Fall 2009

PRACTICAL AND AUTHORITATIVE ANALYSIS OF KEY NATIONAL ISSUES Editorial Multiculturalism and its feet of clay race, class, and belief. So multicultural- The question: Am I better off By Daniel Drache than my parents? ism’s promise of a better life does not Daniel Drache is the associate director of reach them in the least, for they are out- t is false to think that multiculturalism, the Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies side of the integration process. Many of Canada’s signature program, should at York University. I the contributors to this issue argue pas- make us a more tolerant, open, and just sionately and with reason that multicul- society. There is always a deep and jag- measure is what happens to immigrants turalism has feet of clay. The boulders ged fault line in nation-building policies. over a period of three generations. Chil- on the path seem to become larger, more Some individuals get on board and catch dren of Italian, Portuguese, Serbian, exclusionary, and systemic for many new the train. They send their children to Chinese, Middle Eastern, and African Canadians as well as for older, estab- school, become integrated into Canad- families inevitably ask: am I better off lished communities. ian society, and feel they belong. than my parents? The operative word is “feel,” because The answer is not always upbeat. historians and demographers tell us that Many immigrants cannot catch the mul- The dark side of diversity immigrants face huge boulders on their ticultural train because they don’t have Recent census data read like an indict- path when they arrive resource-poor, the skills and connections or the support ment of Canadian multiculturalism and with few networks and little support. from governments to take the huge step the practice of diversity. There is a cor- They are stigmatized as strangers in our to economic and cultural security. For relation between income inequality and midst and made to feel like outsiders instance, immigrant women are often racial and ethnic origin. So if you are of because they are newly arrived. In every kept out of the labour market or forced European descent, the Canadian multi- society the immigrant lives initially at the to work in the most menial parts of the culturalism story reads like a success. If margin for a generation or more. A better economy. Others are disadvantaged by Feet of clay, page 3

Ask a Pollster: Is multiculturalism working as part of our value system? Multiculturalism ain’t broke country’s immigration and refugee poli- A lose–lose proposition? By Michael Adams t sometimes appears that multicultur­ cies, and they have concerns about the Michael Adams is president of Environics social integration of newcomers. On the Ialism has very few friends in this Research Group and author of Unlikely country. Pundits tell us that we Canad- Utopia: The Surprising Triumph of whole, however, Canadians remain ians, like citizens of other Western Canadian Pluralism (Viking Canada, 2007). proud of their country’s diversity and of countries, are too “tolerant” for our own Ask a pollster, page 4 good. Multiculturalism, once seen as a alism was once seen as good for immi- fair-minded, idealistic vision that Canad- grants and good for Canada, it is now a The contents of this issue are listed in the Features box on page 2. ians could be proud of, is now commonly lose–lose proposition. Or so some com- blamed for a host of social ills: civic mentators tell us. apathy, loss of identity, gender inequality, When ordinary Canadians are sur- fragmentation, ghettoization, even rac- veyed, however, another picture emerges. ism and terrorism. Whereas multicultur- Canadians do have concerns about their

Canada Watch is a publication of the Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies of York University

PRACTICAL AND AUTHORITATIVE ANALYSIS OF KEY NATIONAL ISSUES Canada Watch Fall 2009 PRACTICAL AND AUTHORITATIVE ANALYSIS OF KEY NATIONAL ISSUES Multiculturalism and its Discontents Editor Daniel Drache Features Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies, York University Editorial Ask an African-Canadian Scholar: Multiculturalism and What have we learned about the pitfalls Managing Editor and success of multiculturalism? its feet of clay Laura Taman By Daniel Drache ...... 1 Multiculturalism, the Canadian academy, Columnists This Issue Ask a Pollster: Is multiculturalism and the impossible dream of Daniel Drache working as part of our value system? Michael Adams Multiculturalism ain’t broke Black Canadian Studies By Rinaldo Walcott, PhD ...... 22 Jamie Cameron By Michael Adams ...... 1 Barbara Jackman Ask a Constitutional Expert: Does Multiculturalism and its David Cameron reasonable accommodation succeed (usual) discontents Errol P. Mendes in protecting tolerance and diversity? By George Elliott Clarke ...... 24 Franca Iacovetta The Charter and the Julia Lalande Multiculturalism in a colour-blind constitutionalization of difference Roberto Perin By Jamie Cameron ...... 7 society and the education of Rinaldo Walcott Black students Racial profiling and George Elliott Clarke By Carl E . James ...... 26 Carl James national security Robert Latham By Barbara Jackman ...... 9 Ask a Political Scientist: Are the multicultural vision Jules Duchastel Does reasonable accommodation and policy broken? Daniel Salée succeed in protecting tolerance After multiculturalism: Tom Clark and diversity? Canada and its multiversal future Ravi de Costa By Robert Latham ...... 28 By David Cameron ...... 11 Grace-Edward Galabuzi Jeffrey Reitz Multiculturalism: The multicultural diversity gene: Raymond Breton Reality or myth? What are our discontents about? Karen Dion By Jules Duchastel ...... 31 By Errol P . Mendes ...... 13 Kenneth Dion Alan Broadbent Ask a Historian: Has Canada’s Is Canada’s commitment to signature program really worked multiculturalism weakening? Production during the last 20 years? By Daniel Salée ...... 34 A historian’s long view on WordsWorth Communications multiculturalism: A tale of two apologies By Tom Clark and Ravi de Costa . . . 36. Contact for information The limits of liberal pluralism in Canada Watch Ask a Researcher: Is diversity a success early Cold War Canada 7th Floor, York Research Tower, on the mean streets of Toronto? By Franca Iacovetta ...... 16 4700 Keele St. Diversity on the mean streets of Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3 The evolution of multiculturalism: Toronto Phone (416) 736-5499 Achievements and setbacks of By Grace-Edward Galabuzi . . . . .38 Fax (416) 650-8069 Ukrainian Canadians www.robarts.yorku.ca By Julia Lalande, PhD ...... 18 Realizing the potentials—and For information regarding future issues, facing the challenges— contact Laura Taman, Coordinator, Robarts Ethnic identity and of multiculturalism in Canada Centre. Please address comments to Seth multiculturalism By Jeffrey g . Reitz, Raymond Breton, Feldman, Director, Robarts Centre. By Roberto Perin ...... 20. Karen k . Dion, Kenneth l . Dion . . . .41 Canada Watch is produced by Ask a Foundation: the Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies Where does Canada’s premier of York University. identity program go from here? Copyright © 2009 Intentionality and instruments: The Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies Making multiculturalism work By Alan Broadbent ...... 44 Printed in Canada ISSN 1191-7733

2 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Feet of clay continued from page 1 you are from the Middle East, South Asia, of 1988, and other pieces of human or Africa and find yourself shoehorned The vision and the rights legislative activism have given into low-income jobs and a cycle of promise of Canadians a way to differentiate them- economic insecurity, multiculturalism is selves from Americans, from the Ameri- a story of failure. multiculturalism are can consumer culture, and, most impor- The vision and the promise of multi- tantly, from American political values. culturalism are troubled and unfulfilled, troubled and This sense of separateness does not but that is also to be expected. The ten- mean that Canadians and Americans are sions and discontents of modern society unfulfilled, but that is opposed at every point, but it indicates are not alleviated by a single program. It also to be expected some critical fundamental differences is naive to expect otherwise. France is between the two societies. not a more tolerant society because of its republican values of liberty, equality, been an evolving process and not a one- North American diversity and fraternity; American racism has not shot deal. Control of the ethnic vote compared been eradicated because of the Ameri- greatly helped the Liberal Party win The American dream of citizenship is can Constitution. Powerful myths in a repeated electoral majorities. Harper has powerfully focused on individual rights country’s culture often perform a differ- tried hard to woo his “ethnics,” but his and collective achievements. Citizenship ent function. They create the aspirational rewards and incentives haven’t tipped is a right to be earned, not an entitle- standard to protect minority rights in the the balance in his favour. The idea of ment. You are expected to leave behind integration process. No less, they rein- identity politics would never have cap- a lot of your own culture and become an force the intolerant attitude of the major- tured the imagination had not new Can- American. It is always US-centric and ity that immigrants demand too much adians been able to participate in the focused on America’s awareness of its and live apart in their ethnic and reli- political life of the country—slowly, at own internal cultural boundaries and its gious solitudes. first, but now everywhere in the political uncertainties and fears. The prototypical arena, in all parties. The diversity is American frontier experience is one Parizeau’s attack on impressive despite the stereotype that where the frontier by sheer power extin- “ethnics” only the Liberals have built their fortunes guishes cultural differences in the name Canadian multiculturalism has to be on ethnic party-client relationships. of a new cosmopolitan future. seen in this light. Because Canada has So, far from being a one-track mini- By contrast, Canadian multicultural- never had a strong “I am Canadian” cul- malist liberal creed tied to market funda- ism is about collective acceptance and ture, Canadian immigrants and newcom- mentalism, diversity and citizenship the importance of diversity to modern ers have not been expected to assimilate infused Canadian society with a big idea Canada. It promises citizenship to all who into the culture of the majority to be Can- agenda that had to be managed by immigrate. You stay pretty much who you adian. How could it be otherwise? Ottawa, the provinces, and the cities. are. Expectations that you will shed your This pluralist conception of the Immigrants have needed to be housed, skin as the price of entry are not part of national community has given the poli- helped with job searches and often job the story. The concept of “multicultural” tics of citizenship a great deal of room retraining, helped to master a language; was based on the principle that no one to evolve. This has meant that at a and everyone has to have education group takes precedence over any other— national level Canadians and Quebecers provided. all identities are in theory equal and have had to devise institutions that con- This signature program has taken on government at all levels welcomes and struct a more differentiated identity, one significant importance since the 1980s, encourages active citizenship. based on a functional belief in pluralism, when European immigration virtually tolerance, and basic fairness. It was stopped and roughly 250,000 immigrants New threats and challenges Jacques Parizeau’s attack on “ethnics” annually came from South Asia, the Immediately we can see why this kind for the referendum loss that forced Que- Middle East, and Africa. Canada became of comparison is so fragile. Post 9/11, the becers to bury the old Quebec national- a multicultural society not through plan- security-obsessed Harper government, ism and extend the boundaries of ning but for complex reasons. Diversity through its use of security certificates national community to all residents. overwhelmed nativism, and the two and its active role in the US rendition of English Canada also had to confront the founding European societies had to Mahar Arar, has trampled the human tsunami-like after effects. adjust to millions of new immigrants. rights of many Muslim Canadians. The We can see, looking in the rear-view The 1982 Canadian Charter of Rights debate in Toronto over Africentric mirror of history, that identity politics has and Freedoms, the Multiculturalism Act Feet of clay, page 4

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 3 Feet of clay continued from page 3 schools at times veered dangerously off ues and institutions. Seymour Martin course, and the doctrine of reasonable In a strange way the Lipset, the eminent American sociolo- accommodation seemed to hold very Canadian psyche gist, has provided a more powerful little currency. The Harper government explanation of the long-term trajectory has imposed visa restrictions on Mexi- appears to be drawn of these two societies and the way they cans, claiming that too many Mexicans each chose to exploit their human and are applying for political refugee status. to melancholy about physical geography. In her article for this issue of Canada He notes that the United States Watch, Barbara Jackman puts her finger both the successes favoured limited political interference in on the central dilemma. An Ontario and shortcomings of the conduct of social and religious affairs Court of Appeal ruled in 2003 (R v. and privileged individual enterprise. Brown) that racial profiling by the police multiculturalism. Canada favoured large-scale bureau- is not acceptable, but police in Canada’s cratic forms of organization and wide- major cities continue to use these and spread intervention by the state. The other techniques. So the question that capitalism is distinct and that the differ- Confederation was collectivist in our we have to ask is whether Canada, ences between Canada and the United founding moment, while the Republic despite the dramatic impact of the global States have become larger in an era of was rights-based as befitted a Lockean flow of immigrants, has constructed silos free trade. So far, integration pressures world of property and civic virtue. of exclusion and racism. Are we going have not supported any new holistic It is not unimportant to look at the backwards into the future? environment or given birth to a set of origins of Canadian multiculturalism in It is no coincidence that Canada’s loyalties that transcends national, class, these defining moments of political cul- great experiment with diversity occurred and ethnic divisions. What happens ture from the past. They are instructive during two decades of economic expan- behind the border makes a fundamental about Canada’s political culture. Canada sion and unprecedented wealth creation. difference to a strong social bond, vital has done better than the United States Economic research makes the funda- public authority, and the dynamic prac- in reconciling the efficiency of markets mental point that inclusion can only be tice of citizenship. These differences with the values of social community, but sustained when the majority does not among Canadians and between Ameri- this sort of generalization remains highly feel threatened by newly arrived immi- cans and Canadians continue to haunt problematic and obscures our under- grant communities and the immigration and bewilder us. standing of this transformative program. process provides safe passage for new Public intellectuals like Michael We are too self-satisfied and smug about Canadians and their families. At these Adams, John Ralston Saul, and Linda multiculturalism’s discontents. In a times, families save, buy houses, and McQuaig have explained the growing global age where diversity is now the send their children to college or univer- divergence between the United States rule everywhere, our myopia is indeed sity. The perennial questions asked are: and Canada as a result of Canadian val- worrisome. Am I better off than my parents? Can I take care of them? What is my future?

Complacency and Ask a pollster continued from page 1 melancholy the way that diversity is managed—of the A source of identity In a strange way the Canadian psyche approach we call multiculturalism. and pride appears to be drawn to melancholy Over the past four decades multicul- Not only do Canadians feel that multicul- about both the successes and shortcom- turalism has become central to Canad- turalism is a central part of their country’s ings of multiculturalism. In the left ians’ sense of themselves and their identity; it’s also increasingly a source of assessment, system and structure are country. In 2003, 85 percent of Canad- pride. In 1985 we asked Canadians to tell blamed for racializing Canadian society. ians said that multiculturalism was us in their own words what made them Its fiercest critics call multiculturalism a important to Canadian identity.1 More proud to be Canadian. Multiculturalism sham. In the conservative critique, it has Canadians cite multiculturalism as cen- was in tenth place. People were more become a source of danger and instabil- tral to the national identity than bilingual- likely to cite the beauty of the land, Can- ity. The right demands that immigration ism or hockey. Also in 2003, four out of ada’s natural resources, and even the stop and immigrants assimilate. five Canadians (81 percent) agreed that physical size of the country. By 2006, Many Canadians are shocked to learn multiculturalism has contributed posi- multiculturalism had climbed to second that the northern model of Canadian tively to the national identity. place. Only Canada’s democracy was

4 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 more often named as a source of queue in which they themselves waited national pride. [T]he fact that honestly for months or years.) But these Immigrants themselves are especially Canadians believe perceived flaws in the system clearly do likely to take pride in Canada’s multicul- not undercut Canadians’ belief in the turalism and to feel that it’s an important their own immigration overall project of accepting up to a quar- part of Canada’s identity. But immigrants, ter of a million newcomers to our shores still at only 19 percent of the population, system to be flawed every year. are not the only Canadians who are driv- Moreover, the fact that Canadians ing this trend; native-born Canadians doesn’t translate into believe their own immigration system to increasingly see their country as being negative opinions of be flawed doesn’t translate into negative defined and enriched by its diversity and opinions of immigrants themselves. For by the official response to that diversity: immigrants example, although only a minority multiculturalism. believe that the system is good at keeping As political philosopher Will Kym- themselves. criminals out of the country, Canadians licka puts it in the Constitutional Forum see that as a problem with the system, (13:1, 2003), Canadians aren’t unique in not with most newcomers: only 15 per- living in a diverse society. Rather, “Can- believed the rate was too high, while cent believe that immigrants commit adians are distinctive in the way that they about a third were satisfied. Today those more crime than native-born Canadians. have incorporated Canada’s policy of proportions are roughly reversed: as of In fact, in the 2006 Ipsos MORI survey of accommodating diversity into their sense 2006, only about a third of Canadians eight Western countries, Canadians were of national identity.”2 Public opinion data believe there is too much immigration to the least likely to see immigrants as more certainly suggest that multiculturalism this country, while about two-thirds think prone to criminal behaviour—less likely holds an ever more central position in it’s about right or too low. Recall that at than Americans (19 percent), Austra- the imagined community that is present Canada has one of the highest lians (22 percent), Britons (25 percent), Canada. immigration rates in the world: 6.6 per French (26 percent), Germans (35 per- Canadians’ support for multicultural- 1,000. Even given this exceptional prac- cent), Spaniards (40 percent), or Italians ism is strongly linked to their positive tice, Canada achieves a level of support (41 percent).3 feelings about immigrants and immigra- for immigration that many countries with Canadians express some concern tion. Canadians consistently express the lower rates of intake can only dream about the cultural integration of newcom- most positive attitudes in the world of. ers. A modest majority of Canadians toward newcomers. In 2006, an inter- One common anti-immigrant senti- agree with the statement, “Too many national Ipsos MORI study found that 75 ment is the idea that immigrants come immigrants do not adopt Canadian val- percent of Canadians believe that, over- to a new country and take jobs from the ues.” This proportion has been in gentle all, immigrants have a positive influence native-born. Most Canadians aren’t buy- decline since 1993, when 72 percent of on the country. In Australia, the country ing that old saw. As of 2008, four out of Canadians agreed. By 2005, the propor- with the second most positive attitudes, five (82 percent) believe that, overall, tion of Canadians who believed immi- slightly over half (54 percent) of the immigrants have a positive effect on the grants were not doing enough to fit in people felt this way, with the United Canadian economy. Just one in five (20 was down to 58 percent. In 2006, amid States not far behind (52 percent). In percent) believe that immigrants take a flurry of news stories about “ethnic Western Europe, Germans (47 percent) jobs away from other Canadians. enclaves” and young Muslims allegedly were the most positive about immigrants’ plotting terrorism, this number spiked to influence on their country, with Spain Flaws in the system 65 percent. (45 percent), France (45 percent), Italy At the time, my colleagues and I were It’s true that Canadians have some con- (44 percent), and Great Britain (43 per- uncertain whether we were witnessing a cerns about the way the immigration and cent) hovering just below. mere fluctuation that would disappear in refugee system is administered: in 2006, the next survey wave or the beginning of only a minority (40 percent) agreed that a sea-change in Canadian attitudes Support for immigration the existing system does a good job of toward newcomers. But, as was the case Remarkably, as immigration rates have keeping criminals and suspected crimi- on a number of diversity-related ques- increased, the proportion of Canadians nals out of Canada, and a slim majority tions we have tracked over time, the 2006 believing there is too much immigration (54 percent) believed that many refugee results on this item proved to be historic to this country has actually diminished. claims aren’t legitimate. (Notably, suspi- outliers. By 2008, the proportion of Can- In 1977, when Canada’s immigration rate cion of refugee claimants was highest adians who believed that immigrants are was only 3.5 people per thousand popu- among immigrants themselves, who may lation, about two-thirds of Canadians suspect that others managed to jump the Ask a pollster, page 6

