Nickel in automobiles: 1 more than ever before o. Nickel in space: the power to operate Rethinking plating: solution for a cleaner,

more efficient industry 28, N 2013 Vol. March the magazine devoted to nickel and its applications

ENDURING: A lifetime roof for a Singapore sports club The History of – Part 3 The First Commercial Stainless Steels

By the end of the first decade of the 1900s, the properties of Over in , England, Harry Brearley, a self-taught and chromium-nickel steels were beginning to be metallurgist, began investigating chromium-iron alloys better understood and this, in turn, led to the independent for improved wear resistance in rifle barrels. While that development of stainless steels by metallurgists working in experiment did not achieve its initial goal, Brearley was several countries. struck by the fact that the higher chromium alloys required At the Krupp works in Germany, Eduard Maurer and Benno far more aggressive etchants to reveal their microstructure. Strauss were testing many alloys for a high-temperature He also noticed that these alloys did not rust when exposed application and quickly discovered that stainless steels with to humidity. In 1913, he made his first commercial cast of a greater than 20% chromium had exceptional resistance to martensitic stainless steel, containing 12.8% chromium and corrosion. They then developed the austenitic V2A 0.24% carbon. which had 20% Cr and 7% Ni. The composition is quite Brearley was careful to use a proper heat treatment to obtain close to the 18-8 or AISI 304 (UNS S30400) grade which the best properties. He also understood that attaining the remains the most-produced stainless steel alloy to this day. V2A had exceptional corrosion resistance in many different right forging temperature ensured that the material could environments and was found to be especially useful in nitric be shaped readily and satisfactorily. acid. The most commonly used alloy for nitric acid today One application where Brearley’s alloy had great potential is still the low-carbon version of this alloy, 304L (S30403). was cutlery and it is largely thanks to his stubbornness that The V2A alloy received a German patent in 1912. Early the first knife blanks were forged in 1914. Various cutlers applications appear to be mostly industrial in nature. in Sheffield began to order Brearley’s stainless alloy, but, At the same time, Maurer and Strauss patented a nickel- again, the war interfered with its commercialization. Most containing, hardenable stainless steel they called V1M, a of that type of steel, including a version with slightly higher martensitic alloy which contained about 14% Cr and 2% chromium content, went to the war effort (chiefly for valves Ni. The addition of nickel improves both the toughness in airplane engines). No patent was ever filed in Great Britain of the alloy in the hardened condition and its corrosion for this steel. The first patent was granted in Canada in 1915, resistance. Several of today’s martensitic grades contain a followed by one in the United States in the following year. nickel addition, including alloys such as AISI 414 (S41400), 422 (S42200) and 431 (S43100). There are also martensitic Brearley’s initial preference was that this metal be called types that contain nickel so as to improve weldability, such “rustless steel.” However, the manager at the R.F. Mosley as 410NiMo (S41500) and the family of super-martensitic cutlery factory, Ernest Stuart, preferred the name “stainless.” grades used primarily in the offshore oil and gas industry. After testing the knife alloy in vinegar, he is reported to have said: “This steel stains less.” The name quickly caught on. Articles made from both these alloys were exhibited in the Brearley is often credited as the discoverer of stainless steel German pavilion at the Baltic Exhibition in Malmö, Sweden and he was certainly responsible for introducing stainless in 1914. Unfortunately, the First World War began in the steel to the public. summer of that same year, making it necessary to divert steel production to military applications for the duration of In the next issue, we will look at the early development of the four-year conflict. stainless steels in the United States.

