have to give background context ﬁrst The secret may to be prepared to say where you in here? the use of the word just has the function are coming from, what style you prefer to adopt. In of suggesting the interruption will be brief, increas- Formal/ Informal ing the speaker’s chance to make themselves I am formal and respectful this case, the direct speaker may say, I’m a very di- I am informal, relaxed and casual rect person. I say what I think but it’s nothing per- heard.

Neutral/emotional sonal. The phrase It’s nothing personal is important Emotion is a very important part of communica- I keep my emotions under control because it neutralises what might otherwise be tion and is contrasted with neutrality as a means of It’s important to let people know how I feel seen as a personal attack. expression. In many parts of the world, expressing Interrupt/wait In the same way, the difference between atten- your emotions is seen as an important part of com- I speak fast, I interrupt I speak slow, I never interrupt tion to detail and to generalities, often described munication. However, the expression of emotion as ‘the big picture’ can often cause disagreements. is limited in many countries to particular contexts

66 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 67 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso or not accepted at all in business environments. In 5. CASE STUDY: GLOBISH the global market. Davidson (2011) gave examples East Asia, for example, losing your temper in a 5.1. Globish: a communication tool for inter- ‘Globish, however, was not just a term for of Nerrière’s simplified English (e.g. chat – speak business meeting can lead to serious loss of face cultural communication a functional business vocabulary but has casually to each other; kitchen – the room in (personal dignity). In Japanese the term Hena Gai- Another but more structurally based application become a form of global communication, which you cook your food). However, as Davidson jin translates as crazy foreigner and suggests that of Systemic Functional Linguistics is Globish. One (2011) goes on to say, words which already have the person who uses emotional language in busi- of the phenomena of the information century has especially in the ‘information age’ of the international currency, such as pizza, remain as ness meetings is unreliable and is not to be trusted been the dominance of the English language as a Internet and ICT’ they are. (Tomalin & Nicks, 2014). lingua franca. But what variety of English? We Globish also has a broader ‘global’ meaning. The fifth paradigm, formality and informality, is know that there are hundreds of varieties of Eng- cally, if not perfectly, any information needed and McCrum (2006, p. 5) talks of a Globish revolution, much better known as it indicates the way we lish spoken in communities around the world but also build common ground between speakers. an environment where some form of English has should address people in a business or official en- one form has been the common language used by What Globish aimed to do was to focus on clarity become a universal global currency, ‘the intellectu- vironment. In a society where formal address is ex- members of different communities communicating and expression (McGovern, 2019). al dialect of the third millennium’, as he describes pected, informality may be regarded as rude and across borders – Globish. ‘Globish’ was the term it. Lyons (2021) estimated that of an estimated disrespectful. In a business environment where in- coined by a French executive, Jean-Paul Nerrière 5.2. Globish as a global communication tool world population of about 7.8 billion, 364 million formality is expected, formality may be regarded in 1995. A Vice-President of IBM based in New Globish, however, was not just a term for a were native speakers, but 1.35 billion spoke it as a as keeping your distance and showing inability to York, he listened to English speaking nationals of functional business vocabulary but has become a foreign language. Chinese is the most common adapt. South East Asia communicating with Korean and form of global communication, especially in the first language, followed by Spanish and then Eng- Therefore, the ability to check and conform to Japanese counterparts and noticed how non-native ‘information age’ of the Internet and Information lish in third place but English is the most widely business requirements is important. The functional English speakers found it easier to communicate and Communication Technologies. The most popu- studied foreign language in the world. On the In- usage of How would you like me to address you? with each other than with native speakers. As Mc- lar language of the Internet is Mandarin Chinese, ternet itself, McCrum (2006) estimates that 80% of or What should I call you? can be important in Govern (2019) describes it, the reason why many due to the number of speakers and access to tech- the world’s home pages are in English compared such exchanges. non-native speaker users of English often prefer to nology, but by far the most used language interna- with 4.5% in German and 3.1% in Japanese. This An important functional phrase is If I may as in negotiate with other non-native speaker users of tionally is English. Globish therefore has two means that social media, international manufactur- Dear John, If I may in starting an email to a profes- English is that they find them easier to understand. meanings: the restricted language first proposed by ing and distribution, mass consumerism and sional colleague you don’t know personally. It is L1 (English as a first language) speakers were un- Nerrière (2004) for business intercommunication tourism and professions like law all use a form of an effective approach, inviting a degree of infor- willing to make concessions to L2 (non-native) in English, and, far more important, the use of dif- English, to some degree different to that used by mality without being impolite. speakers, spoke too fast and used idioms that ferent non-native speaker varieties of English for native speakers. Finally, Interrupt vs Wait. Described effectively made them difficult to understand. effective business communication worldwide both by Lewis (2010) as ping pong (interrupting) and Nerrière (2004), as a French speaker of English, face-to-face and via the Internet and social media. 5.3. Communicating through speech acts bowling (waiting), waiting can be seen as boring came up with the idea of a ‘decaffeinated English’ What is evident is that the number of native If we look at professional behaviour, there are and perhaps as hiding information while ping or ‘English-lite’, a slightly simpler form of English speakers of English is tiny compared to non-native also differences in the way we talk to each other pong can be seen as impatient. Latin countries can which gave non-native speakers an advantage over speakers. In his investigation of English usage and even write emails. Reflecting international speak quite fast and don’t mind too much being their native speaker UK or US competitors. He around the world, Graddol (2007) produced a pie good practice, Tomalin and Nicks (2014) suggest interrupted. In many East Asian communities, on christened this ‘new’ language ‘Globish’ and the chart comparing the international use of English the following principles for speakers to help under- the other hand, it is important to wait till your in- term caught on (McCrum, 2010). around the world. In his findings, 74% of English standing. terlocutor has finished speaking, pause and then Nerrière (2005) began by compiling a subset of users were non-native speakers using a simplified 1. Articulate. If you open your mouth more respond. That use of silence between utterances standard English grammar list and a basic vocabu- version of English used by non-native speakers, when you speak, you automatically slow down may even be used as a negotiating tool as your si- lary of 1500 words with which he said anyone consisting of the most common words and phrases and become clearer. lence is interrupted by your interlocutor, impatient could conduct a business discussion in basic Eng- only. According to Graddol’s (2007) findings, only 2. Leave a beat when you speak. If you are con- to break the silence, who may offer concessions in lish. The lexicon, with the stress in each word 4% of speakers communicated in English at native veying information, a very short pause before an the process. identified in bold type is accessible online. He speaker level. important piece of information will help the listen- What RADAR Communication demonstrates is popularised his work in two French-language It’s important to remember that Nerrière (2005) er attune their ears and absorb the message. that the systemic functional language we use is in- handbooks, Decouvrez le Globish (Nerrière et al., never saw Globish as a language, like, for example 3. No jokes. This is widely recognised as an is- fluenced by intercultural as well as personal con- 2005) and Parlez Globish (Nerrière, 2004). He ar- Esperanto. He saw it as a tool, a means of commu- sue in international communication. Hearers may siderations which can affect our ability to build gued that with this simplified grammar and vocab- nication. McCrum (2010) described its infrastruc- simply not understand or they may take offence or successful international relationships. ulary non-native speakers could exchange practi- ture as economic, based on trade, advertising and even take the joke as a serious statement of fact or