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 5 Ask a pollster continued from page 5 too slow to adopt “Canadian values” had upon their arrival in this country. Govern- ticked back to 60 percent—just a couple [Multiculturalism] ments, NGOs, and private businesses are of points away from the number we operates on the beginning to pay more attention to immi- found in 2005. grants’ difficulties in the labour market, Given Canadians’ concerns about premise that being and some important new measures immigrants’ socio-cultural adaptation to (such as the creation of the federal For- Canadian society, Immigration Minister proud of a heritage eign Credentials Referral Office) have Jason Kenney’s recent talk about immi- been taken in the years since the dis- grant integration may prove savvy. But to culture and proud of heartening data regarding bias against position an emphasis on integration as being Canadian are immigrants were gathered. Canadians a movement away from multiculturalism new and old should be reminding their (commentators have made more of this complementary, not leaders of the urgency of this issue and false dichotomy than the minister himself monitoring progress closely. Open, toler- has) makes little sense: multiculturalism mutually exclusive. ant values do not exist in a vacuum; they has always been geared toward official are fed by feelings of material security. language acquisition and other drivers Social harmony and economic exclusion of integration. It operates on the premise ticularly racial-minority immigrants, the cannot coexist for long. that being proud of a heritage culture and seriousness of the problem is com- proud of being Canadian are comple- pounded. It is one thing when differ- 1 Unless otherwise noted, polling data mentary, not mutually exclusive. ences in education or ingenuity yield are drawn from Focus Canada, inequality; it is quite another when eco- Environics’ quarterly omnibus survey Inequality and the future nomic differences are rooted in racial which polls a random sample of 2,000 success of multiculturalism discrimination or the failure of employ- Canadians. In the end, it is not the name we give to ers to recognize legitimate qualifications 2 Kymlicka, Will. “Canadian our policy framework—call it multicultur- from abroad—especially when immi- Multiculturalism in Historical and alism, integration, even absorption, as grants have been admitted to Canada Comparative Perspective: Is Canada the Israelis do—but the fairness of our precisely because of those qualifica- Unique?” Constitutional Forum, 13:1 economic landscape that will ultimately tions. Economic struggle compounded (2003). make or break Canada’s ambitious diver- by a sense of betrayal is a state of affairs 3 “International Social Trends Monitor.” sity project. If anything is likely to reverse too many new Canadians encounter Ipsos MORI, May 2006. the relatively positive trends I have sketched here, it will be chronically poor economic outcomes for immigrants. Recent numbers from Statistics Canada are disappointing: an immigrant who arrived in Canada in 1980 could expect to earn about 85 cents for every dollar his or her Canadian-born counterpart took home. As of 2005, the gap between recent immigrants and the Canadian- born had grown, with immigrants earn- ing less than two-thirds of the Canadian- born average: 63 cents on the dollar. The position of highly educated immigrants relative to highly educated Canadian- born workers is even worse: a university- educated man who recently immigrated to Canada on average earns less than For more on half (48 percent) of his Canadian-born Canada Watch and counterpart. Inequality is always a serious issue. the Robarts Centre But when it comes to immigrants, par- for Canadian Studies: www.yorku.ca/robarts 6 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Ask a Constitutional Expert: Does reasonable accommodation succeed in protecting tolerance and diversity? The Charter and the constitutionalization of difference and offensive, the Hérouxville initiative “O Canada” backlash By Jamie Cameron prompted the Charest government to rik Millett was surely blindsided by Jamie Cameron is a professor of law at establish the Bouchard-Taylor Commis- the delayed reaction to a decision Osgoode Hall Law School, York University. E sion on Reasonable Accommodation of he made, as principal of an elementary Minorities. school in New Brunswick, to discontinue why any Canadian, whether new to the Since then, attention has shifted to the daily ritual of playing “O Canada.” country or not, could object to this mod- issues such as the criminalization of He chose instead to reserve the anthem est gesture of respect for the anthem. polygamy and the status of head cover- for monthly school assemblies. Oddly, it Among those expressing a view, most ings. Here, there has been ample discus- took more than a year for the change in were not troubled by the thought of sion of whether—and how—to accom- policy to be noticed but when it was, the compelling students to affirm the anthem, modate those who cover their heads and ensuing controversy assumed national albeit passively. This incident shows that faces for religious reasons, when it is proportions. A backlash whipped across it is not obvious, as US author Toni Mor- important to verify their identity on vot- the country and the matter was taken up rison claims, that “the function of free- ing day or to assess their credibility as in the House of Commons, where Mil- dom is to free someone else.” witnesses in court proceedings. In lett’s treatment of “O Canada” was cas- sports, the question is whether Muslim tigated as “political correctness run girls and women who observe religious wild.” Closer to home, the reaction led Bouchard-Taylor or cultural standards for dress can par- to criminal charges when a member of commission ticipate in activities such as soccer and the local community confronted Millett Nor was Millett’s experience an isolated swimming. at the school and was convicted for utter- example. In 2007, the municipality of If the customs and habits of cultural ing death threats. Hérouxville, Quebec distinguished itself communities are less problematic when Millett’s goal was to create an inclu- by adopting a resolution which pre- practised in private, it is another matter sive environment by accommodating scribed “norms de vie” for the benefit of when cultural, ethnic, religious, or racial parents who objected to their children’s immigrants then resident or considering minorities seek accommodation or participation in a daily anthem exercise. a move to the community. The code claim an exemption from laws or obliga- Not only did the school board overrule specified that in Hérouxville “a woman tions of general application. That is when him and reinstate the ritual, but the leg- can . . . drive a car, sign cheques, dance, cultural diversity and the “right” to be islature expedited a bill which now decide for herself . . . have a job,” and different bump up against the belief that makes it mandatory for New Brunswick declared that “killing women in public all Canadians are the same in the eyes schools to broadcast “O Canada” every beatings or burning them alive are not of the law, and will be treated the same day. It might be difficult to understand part of our standards of life.” Gratuitous way by the law.

Multiculturalism as part If the customs and habits of cultural of the Charter Multiculturalism may be official govern- communities are less problematic when ment policy, but by design and deliberate practised in private, it is another matter inclusion it is also part of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Sec- when cultural, ethnic, religious, or tion 27 declares that the Charter “shall be interpreted in a manner consistent racial minorities seek accommodation with the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canad- or claim an exemption from laws or ians.” Thus entrenched in the Charter,

obligations of general application. Ask a constitutional expert, page 8

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 7 Ask a constitutional expert continued from page 7 multiculturalism is a concept and a prin- judicial activism, judicial overreaching, ciple of constitutional dimensions, [T]he Charter can and the Charter’s consequences for though not a right that is enforceable by serve as a fresh parliamentary democracy. Sensitive to the courts. That may explain why section this debate, the Court has retreated in 27 has played a minor role in the institutional venue for many cases and on many issues. Chal- Supreme Court’s interpretation of the lenging the limits of judicial review is a Charter, and why there is little jurispru- the pledge, taken valid exercise, and there undoubtedly is dence on multiculturalism per se. a time and place for deference. But That said, the Court should not hesi- long ago and even whether the enforcement of rights neces- tate to protect multicultural values and before Confederation, sarily undermines “democracy” depends to constitutionalize the right to be differ- on what is meant by democracy and how ent. Far from being relegated to the that our democratic its values are defined. Where constitu- margins, multiculturalism and its values tional rights are at stake, the case for are vitally embedded in the Charter’s key tradition will protect deference surely loses force when the substantive guarantees. Section 15, right to be different poses little risk of which protects equality, prohibits dis- its minority harm to the majority, and individuals or crimination against individuals on the communities. communities are only “included” on basis of enumerated and analogous condition that they abandon cultural or grounds. Elsewhere, section 2 guaran- religious beliefs and practices. tees the Charter’s fundamental freedoms, How alike Canadians must be, and including freedom of religion and free- ID for drivers’ licenses. There, the chief how different they can be, to have an dom of expression. These entitlements justice stated that reasonable accom- identity and ensure its survival are time- provide a mandate for the protection of modation is a human rights concept defying issues for this “community of cultural diversity, and do so without which does not apply to the Charter. In communities.” It is accepted that there invoking multiculturalism by name. other words, she seemed to be suggest- are moments when multicultural values As a result, multiculturalism need not ing that the duty to accommodate is create dilemmas and force difficult be disparaged as a form of special treat- statutory, rather than constitutional, in choices. But on other occasions, resis- ment for those who spurn “Canadian” nature. That insight led her to the conclu- tance to cultural diversity is less princi- values. Moreover, through these and sion that the Court should defer to the pled. Unless there is a compelling rea- other substantive guarantees, cultural legislature on the photo ID requirement. son, grounded in evidence, not to diversity can be recognized as a funda- In the circumstances, a majority of the accommodate or to protect a fundamen- mental value and incorporated into the Court chose not to exempt the Hutterites, tal freedom, cultural diversity and the bedrock of the Charter. In this way, the and suggested that they make alternative right to be different should be protected Charter can serve as a fresh institutional arrangements for transportation. by the Charter. That is not merely what venue for the pledge, taken long ago and In the years since the Charter’s enact- multiculturalism aspires to, but also what even before Confederation, that our ment there has been lively debate about the Charter requires. democratic tradition will protect its minority communities. Canada Watch Governance challenges for the new North The duty to accommodate Issues 2010 America: Security, trade and citizenship It is unfortunate that the Supreme Court of Canada does not fully grasp the Canadian multiculturalism and its dynamic link between the Charter’s 2009 discontents: Where do we go from here? rights and section 27’s commitment to multiculturalism. Accommodation pre- vailed when a Sikh boy wore a kirpan Deep integration post-Bush 2008 (knife) to school, as well as when Jewish residents built a succah which was in breach of condominium rules. More Canadian Studies: A future 2007 recently, the Court faltered when a small community of Hutterites sought exemp- For earlier issues, visit www.yorku.ca/robarts. tion from Alberta’s requirement of photo

8 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Racial profiling and national security

It opens with the statement that “thou- Words and deeds By Barbara Jackman sands of extremists passed through Al he intent behind the adoption of the Barbara Jackman is a specialist Qaeda or Al Qaeda-affiliated training in immigration and human rights at Tfederal policy of multiculturalism in camps in Afghanistan during the 1990’s.” Barbara Jackman and Associates. 1971 included assisting cultural groups It notes that “all attendees were indoctrin­ to retain and foster their own identities ated into an extremist form of Islam that while encouraging their full participation [I]n respect of the called upon adherents to kill those per- in Canadian society. Over the years the ceived as the enemy. This ideology was concept was refocused to overtly include protection of drummed into these individuals and is the promotion of the principles of equal- Canada’s national likely to remain with them for years.” The ity and non-discrimination, particularly report creates an impression that all who the elimination of racial discrimination. security, where participated in the Afghan conflict are The preservation and enhancement of adherents of an Islamic extremism the multicultural heritage of Canadians discrimination and rooted in a religious belief which is lack- were entrenched in the Canadian Con- ing in human morality, and that these stitution when it was repatriated in 1982, intolerance have individuals will never change. at the same time that human rights were constitutionally entrenched, including always been The case of Hassan Almrei the right to equality. There undoubtedly have been particularly acute, One example of a case where the Ser- advances in public awareness of the little has changed. vice applied its profile is that of Hassan need for tolerance and respect for the Almrei. In the early 1990s he went to diversity of Canadian society, as well as Afghanistan as a teenager to participate in the conflict caused by the Soviet advances in the struggle against racism In identifying security threats, the and other forms of discrimination, since occupation of the country. The Service Service collects information, but unlike officer who testified at the hearing into Canada began to officially promote mul- police forces, who collect evidence to ticulturalism. However, in respect of the whether the security certificate issued present in court in support of a criminal against Mr. Almrei should be upheld, protection of Canada’s national security, prosecution, the kind of information where discrimination and intolerance concluded that he “had a profile” com- which the Service relies upon may parable with the profile of al Qaeda have always been particularly acute, little include that which is speculative and has changed. members and that there were “sufficient gives rise to no more than suspicions elements of a profile” for the Service to about a person. In identifying individuals conclude that there were reasonable Discrimination, intolerance, who it believes should be investigated, and national security grounds to believe that he posed a threat the Service relies partly on information to national security (Almrei v. M.C.I., The Canadian Security Intelligence Ser- that includes “profiles.” [2004] F.C.J. No. 509). vice (the Service) is charged with the An example of this is the profile It is the same profile that resulted in responsibility for identifying threats to underlying the advice that the Service the identification by the Service, and Canada’s national security. The concept provided to the government in June, later by the RCMP, of a number of Can- is broad, not even requiring that Canada 2005 about the threat from Islamic adians—Abdullah Almalki, Ahmad El be directly threatened. In early 2002, the extremists. The memo was prepared Maati, Muayyed Nureddin, and Maher Suresh v. Supreme Court of Canada, in ostensibly to provide the federal govern- Arar—as Islamic extremists. Mr. El Maati Minister of Citizenship & Immigration ment with information about the threat was in Afghanistan, and while the others ([2002] S.C.J. No. 3), stated that “Cana- presented by detained Islamic extrem- were not, it was thought that Mr. Arar was da’s national security may be promoted ists, but actually shored up the state’s there, that Mr. Almalki was on the border by reciprocal cooperation between case in several of the security certificate in Pakistan, and that Mr. Nureddin knew Canada and other states in combating cases, which were then before the Fed- others perceived to be Islamic extrem- international terrorism. . . . The threat eral Court on applications for release ists. These Canadians were detained and need not be direct; rather it may be from detention. tortured in Syria, as was Mr. El Maati in grounded in distant events that indirectly The memo, dated June 24, 2005, is Egypt, because the suspicions about have a real possibility of harming Can- entitled “Islamic Extremists and Deten- adian security.” tion: How Long Does the Threat Last?” Racial profiling, page 10

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 9 Racial profiling continued from page 9 their being Islamic extremists were factors such as sex (male), youth, make shared with other states. [R]acial profiling by and condition of car (if any), location, the police is not dress, and perceived lifestyle. Profiling and stereotyping The profile applied by the Service is a acceptable, while The Federal Court’s stereotype and one which, like all stereo- handling of profiling types, is inaccurate. The essential prem- security agency On the other hand, the profiling applied ise of the profile is that all who went to profiling is. by the Service—which focuses on the Afghanistan pledged allegiance to person’s being Arab and Muslim and Osama Bin Laden after being indoctri- having been involved in Afghanistan— nated into an extremist form of Islam; has not been criticized by the Federal and that, having adopted extremism, basic training necessary for their own Court; rather, the profile underlies the they would never reject it. The reality is safety. Dr. El Fadl indicated that many conclusion that the non-citizen Arab/ not so simplistic. The Service profile went because of the Muslim belief that Muslims who were made subject to conflates the history of jihad against one must come to the aid of a Muslim security certificates presented a threat Soviet control in Afghanistan with brother or sister. The prevailing mood to Canada’s security. The court saw noth- involvement in al Qaeda as though the then was that a communist state had ing wrong with the use of the profile, only two were one and the same thing. The invaded a Muslim state: Muslims equated that it might not always be accurate. Afghani jihad was an international communism with atheism, and govern- Even with the Canadians subject to armed conflict, within the meaning of ments such as Saudi Arabia’s pressed torture abroad, only Mr. Arar has been the Geneva Conventions (1949) and the this view. Most youth who went worked officially “cleared” and, in his case, it two Protocols. It was in this sense legit- in non-combat positions, in humanitar- was acknowledged that he was not in imate in the context of international law ian and educational activities. Very few Afghanistan or close to it. norms of the Geneva Conventions Act became extremists—15 percent at most. The dangers of profiling in the con- (RSC 1985, c. G-3). Most were average, decent, moral Mus- text of national security investigations The Service profile assumes all lims who had strong religious beliefs. are stark. The profile is sufficient to give camps were controlled by Bin Laden, They were being fed a one-sided account, rise to suspicion, which, in combination ignoring the many different leaders vying that the “bad guys” were the Soviets and with other factors which may in and of then for supremacy in the struggle for the “good guys” were the Afghani people themselves be neutral, gives Security control of Afghanistan. And it assumes who were being dominated by the bad officials sufficient basis to act. The result that all who travelled there shared a guys. of acting on suspicion can be torture, as belief in a jihad directed against Western in the cases of Canadians Mr. Arar, Mr. interests, without regard to principles of The Ontario Court of El Maati, Mr. Almalki, and Mr. Nureddin, morality and the rule of law, when the Appeal’s ruling against or lengthy detentions without trial, as in struggle in Afghanistan was originally racial profiling the cases of non-citizens like Mr. Almrei, directed against Soviet interests, not The distinction between the profiling Mr. Jaballah, Mr. Mahjoub, Mr. Charka- Western ones. engaged in by Canadian security agen- oui, and Mr. Harkat. All these men are The presumption that all who went to cies searching for threats to Canada’s Arab and Muslim. Afghanistan were extremists is not security and that engaged in by police It is already apparent in some of these grounded in fact. Experts who testified forces searching for criminals, is that cases, and will likely be in others as time before the Federal Court in Mr. Almrei’s racial profiling by the police is not passes, that the profile of the “Islamic case, including a Yale law professor, Dr. acceptable, while security agency profil- extremist” functioned as a substitute for El Fadl, explained that the struggle ing is. Several years ago, the Court of actual fact and masked a failure on the against the Soviets was supported by the Appeal for Ontario in R v. Brown part of security officials to fully investi- United States and most Middle Eastern ((2003), 173 C.C.C. 3d 23) clearly stated gate before acting on their suspicions. countries. Muslim youth from many dif- that police stops based on racialized There have been two commissions of ferent countries responded to calls from characteristics were not acceptable, inquiry into why the Canadians were states and mosques to help the Afghanis. even if evidence of a crime was discov- tortured abroad. Both have recognized Some states, like Saudi Arabia, offered ered after the stop. The court took issue that the labelling of the men as Islamic financial assistance for youth to partici- with police officers’ basing their suspi- extremists was not grounded in anything pate. Most who went did not receive rig- cions of wrongdoing on the basis that other than suspicions. The reports of orous training, but only the elementary the person was black, coupled with other Racial profiling, page 15

10 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Does reasonable accommodation succeed in protecting tolerance and diversity?

would like to make four distinctions the look, feel, and reality of multicultural- By David Cameron I and three observations. ism in 19th-century Canada, which was David Cameron is a professor of political then a country of farms and villages, science at the University of Toronto. Distinctions were very different from the texture of multiculturalism in the 21st century, 1. Immigrant multiculturalism an indigenous people, even though the when 80 percent of Canada’s population is different from indigenous Jaffna Tamils have made their home in is urban. multiculturalism Sri Lanka since the 14th century. They India is not an immigrant society, but it sometimes contend that the Sri Lankan 3. Integration is different from is a breathtakingly multicultural country. Tamils have a place they can go back assimilation, although not so Canada’s indigenous peoples contribute to—Tamil Nadu, for example, in southern different as one might think to its cultural pluralism, but, significantly, India—whereas the Sinhalese have no Presumably, we use the term “assimila- we do not normally think of them as part place but their island to call home. tion” when we assume the receiving of the country’s multicultural mosaic. society is not altered by the encounter The nature of the social and political 2. Rural multiculturalism with a new incoming cultural group; debate is quite different according to the is different from urban “integration,” when it is believed that the category in which a given group is multiculturalism receiving society itself is changed by the placed. In most cases, in an immigrant The capacity of a distinct but relatively impact of new cultural and linguistic society, multiculturalism is a transitional small cultural community to maintain forces within the society. phenomenon for each incoming immi- itself over time is greatly enhanced by If the receiving society is open or grant population, en route to either isolation. Even if such a community uncertain of itself, the process will lead assimilation or integration (see point 3 shares a common language with the ultimately to integration. This means that below); the factors leading to assimila- majority society, it can preserve itself the receiving society, as well as the immi- tion or integration in the case of indige- over generations if it is capable of living grating communities, will be changed in nous multiculturalism arise—not out of apart in a rural environment. It is much the course of the transaction. the process of immigration, obviously— more difficult, although not impossible, If the receiving society is closed or but out of other social, demographic, and to do this in the city. The incessant social ideologically or culturally monolithic, the economic forces, such as industrializa- transactions of urban living tend to draw process will lead to either assimilation tion, urbanization, or state policy. young people away from their cultural or exclusion. This means that the receiv- Seeking to re-categorize an indige- roots and corrode the distinctive cultural ing society will be relatively little altered nous community as an immigrant com- forms that sustain the identity of the in the transaction. munity is a strategy sometimes used by minority community. The Amish of In almost all cases, by the fourth dominant groups to undermine the status Pennsylvania and the Mennonites of generation or so, the cultural identity of the minority; hard-line Sinhalese Waterloo County have been able to pre- distinguishing a particular group will nationalists will argue that the Tamils of serve their distinctive life and institutions have been largely transformed into either Sri Lanka are not, properly understood, for generations. What this suggests is that assimilation or integration.