Eduard Mauer Benno Strauss Harry Brearley Early Cutlery nickel, vol. 28,no. 1, march 2013

Coatings on automobiles I Roof I iS Photo C C P ISSN 0829-8351 with theinformation herein. orresponsibility ofany inconnection assume noliability kind or warrant for itssuitability any general orspecificuseand I the material isbelieved to betechnically correct, N applications withoutfirstsecuring competent advice. While the reader andshouldnotbeusedorrelied uponfor specific M [email protected] T Brussels 1210,Belgium A Eighth Floor T C [email protected] S Dr. K N T 2013 1, march no. 28, vol. nickel, . Web links UN Mars on Curiosity engines Sabre Huan Zhang by Rising club swimming Chinese Singapore’s I E Feature S E N Hard disk drives nickel coatings electroless Compressor wheels and Spark plugs Spark C T nstitute, itsmembers, staffand consultants donot represent n Focus n n Use n el. 3222903200 he N tephanie D he M rinted onrecycled paper inC over: C onstructive venue desA ickel M ditorial lectroplating parks in China in parks lectroplating tock Photo: ©Uyen L aterial hasbeen prepared for thegeneral information of ickel E able S details S evin Bradley, P ontents ickel I mage: M agazine Devoted to N omposition: C agazine ispublishedby theN nstitute can becontacted at: . nabling I unn, E

rts 13-14 rts tories illennium ommunications, Design . . ditor resident . . . C onstructive e of . T nnovation iles ickel anditsA anada. . ommunications . . ickel I . pplications nstitute 12, 13 12, 8, 9 8, 6, 7 6, 4, 5 4, 10 14 16 14 15 15 11 3 ickel ickel E Stephanie Dunn hidden things, thevitalthingsmadepossibleby nickel. these andotherdevelopments stillfurther, always withoureye onthesmallthings, the (seepages12and13).I ofMars thesurface exploring There ismore inthisissuefor you to explore justastheroving is spacelabCuriosity already ofdowntown alandmark Toronto. –andpoetZhangHuan’swe highlightartist sculpture new extraordinary “Rising”, a swimming complex in Singapore. The aesthetic theme continues on page 10 where usage–anelectrochemicallycoloured modern stainlesssteel roof atopwill seeavery aboutsomeofthefirstcommercial usesinE article I and theirfamilies. environmental benefits to theairandwater oflife andthus to thequality for workers efficienciescan beexpected toincreaseindustrial at theplatingparks, so too will the are efforts beingmadeinChina. you willread onpages4and5, extraordinary While operates, and, decadeshavelast two changesinhow as theindustry seenenormous technology,surface hashadto overcome environmental andsafety challenges. The that hasallowexceptional this multi-layerand nickel properties technology. Plating, or tiple materials, oftheendproduct)onanother dependingonthedesired properties Many oftheseitems involve placingalayer (or ofonematerial multiplelayers ofmul- and 9for bigdifferences). themany placeswhereare smallamountsofnickel making mobile becauseofthereplacementonfasteners (seepages8 ofcadmiumwithnickel detailing, andmore environmental-friendly outcome attheendoflife oftheauto aesthetic oncompressor wheelsonpage15);andhighlyreflective surfaces, the article plugsonpage16); moreon spark complete combustionandreduced emissions(see literally hundredsthatensure ofsmallusesnickel reliable ignition (seethearticle Examples can be of founda motor vehicle. on or under the skin There you will find efficiently andsafely. allowsand utilizing itsvarious properties us to do, anddo reliably, consistently, O Small n thisissuewe continueto commemorate withan stainlesssteel’s ofservice century ditor, N ften it’sften thesmallthings, orthehiddenthings, that nickel initsvarious forms ickel Magazine ickel

and Vital urope. Andonpages6and7,you n future issueswe willexplore Nickel In Focus - 3