68 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 69 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso or not accepted at all in business environments. In 5. CASE STUDY: GLOBISH the global market. Davidson (2011) gave examples East Asia, for example, losing your temper in a 5.1. Globish: a communication tool for inter- ‘Globish, however, was not just a term for of Nerrière’s simplified English (e.g. chat – speak business meeting can lead to serious loss of face cultural communication a functional business vocabulary but has casually to each other; kitchen – the room in (personal dignity). In Japanese the term Hena Gai- Another but more structurally based application become a form of global communication, which you cook your food). However, as Davidson jin translates as crazy foreigner and suggests that of Systemic Functional Linguistics is Globish. One (2011) goes on to say, words which already have the person who uses emotional language in busi- of the phenomena of the information century has especially in the ‘information age’ of the international currency, such as pizza, remain as ness meetings is unreliable and is not to be trusted been the dominance of the English language as a Internet and ICT’ they are. (Tomalin & Nicks, 2014). lingua franca. But what variety of English? We Globish also has a broader ‘global’ meaning. The fifth paradigm, formality and informality, is know that there are hundreds of varieties of Eng- cally, if not perfectly, any information needed and McCrum (2006, p. 5) talks of a Globish revolution, much better known as it indicates the way we lish spoken in communities around the world but also build common ground between speakers. an environment where some form of English has should address people in a business or official en- one form has been the common language used by What Globish aimed to do was to focus on clarity become a universal global currency, ‘the intellectu- vironment. In a society where formal address is ex- members of different communities communicating and expression (McGovern, 2019). al dialect of the third millennium’, as he describes pected, informality may be regarded as rude and across borders – Globish. ‘Globish’ was the term it. Lyons (2021) estimated that of an estimated disrespectful. In a business environment where in- coined by a French executive, Jean-Paul Nerrière 5.2. Globish as a global communication tool world population of about 7.8 billion, 364 million formality is expected, formality may be regarded in 1995. A Vice-President of IBM based in New Globish, however, was not just a term for a were native speakers, but 1.35 billion spoke it as a as keeping your distance and showing inability to York, he listened to English speaking nationals of functional business vocabulary but has become a foreign language. Chinese is the most common adapt. South East Asia communicating with Korean and form of global communication, especially in the first language, followed by Spanish and then Eng- Therefore, the ability to check and conform to Japanese counterparts and noticed how non-native ‘information age’ of the Internet and Information lish in third place but English is the most widely business requirements is important. The functional English speakers found it easier to communicate and Communication Technologies. The most popu- studied foreign language in the world. On the In- usage of How would you like me to address you? with each other than with native speakers. As Mc- lar language of the Internet is Mandarin Chinese, ternet itself, McCrum (2006) estimates that 80% of or What should I call you? can be important in Govern (2019) describes it, the reason why many due to the number of speakers and access to tech- the world’s home pages are in English compared such exchanges. non-native speaker users of English often prefer to nology, but by far the most used language interna- with 4.5% in German and 3.1% in Japanese. This An important functional phrase is If I may as in negotiate with other non-native speaker users of tionally is English. Globish therefore has two means that social media, international manufactur- Dear John, If I may in starting an email to a profes- English is that they find them easier to understand. meanings: the restricted language first proposed by ing and distribution, mass consumerism and sional colleague you don’t know personally. It is L1 (English as a first language) speakers were un- Nerrière (2004) for business intercommunication tourism and professions like law all use a form of an effective approach, inviting a degree of infor- willing to make concessions to L2 (non-native) in English, and, far more important, the use of dif- English, to some degree different to that used by mality without being impolite. speakers, spoke too fast and used idioms that ferent non-native speaker varieties of English for native speakers. Finally, Interrupt vs Wait. Described effectively made them difficult to understand. effective business communication worldwide both by Lewis (2010) as ping pong (interrupting) and Nerrière (2004), as a French speaker of English, face-to-face and via the Internet and social media. 5.3. Communicating through speech acts bowling (waiting), waiting can be seen as boring came up with the idea of a ‘decaffeinated English’ What is evident is that the number of native If we look at professional behaviour, there are and perhaps as hiding information while ping or ‘English-lite’, a slightly simpler form of English speakers of English is tiny compared to non-native also differences in the way we talk to each other pong can be seen as impatient. Latin countries can which gave non-native speakers an advantage over speakers. In his investigation of English usage and even write emails. Reflecting international speak quite fast and don’t mind too much being their native speaker UK or US competitors. He around the world, Graddol (2007) produced a pie good practice, Tomalin and Nicks (2014) suggest interrupted. In many East Asian communities, on christened this ‘new’ language ‘Globish’ and the chart comparing the international use of English the following principles for speakers to help under- the other hand, it is important to wait till your in- term caught on (McCrum, 2010). around the world. In his findings, 74% of English standing. terlocutor has finished speaking, pause and then Nerrière (2005) began by compiling a subset of users were non-native speakers using a simplified 1. Articulate. If you open your mouth more respond. That use of silence between utterances standard English grammar list and a basic vocabu- version of English used by non-native speakers, when you speak, you automatically slow down may even be used as a negotiating tool as your si- lary of 1500 words with which he said anyone consisting of the most common words and phrases and become clearer. lence is interrupted by your interlocutor, impatient could conduct a business discussion in basic Eng- only. According to Graddol’s (2007) findings, only 2. Leave a beat when you speak. If you are con- to break the silence, who may offer concessions in lish. The lexicon, with the stress in each word 4% of speakers communicated in English at native veying information, a very short pause before an the process. identified in bold type is accessible online. He speaker level. important piece of information will help the listen- What RADAR Communication demonstrates is popularised his work in two French-language It’s important to remember that Nerrière (2005) er attune their ears and absorb the message. that the systemic functional language we use is in- handbooks, Decouvrez le Globish (Nerrière et al., never saw Globish as a language, like, for example 3. No jokes. This is widely recognised as an is- fluenced by intercultural as well as personal con- 2005) and Parlez Globish (Nerrière, 2004). He ar- Esperanto. He saw it as a tool, a means of commu- sue in international communication. Hearers may siderations which can affect our ability to build gued that with this simplified grammar and vocab- nication. McCrum (2010) described its infrastruc- simply not understand or they may take offence or successful international relationships. ulary non-native speakers could exchange practi- ture as economic, based on trade, advertising and even take the joke as a serious statement of fact or