4. Multiculturalism is different from multinationalism [W]e use the term “assimilation” when we Historically, multiculturalism has been a point of friction between English-speak- assume the receiving society is not altered by ing and French-speaking Canadians. French-speaking Canadians, and, more the encounter with a new incoming cultural specifically, francophone Québécois, group; “integration,” when it is believed that have resisted the Anglo inclination to lump francophones in with other ethno- the receiving society itself is changed by the cultural groups. This is because they see themselves—and are in fact—a self-sus- impact of new cultural and linguistic forces . . . Reasonable accommodation, page 12

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 11 Reasonable accommodation continued from page 11 taining national community with a full set of institutions and autonomous prac- Canada’s immigration experience . . . has tices, not a cultural/linguistic minority been more about integration than assimilation, within a larger national community. Aboriginal people, too, given their indi- more about the mutual give and take that geneity, fit more readily into the national than into the multicultural narrative, even changes all parties in the relationship. though their autonomous institutional networks are far less fully articulated than those of the francophone Québé- unfamiliar situations or to new people all as—or even better than—what we are cois. So Canada is not just a multicultural at once; it takes time. So it is, at least in familiar with, a considerable potential for society, but some kind of bi-national or part, with multiculturalism; each new human growth is released, and the diver- multi-national country. Multiculturalism community works its way into the sity of cultures and ways of life can be exists within each of Canada’s two major national fabric over time, and the country not just tolerated, but celebrated for what linguistic communities. is incrementally changed as a conse- it can contribute to the common good. quence. This process has profoundly What do we mean when we say that Observations shaped Canadian society over the gen- Canada’s immigrant experience has erations; indeed, there are few things made the country a better place? It has 1. The virtues of irresolution that have affected it more. to mean more than good Chinese food For a country in the multicultural busi- and reggae music; it must also mean that ness, there are distinct advantages in not 3. The “values” issue the country has become something good having a founding myth, a distinctive This is a complex issue. If multicultural- that it wouldn’t have become without creed, or a cohesive national ideology. ism is to mean something more than immigration and without the leavening Largely, I think, because of the country’s folklore, then it must surely include dif- impact of cultural pluralism. English-French reality, Canada has never ferentiation in values. Yet if there is not Yet it would be wrong to conclude that really been able to give a good, coherent a common substratum of shared princi- all values are created equal in a swamp account of itself, of what it is and what it ples and values, the society is surely of relativism. Canadians are committed stands for, except in the most general heading for trouble. Monoculturalism in to liberal democracy, the rule of law, and terms. This has meant that there has some sense needs to underlie multicul- the respect of persons. These are not been a kind of porousness in our turalism. But in what sense? optional values that we can take up or national story—open or indeterminate First of all, one needs to recognize set aside at will; they—and other princi- spaces within which different lives and that the values and aspirations of an ples like them—constitute the foundation experience can fit. Toleration, accom- individual and of a society often evolve of our life together. Working creatively at modation, adaptation, adjustment—these over time; they are not always fixed and the frictional interface between what is are impulses that are shot through the immutable, even though it is comforting foundational and what is not is a task that Canadian fabric, and they have meant to think so. It would be difficult to argue confronts each succeeding generation that Canada’s immigration experience— that Canadians’ understanding of homo- in a multicultural society. which has been going on, after all, for sexuality or of the proper treatment of centuries—has been more about integra- Aboriginal people has remained tion than assimilation, more about the unchanged over recent decades. Once For more information mutual give and take that changes all one humbles oneself before the powerful parties in the relationship. transformative capacity of human soci- on Canada Watch and ety and culture, it is possible to look at 2. Time as a resource in multiculturalism in a somewhat different the Robarts Centre for managing diversity light. Instead of its seeming to challenge Canadian Studies, visit There is a natural human desire to get existing and implicitly immutable domes- things clear and to resolve complex tic values and belief systems, it can be www.yorku.ca/robarts human situations one way or the other, seen to offer the possibility of dialogue but often this impulse is mistaken. Some and mutual learning. If we accept the things are genuinely better left unsaid hypothesis that there are things we don’t and undone. People don’t normally know and ways of conducting the busi- accommodate themselves to new and ness of human life that may be as good

12 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 The multicultural diversity gene: Reality or myth? work. There is no doubt that the growing Legions of sorrows By Errol P. Mendes hen sorrows come, they come electoral strength of the third force was Errol P. Mendes is a professor in not single spies, but in battal- a major motivator for the Trudeau “W the Faculty of Law at the University of government. ions.” This wisdom of Shakespeare’s, in Ottawa and a Former Senior Advisor Hamlet, may easily be said today of the of the Privy Council of Canada. concepts of peaceful multiculturalism Enter the Canadian state and diversity around the world. Exam- When Canada’s However, the official goal of the new ples abound: the July 7, 2005 bombings policy was to promote unity among dif- in my childhood home town of London, multiculturalism policy ferent cultural groups while combatting England; the fires and destruction in the discrimination against these groups and banlieus of Paris; the murder of Dutch was first developed discouraging ethnocultural rivalries. The Filmaker, Theo Van Gogh, which has underlying philosophy of some of the turned a tolerant Netherlands into a and promoted promoters of the new policy was that society in turmoil; the Madrid train some 33 years state promotion of inclusion and recogni- bombings; and cartoons in Denmark tion of the equal worth and value of each that have turned that country into a meet- ago . . . it was a culture would lead to greater tolerance ing ground for the clash of civilizations of and respect for other cultures in the within its boundaries and with the Mus- product growing cultural mosaic that Canada was lim world at large. evolving into. But has Canada escaped from these more of political What happened in 1971 was primarily battalions of sorrows that are afflicting the establishment of multiculturalism as peaceful multiculturalism and diversity necessity and an essential ideological component of elsewhere? Some have argued that we expediency than of the state. The “diversity gene” that have escaped most of the sorrows allowed the notion of multiculturalism to because we are the only real global global leadership. be entrenched in Canadian society had template for peaceful multiculturalism a different origin. That came about by and diversity. We need to examine trial and much error through the rela- whether this is myth or reality. tively short history of the country. These Before September 11, 2001, the largest earlier developments are what I suggest terrorist attack in North America had 33 years ago as a world-class model for have shielded Canada, at least until now, been against Canadians, in the Air India the integration of ethnocultural commu- from the worst of the sorrows of multi- tragedy. More recently, Canadian com- nities into the mainstream of Canadian culturalism and diversity. But the shields placency has been somewhat shaken by society, it was a product more of political are very fragile and need careful and the arrest in Toronto of the alleged 18 necessity and expediency than of global continual reinforcing. Without the basis jihadist terrorists who were plotting to leadership. of the Canadian “diversity gene,” we bomb targets in Toronto and commit acts The origins of our multiculturalism would be more vulnerable to the battal- of violence elsewhere. In addition, we policy were the backlash by these ethno­ ions of sorrows that plague multicultural- have seen Amed Ressam use Canada as cultural communities against the man- ism and diversity today around the a base for his attempted millennium date and the findings of the Royal Com- world. bombing of the Los Angeles airport; and mission on Bilingualism and Bicultural- a Canadian, Momin Khawaja, was con- ism (the title gave it away) in 1963, the Cultural differences victed under the Anti-terrorism Act of goal of which was to provide a response and the BNA Act conspiring with a British jihadist to com- to the demands of French-Canadian We may locate the origins of our diversity mit very serious terrorist offences in nationalism. The opposition to second- gene in 1763, with the Royal Proclama- Britain. class citizenship and demands for equal tion granting the First Nations of British treatment by the “third force” led to the North America the status of protected A history lesson Trudeau government’s proclaiming, on nations, with the right to their own form When Canada’s multiculturalism policy October 8, 1971, the official policy of of government. This treatment was very was first developed and promoted some multiculturalism within a bilingual frame- Reality or myth? page 14

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 13 Reality or myth? continued from page 13 different from that meted out to First enced by the francophone founding Nations in the Americas by the Portu- The guiding principles architects of Confederation. The goal of guese, the Spanish, and, later, the Ameri- behind the British these architects of Canada, such as cans. In Canada, the Proclamation George-Étienne Cartier, was to ensure became the basis of the legal nature of North America Act “la survivance” of the French population Indian title and an historical root of the living in Quebec by maintaining their treaty process. were to protect and control over their language, schools, and The Proclamation described the laws. The Act enabled each province to Aboriginal nations as autonomous politi- promote regional and have its own specified powers to control cal units living under the Crown’s protec- cultural differences its own distinct societies. The provincial tion against the “great frauds and abuses” legislatures were given, under the BNA that had been meted out to them in other while ensuring a Act, the power to make their own laws parts of British North America. The in 15 specific subject categories, and this Proclamation portrayed the links central government allowed provincial diversity to flourish, between Aboriginal peoples and the especially through the provinces’ being Crown as broadly “confederal” ones strong enough to be granted, by section 92(13) of the Act, through which their diversity would be the glue of that jurisdiction over all matters dealing with respected. Its provisions underlie the property and civil rights. surrenders and designations of reserves diversity. These provisions were designed to for the First Nations of Canada. entrench the pre-existing diversity gene This early manifestation of the con- in the fundamental constitutional docu- stitutive fact of diversity continued with new conflicts with First Nations and of ment of the new country. The genius of the Quebec Act of 1774 which, unlike the conquest from the South rather than by the founding architects of Canadian results of military conquests anywhere a profound valuing of diversity. But this nationhood was to entrench asymmetry else in the world at that time, bestowed action nevertheless represents the origin up to the limits of the politically possible, the most fundamental of diversity rights of what I term the Canadian diversity but then to permit differences to flourish on the French colonists by protecting gene. under other symmetrical provisions. I their religion and their legal systems. In suggest that this constitutional diversity part this was an acknowledgment of the The diversity gene: gene is also the historical source of the inevitable failure of the British assimila- Curse or blessing? desire for what is termed asymmetrical tionist policies directed at the French The Canadian diversity gene was further federalism by Quebec federalists today. population, as set out in the Royal Proc- strengthened by the underlying rationale lamation. The impending American and structure of Canadian confederation Intolerance and racism Revolution and the fear that the “Cana- as established by the Quebec resolutions However, the foundational constitutive diens” might join the Americans in the in 1864 and at Charlottetown in 1867. The facts of diversity in Canada have been revolt led the British government to guiding principles behind the British greatly undermined since 1867 by vicious entrench the French fact in British North North America Act were to protect and and overt governmental and societal acts America by means of the Quebec Act. promote regional and cultural differ- of racism and discrimination against The Quebec Act was a unique recog- ences while ensuring a central govern- Aboriginal peoples, racial minorities, nition of diversity in the British Empire. ment strong enough to be the glue of that and indeed women from the dominant Roman Catholics were emancipated in diversity. The goal was to give the central culture. The litany of such acts fills the Quebec a full half century before Catho- government sufficient resources and pages of Canadian history texts, from the lics in Britain. The concessions made in powers for expanding the new state abuses at Indian residential schools, to the Quebec Act persuaded the Cana- westwards and dealing with regional racist immigration laws, such as the diens not to join the American Revolu- disparities. As a constitutional lawyer, I Chinese head tax, to the denial of equal tion; had Britain not passed the Quebec have long argued that diversity and occupational rights and the franchise to Act it is imaginable that Canada would indeed the protection of the distinct Asian immigrants, First Nations, and not exist today. society in francophone Canada is written women. Among other instances, in our Some historiographers would argue into the fundamental constitutive docu- country’s history, of the diversity ideal’s that giving diversity rights to the First ment of this country. being shamefully neglected are the Nations and the conquered French The BNA Act was based on the 72 expropriations and internments of Jap- populations was motivated by fear of 1864 Quebec resolutions strongly influ- anese Canadians and other immigrant

14 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 communities during the Second World The genius of the founding architects of War, when their only sin was to have origins in an enemy country. Another Canadian nationhood was to entrench instance is the denial of sanctuary to European Jewish refugees, before and asymmetry up to the limits of the politically during the Second World War, due to rampant anti-Semitism. possible, but then to permit differences to Has this tragic record of racism and xenophobia, compiled from the earliest flourish under other symmetrical provisions. beginnings of the Canadian state, under- mined its diversity gene and thereby evidence, not necessarily foolproof, may and racial rooming house. In this house, opened it up to the battalions of sorrows suggest that these wage gaps are the each stays within his or her own room, today? There is no definitive answer, but result of racial discrimination in all some faring better than others. Some it is safe to say that the non-discrimina- aspects of the labour market. These are descending into a spiraling crisis of tory immigration policy of our more ethnic and racial penalties may be pro- gangs, guns, youth murders, and vicious recent history has reinforced the diver- ducing isolated communities that turn criminal activity. There is always the sity gene in Canada. out to be the wellspring of the battalions possibility that some of these will morph of sorrows that will assail Canadian into highly dangerous organized crimi- The ethnic penalty of diversity in the near and distant future. nals with the capacity to disrupt vital non-European immigration public transportation and other systems The ethnic composition of the Canadian Eyes wide open and ultimately even participate in terror- populace has also changed rapidly, We cannot afford to be blind to the pos- ist activities. We need to pay much more reinforcing the diversity gene of the sibility and even the probability that our attention to the common living spaces country. In 1957, European countries immigration and settlement policies, of shared and engaged citizenship. accounted for the top ten sources of our citizenship and cultural policies, our The promise of substantial multicul- immigrants, with the United Kingdom discriminatory labour markets, our turalism and the protection and promo- providing one-third of all immigrants. Aboriginal policies, and our criminal tion of our diversity gene should become Forty years later, in 1997, non-European justice laws and policies could well turn the core of a radical national project for countries accounted for the top ten our diverse society into a multicultural the 21st century. sources of immigration. With such a dramatic increase in the diversity of immigration, the issue of the labour market’s discrimination against Racial profiling continued from page 10 the new immigrants would inevitably arise. To avoid the worst of these prob- these commissioners, Justice Dennis pening is just as egregious, although on lems, immigration policy favoured the O’Connor and retired Justice Frank a smaller scale. This has happened in skilled workers among prospective immi- Iacobucci, are having an impact in the spite of an official policy of multicultural- grants. This class was sought after to security certificate cases. There is a new ism and in spite of the entrenchment of provide the technical and other skills process in place, with security-cleared equality principles and respect for other needed in the professions and to fill lawyers appearing in the secret hearings cultures into Canada’s constitution. One labour gaps. to protect the interests of the Arab men. can only hope that the work now being The early warning sign of the decon- It is clear from the conduct of these done, to call officials to account for ste- struction of the diversity gene in Canada cases, presently underway, that greater reotyping, results in mechanisms being is the emergence of the ethnic penalty scrutiny is being given to the kinds of put into place to ensure that it does not in the labour force in Canada. Several information the government relies on. happen again. studies of ethnic and racial discrimina- tion in labour markets have been con- September 11 Canada’s For more information on ducted in Canada. These studies seem litmus test Canada Watch and the Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies, visit to indicate that existing wage gaps September 11, 2001 was a litmus test for between white and non-white workers Canada. While the excesses of the Sec- www.yorku.ca/robarts cannot be accounted for by differences ond World War, which saw the mass in education, occupation, or other demo- internment of the Japanese and the graphic factors. Some ethnic communi- confiscation of their homes and proper- ties have fared better than others. The ties, did not occur, what has been hap-

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 15 Ask a Historian: Has Canada’s signature program really worked during the last 20 years? A historian’s long view on multiculturalism: The limits of liberal pluralism in early Cold War Canada anadians are familiar with the images First, federal citizenship officials por- By Franca Iacovetta Cof multiculturalism: newspaper pho- trayed themselves as enlightened liberal tos of parades with colourfully costumed Franca Iacovetta is a professor integrationists who, unlike earlier assimi- in the Department of History performers in “ethnic dress”; the collage at the University of Toronto. lationists, would guide, not dictate, the of diverse faces in the “Canadian family newcomers’ adaptation to Canadian tree” adorning the covers of government society. Yet their writings also revealed publications; and the displays of ethnic on ethnic groups who, in the past, the ideological agenda of a ruling elite and fusion dishes in magazine food fea- inserted themselves into and disrupted that encouraged new groups to “flourish” tures. Simultaneously, the contradictory national celebrations (such as the 1927 so long as they did not threaten the forces of globalization, increased polic- Diamond Jubilee festivities) that were authority of the dominant groups. The ing of borders against Third World meant to narrate a simple history of a booklets informing immigrants about the migrants, and the “war on terror” have white dominion’s progress. Here, I high- many freedoms enjoyed under Canadian prompted certain critics to denounce light the liberal pluralism of the early democracy also stressed its reliance on humanitarian refugee programs and post-war, Cold War era. As my book, a loyal and obedient citizenry; and both blame “home-grown terrorism” on multi­ Gatekeepers: Reshaping Immigration ordinary Canadians and newcomers culturalism’s supposed failure to trans- Lives in Cold War Canada (Toronto, were encouraged to spy on neighbours form newcomers into “proper” Canad- 2006) documented, the early post-1945 and help quash signs of dissent. In their ians. The often polarized debates immigrant campaigns, aimed mostly at efforts to integrate newcomers, citizen- between liberal defenders of multicultur- integrating white European newcomers, ship officials were prepared to work with alism and its critics have obscured the exhibited a contradictory mix: there ethnic Canadian organizations—save for position of anti-racist leftists who criticize were liberal discourses of tolerance, Communist ones—on the grounds that the liberal myths of Canada as an egali- respect, and cultural pluralism that already Canadianized groups could ease tarian nation and call for a radical echoed the concept of a more inclusive the acculturation process by providing restructuring of a society that is a racial- Canadian citizenship embedded in the war-weary, frightened, and even emo- ized vertical mosaic. new Canadian Citizenship Act of 1947; tionally damaged newcomers with criti- but there were also intrusive tactics cal support. Such efforts also helped to Liberal pluralism and reflecting the rise of a “national insecur­ provide a defence against the anomie or the Cold War agenda ity state” fighting a domestic Cold War group disorder that could endanger All of this suggests the need for more against the various perceived threats to Canada’s social fabric and/or entail huge careful histories of pluralism. Recently, mainstream society and its dominant health costs. All this activity concerning some historians have pulled back the bourgeois models. I offer a few examples immigrants was in keeping with the origins of multiculturalism and focused of these competing dynamics. state’s national security agenda to con- tain domestic threats and ensure a con- tented and conformist citizenry.

[D]ebates between liberal defenders of Cultural pluralism multiculturalism and its critics have obscured or containment? Second, the “integrationists” sought to the position of anti-racist leftists who criticize foster national unity by encouraging mutual understanding and exchange the liberal myths of Canada as an egalitarian between old and new Canadians, but nation and call for a radical restructuring of a their acceptance of diversity was restricted to the comparatively safe cul- society that is a racialized vertical mosaic. tural arena. In his many upbeat speeches,

16 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Vladimir Kaye, chief liaison officer of the tried to Canadianize immigrant children Citizenship Branch, used colourful meta- [C]elebrating and youth through organized recreation phors to convey the state’s role in encour- individual talents or programs—such as summer camps, aging “unity-in-diversity,” comparing boys’ sports leagues, girls’ crafts classes, newcomers to the musicians of a Canad- mounting cultural and teen dances—that contained youth- ian orchestra or to the tasty ingredients ful energy and sexuality while simultan- of a Canadian salad. Along with liberal performances did not eously instilling principles of participa- food writers who featured ethnic recipes tory democracy. These programs repro- (with the most pungent spices removed challenge existing duced gender stereotypes and hier­­ or diluted) and told Canadian mothers power structures or archies, as in crafts and charm school to “spice” up family meals with (just) a for immigrant girls, and sports for boys, touch of the “exotic,” Kaye praised Euro- mainstream society. though some girls joined competitive pean ethnic foods for saving Canada sports. In an era marked by alarmist from standardized blandness in eating declarations of escalating immorality, regimes. But he and other reception including a supposed epidemic in female ideal homemaker and the many modern workers also endorsed and implemented promiscuity, it is not surprising that such conveniences—fridges, stoves, model programs that sought to “modernize” programs often involved a heightened kitchens—that defined the Canadian way immigrant women’s food customs by concern about protecting the sexual vir- of life. The huge gap between these encouraging them to abandon the out- tues of immigrant girls. This societal images and the overcrowded (and often door ethnic markets, with their live concern with girls’ vulnerability to sexual kitchen-less) flats or multiple-family pigeons and Old World haggling, for deviance also reflected racial-ethnic houses in which many newcomers ini- modern grocery stores with their clean hierarchies that, at a time before the tially lived reflected the working-class aisles, well-stocked shelves, cellophane- post-1967 immigrant waves of women of realities of men and women who came wrapped meats, and nutritious “Canad- colour from the Caribbean and else- from the Displaced Persons (DP) camps ian” items (enriched bread, milk, canola where, considered certain “non-pre- or peripheral European regions. oil). Aware that a sense of belonging was ferred” newcomers—southern Europe- Fourth, the adoption of pluralist necessary to inculcating patriotism, cit­ ans, such as the “well-developed” Italian approaches did not entirely eliminate izenship officers worked with cultural girls disposed to “hanging out with boys,” older assimilationist expectations that groups to organize immigrant exhibits, or Eastern European refugee victims of the newcomer undergo a profound concerts, and folk fairs that showcased war-time rape, viewed as “damaged change in cultural values and social the newcomers’ art, handicrafts, dance, goods”—to be more susceptible to pro- behaviour; nor did it displace the experts’ and music for Canadian audiences. As miscuity than were Canadian girls. presumption that they were authorized they also well understood, such strat- to intervene in the lives of newcomers egies for celebrating individual talents or who seriously transgressed Canadian Multiculturalism for mounting cultural performances did not norms. Often ignoring the patriarchal Europeans challenge existing power structures or character of Canadian families, family The Europeans were not simply passive mainstream society. and child experts invoked stereotypes of pawns in the processes described, how- domineering European fathers and sub- ever. And for all of the heavy-handed- Gender and family missive mothers as explanations for ill- ness and hypocrisy involved in these ideologies adjusted children and delinquency. Lib- campaigns, white European newcomers Third, familiar class and gender dynam- eral programs, such as inner-city school were not subjected to the ruthless assimi- ics emerged as middle-class profession- lunch programs or settlement house lation policies applied to Aboriginals. als encouraged newcomers to aspire to nursery schools and mothers’ clubs, also Many found ways to resist or, more com- the bourgeois nuclear family model sought to reduce immigrant parents’ Old monly, modify external pressures to according to which breadwinner fathers, World influences over their children. adopt Canadian ways. Many exercised homemaker mothers, and well-adjusted Public health workers, introducing immi- some choice and agency over the pace children lived within “proper” single- grant mothers to social services to help and degree of acculturation, and this family households and performed appro- them deal with sick or disabled children, process of adaptation led to various priate gender roles. The Citizenship frequently dismissed these women’s hybrid patterns, whether in parenting Branch’s promotional materials cele- customary healing rituals as dangerously styles, children’s play, or family relations. brated individual entrepreneurial, profes- backward, and they dismissed their In the long term, the postwar Europeans sional, or artistic achievements, while its suspicion towards them as a manifesta- helped change Canadian society and, teaching tools for women, including NFB tion of outmoded values that had to be later, multiculturalism, even as their own films, featured consumer images of the broken down. Settlement house workers Ask a historian, page 23

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 17 The evolution of multiculturalism: Achievements and setbacks of Ukrainian Canadians ince its official implementation in the contribution of “other ethnic groups” By Julia Lalande, PhD S1971, multiculturalism has received when writing and representing Canada’s both praise and criticism galore from Julia Lalande is a research officer in the history, and for more representation Faculty of Education at York University. various constituencies in Canada accord- within the media. One of the underlying ingly as it has met expectations or arguments throughout the discussion dashed hopes. Just as our society today Ukrainian Canadians was the Ukrainian Canadians’ pioneer- differs sharply from the one that existed ing experience in Western Canada, at the time of the policy’s inception, so had high hopes for which was often paralleled with that of the policy itself has changed as well. the English and French. Other important This paper explores what multicultural- the future of their factors were the precarious situation in ism meant to Ukrainian Canadians—as the homeland, the fear of Ukraine’s Rus- one of the established immigrant groups* community under a sification, and the inherent urge to pre- in the country—during the time of the new multiculturalism serve the Ukrainian heritage abroad. debate and how their perception of This “mission” was further complicated multiculturalism developed over time. policy that promised by the fact that the community in Canada Ukrainians are generally hailed as some had not seen a new wave of immigrants of the most dedicated proponents of to help them protect since the early 1950s and that Ukrainian multiculturalism in Canada. Not only language usage and community partici- were they among the most active partici- their language and pation were also declining within the pants in the initial discussion of the heritage. country. 1960s, but Prime Minister Trudeau him- self visited the Ukrainian Canadian The multiculturalism policy: Congress only a day after announcing hope for the future? the official multiculturalism policy in rored in public discussions within Can- The multiculturalism policy introduced October of 1971—considered by many a ada as well. What had initially started as in 1971 acknowledged that Canada was sign that the contribution of the Ukrain­ a discussion about bilingualism and a multicultural country within a bilingual ian-Canadian community in Canada had biculturalism in Canada quickly turned framework. The government pledged to been acknowledged by high-level Can- into a debate about multiculturalism, as support ethnic groups—through cultural adian officials. Such acknowledgement many of the non-Anglo, non-French Can- encounters and language acquisition—in was significant to Ukrainian Canadians, adian groups felt that they were not fairly overcoming cultural barriers so that they who felt the burden of preserving a cul- represented during such an important would have the opportunity to “share ture that was threatened in their country time in Canadian history. Ukrainians their cultural expressions and values of origin. Ukrainian Canadians had high were among the early advocates of a with other Canadians.” Furthermore, the hopes for the future of their community policy that recognized the contributions government promised to support under a new multiculturalism policy that of “the other ethnic groups” to the devel- research proposals, art displays, and promised to help them protect their lan- opment of Canada. Their submissions to projects that fought racism. Hence guage and heritage. But did Canada’s the B&B Commission repeatedly fea- groups had the chance to preserve their multiculturalism policy live up to this tured three themes: the quest for partici- heritage through government-sponsored immigrant group’s high expectations? pation, recognition, and equality. Ukrai- programs, but they had to apply for Can it be declared a success or failure? nian Canadians demanded political grants, since funding was not guaran- Does it still hold relevance in today’s representation for the “other ethnic teed, and all efforts to mobilize commu- society? groups,” not only through individual nity members had to come from within politicians, but also through umbrella the group. The policy was initially very The origins: organizations such as the Ukrainian positively received, and many Ukrainian the debate and the role of Canadian Congress (UCC). They lob- Canadian representatives had high Ukrainian Canadians bied for the acknowledgement of lan- hopes that it would (re)invigorate the The 1960s were a decade of upheaval guages other than English and French community and its activities. So how can and change, and on a smaller scale these (for example, as credited subjects in one judge the developments over the international developments were mir- schools), for an official recognition of next three decades?