Rising Photo: Craig White, UrbanToronto.ca Electroplating parks in China: A strong current for growth

ith the rapid development of manufacturing in China, W the demand for electroplating in that country continues “The workers benefit too, as they will be to rise. There are now about 15,000 electroplating enterprises in China that have annual sales revenues exceeding 20 mil- working in a safer, cleaner and more lion renminbi (RMB), over US$3 million, per year. Indeed, the controlled environment…” electroplating industry has become a pillar of China’s overall economy while rapidly changing to meet today’s strict environ- • The electroplating industry in the Pearl River Delta in mental requirements. Guangdong should carry out construction under a unified planning system, as well as practise park management and Most of China’s electroplating is done in large industrial parks, centralized pollution control. which are zoned and planned for industrial development. More • With the exception of designated industrial bases with com- than 30 such parks have been completed to date. The Yamen plete pollution control facilities, no electroplating enterprise Electroplating Industrial Base in Jiangmen City, Guangdong should be set up elsewhere, and existing enterprises should be Province, is the largest, with a planned floor area of 130 hectares. required to meet emission limits for heavy metals. The start-up zone has a floor area of 40.5 hectares, with a The Yamen park, which offers support services and pollutant treat- planned gross investment of about 2 billion RMB, or about ment facilities to resident enterprises, has an environmental pro- US$320 million, and an electroplating surface production cap- tection investment of about 400 million RMB (US$65 million). acity of over 2 million metres2 per year. Construction has so far consisted chiefly of waste water treatment works and other Wastewater is cleaned and supplied to the various electroplat- facilities for protecting the environment. ing enterprises for reuse. As well, the park has exhaust air treat- ment facilities which are well-suited to the technical character- To date, gross investment in the Yamen Electroplating Industrial istics of electroplating. This ensures that the air quality in the Base exceeds 1.5 billion RMB (US$240 million), including con- park meets national standards and contributes to a favourable struction funds of about 1 billion RMB (US$160 million) and working environment. contributions totaling 500 million RMB (US$80 million) from resident enterprises. Electroplating work areas constitute more The types of electroplating being carried out include black nickel, than 300,000 m2 and much of the park’s infrastructure is in pearl nickel, hard chrome, gold imitation, and French gold and place. In excess of 60 electroplating enterprises have signed bronze. With the entry of new enterprises, the number of types contracts to enter the park and half of those are already in will also increase. A specialized technical team for electroplat- production. ing will be established in the park to provide technical support for upgrading. Pollution control remains a priority. The continued rise of manufacturing in China is expected to In 2007, a census of pollution sources showed that the emission result in various improvements to electroplating parks. Industry of heavy metal pollutants from the metal product industry was concentration will be improved, greater pollution controls will 20 times that of the national average. Recent years have seen be established, wastewater will be treated centrally and land a rise in the number of accidents related to heavy metal leak- resources used more intensively by optimizing industrial lay- age. However, in 2009, the national environmental protection out and work flows, and allowing a full range of electroplating authority increased its overall control of heavy metal pollution. processes to be delivered from a single park. It also allows for The Ministry of Environmental Protection, together with other greater efficiencies in processing from adopting more advanced ministries and commissions, set forth its Guiding Opinions technologies, which leads to greater energy efficiency and less on Strengthening the Prevention and Control of Heavy Metal waste. The workers benefit too, as they will be working in a Pollution. This report, in conjunction with a five-year plan for safer, cleaner and more controlled environment and exposed to the prevention and control of such pollution, called for effective advanced technologies and equipment sooner than would have controls to be in place by 2015. These include the following: otherwise been the case. All of which shows that the electro- • The surface treatment and thermal processing industry should plating industry is taking the sustainable path of energy con- practise park management and centralized pollution control. servation, pollution reduction, and optimum efficiency. Ni

4 nickel Feature nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 A strong current for growth Electroplating parksinChina:

photos: Beijing Surface Engineering Association BOMBARDIER MOVIA Metro © 2011, Bombardier Inc. or its subsidiaries. nickel, vol. 28,no. 1, march 2013 s  s r  the Yamen electroplating park. Top andAbove: ofthewastewater Part treatment works of the flow of thewastewater treatment facilities. attheYamen Chart Below: electroplating parkindicating nickelFeature Ni 5

Artist’s concept: Yamen Electroplating Industrial Base e L e U y en © o t k ph o o c k : i st : o u n d r kg Bac Pool Tile s : : Millenni um o s t ph o

r Top: Aerial view of the complex. w Right: In addition to the strength, durability and corrosion resistance, the Type 304 stainless steel tiles add visual variety and attractiveness compatible with the residential nature of the community.