68 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 69 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso intention. Cultural factors are important here as 4. Signing on and signing off. Tomalin and Nicks congruent. In other words, the non-verbal commu- Systemic Functional Linguistics has become the jokes may be considered a way of breaking the ice (2014) make a distinction between what they call nication, if congruent with the verbal communica- key to managing the international use of language in business meetings in some countries but totally the New Brutal and the Old Courteous. The New tion, will make it more dominant and more con- in a global business community in which non-na- out of place in others. The British, in particular, are Brutal is simply starting an email with a name and vincing. tive speakers dominate. However, it also demon- noted for their taste in sarcastic jokes and their signing off with a name and no greeting; for exam- strates that it is not only the use of verbal commu- tendency to want to lighten the atmosphere by ple, Marina rather than Kind Regards, Marina. The 6. CONCLUSION nication that conveys meaning and that we must telling jokes at the start of a meeting or a lecture. Old Courteous would expect people to use a The aim of this paper has been to explore the consider cultural differences and also different The phrase I am reminded of the time when… is greeting as well as a sign-off phrase, such as Hello, role and relationship of Systemic Functional Lin- body language to correctly interpret and evaluate often the functional phrase used to warn you a Marina and Best, Marina. Hello and Best, meaning guistics and semiology in language and communi- the meaning of the communication. In this respect, joke is coming in a speech. Best wishes, are increasingly common functional cation. It has emphasised the role of Systemic although the use of grammatically correct foreign 4. Explain idioms and acronyms. Native speak- ways of starting an email and signing off. Functional Linguistics in linguistic, functional and languages is to be respected, equal attention needs ers, in particular, naturally use idioms without intercultural communication using English as a to be given to the role of other signs systems inter- thinking, and it is important to check what you say, 5.4. The importance of non-verbal interaction global language. It has analysed how the English acting in the communication process. This involves and if you catch an idiom it’s important to restate it in intercultural communication language itself has internationalised in a world of teachers helping learners to analyse the real mean- in easily understandable language. One example These points offer practical advice on how to global business and international communication ing of what they wish to express and write in a for- is Back to square one. The phrase itself comes use SFL as a way of improving your way of con- through the Internet and is differentiated from the eign language and to build linguistic and cultural from the time when, in the press, football fields veying meaning through the use of language and functional language used by native speakers. It has sensitivity to what they say and write as well as were represented as a diagramme divided into also through the use of design and organisational examined the significance of language in intercul- improving the grammatical, semantic and, where squares. Square One was the centre of the field features which enhance the comprehensibility and tural exchanges and also the development of new appropriate, pronunciation skills in their foreign where the players kicked off at the start of a match readability of the message. In other words, SFL is functional linguistic tools through the develop- language ability. This is especially important for or after a goal had been scored. The diagramme only part of the way we convey meaning. We also ment of ‘Globish’. Finally, it has briefly explored learners of English as a global business language has disappeared into history but the phrase re- use design, layout and communication techniques. the role of non-verbal communication as a vital and will become even more important as in- mains in common use. Back to square one simply Albert Mehrabian, Professor of Psychology at the component of successful communication, face-to- ternational markets develop and we find ourselves means Let’s start again. Similarly, if you use University of California, went further. In a famous face and online. more and more in a multilingual world. acronyms or initials in speech or writing, say what experiment with students, Mehrabian (1981) the letters mean the first time you use them. It real- demonstrated that the language we use is only a ly avoids confusion and aids comprehension. minor feature of communication. His experiments 5. KISS. KISS means ‘keep it short and simple’ demonstrated that 55% is attributable to body lan- References and applied to speech it means trying to keep your guage (facial expressions, gestures, posture, and Aleksandrova, O. V., & Strelets, I. E. (2021). The role Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning how to mean. Ed- sentences short. The recommended length is be- appearance). 38% was tone of voice and only 7% and place of the diplomatic discourse within the ward Arnold. tween 15 and 25 words. It’s important to go over to the actual words used. This came to be known sphere of modern discourse studies. Cognitive Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: what you have written if you are writing for in- as the 55-38-7 rule, meaning that the words we Studies of Language, 44(1), 413-420. The social interpretation of language and mean- ternational reception. Can you simplify and short- use only contribute a limited amount to total Barthes, R. (2009). Mythologies. Vintage Classics. ing. Hodder Education. en what you write to make your message clearer? meaning and can easily be culturally misunder- Campbell, L. (2003). The history of linguistics. In M. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. (2004). An intro- The same goes for emails, though WhatsApp, In- stood. Aronoff & J. Rees-Miller (Eds.), The handbook of duction to functional grammar (3rd ed.). Rout- stagram and Twitter may work differently. What is significant about this is that listeners in linguistics (pp. 81-104). Blackwell Publishing. ledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203783771 KISS also applies to emails. 1. A 15 to 25-word face-to-face and even online visual interactions Chomsky, N. (2011). The essential Chomsky. New Press. Halliday, M. A. K. (2013). Meaning as choice. In L. Davidson, J. P. (2011). Planet word. Penguin. Fontaine, T. Bartlett, & G. O’Grady (Eds.), Sys- sentence is much more effective. 2. One thought will pay as much if not more attention to non-ver- De Saussure, F. (2011). Course in general linguistics temic Functional Linguistics: Exploring choice per sentence is a good way of thinking about the bal signs to interpret meaning as to verbal lan- (2nd ed.). Columbia University Press. (pp. 15-36). Cambridge University Press. guage. The non-verbal communication signs, construction of an email communication as once Fontaine, L. (2012). Analysing English grammar: A sys- Hampden-Turner, C. (1990). Charting the corporate again it helps clarify the message. 3. Leave a line which may include stress, intonation and gestures, temic functional introduction. Cambridge Uni- mind: Graphic solutions to business conflicts. between paragraphs. This makes the progress of facial expressions and posture, demonstrate domi- versity Press. The Free Press. the email clearer but it also allows one other thing. nance. Dominance is when speakers’ body lan- Graddol, D. (2007). English manuscripts: The emer- Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Many respondents respond to emails point by guage and tone of voice agrees with what they gence of a visual identity. In S. Goodman, D. Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in point underneath what you have written and using want to express. It is important that the verbal and Graddol, & T. Lillis (Eds.), Redesigning English Psychology and Culture, 2(1), Article 8. https:// a different colour, type face, for example, green. non-verbal aspects of communication should be (pp. 161-204). The Open University. doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

70 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 71 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse The functional approach, semiotics and professional discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 by Marina Peluso intention. Cultural factors are important here as 4. Signing on and signing off. Tomalin and Nicks congruent. In other words, the non-verbal commu- Systemic Functional Linguistics has become the jokes may be considered a way of breaking the ice (2014) make a distinction between what they call nication, if congruent with the verbal communica- key to managing the international use of language in business meetings in some countries but totally the New Brutal and the Old Courteous. The New tion, will make it more dominant and more con- in a global business community in which non-na- out of place in others. The British, in particular, are Brutal is simply starting an email with a name and vincing. tive speakers dominate. However, it also demon- noted for their taste in sarcastic jokes and their signing off with a name and no greeting; for exam- strates that it is not only the use of verbal commu- tendency to want to lighten the atmosphere by ple, Marina rather than Kind Regards, Marina. The 6. CONCLUSION nication that conveys meaning and that we must telling jokes at the start of a meeting or a lecture. Old Courteous would expect people to use a The aim of this paper has been to explore the consider cultural differences and also different The phrase I am reminded of the time when… is greeting as well as a sign-off phrase, such as Hello, role and relationship of Systemic Functional Lin- body language to correctly interpret and evaluate often the functional phrase used to warn you a Marina and Best, Marina. Hello and Best, meaning guistics and semiology in language and communi- the meaning of the communication. In this respect, joke is coming in a speech. Best wishes, are increasingly common functional cation. It has emphasised the role of Systemic although the use of grammatically correct foreign 4. Explain idioms and acronyms. Native speak- ways of starting an email and signing off. Functional Linguistics in linguistic, functional and languages is to be respected, equal attention needs ers, in particular, naturally use idioms without intercultural communication using English as a to be given to the role of other signs systems inter- thinking, and it is important to check what you say, 5.4. The importance of non-verbal interaction global language. It has analysed how the English acting in the communication process. This involves and if you catch an idiom it’s important to restate it in intercultural communication language itself has internationalised in a world of teachers helping learners to analyse the real mean- in easily understandable language. One example These points offer practical advice on how to global business and international communication ing of what they wish to express and write in a for- is Back to square one. The phrase itself comes use SFL as a way of improving your way of con- through the Internet and is differentiated from the eign language and to build linguistic and cultural from the time when, in the press, football fields veying meaning through the use of language and functional language used by native speakers. It has sensitivity to what they say and write as well as were represented as a diagramme divided into also through the use of design and organisational examined the significance of language in intercul- improving the grammatical, semantic and, where squares. Square One was the centre of the field features which enhance the comprehensibility and tural exchanges and also the development of new appropriate, pronunciation skills in their foreign where the players kicked off at the start of a match readability of the message. In other words, SFL is functional linguistic tools through the develop- language ability. This is especially important for or after a goal had been scored. The diagramme only part of the way we convey meaning. We also ment of ‘Globish’. Finally, it has briefly explored learners of English as a global business language has disappeared into history but the phrase re- use design, layout and communication techniques. the role of non-verbal communication as a vital and will become even more important as in- mains in common use. Back to square one simply Albert Mehrabian, Professor of Psychology at the component of successful communication, face-to- ternational markets develop and we find ourselves means Let’s start again. Similarly, if you use University of California, went further. In a famous face and online. more and more in a multilingual world. acronyms or initials in speech or writing, say what experiment with students, Mehrabian (1981) the letters mean the first time you use them. It real- demonstrated that the language we use is only a ly avoids confusion and aids comprehension. minor feature of communication. His experiments 5. KISS. KISS means ‘keep it short and simple’ demonstrated that 55% is attributable to body lan- References and applied to speech it means trying to keep your guage (facial expressions, gestures, posture, and Aleksandrova, O. V., & Strelets, I. E. (2021). The role Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning how to mean. Ed- sentences short. The recommended length is be- appearance). 38% was tone of voice and only 7% and place of the diplomatic discourse within the ward Arnold. tween 15 and 25 words. It’s important to go over to the actual words used. This came to be known sphere of modern discourse studies. Cognitive Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: what you have written if you are writing for in- as the 55-38-7 rule, meaning that the words we Studies of Language, 44(1), 413-420. The social interpretation of language and mean- ternational reception. Can you simplify and short- use only contribute a limited amount to total Barthes, R. (2009). Mythologies. Vintage Classics. ing. Hodder Education. en what you write to make your message clearer? meaning and can easily be culturally misunder- Campbell, L. (2003). The history of linguistics. In M. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. (2004). An intro- The same goes for emails, though WhatsApp, In- stood. Aronoff & J. Rees-Miller (Eds.), The handbook of duction to functional grammar (3rd ed.). Rout- stagram and Twitter may work differently. What is significant about this is that listeners in linguistics (pp. 81-104). Blackwell Publishing. ledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203783771 KISS also applies to emails. 1. A 15 to 25-word face-to-face and even online visual interactions Chomsky, N. (2011). The essential Chomsky. New Press. Halliday, M. A. K. (2013). Meaning as choice. In L. Davidson, J. P. (2011). Planet word. Penguin. Fontaine, T. Bartlett, & G. O’Grady (Eds.), Sys- sentence is much more effective. 2. One thought will pay as much if not more attention to non-ver- De Saussure, F. (2011). Course in general linguistics temic Functional Linguistics: Exploring choice per sentence is a good way of thinking about the bal signs to interpret meaning as to verbal lan- (2nd ed.). Columbia University Press. (pp. 15-36). Cambridge University Press. guage. The non-verbal communication signs, construction of an email communication as once Fontaine, L. (2012). Analysing English grammar: A sys- Hampden-Turner, C. (1990). Charting the corporate again it helps clarify the message. 3. Leave a line which may include stress, intonation and gestures, temic functional introduction. Cambridge Uni- mind: Graphic solutions to business conflicts. between paragraphs. This makes the progress of facial expressions and posture, demonstrate domi- versity Press. The Free Press. the email clearer but it also allows one other thing. nance. Dominance is when speakers’ body lan- Graddol, D. (2007). English manuscripts: The emer- Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Many respondents respond to emails point by guage and tone of voice agrees with what they gence of a visual identity. In S. Goodman, D. Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in point underneath what you have written and using want to express. It is important that the verbal and Graddol, & T. Lillis (Eds.), Redesigning English Psychology and Culture, 2(1), Article 8. https:// a different colour, type face, for example, green. non-verbal aspects of communication should be (pp. 161-204). The Open University. doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