18 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Achievements—1971 onward [M]ulticulturalism is driving forces for the community was Some of the strongest gains Ukrainians eliminated, and the new wave of immi- in Canada made in the post-1971 period not a static policy, not grants that came in the 1990s had, for were in the area of recognition and aca- the most part, no interest in joining exist- demic profile. Due to increased funding a “one-size-fits-all” ing community organizations. Hence, the decline in membership continued, for “ethnic” writers (many Ukrainian solution, but an Canadians among them), the market saw and it is questionable whether increased a diversification of literature by and ongoing conversation. government funding could have stopped about Ukrainian Canadians. The 1970s this trend. and 80s also saw a surge in the numbers Conclusion of (academic) conferences held by Ukrainian Canadians that dealt with nition, the multiculturalism policy did not When evaluating multiculturalism in multiculturalism and the preservation of live up to everybody’s expectations. One Canada between 1971 and 2009, it heritage. These kinds of activities were of the major points of discontent becomes obvious that the policy itself made possible by the emergence of expressed by the community was the and its implementation have significantly Ukrainian Canadian institutes (such as lack of actual funding for community developed, responding to changes in CIUS at the University of Alberta), pro- organizations and activities. In a 2003 immigration patterns in Canada. When grams, and chairs of Ukrainian Studies. UCC Multiculturalism Committee Posi- examining the initial demands of Ukrain­ Ukrainian Canadian studies blossomed tion Paper, the umbrella organization ian Canadians involved in the multicul- during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, and cer- criticized the fact that any group seeking turalism discussion, one cannot declare tainly hit a pinnacle in 1991, when the government funding through the Multi- the ensuing policy either a complete centennial of Ukrainian settlement in culturalism Program had to meet one of success or a complete failure. In regards Canada coincided with Ukraine’s decla- four “program objectives”—that is, the to recognition, the multiculturalism pol- ration of independence. Topics that were application had to deal with a) ethno- icy certainly achieved much, particularly formerly understudied—for example, the racial minorities participating in public from a Ukrainian Canadian and a histor- Ukrainian settlement of the prairies, decision-making; b) engagement in dia- ian’s perspective. From a perspective of Ukrainian internment during World War logue combatting racism; c) public community funding, Ukrainian Canad- I, the group’s religious life—were now not institutions eliminating systemic barri- ians and their particular cause did not only subjects of academic publications, ers; and d) programs and services fare so well. From a historian’s perspec- but also part of wider curricula and responding to ethno-racial diversity. tive, the achievements in the area of course outlines. And Ukrainian Canad- None of these objectives were in line recognition outweigh the setbacks in ians achieved recognition beyond the with Ukrainian Canadian goals as regards to community funding. The dis- academic sphere. For example, in 1990 expressed by the UCC, namely, the pres- cussion during the 1960s and the subse- Ray Hnatyshyn became the first Gover- ervation of language and the fight to quent official policy opened doors for nor General of Canada of Ukrainian combat the “attrition of a distinctive cul- ongoing discourse and developments, Canadian descent, and in 2009, the Can- ture.” In their statement, the UCC criti- creating a forum for continuous dia- adian government initiated the Paul cized the fact that the government was logue, scholarly debate, and constant Yuzyk Award for Multiculturalism, not meeting the “spirit and the letter of re-evaluation. By re-evaluating our goals, which commemorates the “late Senator the law enshrined in the Canadian Mul- successes, and failures, we acknowledge Yuzyk’s pioneering legacy in the areas ticulturalism Act,” particularly in regards that multiculturalism is not a static policy, of multiculturalism, diversity, and plural- to the preservation of heritage. In a nut- not a “one-size-fits-all” solution, but an ism” and acknowledges that he “played shell, the community had hoped that the ongoing conversation. Multiculturalism a key role in the development and imple- multiculturalism policy would be a reli- also helped us to advance our notion of mentation of Canada’s multiculturalism able form of funding for groups like what it means to be an inclusive society, policy.” The first recipient of the award theirs—the established immigrant group a society that recognizes the contribution was John Yaremko, the first Ukrainian having to fight not overt forms of racism, of many groups to its past, present, and Canadian elected to the Ontario legisla- but rather the slow eradication of their future, and that in itself can be judged as ture (1951), Ontario’s first Minister of language and culture. Alas, this was not a success. Citizenship, and a prominent advocate to be. However, the overall decline of the * In this case, the term “established” of multiculturalism. community in the decades following the refers to groups—for example, Germans announcement of the multiculturalism or Ukrainians—that came to Canada in Setbacks policy was not only caused by a lack of larger numbers as early as the Although Ukrainian Canadians certainly funding. With Ukraine’s independence 19th century. achieved milestones in regards to recog- in 1991, one of the major “causes” or

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 19 Ethnic identity and multiculturalism

evolve over time and, with them, identi- Defining the term “ethnic”— By Roberto Perin no easy task ties: the Canadians of today share a dif- Roberto Perin is a professor in the ferent identity than did their compatriots he concept of ethnic identity is a School of Public and International Affairs, at the beginning of the 20th century. Tnebulous one in the era of multicul- Glendon College, at York University. turalism. In the linguistic shorthand of Similarly, time has altered the culture and popular parlance, people are just as identity of the newcomer’s country of likely to refer to themselves as Irish, origin. This is so much the case that Ukrainian, Chinese, or Tamil, as they are [P]eople are just as immigrants, although expecting the to call themselves Canadians, whether likely to refer to familiar when they return to the land of hyphenated or not. The Canadian gov- their birth after a prolonged absence, ernment seemingly reinforced such themselves as Irish, often feel discomfort before the changes attitudes when its multiculturalism policy that have taken place. But these truisms was first announced. In his statement to Ukrainian, Chinese, or mask another transformation, one that the House of Commons on October 8, happens to specific immigrant cohorts 1971, Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Tamil, as they are to as they reproduce themselves. Trudeau expressed government support call themselves for the Royal Commission on Bilingual- The immigrant: Change, ism and Biculturalism when it contended Canadians, whether adaptation, and hybridity that “adherence to one’s ethnic group is In general, first-generation newcomers influenced not so much by one’s origin hyphenated or not. have a primary and immediate identity or mother tongue as by one’s sense of that is tied to their land of origin. At the belonging to the group, and by . . . the same time, they interact with and are group’s ‘collective will to exist.’” need was felt to establish clearly defined influenced by the culture of their country Meanwhile, North American scholars markers to distinguish one large group of adoption. Reflecting this adaptation had been busy deconstructing the notion from another. are shifts in speech and eating patterns. of ethnic identity, giving academic weight In the first instance, immigrants incor- to these changing perceptions: hard Ethnics and immigrants porate into their everyday use of their “objective” markers such as language, However, increasingly after the Second original language expressions in English religion, common customs, and history World War, US social scientists (and by or French thought to be indispensable were made to accommodate softer “sub- extension, Canadian ones) used the term or compelling. In the second case, they jective” factors such as feelings of “ethnic” to refer to immigrant groups, integrate to a greater or lesser extent belonging and the willingness to interact that is, immigrants from a particular North American ingredients and fare with the group. In other words, to be country of origin together with their into their foodways. These are just the Italian, one need not speak the language, progeny. But these scholars faced a most visible signs of changing habits and practise the religion, or know the coun- conundrum: if grandchildren no longer attitudes in response to the country of try’s customs and history. One simply spoke the language and ignored the adoption that are subtle, hard to track, has to feel Italian and have some contact ancestral traditions of their immigrant and therefore difficult to study. The first with the broader “community.” forefathers, could they still be considered generation thus has an identity that, Behind such shifts, it is important to part of the “ethnic group”? The problem while rooted in the culture of origin, is stress, lay a significant modification in was resolved by bringing “subjective” nevertheless hybrid. The second genera- what was being described. When the factors into play. What happened in the tion too possesses a hybrid identity, one term ethnie gained currency at the end process was that a fragment (the immi- whose primary reference, however, is of the 19th century, it was meant to desig- grant group) had been substituted for the the receiving culture, although mediated nate large groups bound together by whole (the ethnie). This shift clearly by that of the country of origin. common cultural attributes irrespective underlines the urgent need to find dis- In general, the connection with the of political boundaries. The expression tinct terms to designate two quite separ- ancestral culture is not as immediate in “ethnic German,” for example, encom- ate realities. However, the problem is this generation. Nor is it sustained so passed not only subjects of the German even more complex than that. much by daily interaction, which is the Empire, but German-speaking communi- Can one, in fact, refer to a common foundation stone of culture. By the third ties scattered throughout Western, Cen- identity over the span of generations after generation, this contact becomes even tral, and Eastern Europe. Hence, the immigration? As we know, cultures more remote. Grandchildren are very

20 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 often unable to name the town of origin of their immigrant forebears, and [I]t is now possible for “diasporas” to live in although they may understand words close communion with their land of birth. . . . and expressions of the ancestral lan- guage, they are often incapable of speak- The fact remains, however, that most people ing it with any fluency. If we factor exog- amy into the equation, the question of cannot inhabit two realities at once. ethnic identity becomes yet more com- plex for this and subsequent generations. Clearly, the ethnic identity of immigrants pot. This representation implies that 800,000, 260,000, or 100,000 people? Is is very different indeed from that of their defined cultures, like the pieces of a the expression “ethnic group” anything children and grandchildren. mosaic, coexist side by side. I have more than a fiction, considering there There are of course exceptions to this argued instead that immigrant cultures are such widely divergent experiences model. Differing patterns of socialization are not fixed and discreet entities. Rather of ethnicity? can result in situations where members they tend to leach into the broader of the third generation retain large com- receiving culture, helping to transform it. A truer mirror ponents of their ancestral culture. For In this context, is it appropriate to speak I am not suggesting here that multicul- example, frequent travel to the country of cultural preservation, as ethnic activ- turalism is wrong. In fact, the policy did of origin, schooling in that language and ists and cultural bureaucrats have done? get some things right. The shame that culture, exclusivist social ties including How can one preserve something that immigrants once felt because of their the selection of marriage partner, may is always changing and adapting? As non-British origins is now largely a thing perpetuate immigrant culture. However, well, since the Second World War, the of the past. Newcomers have also been as studies have shown, such phenomena Canadian government has encouraged integrated much more into the Canadian concern only a small minority in the third the formation of pan-Canadian ethnic narrative, which is no longer simply the generation. We are thus again confronted umbrella organizations, which suppos- story about the “two founding peoples.” with individual choice, rather than group edly speak for the ethnic group. Diversity has become a hallmark of Can- cohesion. Unless it is replenished by The formation of these organizations adian identity, characterizing its political, subsequent waves of immigration from creates the illusion that, to choose a social, cultural, and even financial insti- the country of origin, the group is des- random example, the Canadian Polish tutions. Finally, multiculturalism policy tined to die out. Congress represents the more than not only encouraged Canadians to learn 800,000 Canadians who claimed Polish languages other than English or French, The singular importance of descent in the 2001 census. This figure but to value bi- and multilingualism. the “Diaspora” to identity encompasses six generations. At one These are hardly trivial achievements. Recently, the argument has been made end of the spectrum are the descendents But multiculturalism also gave rise to the that, with the stunning advances in infor- of the first wave of immigrants who tenacious image of the mosaic, the deep- mation technology, it is now possible for arrived around the time of Confedera- seated belief in the perpetuation of eth- “diasporas” to live in close communion tion. At the other are the children of the nicity and the widespread view of with their land of birth. In addition, politi- Poles who settled here in the aftermath umbrella organizations as spokespeople cal devices such as dual citizenship, the of the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Two- for ethnic groups. overseas vote, and the diaspora’s right thirds of the total, over 550,000 people, Canadians have made diversity a even to be represented in the sending claimed mixed ancestry in 2001 and are defining trait of their identity. For this country’s legislative bodies, further therefore the products of intermarriage. conviction to remain firm, it must be strengthen such bonds. The fact remains, In all, only one-third had knowledge of rooted in right thinking and an accurate however, that most people cannot Polish and less than half of these, perception of reality. We need to under- inhabit two realities at once. Jobs, fami- 120,000 people, spoke it in the home. stand better the nature and basis of this lies, and leisure activities limit one’s These figures starkly confirm the gen- diversity in order to have a clear idea of ability to participate fully in two cultures, erational disparities in the understanding who we are and what makes us dis- when one is at a physical remove. Ultim- of ethnicity examined above. Clearly, tinct. ately, this issue too is about the individ- those who speak Polish on a daily basis ual, not the group. have a different appreciation of their For more information on What do these abstract musings have ethnicity than those who speak it occa- Canada Watch and the Robarts to do with public policy? Multiculturalism sionally, if at all, or those who are of Centre for Canadian Studies, visit has promoted the image of Canada as a mixed ancestry. In light of this, who does www.yorku.ca/robarts mosaic as opposed to the US melting the Canadian Polish Congress speak for:

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 21 Ask an African-Canadian Scholar: What have we learned about the pitfalls and success of multiculturalism? Multiculturalism, the Canadian academy, and the impossible dream of Black Canadian Studies

A dismal failure By Rinaldo Walcott, PhD Recent efforts: Research chairs in Black Studies ulticulturalism in Canada from a Rinaldo Walcott is an associate professor Mblack scholarly perspective has at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Most recently, and largely owing to com- been a dismal failure. In making such a Education at the University of Toronto. munity efforts, there has been a move to claim I want to stress that I am particu- name chairs of research at Canadian larly speaking to the humanities and the The inability to universities that honour black people’s social sciences. In my view, from that contributions to Canadian society. The vantage point, the Canadian academic produce programs, first chair, the James Robertson Johnson scene is racist to the core. I make this Chair in Black Canadian Studies at Dal- claim not as a comparative claim, but as courses, and housie, has more recently been followed one that I believe stands the test in rela- by the Jean Augustine Chair at York, and tion to the Canadian academic environ- academic positions there are future plans for the Michaëlle ment itself. I have been a full-time aca- that cast their lens on Jean Chair at the University of Alberta. demic for 15 years working in the area Those three chairs are meant to honour of black cultural studies and over that black cultures in the black Canadians who have stood out period black Canadian studies has among their peers in their fields. These remained a nascent field of inquiry and Canadian academic chairs represent a significant political the future looks much the same. statement and the manner in which each The inability to produce programs, sphere is what I of them is treated and supported by their courses, and academic positions that cast host institutions tells us a lot about how their lens on black cultures in the Canad- identify and indict as those institutions value Black Studies, ian academic sphere is what I identify and racism. even when the chair itself might not be indict as racism. This is an institutional solely dedicated to Black Studies (as with racism that refuses to acknowledge mul- the Augustine Chair at York). tiple forms of black inquiry, that refuses have not been able to sustain inquiry into However, one of the central problems to see how scholars who focus on black black lives in Canada in any sustained with some of these efforts is that they peoples can contribute and do contribute manner, given their economic poverty. continue to act from a place that imagines to wider networks of scholarship, and that It is from this vantage point that multicul- black people as only recent arrivals in fundamentally refuses to invest in black tural efforts in Canadian universities are Canada, undermining and attempting to Canadian concerns, issues, and interests. a massive failure. That I can think of no unwrite black people’s much longer pres- For me it all adds up to a deep, core program at any Canadian university that ence in both colonial Canada and post- institutional racism that only notices is solely dedicated to the study of black Confederation Canada. Such approaches black people as a problem or as a means life in Canada is depressingly dreadful. also seem to have no idea of how to to some other kind of end, but never for In fact, when black life in Canada is even account for the children born of the post- what black people interested in black given a nod it is now dressed up in immi- Second World War black migrants to this people can contribute to our creation of gration studies and transnational studies, place, who can by no stretch of the knowledge. but still with little interest in the actual imagination be merely considered Carib- Since the 1960s, Canadian universi- black communities here. This signal bean or African or immigrant, for that ties have established African Studies failure of multiculturalism on our univer- matter (notwithstanding notions of flex- programs and Caribbean Studies Pro- sity campuses means that as our student ible citizenship and such). Many of these grams that have acted in part as proxies demographics shift and change in urban efforts only ever think about black Can- for black Canadians to investigate them- centers like Toronto, our faculties and adians within a logic of immigration and selves when given the opportunity. their interests remain permanently and thus leave out a crucial aspect of Cana- However, these half-starved African characteristically white—there is no da’s long narrative of disciplining black- Studies and Caribbean Studies programs other way to name it. ness in this nation. What is particularly

22 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 distressing is that across this country [A] general commitment to producing black people have consistently organized and contested educational practices as campuses that reflect our demographics and one way to make their citizenship felt in this land. However, those efforts are often the communities within which they are located, not seen as contributing to the larger society. And in the academic realm, as well as a curriculum that is also black people have let universities off the hook by not demanding adequate repre- representative of those communities. sentation in them as they have in the area of public education. tion—all issues that a faculty of education academic culture, it appears, both as an could and should lead on. But instead aspiration and a policy, to have been a Continued absence of the dean was more interested, I suspect, dismal failure. black histories in seizing on the mental health issues In my view, the only way to begin to Recently, one of Ontario’s deans of edu- and the recommendation raised as a way fix this failure is to return to the 1960s. cation was much excited by the ways in to have access to the sizable dollars at By this I mean that the establishment of which the recent Roots of Violence Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Black Studies programs now would do Report, authored by Roy McMurtry and The sizable grants from CIHR would much to aid the absence of black life in Alvin Curling, looked into youth vio- make any dean swoon, given university our academy. As I suggested above, in lence—a matter in which black and budgets. It is in such a fashion that I the initial establishment of area studies Aboriginal youth are a significant fac- make the claim above that the Canadian program like Caribbean Studies and tor—and made, as they should, mental academy is racist and only interested in African Studies and even in newer pro- health issues a major aspect of their black people insofar as such an interest grams like diaspora studies and trans­ recommendations. What was most inter- furthers the agendas and priorities of national studies programs, black life still esting is that the dean was interested in those who are already there. often goes missing. mental health issues almost to the exclu- The challenge for genuine multicul- sion of the other issues and recommen- turalism on our campuses calls for Back to the 1960s: dations raised by the report. This trou- administrators with vision, faculty who Re-establishment of bling highlighting of mental health by the can see beyond reproducing themselves, Black Studies dean at the expense of other issues— and a general commitment to producing issues in which a school education ought I believe that multiculturalism exists in a campuses that reflect our demographics to play a major role—was not surprising variety of forms—official multiculturalism, and the communities within which they to me. popular or everyday multiculturalism, are located, as well as a curriculum that The Roots of Violence Report is also and commoditized multiculturalism—and is also representative of those communi- critical of the ways in which public that struggles over its meaning and how ties. Such a vision would move us closer school education still silences black it might translate into everyday life are to a practice of multiculturalism that is in histories, and also of the ways in which crucial and necessary. However, if we line with the everyday realities of our black histories remain absent from the look at how multiculturalism has played multicultural lives in the close urban broader Canadian national imagina- itself out in Canada’s universities and in spaces we currently inhabit.