Ni

6 n ickel Nickel In use in U se nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 First Class Cover

ituated on Singapore’s idyllic East Coast, the Chinese SSwimming Club has a 90-year history of excellence in sports ...the company chose Type 304 stainless – not just swimming but water polo, basketball, tennis, squash and badminton as well. steel which performs well in boldly Now the club has something else to boast about: a dazzling roof exposed applications consisting entirely of electrochemically coloured tiles made from nickel-containing stainless steel. light conditions as they occur throughout the day, reflecting Millennium Tiles of Elkhorn, Wisconsin, U.S.A., designed the natural environment. There are slight colour variations in

Tile s the mosaic-like roof. Singapore receives considerable rainfall the tiles, similar to those found in organic products. As Walter (2,340 mm per year on average), so the company chose Type 304 Hauk founder and president of Millennium Tiles, explains:

: : Millenni um (UNS S30400) stainless steel which performs well in boldly “These variations give the tiles a natural appearance as well as o s t exposed applications. remarkable aesthetic beauty.” ph o The tiles are available in a full range of high-performance cus- The process is electrochemical in nature and uses oxidizing tom colours. The colouring process draws upon the chemistry acids at elevated temperatures, enhancing the naturally occur- of the stainless steel itself to create multi-faceted hues that will ring chromium oxide of stainless steel which is in the neighbor- never fade with sun exposure, or peel or chip. This process hood of 200-400 nanometers thick. The oxide reflects incoming actually enhances the corrosion resistance of the stain- light to create a rainbow effect, with no pigment added, and is less steel. referred to as “light interference colour”. Visible light is separated – prism-like – into different wavelengths, resulting in differ- “We can obtain colours of wheat, bronze, and slate, as well as blue, ent colours within the oxide surface. purple, peacock, and green, all of which are highly appealing to The oxide is impervious to ultra- designers and architects. The underlying finish of the stainless violet damage from the sun. surface determines the appearance.” The colour changes with Type 304 nickel-bearing stainless steel was chosen, chiefly for its ability to resist corrosion, an especially important aspect in the maritime environment of Singapore. The high amount of rain there prevents the chlorides from building up on the metal sur- face, reducing the risk of pitting. Ferritic grades cannot compete with 304 unless they have molybdenum added, but even then, ferritic grades lack the superior forming characteristics of the nickel-alloyed grades. The stainless tiles weigh only 4.5 kilograms per square metre (0.9 pounds per square-foot), allowing for easy installation. By comparison, asphalt shingles weigh over three times as much, and ceramic or concrete tiles are as much as 16 times heavier. The Millennium Tiles units have passed wind tests using speeds of up to 250 kilo- metres per hour (155 mph). “The colour will last the life of the stainless steel since UV light cannot modify the colour,” says Hauk, adding that the earliest examples of the process application are facades in the late 1970s and 1980s which show no deterioration to this day. Ni

nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 Nickel In Use 7 Enabling more durable, efficient and “greener” transportation Driving nickel 2 ickel is used in thousands of different applications, but often you don’t see N 4 8 it and probably don’t even know it’s there. There is, for example, some nickel in every 1 7 6 one of the 80 million motor vehicles that 5 were assembled in 2011, which included 2 2 60 million automobiles and 20 million 1 1 trucks of all types. 7 6 1 3 The image on these pages shows where 6 1 1 8 nickel can be found in most automobiles. 8 8 1 1 Not all will use nickel or nickel-containing 4 6 alloys for every application, but the rea- 3 4 3 3 4 sons for the choice of nickel are predict- 3 able and important: durability, perfor- 2 3 mance and aesthetics. 6 2 1 3 Not represented here are electric and hy- brid vehicles, which have many of the same 8 nickel end-uses in addition to the essential 3 6 roles nickel plays in batteries, both nickel- metal hydride and in many of the emerging 2 lithium ion ones for automotive applications.