70 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 71 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89

Kress, G. (1976). Introduction. In G. Kress (Ed.), Halli- Mehrabian, A. (1972). Non-verbal communication. Al- day: System and function in language (pp. 7-21). dine-Atherton. Oxford University Press. Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: Implicit commu- Lewis, R. D. (2010). When cultures collide: Leading nication of emotions and attitudes. Wadsworth Original Research across cultures. Nicholas Brealey International. Publishing. Lewis, R. D. (2021). Organisational culture – a fallacy? Mukhortov, D. S., & Poletaeva, A. A. (2020). Pragmalin- Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 9-19. guistic competence of U.S. State Department https://doi.org/10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1- spokesperson: A case study of Heather Nauert’s Semantic shift in conflict terminology in contemporary 9-19 press briefings. Moscow University Bulletin. Se- Lyons, D. (2021, March 10). How many people speak ries 9: Philology, 6, 77-87. Russian socio-cultural media discourse English, and where is it spoken? Babbel Maga- Nerrière, J. P. (2004). Parlez Globish. Eyrolles. by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova zine. https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how- Nerrière, J. P. (2005). Globish words explained in Eng- many-people-speak-english-and-where-is-it-spo- lish. Globish. https://www.globish.com/static_- Alina S. Antipova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia [email protected] ken pages/pix/Globish-English.pdf Maria D. Rabeson Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia [email protected] McCrum, R. (2006, December 3). So, what’s this Glo- Nerrière, J. P., Dufresne, P., & Bourgon, J. (2005). Dé- Olga V. Smirnova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia [email protected] bish revolution? The Guardian. https://www.the- couvrez le Globish. Eyrolles. Article history Received April 3, 2021 | Revised May 22, 2021 | Accepted June 14, 2021 guardian.com/theobserver/2006/dec/03/fea- Thussu, K. D. (2006). International communication: Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest tures.review37 Continuity and change. Hodder Arnold. Research funding The study is supported by the Interdisciplinary Scientific and Educational School of Moscow McCrum, R. (2010). Globish: How the English language Tomalin, B., & Nicks, M. (2014). The world business University ‘Preservation of the World Cultural and Historical Heritage’ became the world’s language. W. W. Norton & cultures: A handbook. Thorogood Publishing. doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 Company. Trompenaars, F. (1996). Resolving international conflict: For citation Antipova, A. S., Rabeson, M. D., & Smirnova, O. V. (2021). Semantic shift in conflict terminology in McGovern, K. (2019, March 23). What is Globish? Culture and business strategy. Business Strategy contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse. Training, Language and Culture, 5(2), 73-89. Medium. https://medium.com/english-language- Review, 7(3), 51-68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14 faq/what-is-globish-bf72b3836105 67-8616.1996.tb00132.x Current socio-cultural means of communication stand no comparison to the ones that existed even a decade ago. Me- dia have introduced new information exchange practices, provided novel areas for communication, triggered wider civic participation in social life worldwide. The increase of digitalised texts available to the public on an everyday basis MARINA PELUSO on the Internet have created media-focused space whose main characteristic is constant content change. Therefore, University of Bologna, Italy | 18 Meadow Court, Hackness Road, M21H99 Manchester each specific social sphere may be traced throughout content provided in media sources internationally and locally. [email protected] Conflict as one of the key ideas of the media zone is not an exception, being one of the most commonly reported topics in the news globally. Our study is based on revealing semantic features of conflict terminology that is understood as the number of related-to-conflict words used together in socio-cultural media discourse. While global contexts are usually more vulnerable to long-lasting meaning change, socially and culturally predetermined local contexts tend to be less considered having shorter time to evolve and be viewed. However, smaller meaning shifts or changes in word us- ages occur here ubiquitously and may be revealed in short-term perspective of analysing more flexible information slices. The purpose of this study is to reveal contextual short-term meaning changes for conflict terminology in leading federal Russian newspapers and online media sources. The corpus of 10,707 texts was formed based on the occurrence of conflict-related topics as the object of this research. The research period was January-December 2020. The selection and analysis of publications was carried out using Integrum (the information retrieval system for monitoring and analysing the media) and word2vec (an algorithm based on artificial neural networks). The original methodology made it possible to determine the share of publications on conflict in the total mass of media reports to identify key thematic areas of conflict information agenda, features of its geography, to describe the semantic field of conflict and show its dynamics in time.

KEYWORDS: media discourse, Russian media, conﬂictology, conﬂict terminology, semantic shift

© Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson, Olga V. Smirnova 2021 72 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 73 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 62-72 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-62-72 Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89

KEYWORDS: media discourse, Russian media, conﬂictology, conﬂict terminology, semantic shift

© Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson, Olga V. Smirnova 2021 72 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 73 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conﬂict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova

1. INTRODUCTION the conflict and reduce the level of conflict tension cuses on semantically related-to-conflict groups of dia in Europe. The system provides the opportunity One of the key trends in modern development in society seem to be important tasks that require nouns (N=30) for every media source as we follow to search specific materials and create automatised is the mediatisation of all social processes (Var- serious attention from researchers. In this context, the idea of sensitivity of nominal shifts to short- monitoring for more than 120,000 publications, tanova & Gladkova, 2020; Vladimirova et al., it is the content of the media discourse that is the term culturally predetermined contextual changes TV channels and radio broadcasts, including se- 2020; Gureeva & Kuznetsova, 2021). ‘Conceptual- key source of analysis. in the Russian language. We estimate the degree of lected media. The word2vec algorithm based on isation of the process of mediatisation primarily oc- Temporal dynamics of contextual meaning pair relationships of conflict-related words in each artificial neural networks allows obtaining vector curs within the framework of critical analysis of the change is usually a characteristic of socio-cultural time period stating that in the case of short-term representations of words, which is currently one of relationship between media and society. The role media discourse and periodical textual units that semantic shift, contextual similarity increase in the most regularly applied methods for processing of mediatisation as a theoretical framework is cover a span of specific social and political phe- time indicates specific usage of connected pairs. large data arrays in a short time. This fully meets recognised by scientific community and helps to nomena reflected in them. the tasks of analysing media content that changes trace the mutual influence and transformation of The regular process of linguistic change in word 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS with high frequency. In our study, we used the media sphere and communication process as well semantics is analysed throughout different verbal The objective of the study was to analyse the method of creating word vectors – numerical rep- as social processes’ (Gureeva, 2019, p. 15). storages based, due to current rapid development semantic shift in conflict terminology in contem- resentations of words that preserve semantic simi- The high intensity of media informational in- of information flow, mostly on big datasets such as porary Russian socio-cultural media discourse. The larity within and outside contexts. The functionali- volvement into the area of social conflicts of vari- corpora of contemporary languages, Google basic methods are content analysis, comparative ty of the Integrum system made it possible to de- ous kinds and levels has always been observed. To Ngrams and some other specialised frameworks. analysis, descriptive method, continuous sampling termine the total number of journalistic materials a large extent, this is due to the fact that in the This approach has shown its significance and val- method, statistical and historical method of lin- published in the studied media in 2020 (259,227 context of digitalisation, society observes conflicts ue in the case of the process of long-lasting mean- guistic analysis. items in total), as well as select from them publica- through mediating lenses (Budka & Bräucher, ing change, although today’s world sets new goals Using Integrum – an information retrieval sys- tions containing the keyword ‘conflict’ (10,707 2020). Media support becomes a natural part of presupposed by the major transformation in hu- tem for monitoring and analysing the media – and items in total). Sample B1 was formed on the basis the conflict throughout its development from the man and social communication that has become the word2vec algorithm, we were able to promptly of these publications. After that, the proportion of beginning to the resolution including its conse- instant and contextualised. analyse significant volumes of digital texts in order publications of the B1 sample in the total content quences. There are also tendencies towards the The idea of the relationship between long-last- to build models for recording the occurrence of of both individual media and their aggregate was strengthening of media control of conflicts, which ing meaning changes and word frequencies has words and identify semantically close lexical units determined. creates the basis for manipulation, production of been already discussed in a number of computa- and whole groups (Integrum, 2020). Some previ- Using word2vec, we were able to conduct a fake news and further intensification of social con- tional semantic change detection studies (Hamil- ous research analysing the creative potential of step-by-step analysis of the frequency of words tradictions. In fact, the media themselves are turn- ton et al., 2016; Kahmann et al., 2017). Compared Russian political discourse in 2010-2020 using the within the media studied. The main semantic core ing into a kind of conflict terminology factory, to long-lasting semantic shifts that take years and linguistic material collected from the Integrum of ‘conflict’ was built up according to the principle constructing key social meanings and creating se- even decades, short-term semantic shifts may oc- electronic mass media archive suggested that rele- of including only nouns. The core of the lexical mantic shifts. All of the above creates the basis for cur in socio-cultural media contexts in monthly vant results can be achieved through this kind of system of the language is most often identified on a media-centric approach to the study of social periods reflecting changes in word usage rather study (Kozlovskaya et al., 2020; Kiose, 2020). the basis of the frequency criterion. Therefore, the conflicts and conflict terminology in socio-cultural than in meaning itself. Conflict-based terminology The objects of the study are Russian federal so- calculation of the average frequency of words oc- media discourse using interdisciplinary approach- in this case is viewed as a constantly changing se- cio-political newspapers Komsomolskaya Pravda, currence allows attribution to lexical units the fre- es and methodological tools. mantic cloud of related-to-conflict words and is Rossiyskaya Gazeta and Kommersant, as well as quency of which is higher than the average to the The researchers emphasise the nature of the viewed with respect to short-term frequencies. online resources Lenta.Ru and Gazeta.Ru. Re- core, while leaving all of those, which frequency is conflict as a purely intangible phenomenon, esti- Distributional semantic methods put forward search period covers the months of January below the average on the periphery. The frequency mated indirectly through the traces left as the re- the hypothesis that a word’s meaning is conveyed through December of 2020. ranges of connection occurrence of the word ‘con- sults of conflict interaction in the material world. in its co-occurrence relationships (Al Farsi, 2018). The selection and analysis of publications on flict’ and the keywords in the core are set by the Such traces in contemporary conditions of digitali- Our study, therefore, focuses on local changes to a the topic of conflict was carried out using Inte- model automatically. The most repeated connec- sation are recorded primarily in socio-cultural me- word’s nearest semantic neighbours that are more grum configured to select texts including the key tions were identified during the analysis according dia discourse and seem to be the most important likely to experience socio-cultural drifts. word ‘conflict’. The word2vec algorithm based on to the principle of reducing the vector connection indicators of both the level of conflict in society as It is also stated that nouns are more likely to artificial neural networks was used to detect se- with the main categorising concept. a whole and a certain stage of its development. undergo changes due to irregular cultural shifts mantically close words to the key concept of con- Proper names were not excluded from the The analysis of these indicators, as well as further while verbs, for instance, more readily participate flict. Integrum was later applied to detect the analysis, which made it possible to identify the comprehension of the role of the media in cover- in regular processes of semantic change (Traugott change frequencies of the closest word pairs. Inte- links between ‘conflict’ as a categorising concept ing, diagnosing, and developing ways to resolve & Dasher, 2001). Our research, consequently, fo- grum is the largest factual archive of the mass me- and the specific culture-related objects or subjects.

74 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 75 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conﬂict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova

In addition, in the content of each example of describe the essence of particular changes. Cogni- the media under study, such publications were ‘Discourse approach in social context ‘The semantic field of conflict is extremely tive linguists often approach semantic shift as a re- identified in which, in line with the keyword ‘con- examines the interaction patterns between diverse. Conflict terminology in media flection or projection of the socio-physical world flict’, there were keywords that are parts of the se- participants, social goals and types of discourse seems to be very sensitive to any on the processes of reasoning (Sweetser, 1990). mantic core for sample B1, namely: Russian, Presi- The core postulate of this approach states that dent, USA, Ukraine and Karabakh. These pairs social events. A question of particular changes in the global situation, thus, words have no set meaning, i.e. they only evoke were chosen as having the highest scores. Then the interest is how the discursive practice representing a vast domain for research some meaning and serve as clues to the potential dynamics of pair frequencies for ‘conflict’ keyword reflects the relationship between text and into the possible semantic shifts in short- notion, as instructions to meaning reconstruction in publications was analysed by months Jan-Dec, in the contextual field (Paradis, 2011). These 2020 in the Integrum database. social practice’ term perspectives’ meanings are non-discrete and can be described in a set of prototypical features with core and peri- 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND theory (Boulding 1962; Galtung, 2008). Thus, a Linguistic research of conflictology is one of the pheral areas. Conflictology as a field of knowledge is aimed methodological foundation was formed for ‘mod- priority areas of study (Palij & Poteryakhina, 2018). Representing reflections of ‘conceptual organi- at identifying and explaining factors that systemati- elling conflicts through the identification and use We define conflict as confrontation of subjects sation, categorisation principles, processing mech- cally generate contradictions, social tension, and of structural and dynamic indicators and indicators with its own structure, constituents, and the con- anisms, and experiential and environmental influ- collisions in society. Recognition of contradictions common to all conflict types, as well as for exami- flict situation in which an unfolding conflict arises. ences’ (Geeraerts & Cuyckens, 2007, p. 3), linguis- as the natural state of any social system is one of nation by assessing their specific state on the basis As the media are not only a means of conveying tic meaning has a perspectivation function. This the important criteria when considering the causes of certain criteria and for developing recommenda- information, but also a very powerful tool for approach was deeply theoretically elaborated in and circumstances of social conflict emergence. tions for their constructive settlement’ (Antsupov, shaping opinions, linguistic reconstruction of a the philosophical, epistemological position taken Researchers into various disciplinary directions in 2018, p. 29). Above we have already emphasised conflict in media discourse is a way to perceive by cognitive linguistics (Lakoff, 2008; Johnson, the field of conflict management emphasise that the processes of mediatisation of social conflicts and interpret a conflict, the characteristics of the 2013). the impact on conflict and its resolution is pre- noted by researchers caused among other things sides involved and the stages of its development. Semantic shift is often triggered by the change dominantly informational in its nature. In modern by the high intensity of media informational in- The semantic field of conflict is extremely diin language conventions within the group of conditions of digitalisation of all spheres of social volvement in social conflicts of various kinds and verse. The theme of territorial and political conflict speakers. This process is deeply rooted in socio- reality, the role of the media in conflicts has criti- levels. The digitalisation of media has created con- is covered within the framework of all the publica- cultural and discursive practices as well as in the cally increased (Smirnova & Shkondin, 2021). ditions for society to observe conflicts through me- tions presented in the study. Conflict terminology other paralinguistic factors. For instance, develop- However, in the context of mediatisation of all diating lenses (Budka & Bräucher, 2020) and for a in media discourse seems to be very sensitive to ing the system of key-words analysis (Wierzbicka, spheres of public life, one can speak not only media-centric approach to the analysis of conflicts any changes in the global situation, thus, repre- 2006) reveals not only the trends in lexicon along about the key role of media in informing society and conflict terminology in media discourse. senting a vast domain for research into the possi- with the change in cultural schemas, but also the about conflicts, but often about their decisive role Discourse approach in social context examines ble semantic shifts in short-term perspectives. way lexical meaning evolves reflecting and pro- in escalating, stimulating and even creating con- the interaction patterns between participants, so- Currently, the traditional approach to semantic moting cultural change. flict situations and processes (Vartanova, 2021; cial goals and types of social events. A question of shift focuses on the resulting changes in meaning Key words reflect the worldview and attitude to Vartanova & Gladkova, 2020; Smirnova, 2021). particular interest is how the discursive practice re- as well as on the classification of these changes certain historical, social, and political issues, de- According to the classical paradigm, conflict flects the relationship between text and social (Traugott, 2017; Kondratyuk et al., 2021; Shamio- termining the specific functional style in discourse. management is aimed at revealing the reasons and practice. Temporal shifts in the meaning are widely nov, 2020). At the same time, the particular exam- Key words are significant in the description of a mechanisms that usually induce social tension, considered in scientific literature. However, other ples of semantic change are regarded separately historical moment, since they most objectively contradictions and oppositions in society. The con- valuable dimensions, such as socio-cultural vari- from the broad context of their use. However, lan- represent the life of the period under study. Key- flictological paradigm, which has been used by re- ability, remain less investigated. One synchronic guage represents a specific type of communicative words have been studied from a number of per- searchers for a long time, seems to be the key one approach was introduced to detect semantic shifts activity which is highly dependent on the contex- spectives, e.g. linguistic-specific concepts of lan- today. One of the important criteria of the par- between different sets of texts that share a specific tual parameters, including both the type of dis- guage (Wierzbicka, 1997; Goddard & Wierzbicka, adigm was the recognition of conflict as a natural metadata feature (Azarbonyad et al., 2017). Neural course and the socio-cultural framework. The gen- 2013), though semantic shift mostly remained be- state of any social system (Vladimirov, 2013, p. embedded vectors were used to analyse semantic eral mechanism of semantic change can be to yond the scope of attention in this paradigm. 176). At the initial stages of conflictology develop- space. This approach captures meaningful seman- some extent inferred from the laws of common In the 20th century, profound research focused ment, the main approaches, as noted, were associ- tic shifts and can help improve other tasks such as mental changes in the population. Most recent re- on semantic fields which include interconnected ated with the study of the causes and functions of the contrastive viewpoint summary or ideology de- search in the field has aimed rather to reveal the sets of lexical units. The idea of shifts and changes the conflict and the construction of the conflict tection. pragmatic factors, leading to semantic shift than to in semantic space was described in the studies of

76 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 77 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conflict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova terminology development (Kay, 1975; Williams, meaning if observed in ‘diachronic collostruction- 4. STUDY AND RESULTS 1976). These studies set the scene for the systemat- al analysis’ (Hilpert, 2008). Semantic shift or ‘Word frequency has even been applied to In this research the publications of the selected ic analysis of semantic shifts based on the accu- change is often associated with the long-term pro- explain semantic shifts, presumably high- media were analysed during the yearly period mulated data. cesses in the structure of meaning of a semantic frequency words are more likely to lose from January to December 2020. At the first stage, Semantic field is a set of actual linguistic units unit (word, or to be more precise, lexeme). How- the selected methodology made it possible to esti- that have semantic unity (a common seme or ever, it is also possible to interpret semantic shift extra shades of meaning’ mate the proportion of publications containing group of semes). The lexical-semantic field is di- as a phenomenon, manifested in language activity conflict terminology in the total array of media re- vided into three components: core, centre and pe- during short time spans (Newman, 2015). worth noting that all types of research methodolo- ports. Thus, in the course of the first procedure, a riphery. However, functional-semantic or gram- However, short-term effects of change (Hilpert, gies are currently widely used in semantic re- sample of publications # = 10 707 (sample B1) matical-lexical fields often overlap and diffuse, al- 2012) have also been observed, which might sug- search and support rather than replace the others. containing the keyword ‘conflict’ was formed. This though it is possible to distinguish between func- gest that the particular context can contribute to The traditional semantic approach provides a sample correlated with the total number of publi- tional-thematic and functional-semantic, which long-term semantic shifts. Web crawling tech- valuable source of insights into the mechanisms cations in the selected media for the investigated emphasises that the semantic field is not deter- niques are also used for the purpose of applying and trends in semantic change, e.g. the database period (sample B0) # = 259227 publications. Thus, mined by general language use but rather appears statistical designs to a broad variety of texts (Kerre- of semantic shifts (Zalizniak et al., 2012). Another publications containing conflict terminology aver- in particular language material. If the research ma- mans et al., 2012). Distributional modelling of perspective evaluates the shift in terms of the aged 4,1% of the total volume of publications. terial is represented as a text or a group of texts, word meaning was also applied to the study of au- quantitative change in distributional statistics However, significant differences are noticeable in functional-textual fields that do not differ from the tomatic semantic shift detection (Fiser & Ljubesic, viewed from a diachronic perspective. Several ex- the presence of conflict terminology in the periodi- linguistic ones in essence are identified, though 2019). amples can be found in relevant literature: mea- cals analysed: the maximum share of texts with they often differ from the linguistic field in the In recent years, pragmatic shifts in meaning suring the shifts in target word frequencies (Bybee, conflict terminology is demonstrated by Kommer- composition of the core and the periphery. have been regarded as the basis of semantic 2006), diachronic collostructural analysis which is sant, the minimum – by Gazeta.Ru (Table 1). Semantic mapping also represents a suitable in- change (Fitzmaurice, 2016). As the research into based on the statistical interdependence of fre- The next procedure involved the analysis of the strument for semantic change research. Developed variations and discursive specifics of semantics quencies of co-occurrence of two words (Hilpert, lexical-semantic field of B1 sample using the as visual representations of interconnections in dif- have broadened, it has became possible to com- 2014). The quantitative paradigm is often used, word2vec algorithm, which included only lexical ferent concepts (Croft, 2001, p. 96), abstract maps bine synchronic and diachronic work in the study though the top-down approach prevails, e.g. de- units denoting the actants of situations. The core of can help to identify related meanings and to assess of semantic change. In this paper, short-term di- tecting semantic shift for further qualitative analy- the lexical system of the language is most often the extent of their similarity (Auwera, 2013). More- achronic perspective is combined with a syn- sis (Tantucci et al., 2018). Word frequency has identified on the basis of the criterion of frequency. over, they can be interpreted as references to close chronic perspective to analyse the possible mark- even been applied to explain semantic shifts, pre- Calculating the average frequency of a word al- semantic clusters. ers and prerequisites for the long-term conse- sumably high-frequency words are more likely to lows to reveal the vocabulary that shows the high- Research into semantic shift also involves the quences of contextual factors in semantic change. lose extra shades of meaning. est frequency if compared to the average. This vo- analysis of collocations, the relationship between Research into semantic change has recently The computational paradigm states that mean- cabulary constitutes the core. Words whose fre- words or lexical groups that coincide in the text. benefited from innovative methodological oppor- ing can be inferred from the context of the word quency is below the average are referred to as the As the 20th century saw an immense increase in tunities. These include the immense development use in language. As per the hypothesis of data dis- periphery. The procedure made it possible to iden- the availability of historical digital corpora, re- of digitalised corpora, unfolding new possibilities tribution, close words occur in similar contexts. tify the field around the word ‘conflict’ that was search into semantic shift gained some new ap- for big data analysis, and innovative computation- This postulate constitutes the foundation for most considered in all forms with flexions. The semantic proaches to the data processing. A pool of innova- al technologies, providing statistically reliable contemporary corpora computational models that core was built up out of 30 most common nouns tive methodologies was elaborated to explain se- methods for the processing of semantic informa- focus on contextual clues to interpret meanings. and was generated automatically according to the mantic changes as a motivated construct (Allan & tion. Combination of the two conditions not only It is worth saying that none of the paradigms principle of identifying nominal units for objects Robinson, 2011) as well as to apply the research opens up a way to describe particular events with- mentioned above deals directly with word repre- and subjects including proper names with the into shifts to practice. These methodologies widely in semantic fields, but also to understand core sentation. Instead, the meaning is either inferred highest scores. The occurrence of words was support the assertion that a great proportion of mechanisms of changes in semantics. subjectively (as in the traditional model), or inter- checked both for the ‘conflict’ joint category for all change occurs in minor segments that can be ob- Several research approaches have been applied preted through the strength of association (as in periodicals and within each of the media separate- served in clusters of textual shifts in collocations. to the study of semantic shifts (Dubossarsky, 2018). the quantitative approach). In contrast to these two ly. Table 2 presents the data obtained for Komso- Computer-mediated statistical approaches to These paradigms differ in three dimensions: (1) systems, the computational paradigm necessarily molskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Kommer- corpora analysis involve the investigation of collo- top-down or bottom-up modes of information pro- first represents word meanings and then defines sant, Lenta.Ru and Gazeta.Ru correspondingly. Se- cates and co-occurring units in various contexts. cessing; (2) large-scale or narrow scope of focus; semantic change as a measurable difference be- mantic analysis to a large extent confirmed the Thus, shifts in collocations reflect the change in (3) the use of rigorous statistical method. It is tween the two representations. data obtained with the help of Integrum.