Ask a historian continued from page 17 customs were being modified. While newcomers’ anti-Communism helped short, early post-war liberal pluralism differing from each other in their cap- shape a pro-capitalist democratic dis- contained the complex, sometimes acity to re-establish themselves—we course and helped the Canadian state to contradictory, and racially exclusionary should not discount significant class meet its long-standing objective of elements that would inform official multi­ distinctions between them—European destroying the left-wing ethnic press, culturalism of the 1970s. immigrants rebuilt meaningful lives, though international events also mat- families, and communities that also tered in this regard. A more decidedly For more information on made a mark on the Canadian land- multicultural but still largely white and Canada Watch and the Robarts scape. Ethnic foodways helped trans- still non-egalitarian society emerged out Centre for Canadian Studies, visit form the culinary landscapes of cities of the many interactions, conflicts, and www.yorku.ca/robarts like Toronto and Montreal. Similarly, the accommodations just described. In

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 23 Multiculturalism and its (usual) discontents

grabbing hold of some of their own tax Supporting the By George Elliott Clarke federalist option dollars, now being returned to them, to George Elliott Clarke teaches e know that multiculturalism was build economic and political bases for African-Canadian literature at the themselves while also promoting their Wpromulgated to pacify the non- University of Toronto. A prize-winning poet Anglo and non-French ethnicities who and novelist, his latest books are I & I, own cultures to other Canadians as well were not deemed to have been central a verse-novel, and Blues and Bliss: The as within their own communities. This to the establishment of the Canadian Poetry of George Elliott Clarke, selected by sensible development led to the rise of Jon Paul Fiorentino, and recipient of the state. Of course, Prime Minister Trudeau’s “song-and-dance multiculturalism,” as 2009 Eric Hoffer Book Award for Poetry. 1971 pronouncement of the program of some have decried it. It also meant that official federal governmentmulticultural - these same ethnic minority elites were ism was intended to ensure that ethnic It’s worthwhile to able to win favours, especially from the minorities across Canada and especially governing federal Liberal Party, in in Quebec would support the federalist remember that exchange for the delivery of the “ethno- option in the then-looming contest with cultural” communities’ votes on “E-day.” revitalized and populist/socialist Québé- multiculturalism was a This politics was also sensible, for it had cois nationalism. The Anglo-federal state solution to the meant the extension to all of Canada of “camp” could hardly afford to have eth- the same francophone ethnic (and nic minorities siding with francophone perceived problem of Catholic-connected) politics that the Québécois in any potential battle over Liberal Party had used in Quebec. Quebec sovereignty. Indeed, the October “national unity,” and So, the history of the program/policy Crisis of the previous year, which saw reminds us that multiculturalism is a pure the Front de Libération du Québec so the program and product/project of the Canadian state, attempt a Fanonian/Front de Libération policy were always especially in its Liberal/liberal colour- Nationale guerilla warfare model ings. From the beginning, critics, literally imported from Algeria (with rhetoric deeply political. left and right, have charged that it from the US Black Panther Party to boot), reduces Canadian unity by promoting had served notice that the Canadian state “hyphenated Canadianism,” thus reduc- should prevent potential alliances from reject the notion that they were “ethnici- ing assimilation; that it avoids and developing between disenfranchised ties” like other Canadians. At the same occludes the discussion of racism; that Québécois and disempowered ethnic time, Québécois nationalists articulated it is bourgeois and is aimed at unifying minorities and immigrants. a policy of “interculturalism,” meaning, ethnic minority bourgeoisies at the At the same time, the promulgation in essence, that while Quebec would expense of the common cause of labour of federal official bilingualism in 1969, respect minority ethnicities, these par- (however defined); and that it increases which had the effect of not only making ties would have to accept a degree of social disputes by seeking to protect and French and English official languages partial assimilation, becoming Québé- preserve minority cultures as opposed but also of making ethnic francophones cois. (While some commentators view to forcing them to adopt “Canadian val- and ethnic anglophones de facto official “interculturalism” as coercive, it should ues” and “practices.” majoritarian ethnicities, also meant that be noted that multiculturalism operates The criticisms are justified, and they the less “official” linguistic and ethnic similarly in the rest of Canada: minority have enjoyed elegant elaboration else- minorities had to be placated and “rec- cultures are “respected,” but folks are where. I agree with the critics—the left- ognized.” Also crucial to the 1971 birth also encouraged to assimilate to “Can- leaning ones to be precise. But I also of federal multiculturalism was the con- adian” norms.) would like them to recognize the truly flict between the federal government and radical potential of multiculturalism—at Aboriginal peoples, a conflict which had Multiculturalism: least in theory—at least in Canada. assumed new life in the wake of the 1970 A state solution attempt by the Trudeau government to It’s worthwhile to remember that multi- Radical potential unilaterally assimilate First Nations culturalism was a state solution to the First, we must recognize that multicultur- ­peoples by depriving them of treaty perceived problem of “national unity,” alism represented the first public rights, reserves, and their own national and so the program and policy were acknowledgment by the Canadian state affiliations by rendering them “Canad- always deeply political. Naturally, ethnic that ethnic Anglos and ethnic Francos ians.” The Aboriginal response was to minority elites saw the advantages of were not the only Canadians. For the first

24 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 time, the federal government addressed [M]ulticulturalism, felt inspired to tackle Italian-­Canadian ethnocultural minority-group Canadians anthologizing because of the example as citizens with a direct relationship to even in its liberal, of Head’s ­African-Canadian text.) government. Previously, the federal gov- Third, various experiences of racism ernment had only recognized ethno­ statist guise, has been and exclusion could now be compared cultural and racial minority groups in more easily, from the Africville Reloca- Canada if they constituted a “problem”— a positive step tion to the Japanese Canadian intern- West Coast Chinese and Japanese, ment, from the Jewish refugee Voyage Prairie black settlers, Eastern and South- forward. of the Damned (when Jews fleeing Nazi ern European immigrants (including Germany were refused entry to Canada) Jews). Thus, it was indeed a progressive building initiatives as constituting the to the Komagata Maru Incident as well step when the Canadian state began to song-and-dance multiculturalism of as the Chinese Head Tax or even the accept these “others” as bona fide citi- ethnic elites, it is still the case that these Acadian Deportation. Multiculturalism zens (even if still “not as Canadian” as publications were progressive in estab- helped to make it possible for marginal- the “Founding Fathers”). Indeed, if the lishing, usually, the Canadian-ness of a ized-group intellectuals to network with Official Languages Act finally told fran- minority group, while also permitting like-minded others from outside their cophones that the federal government them to access and understand and align own cultural traditions. recognized their distinct status as citi- themselves with the experiences of other zens, multiculturalism was intended to minority intellectuals. That Roman A positive step forward extend the same consideration to the Candles, an Italian-Canadian poetry Yes, much more remains to be done— non-majoritarian ethnicities. In its wake, anthology edited by Pier Giorgio Di Cicco, including dethroning the British head of Ed Schreyer—a Ukrainian Canadian— and Canada In Us Now, an African- state. Canada is still not yet a truly egali- could be appointed governor general ­Canadian anthology edited by Herald tarian, multiracial, and multicultural and Bora Laskin could head the Supreme Head, appeared so close to each other state. But multiculturalism, even in its Court of Canada. Furthermore, the inner meant that it was possible for intellectu- liberal, statist guise, has been a positive logic of multiculturalism means that als from either group to begin to draw step forward. It has served—and can marginalized citizens may now expect instructive connections between them. serve—to expand the inclusive sense of to share at least vicariously in power by (Indeed, it may be the case that di Cicco the term Canadian. filling “symbolic” posts such as governor general or lieutenant governor. Second, but just as important, while some of the early federal multicultural dollars went to feel-good festivals and the like, some of the money—yes, even Portal for North America if only a pittance—went to fund news­ Portal for North America is a unique web-based tool for knowledge papers, magazines, radio shows, TV exchange within Canada, Mexico, and the United States . Built by shows, and, crucially, literary antholo- the Centre for International Governance Innovation (www cigionline. . gies. We can date the arrival of contem- org), it provides freely accessible avenues for research, education, porary Canadian literature as an and network-building on critical continental issues . academic and cultural fact from the dis- Main objectives include: covery of Austin Clarke as a Canadian novelist (not a displaced Barbadian • providing open access to the most comprehensive resources writer) as well as the appearance of for research and analysis on interaction between Canada, anthologies of Jewish, Arab, Black, Chi- Mexico, and the United States; nese, Japanese, Italian, and other ethno- • developing and promoting educational resources for cultural minority writing, as of the increased continental studies; and mid-1970s. It is striking to note that • establishing and fostering a network of scholars, Michael Ondaatje was first perceived as policymakers, practitioners, and students who are interested an exotic Canadian writer, but, by the in North American governance issues . later 1990s, was beginning to be relo- cated as an Asian-Canadian author Visit the Portal for North America at too. While some critics may view such www.portalfornorthamerica.org anthologies and other cultural, canon-

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 25 Multiculturalism in a colour-blind society and the education of Black students cept of special schools for black students Trying something different: By Carl E. James An africentric alternative is one of those terrible ideas that refuses school Carl James is the director of to die” (Andrew Wallace, in This Maga- the Centre for Education and zine, 2009, p. 5). espite widespread opposition, the Community and a professor in the DToronto District School Board Faculty of Education at York University. (TDSB) went ahead to establish an Afri- Educational needs centric Alternative School for elementary and interests students, starting September 2009. The [T]he establishment of But the establishment of a school with a timing of the school has much to do with a school with a program geared to meeting the educa- the recent TDSB research finding that tional needs and interests of a particular shows a 40 percent drop-out rate among program geared to group of students is not without prece- black students, most of them males. dent. There are public or government- However, this high drop-out rate, and the meeting the funded religious schools and same-sex related high failure and expulsion rates schools; and the TDSB has nearly 40 for black students, is not new. In fact, the educational needs alternative schools, including “special- Every Student Survey reports (1970– ized schools” that focus on visual and 1993) of the former Toronto School and interests of a performing arts, and technology, as well Board (as well as occasional studies by particular group of as specialized programs for gifted stu- other Toronto area school boards) have dents and high performing athletes. And consistently shown that black students students is not without there are the annual Black/African His- do less well academically than their non- tory Month “celebrations” in schools. black counterparts. precedent. The existence of such schools and pro- In the 1970s, this educational situation grams indicates an awareness to me, a of black students was explained as lack recognition that things such as religion, of familiarity with the education system, those most powerful agents of social gender, sexuality, and students’ interests a result of the fact that most of the stu- cohesion is publically funded education”; in arts, drama, technology, history and dents and their parents were new Carib- and he encouraged Torontonians, if “they athletics play a role in their experiences bean immigrants to Canada. Today, the really feel strongly about this . . . [to] and schooling needs, interests, aspira- majority of the “dropping-out” students speak to their duly elected representa- tions, performance, and outcomes. On are second- and third-generation Canad- tives and tell them how strongly they are the basis of similar principles, therefore, ians. Insofar as this generation of Can- opposed to this proposal.” The opposi- the establishment of a school that is adian-born students is experiencing tion leader also condemned the recom- responsive to the cultural values and limited academic success in the estab- mendation, as did the minister of educa- schooling needs of black students does lished education system, it seems rea- tion, who said: “We don’t want to see kids not seem illogical. sonable for the TDSB to try something separated from each other. We don’t So why the particular concern about different in an effort to address the think the board should be moving in this the Africentric Alternative School for schooling and educational situation of direction” (Toronto Star, “McGuinty turns kindergarten to grade 5 students? Why black students. Why then the opposition up the heat on trustees,” February 1, object to a school with a program that to the Africentric Alternative School? 2008, p. A1). aims, as the trustees’ motion indicates, The reaction of many Canadians to Media reports and commentaries to integrate “the histories, cultures, the recommendations—including the branded the program “segregationist.” experiences, and contributions of people reactions of the premier of Ontario, the According to the Toronto Star, “the idea of African descent and other racialized minister of education, school administra- smacks of segregation, which is contrary groups into the curriculum, teaching tors, educators, and African Canad- to the values of the school system and methodologies, and social environment ians—was disappointment with the trust- Canadian society as a whole.” The Globe of the schools” (Toronto District School ees. The premier told newpaper report- and Mail referred to the recommenda- Board, Report, 2008)? Why is the estab- ers: “I don’t think that it is a good idea. I tions concerning the school as being “as lishment of such a school not in keeping think our shared responsibility is to look insulting as they are ridiculous”; and the with the aims of multiculturalism? What for ways to bring people together. One of National Post commented that the “con- does it mean to “celebrate” Black/Afri-

26 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 can History if having a school that makes The evidence suggests ope, Australia, and elsewhere, have their central the histories and experiences of fill of multiculturalism and hyphenated Black/African peoples is considered a that multiculturalism citizenship” (p. 41). At the same time, form of segregation? while 80 percent of Canadians think that in practice provides European immigrants make positive Working against the ideals contributions to Canada, only 33 percent of multiculturalism little support for a think the same of Caribbean immigrants’ The concerns seem to be premised on program of schooling contributions. Therefore, Gregg con- the notion that such a school is segrega- cludes, in his essay “Multiculturalism: A tionist and hence works against the and education that twentieth-century dream becomes a ­ideals of multiculturalism and multicul- twenty-first century conundrum,” that to tural education (introduced in Canadian fosters awareness of, avoid problems, immigrants (read non- white Canadians) must “demonstrate a schools in the mid-1970s), which hold respect for, and schools to be culturally neutral, accom- willingness to join mainstream society modative of cultural differences, and accommodation of by adopting the fundamental mores and able to educate students in ways that values of the prevailing culture. There affirm their “cultures.” Within this con- cultural differences. must also be cross-fertilization between text, the failure of students is seen as ethnic groups” (The Walrus, March more a product of their individual efforts, 2006). The evidence suggests that multicul- choices, values, and aspirations than of Globe called on Canadians to reject the the system of education. That parents’ turalism in practice provides little sup- proposed “school by skin colour,” insist- port for a program of schooling and and community members’ support for ing that it would be better to focus on the the proposed school was summarily education that fosters awareness of, “real causes” of the poor achievement of respect for, and accommodation of cul- dismissed by political and educational black students (November 20, p. A20). leaders suggests that the parents’ import- tural differences—particularly those with ant insights into the schooling and edu- a racial component. Such support is The dream becomes a cational needs of black students have necessary if black students are to be conundrum little or no sway in summoning recogni- integrated into the schooling structure tion of the need for a particular educa- The timing of the school is also signifi- and equitably served. This non-support tion program for students whose needs cant; for it is being established in the for an Africentric Alternative School are not being met. wake of riots and bombings in Europe means that Canadians do not wish to To support the establishment of an and when, according to Allan Gregg, make colour visible—such a wish would Africentric school, then, would call into “Canadians, like their brethren in Eur- be “un-Canadian.” question the commitment of govern- ments and educators to equal opportu- nity for all students. Furthermore, the failure or refusal to grant that an Africen- See more writing tric schooling program would serve stu- dents the same as any alternative schools by Daniel Drache at or specialized program is, in part, based www.yorku.ca/drache/wto.php on individuals’ reluctance to admit that race matters in Canada and therefore plays a role in the experiences of stu- dents. Such an admission would mean acknowledging that racism operates as a barrier to students’ participation in education and to their achievements. Indeed, in response to Stephen Lewis’s report on Race Relations in Ontario, the Globe and Mail claimed in 1992 (June 11, p. A16) that “Canada is not a deeply racist society;” and again in 2007, in its editorial critical of the establishment of the Africentric Alternative School, the

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 27 Ask a Political Scientist: Are the multicultural vision and policy broken? After multiculturalism: Canada and its multiversal future Similarly, the movement of people, Let’s build a society on the By Robert Latham complexity of Canada images, and goods in and out of Canada Robert Latham is the director of espite all the criticism of multicul- can reinforce the functional integrity of the York Centre for International and the state as it guards its borders, territory, Dturalism across the decades from Security Studies at York University. the left and right, “multicultural” has and regulates movement. We can go become the “common sense” under- on the singular fact of multiple cultures, further to say that people in movement standing of difference in Canada. The quite another to open the flood gates of reinforce, by their very presence and question is, what do we do about the fact difference. movement, the distinctiveness of the that what we call Canada is much more Canadian political community in local, than simply multicultural. It is multi- No reason to fear national, and international contexts: they racial, multi-class, multi-gendered, multi­ difference raise the very questions of what it is that sexual, multi-local (from rural to urban), To start, viewing Canada as a multiverse they are part of, and on what terms. and it is global-local (from the local and does not entail displacing the primacy I realize that those Canadians who translocal to transnational). It is multi- of the state in political life. On the con- reject cosmopolitanism are all too likely political, multi-religious, multi-legal- trary, in the Canadian multiverse the to be uninterested in recognizing that status (some of us are secure in our state’s centrality is more visible as the Canadian identity rests on anything standing, others precariously present in one set of institutions present in every other than their self-understanding of Canada as newcomers). It is multi-lin- sphere of life. The nature of its presence what it is—understood in their own gual, multi-professional, and multi-gen- can vary: it can be the key actor in a national, regional, and local terms. But erational. And it is shot through with domain such as education and health we already have a multiverse—whether mixed/hybrid formations, from hybrid care; or it can be one among a number we like it or not—in places like Héroux- ethnicities to hybrid places such as the of forces in many civic spaces, such as ville, Quebec. The question is, what are post-suburban. a neighbourhood or the media. The fear, the terms of a complex co-existence that Recognizing these multiple vectors of therefore, that immigrants might under- includes both cosmopolitans and difference not only underscores the mine the political coherence of Canada non-cosmopolitans? limits of multiculturalism as the way to is unfounded. Difference and multiplicity The litmus test frame difference in Canada, it also opens are not threats to unity. Only a challenge of inclusion the way toward a post-multicultural fram- such as the potential secession of Que- ing we might label multiversalism. The bec can bring the foundations of the This becomes an especially important question is, can the people living under Canadian state into question. Multiversal question when the many universes one state, on a bounded territory with difference, rather, reinforces the political inside Canada come in contact with one national symbols, and so on, ever be robustness of Canada because it is the another in physical and symbolic terms. willing to recognize itself this way? It is Canadian state that is the common ele- The typical litmus test is when one group, one thing to recognize and build policies ment among all the multiplicities. established in the country for some time, finds the actions of newcomers objec- tionable or repugnant, leading to various forms of social conflict and fear. The Recognizing these multiple vectors of recent debate in Quebec over reason- able accommodation is exactly this, a difference not only underscores the limits of contest whose tensions have arisen out of overlapping universes. When some multiculturalism as the way to frame difference self-identified majority feels they are the predominant shaper of a space and in Canada, it also opens the way toward a place, they question why they should post-multicultural framing we might label make exceptions for others. Why should you accommodate others when you are multiversalism. the chief constitutive power, with the

28 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 main capacity to shape spaces not only Rather than treat the tions generated by various forms of based on majority numbers and prece- nostalgia such as the nostalgia for an dent, but control of government and risks associated with imagined vanishing local world of the other institutions? everyday in towns and neighbourhoods. A multiversal frame suggests the pos- multiple citizenship in I would argue that we stop taking at face sibility of moving beyond the reasonable value claims such as those that arose accommodation concept that assumes the current recently in Quebec about the threat of a minority and a majority. Consider a immigrants. A more accurate way to read city. We know that many streets in Can- environment as a them is as endeavours to find a secure adian cities, from Vancouver to Ottawa, reason to avoid it, we place in a sea of multiversity operating are marked by various religious, political, within, across, and beyond local, prov- aesthetic, class, racial, and moral sensi- might consider incial, and national boundaries. These bilities (progressive or conservative) that efforts at preservation can, therefore, be overlap and interweave with one another strengthening the understood as reflecting an unintended on the same block, along with the regula- recognition of multiversity even if it is a tory elements of the state that guide the protections associated negative form of recognition. provision of sidewalks and crosswalks. with having it: this is Multiversalism suggests that these uni- Citizenship across verses are splinted with all sorts of pris- what multiversal boundaries matic effects across generations, gen- If contemporary life is multiversal, then ders, classes, philosophies, and types of citizenship adds. what does it mean to have an obligation presence in Canada (length and nature to ensure fairness and justice to every- of time in residence and legal status). one who is part of it and to think through That is, the spaces are experienced dif- on an individual or small group basis the terms in which those new to a coun- ferently within and across identity rather than an ethnic bloc basis. try become a part of it? In many ways, groups. each newcomer forces us to undergo a One critical issue is the effects of what Our many connects social re-calibration. We might start by is taken by some to be “offensive visual- and reconnects repeating that multiversity is in part about ity” (such as the miniskirt, the hijab, dark Issues of encounter and complex co­­ the multiplicity of geographical scales skin, or working-class attire). This often existence raise the questions of who is from local to global that constitute, and happens by chance, when, say, someone encountered, why are they encountered, intersect throughout, Canada. People walks by, where options for structural and on what basis do those encountered under­stand and relate to Canada through separations, such as walls, are few. We have claims and rights to be of and in a a diversity of these scales. Some, at face know that these encounters typically particular multiverse? Lying at the heart value, are anchored mostly in the local happen in places of transit, where one’s of the backlash associated with reason- and provincial—even so, it is likely that very presence already assumes all forms able accommodation is the simple such locality is actually translocal, as of risk, from crime to accidents to visual query: why are they here in my world? people frequently move across the bor- offence. We know that the option to But what do they or we mean by “world”? der of the United States (for vacations, avoid that chance encounter, a key Is it a specific neighbourhood, enclave, shopping, or visits to relatives). Others aspect of public space, is not available town, province, or national territory? In have links to places in France, the Carib- to many as they go to jobs, clinics, and national terms, there is little opportunity bean, South Asia, and elsewhere. They schools. in contemporary modern life to live in remain connected, and thought of as Instead, a multiversal perspective anything other than a multiverse. Even part of a diaspora. If, in a multiverse, an suggests that when a person encounters if one lives in a small town, the overlaps individual can have various types of ties someone, they are not confronting an are many because of travel or spillover and relations across, within, and beyond ethnic or cultural bloc bursting with at the edges as suburbs reach rural the border, and those ties can be con- multicultural rights, but individuals sort- towns and labour needs bring in new sidered good for Canada, then we should ing out their complex experiences of residents. facilitate multiple forms of presence in world-making, expression, difference, There is, of course, no shortage of and connection to Canada; and certainly and their own episodes of encounter as arguments in Western democracies multiple forms are already enabled, from well. While this recognition will not eas- against the most visible and charged tourist to citizen. ily overcome non-cosmopolitan atti- source of multiversity, new immigrants. However, exclusive, single-nation tudes, it does underscore that the nego- These arguments can be seen as a last citizenship remains the frame against tiation of transitory encounter is possible gasp of desperation to save a set of tradi- Ask a political scientist, page 30