Coatings and alloys for durability 6 Some driving environments are more 6 challenging than others, but in all, the ex- haust system is exposed to the moisture present in the slightly acidic combustion exhaust gases. When parts of the exhaust system fail, it is usually because they have There is some nickel in “rotted” from the inside as a result of cor- for wear resistance, there is often the rosion. In recent decades, stainless steel every one of the 80 million additional benefit of increased fuel ef- has become the near standard material motor vehicles that were ficiency as closer engineering tolerances for exhaust system parts. While it is true assembled (2011) can be achieved and maintained over the that the ferritic stainless steel Type 409 operating life of parts. (UNS S40900) and variants with only 11% The ability of nickel to provide hard, wear- chromium and no nickel are currently resistant surfaces in hot, aggressive at- Design and style are an integral part of the dominant, the higher-quality systems for mospheres is why it shows up in pistons, automotive industry and the success of cer- the most demanding environments make cylinder liners, turbo-chargers and brake tain models in the marketplace. Here design- use of nickel-containing austenitic grades systems. And while nickel (and some- ers make selective use of nickel’s ability to ad- such as Type 304 (S30400). times chromium) may be there primarily here strongly to different material substrates

8 NICKEL Feature nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 1 1

1 2 3

3 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 1 6 4 5 2 8 2 1

Alloy

1. Stainless steels – mufflers, catalyst, wiper, fasteners, clamps, springs, etc OEM Coating 2. Alnico magnets – generators, motors

1. ZnNi plate on fasteners, fluid tubes 3. Ni alloys – heating elements, exhaust valves 2. Ni plate under decorative chrome 4. Ni alloys – pistons, cylinder liners, turbo- 3. Electroless Ni for wear, corrosion – pistons, chargers, gears suspension, brake systems, fuel lines, gears 5. CuNi alloys – brake fluid lines 4. Decorative Ni 6. Spark plug alloys 5. Ni plating on Mg 6. Electroless Ni plating on plastics 2 7. Ni plating for electronic circuits, substrates “Green” Coating 8. Electroless Ni/Pd/Au for wire bond, Pb-free soldering 1. ZnNi plated fasteners

while having an attractive appearance. Changing material specifications these applications is obviously small, but Nickel can also be the substrate for deco- Concerns about materials that may pose a when there are hundreds of millions of rative finishing layers such as chrome. risk to human health or the environment parts going into tens of millions of mo- Wide variety of other applications have resulted in a move away from cad- tor vehicles every year, the amount of nickel working to make them more du- Nickel is also used in a host of other ap- mium and lead (in other than automotive plications, depending on the vehicle lead-acid batteries), at least in some juris- rable, efficient, environmentally accept- manufacturer and type of engine. These dictions, and this shift is gradually becom- able and attractive to the eye becomes include: spark plugs, diesel valves, cata- ing standard for manufacturers in the glob- significant. o c k lyst supports, thermostats, turbocharger al market. Nickel, often combined with tin, Automotive Nickel Coatings and Alloys schematic wheels and castings, gears, drive shafts, zinc and other metals, provides lead-free originally produced by the National Association o shutto e rst t airbag components, fuel and brake lines solder and cadmium-free alternatives. The for Surface Finishing (NASF) and the Nickel P h o

and many others. amount of nickel used per automobile for Institute. Ni C ar Close up of Nickel chloride hexahydrate w

nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 NICKEL Feature 9 10 nickel In ’ to the‘Rises occasion stainlessSculptor steel of W tree branch thatresembles thebodyofadragon. comprised ofcountless doves, theinternationalsymbolofworld peace, andatwisted r Above leftandright:Rising signed as “a philosophicalreflectionofthe spring, the event coincided with the un- as the sculpture is known, wasde Rising, asthesculpture isknown, outdoors andafew blockssouthin Toron - ash paintings and carved wooden doorsof ash paintingsandcarved tirely ofmirror-polished stainlesssteel tion onZhang’s web site. Consisting en- to’s financialdistrict. –notinsidetheG the sameartist veiling publicsculpture ofapermanent by world world around us,” according to the descrip renowned Chinese artist ZhangHuanlast renowned Chineseartist S S31600), the work de 316,UNSS31600),thework (Type picts innumerabledovespicts inflight,the symbol of world peace,symbol ofworld andatwisted hen the Art hen the Art ronto, Canada, exhibited theincense- tree branchthatresembles thebody of adragon. sculp “The ture suggeststhe Use

G allery of allery ntario in Ontario To - detail. The polishedstainless-steel sculpture is allery but allery - - - - “Through themonster-shaped tree, I “Through Zhang, whoisalsofamousasaperfor At itsbaseisaluminousreflectingpool, The sculpture, whichgraces theentrance sage thathumanscanexistinharmony es, is10metres highby 19metres long come better placesinwhichto live ifand and weighs about22 tonnes. and nature.” relationshipas theharmonious between to openedShangri-La Hotel thenewly and vocating theprotection ofecology aswell which adds to an already-complex design.which addsto analready-complex Living Shangri-La Condominium residenc- humans andnature. wishisfor .My when thisdelicate balanceisachieved. with nature, andthatourcitieswillbe mance artist. mance artist. “I soughtto convey themes- beautiful city lifebeautiful city to be shared by mankind fragile conditionsfacingourplanet,” says Zhang chose nickel-containing Zhang chosenickel-containing Type 316 stainless steel chiefly for its unmatched abili- ty to reflectlight, ty ’m ad- - - was born abeastbut nameisRising. Iwasborn “My 2010, for instance, hesculpted apairof Toronto infive containersandassembled Shanghai. sembled dignitaries andotherguests. The sculpture itselfwere addressing the as- stainless pandabearsfor the World Expoin steel? was two years in the making. During During years wastwo inthemaking. Rising casion. I given that Toronto’s streets andsidewalks choosing stainlessare hardness, weld-abil- on-site. Amonghisotherreasons for according to Yolanda, oneofZhang’s assis- a history of working withstainlesssteel. I ofworking a history are heavily salted inthewinter). Zhanghas durability of nickel-containing stainless of nickel-containing durability am leaving and harmony. This dream is world Toronto, tants attheShanghaistudiowhere heis the unveiling ceremony lastMay, Zhang tance (the last being especially important to the mythical dream-world of beauty What better testament and to thebeauty English translationgoes: ity, easeofcleaning, andcorrosion resis - know Ishalllivewhere for Iknow alongtime.” based. The Sculpture wasshippedto recited aprose poemhe wrote for theoc- r  of his interpreter attheunveiling ZhangHuanandAbove: Artist Rising. t wasinthefirstperson,asif arth and rising up to the sky up to and rising the sky Earth nickel, vol. 28,no. 1, march 2013

Ni n

Photos: Craig White, UrbanToronto.ca L i m t e d ca o. on t © Re act E ngine s ion © ion s ustrat illl r U r b a nTo W h i t e, C ra ig : a n d o s Up, up and away t o s t P h o Nickel-chromium alloy to power cost-effective space flight P h o