78 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 79 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conflict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova terminology development (Kay, 1975; Williams, meaning if observed in ‘diachronic collostruction- 4. STUDY AND RESULTS 1976). These studies set the scene for the systemat- al analysis’ (Hilpert, 2008). Semantic shift or ‘Word frequency has even been applied to In this research the publications of the selected ic analysis of semantic shifts based on the accu- change is often associated with the long-term pro- explain semantic shifts, presumably high- media were analysed during the yearly period mulated data. cesses in the structure of meaning of a semantic frequency words are more likely to lose from January to December 2020. At the first stage, Semantic field is a set of actual linguistic units unit (word, or to be more precise, lexeme). How- the selected methodology made it possible to esti- that have semantic unity (a common seme or ever, it is also possible to interpret semantic shift extra shades of meaning’ mate the proportion of publications containing group of semes). The lexical-semantic field is di- as a phenomenon, manifested in language activity conflict terminology in the total array of media re- vided into three components: core, centre and pe- during short time spans (Newman, 2015). worth noting that all types of research methodolo- ports. Thus, in the course of the first procedure, a riphery. However, functional-semantic or gram- However, short-term effects of change (Hilpert, gies are currently widely used in semantic re- sample of publications # = 10 707 (sample B1) matical-lexical fields often overlap and diffuse, al- 2012) have also been observed, which might sug- search and support rather than replace the others. containing the keyword ‘conflict’ was formed. This though it is possible to distinguish between func- gest that the particular context can contribute to The traditional semantic approach provides a sample correlated with the total number of publi- tional-thematic and functional-semantic, which long-term semantic shifts. Web crawling tech- valuable source of insights into the mechanisms cations in the selected media for the investigated emphasises that the semantic field is not deter- niques are also used for the purpose of applying and trends in semantic change, e.g. the database period (sample B0) # = 259227 publications. Thus, mined by general language use but rather appears statistical designs to a broad variety of texts (Kerre- of semantic shifts (Zalizniak et al., 2012). Another publications containing conflict terminology aver- in particular language material. If the research ma- mans et al., 2012). Distributional modelling of perspective evaluates the shift in terms of the aged 4,1% of the total volume of publications. terial is represented as a text or a group of texts, word meaning was also applied to the study of au- quantitative change in distributional statistics However, significant differences are noticeable in functional-textual fields that do not differ from the tomatic semantic shift detection (Fiser & Ljubesic, viewed from a diachronic perspective. Several ex- the presence of conflict terminology in the periodi- linguistic ones in essence are identified, though 2019). amples can be found in relevant literature: mea- cals analysed: the maximum share of texts with they often differ from the linguistic field in the In recent years, pragmatic shifts in meaning suring the shifts in target word frequencies (Bybee, conflict terminology is demonstrated by Kommer- composition of the core and the periphery. have been regarded as the basis of semantic 2006), diachronic collostructural analysis which is sant, the minimum – by Gazeta.Ru (Table 1). Semantic mapping also represents a suitable in- change (Fitzmaurice, 2016). As the research into based on the statistical interdependence of fre- The next procedure involved the analysis of the strument for semantic change research. Developed variations and discursive specifics of semantics quencies of co-occurrence of two words (Hilpert, lexical-semantic field of B1 sample using the as visual representations of interconnections in dif- have broadened, it has became possible to com- 2014). The quantitative paradigm is often used, word2vec algorithm, which included only lexical ferent concepts (Croft, 2001, p. 96), abstract maps bine synchronic and diachronic work in the study though the top-down approach prevails, e.g. de- units denoting the actants of situations. The core of can help to identify related meanings and to assess of semantic change. In this paper, short-term di- tecting semantic shift for further qualitative analy- the lexical system of the language is most often the extent of their similarity (Auwera, 2013). More- achronic perspective is combined with a syn- sis (Tantucci et al., 2018). Word frequency has identified on the basis of the criterion of frequency. over, they can be interpreted as references to close chronic perspective to analyse the possible mark- even been applied to explain semantic shifts, pre- Calculating the average frequency of a word al- semantic clusters. ers and prerequisites for the long-term conse- sumably high-frequency words are more likely to lows to reveal the vocabulary that shows the high- Research into semantic shift also involves the quences of contextual factors in semantic change. lose extra shades of meaning. est frequency if compared to the average. This vo- analysis of collocations, the relationship between Research into semantic change has recently The computational paradigm states that mean- cabulary constitutes the core. Words whose fre- words or lexical groups that coincide in the text. benefited from innovative methodological oppor- ing can be inferred from the context of the word quency is below the average are referred to as the As the 20th century saw an immense increase in tunities. These include the immense development use in language. As per the hypothesis of data dis- periphery. The procedure made it possible to iden- the availability of historical digital corpora, re- of digitalised corpora, unfolding new possibilities tribution, close words occur in similar contexts. tify the field around the word ‘conflict’ that was search into semantic shift gained some new ap- for big data analysis, and innovative computation- This postulate constitutes the foundation for most considered in all forms with flexions. The semantic proaches to the data processing. A pool of innova- al technologies, providing statistically reliable contemporary corpora computational models that core was built up out of 30 most common nouns tive methodologies was elaborated to explain se- methods for the processing of semantic informa- focus on contextual clues to interpret meanings. and was generated automatically according to the mantic changes as a motivated construct (Allan & tion. Combination of the two conditions not only It is worth saying that none of the paradigms principle of identifying nominal units for objects Robinson, 2011) as well as to apply the research opens up a way to describe particular events with- mentioned above deals directly with word repre- and subjects including proper names with the into shifts to practice. These methodologies widely in semantic fields, but also to understand core sentation. Instead, the meaning is either inferred highest scores. The occurrence of words was support the assertion that a great proportion of mechanisms of changes in semantics. subjectively (as in the traditional model), or inter- checked both for the ‘conflict’ joint category for all change occurs in minor segments that can be ob- Several research approaches have been applied preted through the strength of association (as in periodicals and within each of the media separate- served in clusters of textual shifts in collocations. to the study of semantic shifts (Dubossarsky, 2018). the quantitative approach). In contrast to these two ly. Table 2 presents the data obtained for Komso- Computer-mediated statistical approaches to These paradigms differ in three dimensions: (1) systems, the computational paradigm necessarily molskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Kommer- corpora analysis involve the investigation of collo- top-down or bottom-up modes of information pro- first represents word meanings and then defines sant, Lenta.Ru and Gazeta.Ru correspondingly. Se- cates and co-occurring units in various contexts. cessing; (2) large-scale or narrow scope of focus; semantic change as a measurable difference be- mantic analysis to a large extent confirmed the Thus, shifts in collocations reflect the change in (3) the use of rigorous statistical method. It is tween the two representations. data obtained with the help of Integrum.