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 29 Ask a political scientist continued from page 29 which all other forms of status are under- what multiversal citizenship adds. Why wise might fear losing their own or their stood as exceptions, including dual or would Canadians support this? The easi- children’s Canadian citizenship if they multiple citizenship. In addition, many est answers are that stronger support for are living in the US. of these other forms have profound multiversal citizenship can enrich the Another reason is that strong support insecurities associated with them. Many Canadian multiverse by making global- for multiple citizenship and multiversity newcomers to Canada are here under local lives easier, and, second, that single can expand the meaning of Canada that various forms of “precarious status,” citizenship, in a multiverse, is but one is consistent with its historic identifica- whether they are or had been students, type of status among many, even if it is tion as a country that orginally advanced temporary workers, or refugee claim- predominant on a national basis. If you multiculturalism and has allowed high ants. The implication, therefore, is that think about my definition above of multi­ levels of immigration. Normalizing mul- there is opportunity for stronger support versal citizenship, single-state citizens tiversal citizenship could also open the for the global-local—and for the multiver- are mulitiversal citizens. way to a more secure status for those sal approach to status, more generally— individuals with precarious status in in Canada. A better environment Canada. The idea is that everyone in I believe that a simple way to move for new citizenship Canada, regardless of their status, can toward this support is for Canada explic- There are other notable reasons to sup- be thought of as multiversal citizens—in itly to treat and support what can be port multiversal citizenship. One is that that they already have citizenship from termed multiversal citizenship as the any single citizen, or anyone in that per- somewhere else and are potential citi- primary frame against which all other son’s family, is a potential multiple cit­ zens of Canada. forms of status are understood. A multi- izen. So, creating an environment where Multiveralism is consistent with the versal citizen has citizenship in one or multiple citizenship is taken to be the Canadian history of political and social more territorial states and secure status norm strengthens the possibility of that innovation: the time for serious recogni- in any state they are resident in. From option for those with single citizenship, tion of our Canadian global-local—not my definition, you can see that a core particularly for individuals who other- just multicultural—lives has come. dimension of multiversal citizenship is dual or multiple citizenship. Fortunately, in recent decades the Canadian govern- ment clearly has been liberal toward multiple citizenship. But this liberalness The North American Center toward multiple citizenship created pub- lic controversy when Lebanese Canad- ians were aided in their effort to flee an for Transborder Studies Israeli invasion in 2006. Additionally, the he North American Center for Transborder Studies (NACTS) promotes Canadian state has strengthened the Ta safer, more prosperous, more competitive, more cooperative, and residency requirement—making the more sustainable North American region . attainment of a second, Canadian, cit­ Arizona State University (ASU) has a vision to be a New American izen­ship more difficult. In addition, in University, promoting excellence in its research and among its students the post-9/11 security context many and faculty, increasing access to its educational resources, and working multiple citizens from the Middle East with communities toward social and economic development . and South and Central Asia have found All NACTS initiatives strive to embody the New American University out that they not only may not receive design aspirations of global engagement, social embeddedness, and protections as Canadians, but they can societal transformation . NACTS is a university-wide research center with be treated as dangerous suspects who a trinational Board of Advisors, an ASU Faculty Advisory Council, and can be more easily deported than partner institutions in Canada and Mexico . NACTS is supported by the ­Canada-only citizens (they in effect College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and other offices at asu . become stateless if expelled from NACTS focuses its research and policy on borders, competitiveness, Canada). and the environment, working through events and initiatives that build Rather than treat the risks associated public awareness about North America . NACTS accomplishes its mission with multiple citizenship in the current by building key partnerships among northern and southern border special- environment as a reason to avoid it, we ists and identifying and educating key constituencies in government, the might consider strengthening the protec- private sector, and civil society . n tions associated with having it: this is

30 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Multiculturalism: What are our discontents about?

Quebec. The Royal Commission on Some key questions By Jules Duchastel Bilingualism and Biculturalism arrived eflecting on the theme of our confer- Jules Duchastel is a professor in the at the paradoxical conclusion that both ence, many preliminary questions Department of Sociology at UQAM. R English and French must become the arise. There are many uncertainties official languages of Canada, while the about the notion of multiculturalism. diversity of cultures, rather than the two Where does it come from? Is it a public Politically, founding cultures, was to be acknowl- policy or a social reality? Is it a way of edged. Bilingualism had the effect of compensating for the fragmentation of multiculturalism was a redefining the French Canadian ques- society or a pluralist solution to diversity? brilliant political tion. French Canadians would become Is it a political ploy to overcome the a linguistic group rather than a founding nationalist movement in Quebec and strategy of Pierre people. The cultural and historical rally the other communities in the defini- dimensions of French Canadian identity tion of a new Canadian nation, or is it Elliott Trudeau’s, in his in the future would be confounded with the translation of a moral vision of a good all other identities. and just society? I will try to answer some pursuit of two ends The second answer is that multicul- of these questions and others that follow turalism was, in fact, the recognition of from their formulation. . . . Sociologically, we the social reality of the multiple ethnic What is the nature of multicultural- have to recognize communities that had progressively ism? Officially, multiculturalism in Can- populated many parts of the country and ada had been a more or less formal pol- that multiculturalism wanted to be included and participate in icy until it was translated into a law in its future. Pierre Elliott Trudeau suc- 1988. A declaration was presented in was not a complete ceeded both in transforming the classi- Parliament, in the fall of 1971, as a policy cal view of the country as formed by two orientation, which gave birth to many invention. founding peoples and in attracting grow- programs in the following years. In 1982, ing populations of other origins. the principle of multiculturalism was Sociologically, we have to recognize alizing the importance of the French inscribed in article 27 of the Charter of that multiculturalism was not a complete Canadian heritage. However, Quebec Rights and Freedoms, which stated that invention. It did correspond to some has developed a corresponding model, the Charter should be “interpreted in a deep social transformations taking place called interculturalism. This approach manner consistent with the preservation at the time. Two main forces were press- has never been formally stated in a spe- and enhancement of the multicultural ing national societies. From the outside, cific policy document or translated into heritage of Canadians.” the acceleration of globalization was a law, but it has inspired many policies It was only in 1988 that the Canadian under way, and from the inside, a diver- and state interventions. It seems that, at Multiculturalism Act was assented to by sification of the social tissue was inten- first glance, both multiculturalism and Parliament. The Canadian government sifying. The process of globalization had interculturalism are to be understood as recognized “the diversity of Canadians started to raise questions about the policy orientations, more or less formal- as regards race, national or ethnic origin, scope of national sovereignty and the ized and continuously redefined. colour and religion as a fundamental allegiance of citizenship. The fragmenta- characteristic of Canadian society and tion of society tended to expand with the [became] committed to a policy of multi­ A short history lesson increase in global flows—in particular, culturalism designed to preserve the What is the origin of multiculturalism? with the growing importance of immigra- multicultural heritage of Canadians while There are two answers to that question, tion, the awakening of the Aboriginal working to achieve the equality of all one political and one sociological. Politi- political consciousness after the unsuc- Canadians in the economic, social, cul- cally, multiculturalism was a brilliant cessful attempt to integrate their people tural and political life of Canada.” political strategy of Pierre Elliott in 1969, and the proliferation of a new As we will see later, Quebec had Trudeau’s, in his pursuit of two ends; generation of social movements (whether many reservations about multicultural- multiculturalism was conceived as a countercultural, environmentalist, or ism, which it viewed as a way of margin- response to the nationalist movement in Discontents, page 32

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 31 Discontents continued from page 31 feminist). Especially in Canada, where The capacity of our society to remain the national identity had been problem- atical from the beginning, the influence unified under a common political project of these factors favoured the emergence of a pluralistic model of integration. is what we need to consider.

A flawed doctrine? What did official multiculturalism ignore? national recognition, with the exception taking into account any differences. This In the Canadian logic, the concept of perhaps of the inclusion of the rights to model corresponds to the ideal nation- multiculturalism resolved the nation self-government for the Aboriginal state formation of the 19th century and question. Canadian identity would rely ­peoples. The conception of an historical is most appropriate for centralized coun- on the notion of diversity. However, most and cultural nation has always been tries. The model is ill-equipped, how- importantly, Quebec’s national question problematical in Canada as a whole and ever, to address actual problems caused remained unresolved throughout the has not really existed since the time of by the diversification of societies. period, as did the status of the Aboriginal the opposition between Anglo-Saxons The second model is one of coexis- nations. and French Canadians. Canada pre- tence. It corresponds to the way some In our book L’identité fragmentée ferred, from the 1940s on, the concep- critics describe the Canadian multicul- (1996), on Canadian identity, Gilles tion of a civic nation. This is not to say tural approach: a profusion of group Bourque and I delineated different peri- that Quebec has relied solely on the interests coexisting in a public space, ods in Canadian history through which cultural and historical dimensions of litigating their conflicts in the courts. the definition of national identity evolved. national identity. It has also developed a This second model is criticized most Up to the Second World War, the Canad- political and civic conception of the often for depoliticizing institutions in ian identity was dual: on one side, the nation, but it has claimed its own linguis- favour of the judicial system and as jeop- British Anglo-Saxon Protestant people tic, historical, and cultural background. ardizing the definition of a common (or “Race,” as it was termed at the time) Multiculturalism, per se, has a tendency good. and on the other, the French Canadian to underestimate the historical origin of A third model is more or less utopian. Catholic people. From the end of the war the Canadian nation. As the word sug- Rather than a mere coexistence of dif- to the 1970s, the Canadian national gests, multiculturalism aims at the rec- ferent interest groups, it is possible to identity developed around the idea of a ognition of all cultures on the same imagine a constant interplay between social citizenship in the context of an level. groups, with each enriching its own expanding welfare state. Quebec’s com- We could have conceived of Canada culture in the process. A certain idea of peting identity remained culturally as a multinational state (a real confedera- a decentred democracy would favour a defined (by language and religion) dur- tion) that did not deny the contribution non-hierarchical system of interactions ing the years of Premier Maurice Duples- of multiple cultures; but this would have between the many ethnic, racial, cul- sis, but was transformed in the 1960s into been a very complicated task after the tural, or historical groups. This model a political and civic identity, as an alter- adoption of the policy of multicultural- fits with the ideal representation of good native to the one already in place in ism. The problem lies in the model of multiculturalism and is coherent, up to Canada. Contrary to the Canadian iden- integration favoured by multiculturalism. a point, with the intercultural model tity, Quebec’s version was founded on We normally speak of integration in con- proposed by Quebec’s government. the existence of an historical and cultural nection with immigrants. However, the nation. The opposition between the two problem of integration is a social neces- Quebec’s unique conflicting identities was interpreted in sity for every one. If society still has contribution many fashions in Quebec. Being sover- meaning as a concept, by what means A remaining question can be formulated eignist or federalist determined the do people have to identify with their in the following way: is the interplay depth of the attachment to one or the country? between cultures sufficient to establish other conception of identity. Most Que- a national bond between citizens? This becers believed in the existence of a Three kinds of question has been asked of the policy of “nation Québécoise.” integration interculturalism in Quebec. The model Probably because multiculturalism We can distinguish three models of suggests that interplay between cultures has transformed the notion of nation integration. The first is assimilation, well should be the aim of any integration itself, it has induced a natural resistance, represented by republicanism. It aims at policy, but at the same time, it proclaims in Canada, towards any kind of a multiple the full integration of all individuals, not that there should be more than a collec-

32 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 tive interchange of cultures. Integration inevitably to discontents. We still live in movement towards a denationalization should be accomplished within a certain a class society, with great obstacles for of present-day societies might lead to linguistic, historical, and cultural con- visible minorities and marginal groups. such a setback for representative dem- text, which is specific to the Quebec The liberal view will situate the debate ocracy. The insistence of post-colonial society. This aspect of interculturalism at the more general level of human rights critics on destructuring the political is increasingly present in multicultural- and tolerance. Judiciary procedures are institutionalization of society goes way ism in Canada. The once open-ended considered the remedy for the flaws of beyond the liberal proponents of human policy of diversity is more often rede- the system concerning inclusion and rights in the abolition of any general fined around the necessity of common non-discrimination. However, this view conception of a political community. Canadian values. As for the English lan- does not question the type of vertical Discontents will then vary along with guage, it does not need any help from organization of society that favours elites the standpoints of the observer. Still, we the Parliament to attract the majority. and the dominant culture. In contrast, a might conclude by saying that multicul- post-colonial view will question the turalism or interculturalism is inevitable Some unresolved regime of inequalities at every level and today. The capacity of our society to tensions propose a horizontal organization of remain unified under a common political Now, if we look at the reality of multicul- society, which places every culture and project is what we need to consider. Even turalism, it becomes clear that the nor- group on the same level. if the reassertion of the importance of mative model as it is presented cannot In both cases, the question of the rights and freedoms and the recognition be automatically translated into equality political community, or, in other words, of the exclusion and marginalization of and non-discrimination between groups the question of social unity, is bypassed. particular groups are important, the or communities. The existence of dem- The importance attached to human issues remain of defining what holds us ocracy and human rights has not yet rights and their judicialization by liberals together and of finding the best ways to resulted in the obliteration of relations of is diminishing the importance of collec- favour integration of diverse individuals, domination and power. In that sense, tive identities and of the political will of of groups, and—why not—of national multiculturalism, as a reality, will lead the people as a community. The actual communities in Canada.

The Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies Mandate

he Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies supports The Robarts Centre offers a strong program of Tinterdisciplinary and discipline-specific research high-level seminars, workshops, and conferences pertinent to the study of Canada and “Canada in on major issues, focusing on Canadian perspectives the World ”. In practice, this has meant an orienta- on Communications, Culture, the Fine Arts, History, tion toward broader Canadian and international Political Economy, Public Policy, and International scholarly and policy-making communities, inquiries Relations . Participants include York faculty and stu- into comparative perspectives on the Canadian dents, Canadian and international scholars, and mosaic, and assistance to York scholars in working the larger community of Metropolitan Toronto . with their counterparts in other countries . Current, ongoing work at the Centre includes Faculty at the Robarts Centre, including the Direc- research initiatives on the public domains and inter- tor, the Robarts Chair, and other Robarts research- national standards, Canadian cinema, and issues ers, regularly teach courses and contribute to cur- pertaining to media perspectives on Canada . The riculum development in areas pertaining to Canad- Centre acts as a research arm for the Joint Program ian, North American, and comparative studies . The in Communication and Culture and its work on the Robarts Centre also provides supervised research Canadian Internet Project . The Centre also housed and writing opportunities for graduate students from the Toronto offices of theG reat Unsolved Mysteries a wide range of York graduate programs . in Canadian History Tom Thomson project . n

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 33 Is Canada’s commitment to multiculturalism weakening? Whither multicultural The vision of a multicultural nation enter- By Daniel Salée Canada? tained by the political and intellectual Daniel Salée is a professor of elite remains as clear and as strong as ccording to a 47-nation comparative Canadian politics and public policy in ever, and continues to be a central part the School of Community and Public Affairs Asurvey on global trade and immigra- of the Canadian state’s discourse. In a tion released two years ago by the and in the Department of Political Science at Concordia University. way, one might even contend that Can- Washington-based Pew Research Cen- ada has moved beyond being multicul- ter, 62 percent of Canadians believe that When it comes to dealing with ethno- tural: after nearly 40 years of multicultur- immigration into Canada should be cultural otherness, Canada, it seems, alism policy, Canadian society is now restricted and better controlled. By com- fares hardly better than countries like more than the juxtaposition of diverse parison, 66 percent of Germans, 68 per- France and Germany, whose reluctance ethnocultural groups, as the first incarna- cent of French, 75 percent of British, 75 to acknowledge and satisfy particularis- tion of the policy implied; it is an increas- percent of Americans, but only 53 per- tic identity claims in the public sphere is ingly hybridized entity formed by the cent of Swedes share the same view. The well known; or than the United States, gradual interpenetration of various cul- survey also revealed that 71 percent of whose stance on immigration has tough- tures and ways of life—a Métis nation, as Canadians feel that their traditional way ened considerably since 9/11. The Pew John Ralston Saul has famously argued of life is getting lost (in comparison to 73 Center findings present a picture of recently. Still, for all the positive image percent of Americans, 77 percent of Brit- Canada which clashes with the percep- of Canada as a mature, democratic soci- ish, 75 percent of French, 74 percent of tion Canadians have of themselves as ety that this ethnocultural hybridity might Germans, but, again, only 49 percent of quintessentially pluralistic, open to ethno­ project, for all that it may indicate that a Swedes), and that 62 percent of them cultural diversity and deeply respectful mentality of acceptance of otherness believe it needs to be protected against of public expressions of identity and pervades the Canadian social imagina- foreign influence and intrusion. On this normative difference. These findings tion, it should not automatically be score, only the Americans hold the same likely came as no surprise, though, to understood as the sign of more egalitar- belief in similar proportion. Roughly half scores of scholars and social critics who, ian dynamics of socioeconomic rela- of the British, French, and German cit­ over the past decade or so, have ana- tions, or a sign that the social hierarchies, izens interviewed and less than one-third lyzed, deconstructed, and ultimately real and symbolic, regulating the inter- of the Swedes feel that action to protect exposed Canada’s multicultural narrative face between mainstream hegemonic their culture is necessary. Finally, though for what it really is: a socio-political fic- (essentially Euro-descendant) groups they are known for their humility and a tion largely disconnected from the every- and otherized, racialized ethnocultural tendency to understate their merits, more day lives and reality of racialized minor- minorities have dissolved. Those hierar- than half the Canadians declared their ity groups and of most immigrants who chies and the social relations of power culture to be superior to others (in essen- are not of European origin or descent. and domination that maintain them are tially the same proportion as their Ameri- all too real. Working generally to the can counterparts), as opposed to barely The vision and the reality benefit of Euro-descendant Canadians, one in three British and French, two in On the surface of things, to be sure, they are largely responsible for the terri- five Germans, and one in five Swedes. Canada seems eminently multicultural. torial dispossession and cultural disinte- gration of indigenous peoples (and the general disinclination to make amends These findings ultimately exposed Canada’s for it), the abusive use of the labour of immigrants from underprivileged coun- multicultural narrative for what it really is: a tries, and the systemic exclusion of racialized groups from mainstream socio-political fiction largely disconnected from socioeconomic networks. Canadians may like to think of them- the everyday lives and reality of racialized selves as multicultural, but they are not minority groups and of most immigrants who necessarily prepared to abide by the demanding obligations of the truly plu- are not of European origin or descent. ralistic, democratic sense of community

34 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 and citizenship that ultimately come with minorities, and, in the end, account for multiculturalism. In principle, they see This denial of the the former’s reluctance to embrace the otherness and ethnocultural diversity as pivotal role of power latter’s difference unreservedly. This unproblematic, but, as the Pew Center denial of the pivotal role of power in the sur­vey might suggest, only so long as in the regulation of regulation of the Other is deeply ac­comp­anying expressions of difference anchored in the liberal social imagina- and minority identity claims can some- the Other is deeply tion of Euro-descendant majorities. It how be contained within mainstream allows them to sidestep the question of normative and cultural frameworks, so anchored in the their hegemony and avoid engaging in a long as accommodating them does not deeper self-critical reflection on the disrupt the socioeconomic advantages liberal social terms and conditions of inclusion and and the hegemonic position Euro- citizenship they have imposed—are Can- descendants have gained over time. The imagination of Euro- adians not, after all, deeply committed idea of multiculturalism may make Can- descendant majorities. to equality of treatment and opportunity adians feel good about themselves, but for all regardless of origin, ethnicity, implementing the imperatives of a fully religion, sex, or length of establishment accomplished multicultural ethos is a in the community? step that most are not quite disposed to may agree that room should be made for Canadians readily accept their consti- take. improvement, indeed that more should tutive ethnocultural diversity and are be done to facilitate the socioeconomic generally proud of it. That is a given. Power and distinction in inclusion of ethnocultural minority What is at issue is the quality of the place intercultural contacts groups, promoters of Canadian multicul- Euro-descendants are inclined to reserve Norwegian anthropologist Fredrick turalism rarely consider the matter out- for expressions of normative and cultural Barth, who explored inter-ethnic and side a depoliticized vision of the social difference in the public sphere. Like most intercultural relations in a variety of relations and dynamics of power to other Westerners, they have a problem social contexts over several decades, which most ethnocultural minority with otherness when it questions their has shown how the constant movement groups are subjected through their dif- cultural foundations and challenges their of individuals from one side to the other ference and otherness. They dwell assumed normative superiority. Unless of cultural borders rarely guarantees that instead on a reassuring but often vacu- they are genuinely prepared to acknow- these same borders will eventually come ous rhetoric extolling the virtues of dia- ledge that their hegemonic position is down. This is because the differences, logue, solidarity, and exchange as the directly connected to the creation and distinctions, and oppositions that persist, main panacea for a more resolutely maintenance of the social processes of despite continuous inter-ethnic and multicultural Canada. Their conceptual exclusion, subalternization, and racial- intercultural contacts (and despite the universe is unwilling or incapable to ization of ethnocultural minorities, and interdependence said to characterize the appreciate how extant processes of unless they are willing, as a result, to relation between the different groups), exclusion, subalternization, and racial- abandon that position and rethink the are not necessarily attributable to the ization operate to cast a shadow over nature of their interaction with the Other, absence of mobility or a lack of know- social relations between the Euro- multiculturalism in Canada will likely ledge of the Other, but, rather, to the descendant majority and ethnocultural continue to be a fiction. reproduction of processes of social exclusion and incorporation, which are anchored in history. In other words, it is The Center for Research on North America at UNAM in the reality of the socioeconomic rela- The Center for Research on North America (CISAN) tions of power and domination, shaped originated in November 1988 as the University by the vagaries of history and preserved Research Program on the United States; three by institutions that reflect them, that the cause of the perennial nature of hierar- months later the University Council approved its chies and class differences that oppose transformation into the Center for Research on the and distinguish majorities and ethnocul- United States (CISEUA) . The National Autonomous tural minorities can be found. University of Mexico thus made scientific research This kind of perspective is notably in this area a priority given the pre-­eminence of absent from most assessments of Cana- the United States in the world and the importance da’s multiculturalism by mainstream of our geographical proximity to it . www.cisan.unam.mx political and intellectual elite. While they

