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Submitted in Accordance with the Requirements for the Degree of Phd Linguistic Identity in Nineteenth-Century Tyneside Dialect Songs by Rodney Hermeston Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD The University of Leeds School of English March 2009 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement 1 Acknowledgements I wish to give particular thanks to my supervisors, David Fairer, Anthea Fraser Gupta and Alison Johnson. Acknowledgements also go to Clive Upton. Thanks to Katie Wales, Joan Beal, Nikolas Coupland, Emma Moore, Andrew Walker, Judith Murphy and Charles Phythian-Adams. All of these scholars made manuscripts and conference papers available to me. I am extremely grateful to Katie Wales for commenting upon parts of my work. Thanks also to Julia Snell. In addition I wish to acknowledge the support given by The Brotherton Trust to assist in the use of rare book collections in various libraries of northern England. I am grateful to my family and friends, and special thanks are due to Bryan and Shirley Matthews. Finally I am extremely grateful for the support (and patience) of Sarah Vaughan. ii Abstract This thesis examines the social meanings and identities conveyed by the use of local dialect in nineteenth-century Tyneside song. It is deliberately a hybrid of literary and linguistic approaches, and this dual methodology is used to raise questions about some of the categorical assumptions that have underpinned much previous discussion of this kind of material. The thesis argues that there is a recent tendency amongst scholars of dialect song to oversimplify links between its language and 'solidarity', particularly in respect of large-scale concepts of class 'identity' and geographical 'allegiance', or community 'values'. The relationship between language and identity is not disputed here; however, I examine ways in which songs differentiate, and even play out, antagonisms between identity categories within both the locality and a notion of the working / labouring class. The result is an investigation that reveals more nuanced understandings of how dialect song of this period connected those who wrote, performed, or heard it. By employing the linguistic concept of indexicality to examine the relationship between language and social meaning, I trace a wider range of semiotic associations than has been previously offered. The combined literary and linguistic approach permits an analysis which, while tracing the common cherished features of local dialect, also reveals linguistic, social, and cultural differences in in voice types within and between certain songs - and convergences others. 'Social meaning' in language is seen to encompass varied audience or reader responses to both individual and group character. This permits satiric representations of pitmen and keelmen early in the century, but also more celebratory responses to the labouring class, particularly as the century progresses. The thesis complicatesa widespreadview that languagein Tyneside song is simultaneouslya symbol of local or regional identification, and the expression of a broad labouring-class identity. I use my literary / linguistic approach, which includes matters of character, persona, and performance, to observe intricacies of meaning in the use of even the most iconic of regional words. It is only once we recognise the complexities of meaning afforded to the dialect in performance, including its most cherished and resonant forms, that we can understand the varied ways in which local patriotism is constructed through song across time. Shifts in meaning are an essential part of this whole process. A significant dimension to this thesis is the electronic corpus of printed songs, which I have created (see the attached disc), which allows me to investigate language at multiple levels, and locate linguistic, social, and cultural differences in voice types within and between songs. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements i .............................................................................................................. Abstract ii ............................................................................................................................... Table Contents of ...............................................................................................................iii List Tables of .....................................................................................................................vi Abbreviations Symbols and .............................................................................................. vii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................vii Symbols .........................................................................................................................vii Chapter One Theoretical Approach Context 1 and .......................................................... 1.1. Introduction 1 .............................................................................................................. 1.2. Regional Identity 6 ...................................................................................................... 1.2.1. Regions the North 6 and ...................................................................................... 1.2.2. North-East England Tyneside 8 and .................................................................... 1.3. Respectability Self-Help 13 and ................................................................................. 1.3.1. Good Behaviour 13 .............................................................................................. 1.3.2. The North-East Respectables 14 .......................................................................... 1.4. The Language Varieties England 17 of ...................................................................... 1.4.1. Standard English 17 ............................................................................................. 1.4.2. Prestige Spoken English 18 ................................................................................. 1.4.3. Attitudes to Regional Dialect 23 .......................................................................... 1.5. Dialect Literature Song 26 and ................................................................................... 1.5.1. Definitions Distinctions 26 and ........................................................................... 1.5.2. The Rise Dialect Literature Song 26 of and ......................................................... 1.5.3. Commentaries Theme 28 on ................................................................................ 1.5.4. The Tyneside Debate 33 ...................................................................................... 1.6. Music Hall 40 .............................................................................................................. 1.6.1. Background 40 ..................................................................................................... 1.6.2. The Meanings Music Hall 41 of .......................................................................... 1.7. Linguistic identity in Song 46 ..................................................................................... 1.7.1. Indexicality Song 46 and ..................................................................................... 1.7.2. Dialogism Character 49 and ................................................................................. 1.7.3. Group Identity 52 ................................................................................................. 1.7.4. Levels Learning Meaning 54 of and .................................................................... 1.7.5. Enactment Contexts 56 ........................................................................................ 1.8. Summary 59 ................................................................................................................ Chapter Two Authors, Materials Methodology 61 and ................................................... 2. I. Introduction 61 ............................................................................................................. 2.2. The Songwriters 62 ..................................................................................................... 2.2.1. Biographical Details 62 ........................................................................................ 2.2.2. Authors Audiences 67 and ................................................................................... 2.3. Building Electronic Corpus an ............................................... 2.3.1. Policy Texts 74 on ............................................................................................... 2.3.2. SongTypes Quantity 76 and ................................................................................ 2.3.3. Minor Groups Song 77 of .................................................................................... 2.3.4. Transcription 78 ................................................................................................... IV 2.4. Local Linguistic Identity 79 ........................................................................................ 2.4.1. Initial Comments 79 ............................................................................................
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