Table 1 Table 3 Publications including conﬂict as the key notion Conﬂict terminology semantic core (by periodical)

PERIODICAL TOTAL NUMBER OF TEXTS WITH THE PERCENTAGE OF TEXTS WITH PERIODICAL SEMANTIC CORE TEXTS IN 2020 WORD CONFLICT THE WORD CONFLICT (%)

Komsomolskaya Pravda 7,366 326 4,4% conﬂict, photo, azerbaijan, president, armenia, karabakh, ukraine, usa, news, power, Lenta.ru Rossiyskaya Gazeta 16,492 584 3,5% channel, action, attitude, situation, republic, head, ria, territory, region, turkey, group, man, decision, state, company, leader, donbass, problem, murder, result Kommersant 5,576 755 13,5%

Gazeta.Ru 133,221 4,408 3,3% Gazeta.Ru conﬂict, president, usa, ukraine, head, action, karabakh, armenia, situation, azerbaijan, Lenta.Ru 96,572 4,634 4,8% attitude, turkey, power, decision, republic, state, news, territory, minister, result,

∑ 259,227 10,707 4,1% negotiations, trump, leader, vladimir, ria, statement, number, representative, region, donbass

Table 2 Conflict terminology semantic core Kommersant president, mister, conflict, head, usa, company, situation, decision, rf, attitude, power, vladimir, project, sergey, market, court, number, elections, ruble, negotiations, KEY WORD SEMANTIC CORE representative, government, problem, region, turkey, action, group, million, minister, ukraine Conflict conflict, president, usa, ukraine, azerbaijan, armenia, head, karabakh, situation, attitude, action, power, decision, turkey, republic, news, territory, state, region, number, vladimir, minister, photo, result, problem, group, representative, court, leader, negotiations

Komsomolskaya Pravda conflict, family, attitude, karabakh, thousand, president, usa, situation, azerbaijan, armenia, A group of words describing geographical ob- solution, problem, result, number, and negotiation. parent, alexander, problem, ukraine, history, ruble, school, power, million, son, turkey, film, jects is significant for the problem under consider- The subjects of conflict are represented at the core month, apartment, territory, court, sergey, state, moment, daughter ation. It includes 6 words out of 30: USA, Ukraine, by the words minister, representative, group and Azerbaijan, Armenia, Karabakh, Turkey. Words are power. This block also includes more specific listed in decreasing order of frequency, that is, list- nouns describing the general subjects of power, in- ing the more frequently used words first before the cluding proper names: president, head, Vladimir Rossiyskaya Gazeta federation, law, legacy, president, decision, body, article, usa, court, attitude, citizen, power, less frequently used ones last. Thus, it can be ar- (Putin), leader. The aspect of the relevance and conflict, situation, number, state, history, territory, head, system, government, organization, gued that news reports related to the United States coverage of conflict is represented by the words in service, problem, thousand, action, rf, measure, condition, subject in our study were encountered more often news and photos. (11,531) than those reporting on Ukraine (9,578), Further on, within the same methodology, the Azerbaijan (8,482), Armenia (8,166), Karabakh semantic cores of 30 nouns for the category ‘con- Gazeta turned out to be federation, law, law body connection with specific people, countries, hot (8,166) and Turkey (4,582). In addition to the prop- flict’ were identified for each periodical selected and article. Kommersant most frequently used se- spots, etc. that are relevant in different periods of er names of specific places associated with con- for the analysis (Table 3). mantic units such as mister, company, project, 2020 and the dynamics of their usage in different flict, the core includes more abstract nouns associ- Analysing semantic fields for conflict as a cate- market and rouble. The semantic core of Komso- publications within the year by month. To test this ated with location (region, territory) and state sys- gorising category by periodical revealed significant molskaya Pravda, aimed at a mass audience, technique, the following semantic pairs were se- tem (republic, state). meaning shift between media. This shift may be showed the priority of conflicts related to family lected: conflict/Russian; conflict/president; conf- The semantic field of conflict also contains a described in terms of frequency differences in spe- and relationships. lict/USA; conflict/Ukraine; conflict/Karabakh. To large group of words describing various aspects of cific conflict terminology combination. The most The next procedure was to identify the frequen- hypothesise short-term semantic shifts, an analysis conflict environment and actions associated with frequently used units included in the semantic cy of semantic pairs presumably demonstrating of pair frequencies throughout each periodical was it. This group included: situation, attitude, action, core of the official state periodical Rossiyskaya reference vectors in the information agenda in carried out (Tables 4-8, Figures 1-5).

80 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 81 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conﬂict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova

Table 1 Table 3 Publications including conﬂict as the key notion Conﬂict terminology semantic core (by periodical)

PERIODICAL TOTAL NUMBER OF TEXTS WITH THE PERCENTAGE OF TEXTS WITH PERIODICAL SEMANTIC CORE TEXTS IN 2020 WORD CONFLICT THE WORD CONFLICT (%)

∑ 259,227 10,707 4,1% negotiations, trump, leader, vladimir, ria, statement, number, representative, region, donbass

Table 4 Table 5 ‘Conﬂict/Russian’ pair frequencies (by periodical, by month) ‘Conﬂict/President’ pair frequencies (by periodical, by month)

PERIODICAL JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC PERIODICAL JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Komsomolskaya Pravda 9 6 9 6 8 8 7 9 3 21 24 10 Komsomolskaya Pravda 10 8 4 4 0 5 8 13 2 17 14 5

Rossiyskaya Gazeta 55 60 39 37 21 52 51 48 42 56 64 59 Rossiyskaya Gazeta 29 20 18 12 14 27 22 21 17 21 36 28

Kommersant 33 46 28 17 15 25 33 31 44 53 37 59 Kommersant 35 35 28 18 16 22 32 40 46 64 47 45

Gazeta.Ru 150 178 93 102 88 127 122 108 116 193 232 164 Gazeta.Ru 197 186 105 88 97 124 145 128 166 305 221 135

Lenta.Ru 115 151 96 91 98 119 155 108 142 183 353 215 Lenta.Ru 166 184 88 61 99 91 138 112 159 327 269 157

∑ 362 441 265 253 230 331 368 304 347 506 710 507 ∑ 437 433 243 183 226 269 345 314 390 734 587 370

Figure 1. Semantic pair ‘Conﬂict/Russian’ (monthly dynamics) Figure 2. Semantic pair ‘Conﬂict/President’ (monthly dynamics)

82 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 83 Training, Language and Culture More than Meets the Eye: A Closer Look at Professional Discourse Semantic shift in conﬂict terminology in contemporary Russian socio-cultural media discourse Volume 5 Issue 2, 2021, pp. 73-89 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-2-73-89 by Alina S. Antipova, Maria D. Rabeson and Olga V. Smirnova