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 35 A tale of two apologies

n 2008, on February 13 and June 11, conflicts among the initially appointed By Tom Clark and Ravi de Costa Irespectively, the prime ministers of commissioners but also to the inherent Australia and Canada put motions of Dr. Tom Clark in 2009 is a visiting fellow difficulties of balancing the sensitivities apology to the parliaments they lead. In at the Robarts Centre for Canadian of diverse Aboriginal constituencies. Studies, York University, specializing both cases, these were apologies on in discourse analysis and rhetorical Appointing new commissioners took behalf of nations and governments that studies. He is a senior lecturer at Victoria nearly eight months, and the TRC has had, over successive generations, pur- University (Melbourne). Dr. Ravi de Costa yet to publish its plans for meeting its sued active campaigns to break up is an assistant professor in the Faculty of mandate. The difficulty of providing a Aboriginal families and erase indigenous Environmental Studies, York University. form of justice that is recognizable both His 2006 book, A Higher Authority, ethnicity. The consequences for multi- is a study of indigenous transnationalism to governments and to Aboriginal com- cultural relations in Commonwealth and Australia. munities remains immense. countries were obviously important, though their precise implications were The imaginations that (and remain) unclear. drive the debates The similarities between the timings [W]e stand to learn a Our interest in the evolution of reconcili- of, and the offences motivating, these huge amount about ation in these two countries comes in two apologies obscured a number of part from these evolving similarities. It is important differences in their institu- indigenous and non- as though the two paths are fated to run tional and legal ramifications. Canada’s in parallel. apology was preceded by the settlement Aboriginal attitudes in In a deep sense, that “fate” must be a of a class action brought by survivors of product of the similarities in ideology Indian residential schools and their Canada, Australia, and policy that govern two economically families. The settlement primarily and elsewhere by successful colonial offshoots, in which involved compensation and support for European ethnicity remains an assumed survivors, as well as the creation of a paying close attention cultural mainstream. That assumption is Truth and Reconciliation Commission at odds with the multicultural realities of (TRC). It did not, however, include an to people’s discourses Canada and Australia, of course. People apology, which the minority Harper of indigenous and “minority” ethnicities government only chose to make after around reconciliation. combine to form a majority of the popula- considerable pressure from other parties tion in each country. and from Aboriginal people. Australia’s Perhaps more immediately, there are apology, by contrast, was explicitly Thus, in Australia, the so-called gap ready comparisons to be drawn between framed as a symbolic action only, with between Aborigines and Torres Strait the imaginative dispositions that entered no institutional follow-up, and compen- Islanders on the one hand, and non- into these apologies. These dispositions sation expressly ruled out. indigenous Australians on the other, is show up in the wordings the apologizers underscored by a 17-year difference in and other parties to these reconciliation Abiding parallels life expectancy that many commentators initiatives use—especially the stock But the comparisons persist. During the take as somehow indicative of the entire phrasing, the clichés and platitudes that year and more that has passed since situation. An ongoing military interven- people reach for as they try to discuss these events, comment in both countries tion in the Northern Territory, initially the nature of the event, its significance, has generally emphasized the subse- proposed in response to reports of and mechanics. quent disappointment. The waves of endemic child sexual abuse in this area’s By imaginative disposition, we mean national energy and resolve that these remote communities, has made no something like Goffman’s notion of symbolic breakthroughs both occa- noticeable difference to the problem it “framing.” How people construe the situ- sioned have, as many predicted, given was set up to address. Cynicism quickly ations around them is a major deter- way to the old realizations that develop- fills any absence of progress. miner of their conscious and uncon- ing policy to address entrenched disad- Somewhat comparably, in Canada, scious responses to those situations. vantage is genuinely difficult, and that the Truth and Reconciliation Commis- Because the imaginative disposition is implementing substantial measures to sion that the government agreed to in the grounded in people’s interpretation of a redress indigenous grievances is still Settlement Agreement has yet to com- world-made-symbolic, it is only revealed more difficult. mence hearings, due partly to personal by symbolic means: especially through

36 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 language, but also through other expres- [T]he legacy of the spoke of the need, the urgency, to “go sive media. This means that we stand to forward together.” Without question, learn a huge amount about indigenous residential schools both governments have sought to draw and non-Aboriginal attitudes in Canada, on the political capital of their apologies Australia, and elsewhere by paying close and the legacy of the in order to generate support for a renewal attention to people’s discourses around of, rather than a shift in, public policy as reconciliation. Stolen Generations it affects indigenous interests. are legacies of That brings us to a second shared A focus on the rhetoric property: the political agendas that arise Among the most important moments in unresolved issues, and from the apologies in both countries are the respective national reconciliation framed in more or less identical meta- discourses has been the two parliamen- bound to remain that phors, using more or less identical phras- tary apology “debates.” This is a function ing. Contributors to the debates in both of their inherent symbolic importance, way for some time. countries repeatedly mentioned the but also of the extent of public attention need to “heal,” to “build a future” in each received. The Canadians who which such atrocities would not be pos- gathered on Parliament Hill to watch live prime minister (Conservative Stephen sible, and to “go forward together.” coverage of the debate were “joined” by Harper), leaders of the three main oppo- On one level, these are empty phrases: millions of home viewers and radio lis- sition parties (the Liberals, the Bloc, and clichés and platitudes that fill in for a very teners around the country, although that the New Democrats), and five represen- loose sense of what specific policy agen- may still represent a minority response. tatives of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples. das to pursue, or even what specific It is clear that many Canadians (includ- ­values should guide those policy frame- ing an unknown number of survivors of Important rhetorical works. On another level, they reveal a the residential schools) were unaware similarities shared understanding that these phrases that the apology had been made. We have been particularly struck by were somehow appropriate to the In Australia, towns and cities around three rhetorical properties these debates moment: the language reveals just how the country set up public screens for share. The first is their shared aspiration deeply the desire for consensus was crowds in their dozens (at many of the to authenticity, to present a nationally informing both the content and the styl- remote outstations) or their tens of thou- important moment in a language that ing of these speeches—exposing both sands (in Brisbane, Melbourne, and cuts through the inanity of regular parti- the truth and the fragility of Chartier’s Sydney). Again, millions of home view- san debate. In his address to the Com- observation. It shows us how the legacy ers and listeners joined them by tuning mons, Clem Chartier, president of the of the residential schools and the legacy in for the show. But untallied millions Métis National Council, said: “I know of the Stolen Generations are legacies of ignored it, too. deep in my heart that the party leaders unresolved issues, and bound to remain Coverage of the Australian debate and the prime minister who spoke today that way for some time. may have drawn relatively more live spoke with sincerity, not with the theat- A third property plays off the second: viewers and listeners, but it was more rics of the Commons. That has been set that desire for consensus did not cause heavily promoted, and set up to be less aside. I can see that. I can feel that. I any vagueness in describing the wrongs taxing on the attention span. Television know that it is deep and real.” The politi- of the residential schools and the Stolen and radio covered the speeches of the cians had certainly framed their speeches Generations. Within the understandable prime minister (Labor’s Kevin Rudd) in language that could draw this appraisal, constraints of parliamentary debate, all and of the then-leader of the opposition beginning with the unanimity of support speakers in both countries left no doubt (the Liberals’ Brendan Nelson), but the that the government expressly requested about the profundity of harm, about the rest of the debate was adjourned to par- before Harper commenced the debate. importance of the evils they were liamentary committees. Representatives In Australia, the aspiration to unanim- rejecting. of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait ity was equally in the foreground, mean- Islander communities were feted visitors, ing there was a deliberate avoidance of Linking rhetoric and action but their place was in the galleries and blame for living persons, a deliberate This paradox—of a past acknowledged not in the bearpit. avoidance of the Labor government’s in explicit terms, and a future about The live coverage in Canada was both crowing over the defeated Liberals (who which the parties collaborate in keeping fairer and less exciting. It sought a bal- had publicly refused to make such an their discourse vague—is clearly related ance between the parliamentarians apology in 1997, when they were in gov- to “the lack of real progress on the apologizing and the aggrieved parties ernment, but who were now supporting ground” in both countries. Our research receiving that apology. It involved the the motion). Instead, both party leaders A tale of two apologies, page 40

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 37 Ask a Researcher: Is diversity a success on the mean streets of Toronto? Diversity on the mean streets of Toronto want to suggest that even as diversity racial profiling in domestic spheres and By Grace-Edward Galabuzi I is becoming more normalized as a way at border control points, which target of defining Canadian society, it is in cri- Grace-Edward Galabuzi is a professor such “misdeeds” as those comically in the Department of Politics and Public sis. I will draw on the experiences of the referred to as Driving While Black Administration at Ryerson University. African-Canadian community to under- (DWB), or Flying While Arab (FWA). score the socioeconomic and discursive The “war on terror” is invoked to justify basis for the crisis, and its implications Multiculturalism security certificate detentions of Muslim for regulating diversity and difference in men; the characterization of young Mus- Canada as a liberal democratic society. would also come to lims as homegrown terrorists; wide- spread deportations of failed asylum Diversity: Multiculturalism’s serve as a powerful claimants and non-documented resi- strategic compromise integration myth, dents; coercive community safety Multiculturalism as an official discourse regimes that legitimate assaults on and practice regulating diversity emerged maintaining both largely racialized low-income communi- as a strategic compromise between ties to extract supposed gang members political class and insurgent ethnocul- discursive and (often leaving behind traumatized fami- tural and racialized populations in the material dimensions lies and children); unchallenged surveil- 1960s, based initially in Quebec. This lance in malls, public places, and public strategic compromise paved the way for which deployed and private housing complexes; and official multiculturalism to become the zero tolerance policies in the schools. dominant Canadian practice for manag- socially constructed Much of this regime of illiberal practices ing intercultural and interracial relations is informed by moral panic about in the 1970s and 80s, so much so that it categories of ethnics pathologized populations of racialized is often referred to today as “a Canadian and “visible and religious minorities and is justified value.” Multiculturalism would also come within a framework of liberal to serve as a powerful integration myth, minorities” in order to multiculturalism. maintaining both discursive and material These racializing and criminalizing dimensions which deployed socially regulate the everyday practices lead to strained interactions constructed categories of ethnics and between racialized groups and the insti- “visible minorities” in order to regulate lives of immigrant tutions of the Canadian state. Youths in the everyday lives of immigrant com- communities. some of the communities are subjected munities. Its emergence served the pur- to routine police harassment and brutal- pose of “order maintenance” in a situa- ity, excessive use of techniques such as tion where the existing Eurocentric strip searches, and harsh criminal justice conformity order was in crisis because Racializing security penalties allegedly needed for the its legitimating myths had lost their Firstly, the emergence of a national defense of the broader Canadian salience as social consent mechanisms security and community safety regime community. among indigenous and settler popula- informed by the notion of “Clash of Civil­ tions. Suddenly, the insistence on “Brit- ization,” means concern over security Public opinion and ishness” or “Frenchness” as the passport has increasingly taken a racial turn, reasonable accommodation for Canadian identity was no longer manifest in the contemporary discourses Secondly, according to a September acceptable, and for many Canadian and practices in response to the “war on 2007 Institute for Research in Public minorities, US assimilation policies terror” and anxieties around community Policy survey, Canadians overwhelm- seemed more humane than Canada’s safety. Such responses are also inspired ingly support the notion of “limits to obstinate clinging to Anglo-Canadian by anxieties about the growing numeri- reasonable accommodation.” In the cultural values for its identity. cal significance of multiracial segments survey, only 18 percent agreed with the From the vantage point of 2009 then, of the Canadian population. The “war position that it is reasonable to accom- there are three key reasons for the crisis on terror” has generated a range of illib- modate religious and cultural minorities of Canadian multiculturalism. eral practices, including widespread while 53 percent said these minorities

38 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 should adapt to Canadian culture. In Canadians tion between the socioeconomic crisis Quebec, only 5.4 percent agreed with and violence is widely documented. the proposition that it was reasonable to overwhelmingly Studies on murder in Canada document accommodate minorities while 76.9 that young offenders (and not only the percent said immigrants should fully support the notion of perpetrators of violent crime but their adapt to Quebec culture. While two- victims, too) tend to be the products of thirds of Canadians have heard of the “limits to reasonable single-parent families, poor parenting, concept of reasonable accommodation, poverty, and dysfunctional families. nine in ten Quebecers have heard of it. accommodation.” Violence in the popular culture and In Quebec, 80.7 percent were fully mainstream media are other contribut- opposed or somewhat opposed to provi- ing factors. sion of prayer space in public space (57.6 While the Canadian low-income rate was Other research suggests that com- percent fully opposed) while only 12.6 14.7 percent in 2001, low-income rates munity violence represents a form of percent supported it. In Canada, 58.6 for racialized groups ranged from 16 nihilism that arises out of the social percent were fully or somewhat opposed, percent to as high as 43 percent. alienation that emerges in conditions of 38.1 percent were fully opposed, while despair and powerlessness. Young 31.4 percent supported or somewhat The racialization of poverty people are more likely to be the victims of violence, and this is particularly true supported it. One explanation for this reality is the of racialized youth in low-income areas. Increasingly, demands for limits to racialization of poverty, a phrase that These youth are also more likely to be tolerance and reasonable accommoda- refers to the disproportionate and persis- criminalized through the targeted polic- tion are eclipsing minorities’ cultural, tent experience of low income among ing, over-policing, and racial profiling in religious, ethnic, and racial claims, as racialized groups. The racialization of these areas, leading to higher levels of dominant populations charge religious poverty emerges out of structural socio- incarceration. The prison population and racialized minorities with intoler- economic features that predetermine the from major urban centres is dispropor- ance of dominant practices and values. unequal access to opportunities for tionately Aboriginal and racialized. Whether framed as limits to tolerance or generating income that racialized groups limits to reasonable accommodation, the face. Current trends indicate that eco- acceptance of this discourse of denial nomic inequality between racialized Toronto’s African- has reinforced doubts about multicultur- immigrant groups and their Canadian- Canadian community alism as the appropriate framework for born counterparts is becoming greater It is worth considering how the African- managing and negotiating relations and more permanent, suggesting that Canadian population in Toronto has between and among diverse cultural, multicultural Canada is not the “just experienced Canada’s iconic program. racial, and ethnic groups within Canada. society” it aspires to be. Toronto’s African-Canadian community The “necessity” of the Quebec govern- Racialized community members and relations with the city’s dominant society ment’s Bourchard/Taylor Commission Aboriginal peoples are twice as likely to and institutions are often mediated suggests a heightened attention to this be poor as other Canadians because of through stereotypical notions of the crisis. the intensified economic and social “proclivity of its members to criminality” exploitation these communities face. and their experience with the criminal The socioeconomic implications Members of these communities have had justice system. Key institutions such as of social exclusion to endure historical racial and gender the mainstream media also reproduce Finally, research shows that there are inequalities, accentuated by the restruc- narratives and images that reinforce significant and enduring racially defined turing of the Canadian economy and historically constructed stigmas and differences in the socioeconomic experi- various forms of racial profiling. The pathologies, especially about black ences of groups in Canada, particularly resulting experiences of exclusion have youth, thus helping to generate moral in the urban centres. National and Cen- led to powerlessness, socioeconomic panic that demands securitized sus Metropolitan Area data now show marginalization, and loss of voice, which responses and criminalization. These that racialized people are two or three have compounded these groups’ inabil- developments in turn reproduce unequal times more likely to be poor than other ity to put issues of social inequality on access to employment, neighbourhood Canadians. The rates are even higher the political agenda. segregation, higher risks, diminished life among recent immigrants and some The experience of poverty is also chances and something less than full select groups such as those youth, evident in the breakdown in social insti- citizenship. women, and seniors who are of Arab, tutions and increased service-delivery For instance, while Canada’s and Latin American, Somali, Haitian, Iranian, deficits, social vulnerability, insecurity, Toronto’s murder rates were stable for Tamil, East Indian, or Vietnamese origin. and increased health risks. The connec- Ask a researcher, page 40

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 39 Ask a researcher continued from page 39 much of the 1990s, at about 2.5 per ties has the effect of denying them equal 100,000 for Canada and 2.4 per 100,000 [W]e must transcend treatment and the right to full participa- for Toronto, the rates among blacks in the phase in which tion in Canadian society. It also raises Toronto, and particularly black youths, questions about whether liberal demo- have skyrocketed. According to aca- we focus on symbolic cratic citizenship is not determined by demic experts, the murder rate for blacks race, gender, class or immigrant status, is four times that of the general popula- multiculturalism and and it undermines popular claims about tion, at 10.1 per 100,000. While the black Canada as an equitable and multicultural community represents just under 10 embrace a process society. percent of the city’s population, it that concretizes accounted for approximately 30 percent Steps ahead of the murder victims annually between cultural pluralism as The promise of multiculturalism remains 1996 and 2004. This suggests that while unfulfilled. And yet it represents the the rates have been stable for other seg- a horizontal reality. vision of a society open to difference and ments of the population, Toronto has cultural pluralism. That aspect of the become “more dangerous” for blacks Racial profiling quickly becomes an discursive framework is clearly worth and black youth. Since 1998, the percent- indispensable tool of law enforcement holding on to and building upon. How- age of homicide victims under the age under these circumstances, in response ever, we must transcend the phase in 25 has grown to 40 percent from 25 per- to moral panic about black criminality. which we focus on symbolic multicultur- cent in the 1970s, and a majority of these Young blacks have often described alism and embrace a process that con- victims have been black youth. their encounters with police as being cretizes cultural pluralism as a horizontal The official response to the spate of characterized by the officers’ contempt, reality. This means conceding the nar- gun killings that have engulfed Toronto confrontational and harassing attitudes, ratives of Canada as an English and in the first decade of the 21st century mistakes about identity, and harshness. French country which makes some has been an aggressive law and order They often result in harassment, harsh space for Aboriginal people and ethnora- and containment incursion into racial- penalties, brutality, and criminalization. cial cultural minorities. The project of ized low-income communities. Political Recall that these are young people nation building is a dynamic one that leaders have caved in to every resource whose access to other public spaces is allows us to claim our history without demand from the police, with the always being challenged by police or, in being trapped in it. A bold multicultural Toronto Police Service setting up a the case of malls, security guards. The future will mean that multiculturalism is Toronto Anti-Violence Intervention Strat- street then becomes a site for turf wars, not a hierarchical edifice with racialized egy (TAVIS) that operates on the prin- which in most cases are resolved groups at the bottom but a complex ciples of high visibility used in military through police harassment and brutality. matrix of peoples old and new to the war zone operations: large vans and Young blacks are in this way the dispro- land. One that insists on justly resolving scout cars patrolling continuously in the portionate targets of criminalization by the colonial relationship between the identified communities; quick reaction security institutions. The marginalization settler population and the Aboriginal forces; and intelligence-gathering oper- of blacks and other racialized communi- population. ations that engage community members, as a way of cultivating informers. These aggressive and illiberal responses can be rationalized because A tale of two apologies continued from page 37 in Canadian society, young black men over the coming months and years aims and clear appraisals of the past, but have historically been constructed as to map out and try to explain these dis- conspicuously shy away from honesty aggressive, violent, and dangerous. As Carl James has remarked, “when they cursive phenomena across the Canadian and clarity about the options they face are chilling, they are layabouts, up to no and Australian experiences, in both for the future. That reflects a fear of los- good, and generally engaged in what official reconciliation processes and ing the consensus, to be sure, but also a society considers inappropriate behav- conversations in the public forums out- fear that honest language will expose the iour.” The distance from these accounts side of those processes. lack of clear thinking—the absence of of inoffensive but “inappropriate” black The challenge in this, for social and compelling policy. Bridging that gap will youth to a perception of young black men cultural policy, is acute. Both countries take more work than either country is as criminalized is almost non-existent. have made quantum steps toward honest ready to acknowledge.

40 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 Realizing the potentials—and facing the challenges—of multiculturalism in Canada*

and negative effects on social integra- A retreat from By Jeffrey G. Reitz, multiculturalism Raymond Breton, Karen K. Dion, tion, depending on different dimensions of social integration. ulticulturalism has been a corner- Kenneth L. Dion To see the effects of ethnic diversity stone of Canadian policy for almost Jeffrey G. Reitz is the M on social integration, it is necessary to 40 years, but internationally it remains R.F. Harney Professor of Ethnic, consider the process as it occurs over controversial. Particularly since 9/11 and Immigration, and Pluralism Studies at the Munk Centre for International Studies, time. Recent immigrants often establish in light of European experiences where University of Toronto. Raymond Breton strong attachments to their ethnic com- inter-ethnic conflicts resulting from is professor emeritus in sociology at the munity while they are only beginning to immigration seem to threaten social University of Toronto. Karen Dion is a become integrated in Canada. Over time, cohesion, there has been a “retreat” from professor in the area of social, personality, ethnic attachments weaken, and partici- multiculturalism. Should Canada keep and abnormal psychology at the University of Toronto. The late Kenneth Dion was pation in Canada strengthens. This hap- multiculturalism despite problems else- a professor of social psychology at the pens to immigrants, and continues for where? Or should our multiculturalism University of Toronto. their children. The real question is how policies be changed, or perhaps even ethnic attachment and social integration abandoned? [T]oday, the debate is are related to each other in this process Debate over multiculturalism is partly of adjustment to life in Canada. Does the a question of political principle, as dis- mostly about the maintenance of strong ethnic attach- cussed, for example, by Canadian phi- ments affect the pace of social integra- losophers Will Kymlicka and Charles impact of diversity tion in Canada over time? Taylor. But today, the debate is mostly Positive effects of strong ethnic about the impact of diversity and the and the conditions attachments are found when we look at conditions under which its impacts are a person’s sense of belonging in Canada, positive and negative. Whether there is under which its and their overall life satisfaction. These “unity in diversity,” as advocates say, or impacts are positive positive effects hold for recent immi- whether diversity leads to isolation, grants, earlier immigrants, and for sec- mistrust, and disunity, as critics suggest, and negative. ond generation youth, taking account of is a question for social and psychological time in Canada. They hold for different analysis based on the evidence. origins: European or visible minority. Ethnic attachments also have positive Analyzing the impact ond, how do inequality and discrimina- effects when it comes to voting, a telling of diversity tion affect the dynamics of inter-group indicator of social integration. Our analysis of the impact of diversity is relations for visible minorities? Third, Strong ethnic attachments are found based on evidence from a unique and what is the impact of the new religious to have negative effects on rates of citi- comprehensive source, Statistics Cana- diversity? And fourth, are there signifi- zenship acquisition for immigrants, and da’s 2002 Ethnic Diversity Survey. This cant regional differences, such as on their acquisition of a sense of Canad- survey of over 40,000 Canadians repre- between Quebec and the rest of Canada? ian identity. These effects are particularly sents all cultural groups across the Our conclusions, summarized below, strong for immigrants, less so for those country, both visible minorities and suggest multiculturalism policy in Can- born in Canada. There is also a clear those of European origin, and includes ada can be improved to address key negative effect of strong ethnic attach- recent immigrants, earlier immigrants, challenges of diversity, while its positive ments on feelings of trust. This recalls and the children of immigrants. We potentials are kept and enhanced. the much discussed finding of Robert focus on the social integration of these Putnam that diversity undermines social groups as a key to social cohesion. Impact of ethnic capital, which he measured in terms of Four specific topics are of particular attachments trust. interest. First, when immigrant minori- Analysis of the Ethnic Diversity Survey So the answer to this first “multicul- ties and their children retain ethnic shows that ethnic attachments—strong turalism” question is mixed; the answer attachments over time, what is the ethnic identity and involvement in the depends on the dimension of integration. impact on their social integration? Sec- ethnic community—have both positive Realizing the potentials, page 42

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 41 Realizing the potentials continued from page 41 Ethnic attachments appear to enhance tory experiences, offsetting its negative the quality of life for many, but they also Ethnic attachments impact on life satisfaction. This dynamic mean weaker attachment to Canada and appear to enhance clearly slows the process of integration greater social isolation based on less into mainstream society. trust in others. So, in this respect, the the quality of life for two apparently opposing views of the The new religious social impact of diversity are not really many, but they also minorities: Muslims, Hindus, contradictory. Rather, they capture dif- mean weaker Sikhs, Buddhists ferent aspects of a single reality. The debate over multiculturalism has attachment to Canada focused increasingly on religion, as recent Diversity and the experience immigration from Asia and the Middle of discrimination and and greater social East has increased the numbers of Mus- disadvantage lims, now almost 2 percent of the popu- Clearly the potential for diversity to isolation based on lation in Canada. The question is whether enhance cohesion depends in part on a specific Muslim values, beliefs, or prac- degree of equality in inter-group rela- less trust in others. tices such as those concerned with gen- tions. Visible minorities in Canada der equality and the enforcement of reli- experience significant inequality and gious codes, may undermine social often report instances of discrimination. for increased sensitivity to discrimina- cohesion because they clash too much What role does such inequality play in tion over time likely include a changing with mainstream Canadian society. the social dynamic of diversity for visible frame of reference. Whereas immigrants These issues were reflected in the Ont­ minorities? may compare their circumstances favor- ario debate on Sharia law in family tribu- Visible minorities have the lowest ably to what they experienced in their nals, and in the Quebec debate over what household incomes and the highest homeland, over time their expectations is “reasonable accommodation,” leading poverty rates—about double the rates for increase. Their children, as Canadians, to the Bouchard-Taylor commission. whites—but their experience definitely expect full equality. They may feel In the Ethnic Diversity Survey data, improves with time in Canada. The chil- greater frustration if it is denied. the social integration of Muslims can be dren of visible minority immigrants have Partly as a result of experiences of compared to that of other religious high levels of education, and much discrimination and a sense of exclusion, groups, including Christians and Jews, improved household income levels. visible minorities are less socially inte- and other new religious groups such as On the other hand, many visible grated into Canadian society than their Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists, who each minority respondents report experi- white counterparts. They are clearly now comprise about one percent of the ences of discrimination in Canada, and slower to acquire a “Canadian” identity. population. By this comparison, Muslims their concerns appear to intensify with Most other indicators show more nega- do not stand out as experiencing distinc- greater time in Canada. For recent immi- tive trends for racial minorities than for tive problems of integration. In fact, for grants, 34 percent of visible minorities whites. For example, among recent the new religious groups, problems of reported experiences of discrimination immigrants racial minorities actually integration arise not from religion but in the previous five years, compared to express a stronger sense of belonging in from the fact that most of them are visible 19 percent for whites. Visible minorities Canada than do whites; among the chil- minorities. also more often report discomfort in dren of immigrants it is the reverse. The Religion was related to only a few social situations, and even fear becom- positive outlook of newly arrived racial- group differences in social integration. ing the target of an attack. And over time, minority immigrants fades considerably For example, Canadian identity is slower these concerns become more frequent with experience in Canada. to develop for visible minorities, and this for visible minorities, whereas among At the psychological level, for visible is least likely for the Hindus and Sikhs; white immigrants reports of discrimina- minorities, ethnic attachments may other groups are more similar to one tion decline. serve as a kind of refuge against social another—for example Protestants, Catho- For the children of immigrants, the exclusion. The sense of threat experi- lics, and Muslims. Regarding trust, the rate of reported experiences of discrimi- enced by racial minorities reinforces proportion with the lowest level of trust nation among visible minorities is up to attachments within the ethnic commu- is found among Catholics and Muslims; 42 percent—and over 60 percent for nity. At the same time, the ethnic com- among visible minorities, the level of blacks—whereas among whites the rates munity provides a kind of psychological trust is lowest among the Protestants decline to about 10 percent. The reasons shield against the stress of discrimina- (who are mostly blacks), the Catholics,

42 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 and the Sikhs. Rates of reported life sat- And, fourth, we find that the impact isfaction for visible minorities overall Celebrating diversity of diversity is much the same across were lower, but Muslims are not distinc- has positive effects, Canada, and in particular is not less in tively unhappy with their lives in Canada, Quebec despite the greater media atten- by this measure. but there is a need tion to the issue there. Muslims also do not stand out if we Our most general policy conclusion focus only on those who have the stron- also to address inter- is that multiculturalism has strengths in gest religious beliefs. Greater religiosity Canada but also certain weaknesses. seems to reflect greater ethnic affiliation group isolation and Celebrating diversity has positive effects, and community involvement, and Mus- inequality. but there is a need also to address inter- lims are not different from other religious group isolation and inequality. Multicul- groups in this regard. The conclusion turalism policy should embrace a more underscores that fears about Muslim authentic and socially active commit- integration based on individual cases Another observation is that the mar- ment to developing positive relations publicized in the media are not borne ginal category is far from insignificant. between groups. out by broad-based survey data. This finding points to an important issue, that for many Canadians the question of Equality, encounters, Differences between Quebec choosing between mainstream and and interchange and the rest of Canada? ethnic does not reflect their experience It is worth recalling that these issues Generally we find little difference in the because, for them, neither is relevant. were emphasized in Pierre Trudeau’s social integration of minorities in Que- Some may become marginal because original speech on multicultural philoso- bec as compared with the rest of Canada. they do not want to maintain an ethnic phy in 1971. Multiculturalism, he said, However, most ethnic, racial, and reli- attachment, and yet for a variety of rea- involved supporting minority communi- gious minorities do report somewhat sons may feel weak attachments to the ties. But it also required resources for lower rates of discrimination in Quebec. rest of society. integration, including equal access to full In fact, the findings suggest that Quebec participation in Canadian society, as well may be the most “multicultural” region Conclusions and as learning an official language. And he in Canada. policy implications added a fourth objective: to “promote Our analysis identifies four sub- In sum, our conclusions are as follows. creating encounters and interchange groups, based on the strength of ethnic First, minority ethnic and cultural com- among all Canadian cultural groups, in attachments and broader social integra- munities—reflected, for example, in the the interest of national unity.” tion. Two of these represent the assimila- formation of residential enclaves—per- Regarding equality, existing policy tion paradigm: an “ethnic orientation” form positive functions for the integration promotes the idea of racial equality, but with strong ethnic attachments and weak of immigrants, but also show tendencies the impact has been small. Minority attachments to society, the other a toward isolation from mainstream soci- groups’ concerns about inequality grow “mainstream orientation” with weak ety, and slower integration into the wider with greater experience in Canada, and ethnic attachments and strong attach- Canadian community. equity policies evidently have been insuf- ments to the mainstream. In the multi- Second, visible minorities experience ficient to counter this trend. Minorities cultural ideal one may have both strong less integration with time in Canada, with greater experience in Canada ethnic and mainstream attachments, partly because of social exclusion and become more concerned about the and persons in this situation are put in their own retreating into an enclave. Vis- issue, and as Canadian-born generations the “pluralist” category. Finally, there is ible minorities experience a sense of of racial minorities emerge, the issues of also the possibility that neither set of social exclusion which grows with the equality will become more significant. attachments is very strong, and these length of time spent in Canada and is Inter-group exchanges could help Can- people are put in “marginal” category. more salient for the children of immi- adians address issues that include not Most Canadians are in either the grants than for the immigrants them- only culture, but also inequalities. “ethnic” or the “mainstream” category. selves. Minority communities can play a posi- However, many persons are in the plural- Third, the newer religious minorities tive role in the integration of immigrants ist category, and it is noteworthy that this experience less integration into Canad- and members of minorities into the larger pluralist category is more prevalent in ian society mainly because they are vis- society. They can act as a sort of “social Quebec. This reflects in part the French- ible minorities, not because of their reli- bridge” between the two. Under certain English duality of Quebec, leading more gion. Muslims do not stand out in this circumstances, they may isolate some of people to have complex and multiple regard from other new religious groups their members from the larger society. identities. such as Hindus, Sikhs, or Buddhists. Realizing the potentials, page 45

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 43 Ask a Foundation: Where does Canada’s premier identity program go from here? Intentionality and instruments: Making multiculturalism work gin, peculiar customs, habits and modes Vague intentions By Alan Broadbent of life, unsuitability with regard to the o paraphrase Butch Cassidy, it’s not Alan Broadbent is chairman and CEO climate, probable inability to become the multiculturalism that’ll kill you, it’s of Avana Capital Corporation. T readily assimilated, etc.” Kent’s point the discontents. The Canadian discourse, system upped the diversity dimension at least as reported in our media, has a dramatically, which led to the multicul- lot of discontents, and we now have a A lot of the turalism policy within a decade. federal government which traffics in them Both Sifton and Kent, and their prime freely. One of them is multiculturalism. discontents we have ministers, saw immigration as a deliber- Multiculturalism is closely linked to with multiculturalism ate tool in nation building. In Sifton’s immigration, which has been a critical case, he knew who he wanted and he building block for Canada. A lot of the are in fact discontents set out to get them. He changed the discontents we have with multicultural- immigration department by putting offi- ism are in fact discontents with immigra- with immigration, and cials on commission, rewarding them tion, and derive from the fact that we according to how successful they were have had both a vague intention around derive from the fact in attracting immigrants. And he multiculturalism and weak instruments that we have had launched one of the first great marketing to implement it. The multiculturalism campaigns. It was said that you could policy itself and the Act that embeds it both a vague not go to any farming village or down are more aspirational than directive, and any country lane in northern Europe don’t offer a great deal of clarity. A intention around without seeing a Canadian recruitment clearer intent for immigration and a more poster on a wall or post. And he knew effective instrument for immigration, multiculturalism and that he had to create incentives to attract settlement, and integration would miti- farmers and to retain them. He had to gate many of the discontents around weak instruments to help them succeed. multiculturalism. implement it. In Kent’s time, Canada didn’t need to attract immigrants, but had to decide Two great periods between the many who wanted to come. of immigration nalist who became his senior adviser Kent linked the point system to labour We have had two great periods of immi- and then first deputy minister of the new market attachment, the most critical gration, at the start of the 20th century Department of Manpower and Immigra- settlement success factor. Kent’s system and in the 1960s and early ’70s. tion. In addition to being involved in most was colour-blind: you got points for six Prime Minister Laurier worried that of the extraordinary policy development factors—for example, your education and the unpopulated prairie was vulnerable of Pearson’s government, Kent was ability to speak English or French—but it to being settled and claimed by the responsible for the development of the didn’t matter where you came from. United States, so he tasked Clifford Sifton point system for evaluating potential Since the system was implemented in from his cabinet to solve the problem. immigrants. By assessing applicants in 1967, there has been increased diversity Sifton set about attracting cold weather terms of the qualities that Canada wanted in the races of immigrants. The idea was farmers, targeting those in the northern (education, youth, work experience), that if you selected immigrants properly, US and northern Europe. He used land this system changed a formerly exclusive you would dramatically increase the grants, credit, rail and storage infrastruc- intake which had favoured British and likelihood they’d succeed. ture to facilitate marketing crops, and a European immigrants and had focused The Sifton and Kent efforts shared variety of other incentives. In less than on keeping people out. According to an intentionality and instrumentality. They a decade, Canada’s population increased IRPP report by Genevieve Bouchard, the had a strong intent to choose the best by over 50 percent. 1952 immigration act “allowed refusal of immigrants to meet the needs of the Prime Minister Pearson’s man was admission on the grounds of nationality, country in their time, and they developed Tom Kent, a policy oriented former jour- ethnic group, geographical area of ori- the instruments to do it. In both cases

44 Canada Watch • Fall 2009 the underlying concept was building The way to defeat questions over relentlessly. And our par­ Canada by attracting new citizens— lia­ments change the law, to make sure ­people who would settle into the eco- the discontents before that it expresses current consensus. We nomic, social, and cultural life of the change it to allow women to vote or gays country. they kill you is to be to marry. Our values are robust and secure. The two themes of intentional and The Harper government has all but discontent instrumental in the abandoned immigration and multicultur- At most other times in Canada’s history, alism as an instrument of nation building. particularly since 1900, we’ve had dis- embrace of It views immigrants as cogs in a machine, contents that centre on two themes: as their burgeoning temporary worker they’ll take our jobs and they’ll worship multiculturalism and program shows. It is an approach that their own god. has failed everywhere else, where it has They’ll take our jobs is based in the immigration. created an underclass of workers in hid- belief that the economy is relatively finite ing, who don’t want to go back to where and inflexible, and with high unemploy- they came from, but cannot surface and ment rates among “Canadians,” immi- countries in the world where a majority act like citizens for fear of prosecution grants would just become a burden on of the population favoured immigration: and removal. These days, multicultural- public budgets. This fear ignores entre- the US was 53 percent, Australia 55 per- ism seems simply a way for political preneurism, the ability to create new cent, and Canada a whopping 75 per- parties to segment voting blocs. value and wealth. Tell an entrepreneur cent. We tend to like the idea in theory, that you want to bring in a million immi- and from what one can see of life on the Making intentional and grants, and they’ll say, “Goody, more streets of our cities, where most of the instrumental choices customers!” Tell a beleaguered public immigrants live, we seem to like it in Nations have choices to make, and official, trade unionist, or policy wonk, practice. Most of us tend to know and immigration can be seen as a liability or and they’ll see shortages and costs, even work with Asians, Africans, South an asset. Liabilities need to be limited, if they run a transit system which will get Asians, and people from around the to have boundaries put around them, lots of new riders or a university which planet. Most of us seem to have our lives constraints imposed, and costs tallied. will get new students. enriched in this way. But assets are invested, and given every And they’ll worship their own god, But what about our values? Canada is chance to succeed, because they will pay eat their own food, wear their own a nation of laws, with one of the most dividends for a long time into the future. clothes, and otherwise engage in behav- dynamic legal systems in the world. Our How you choose makes all the differ- iour absolutely different from that the basic values are expressed in the body ence to how you behave, and to the sum British brought from Britain and the of law, and they get tested every day of your discontents. French from France. It will, we are still across the country as we challenge each The way to defeat the discontents warned, ruin everything this country was other and push the boundaries of the before they kill you is to be intentional and built on! present. Through our legal system we instrumental in the embrace of multicul- So we have discontents, and we have test behaviour and thought, and through turalism and immigration. More Sifton, young people with history degrees run- our appeals process we turn important more Kent, fewer amateur hist­orians. ning programs to tell us Canada is failing because we haven’t memorized our prime ministers in order of appearance, Realizing the potentials continued from page 43 or our provincial capitals from east to The experience of social exclusion and of activity. These are challenging tasks, west. They urge us to have public educa- discrimination can be a critical factor in but they are important steps to assuring tion campaigns to stop the ebb of our generating such isolation. Also, the regu- all groups that they are fully Canadian, history and our values along with it. lar flow of new immigrants into the com- and that we can be as united as our Without it, they say, we’ll wake up one munity and the resulting increase in the multicultural ideals assert. day with a theocracy and dietary laws. size of the community may make it pos- * This paper is based on Multiculturalism sible for many individuals and families and Social Cohesion: Potentials and Enriched lives to function well within the community. Challenges of Diversity by Jeffrey G. Not everyone has discontents about In addition to promoting equality, it Reitz, Raymond Breton, Karen K. Dion, immigrants and multiculturalism, of would be important to foster inter- and Kenneth L. Dion, with the course. A Pew Trust poll a few years back changes among Canada’s cultural groups collaboration of Rupa Banerjee and found that Canada was one of three in cultural, economic, and social areas Mai Phan, published by Springer 2009.

Canada Watch • Fall 2009 45 For past issues of Canada Watch visit Robarts Centre’s website: www.yorku.ca/robarts

Robarts lectures Canada Watch English Canada and Quebec: Avoiding the Issue by Kenneth McRoberts 6th Annual: 1991 Recent issues 1492 and All That: Making a Garden out of a Wilderness by Ramsay Cook 7th Annual: 1992 Mr. O Goes to Politics on the Boundaries: Restructuring and the Canadian Women’s Movement by Janine Brodie 8th Annual: 1994 Washington: In Our Own Image: The Child, Canadian Culture and Our Future by Carole H. Carpenter 9th Annual: 1995 The Bigger Than Where Is Here? Canadian Cultural Policy in a Globalized World by Joyce Zemans 10th Annual: 1996 Big Agenda Spring 2009 Queer Nation? by Terry Goldie 11th Annual: 1997 Deep Integration: Defining Aboriginal Title in the ’90s: Has the Supreme Court Finally Got It Right? by Kent McNeil 12th Annual: 1998 North America Theatre and Transformation in Contemporary Canada by Robert Wallace 13th Annual: 1999 Post-Bush The Writer’s Conscience: Or Why Reports of the Death of the Author Have Been Greatly Exaggerated Summer 2008 speaking notes by Susan Swan 14th Annual: 2000 Canadian Studies: Canadian Movies, eh? by Seth Feldman 15th Annual: 2001 A Future? Fall 2007 Rethinking Feminization: Gendered Precariousness in the Labour Market and the Crisis in Social The Chrétien Era: Reproduction by Leah F. Vosko Distinguished Series: 2002 A Red Book Audit Citizenship After Orientalism by Engin F. Isin Distinguished Series: 2002 February 2004 The Digitalization of Knowledge: Tribal Ignorance and the African Diaspora by Paul E. Lovejoy FRSC Distinguished Series: 2002