f the full potential of space technology is to be realized, the Icost of getting into orbit will have to be reduced, and the key to doing so could be a hybrid rocket engine that could power an aircraft beyond the stratosphere. At its heart is a nickel alloy. The SABRE engine is being developed by Reaction Engines Limited at the Culham Science Centre, near Oxford, England. It can operate in two modes: air-breathing and as a conventional rocket engine. This dual approach considerably reduces the weight of oxidant that needs to be carried by the air- craft and eliminates the need for massive single- r The SABRE engine is essentially a closed cycle rocket use booster rockets. engine with an additional pre-cooled turbo-compres- For people like Richard Varvill, technical sor to provide a high pressure air supply to the combustion chamber. director at Reaction Engines, a single-stage propulsion system for orbiting the earth is v The pre-cooler heat exchanger essential to the the ultimate next step in space flight design. operation of SABRE is 52% nickel. “Currently the cost of access to space is in the is flying at Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or order of $150 million (US) per flight,” he says. “We greater. aim to reduce that by a factor of at least 10, and hope- fully to around $10 million.” The nickel-chromium superalloy Inconel® 718 (UNS N07718) is used for the tubing in the heat exchangers and plays a critical But as Varvill explains, operating an air-breathing rocket engine is fraught with technical difficulties: “The air needs to be com- role in the engine design. “There are many good reasons for using pressed to around 140 bar pressure before injection into the this alloy, which contains about 52% nickel,” says Varvill. “This engine’s combustion chambers, The act of compression raises the is a high-temperature application and Inconel 718 has high ten- air temperature to several thousand degrees Celsius, a temper- sile strength and good creep strength, as well as incredibly good ature that would melt engine components in an instant.” resistance to oxidation and corrosion.” To avoid this dangerous increase in temperature, the SABRE The company has built its first complete pre-cooler system, which is fitted with novel ultra-lightweight, high-performance heat is being tested at Culham. Meanwhile, the Reaction Engines exchangers in a pre-cooler system, thereby reducing the air tem- team is planning the next phase of the development process. perature to almost the liquid stage. Key to this enabling technol- “That will include detailed design of the full SABRE engine down ogy is nickel. to the component level,” says Varvill. “We will also construct two The heat exchangers must pre-cool the air intake to around minus or three scaled demonstrators. One will be a ground-based air- 150ºC using cold, gaseous helium at 200 bar pressure. The heat breathing demonstration that runs on liquid hydrogen fuel at exchangers also have to cope with external air temperatures that Culham; the other will be a demonstration rocket engine, to be might vary from 10ºC at sea level to 1,000ºC when the aircraft tested elsewhere in Europe.” Ni

nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 Nickel Enabling Innovation 11 The assembly’s nickel “hot shoe” conducts the heat of the reaction while the vacuum of space or the cold Martian atmosphere provides the temperature differential needed to produce a current.

/MSSS r Above Left: Curiosity undergoing testing r Top: Mars Rover Curiosity, Artist’s concept. r Above Right: The nickel-bearing Jake

t e ch prior to launch . Matijevic rock. Red dots indicate laser targets, the circles show areas examined J P L -C a l by the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer. N ASA/ : : ge s Ima

12 Nickel Enabling Innovation nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 nickel, vol. 28,no. 1, march 2013

istock photo © Heidi Kristensen “ “The MMRT “The to generate poweron Mars nickel using Curiosity Jake.” Among the discoveredarray of elements they was one that A thermoelectric couple – two dissimilar conductive metals– dissimilarconductive couple–two A thermoelectric thesesystems energy attherequired2,000 wattsofthermal keep This flexibility was essential to the Curiosity mission. wasessentialto theCuriosity This flexibility The The units enable spacecraft toThe operate unitsenablespacecraft in deep spaceand on The fuel, plutonium-238, generates about125wattsofelectric The generator istheeighthinalineofnuclearpower sources Trager, division,whichdevel- generalmanageroftheRocketdyne N summer to search for signs of water and life, is the first spacecraft compact car-sizedcompact rover wasdesigned before itsdestination erator (MMRT Radioisotope G equipped withaMulti-Mission Thermoelectric on satellites, Apollomissions, anddeepspaceprobes, including of thereactionwhilevacuumspaceorcoldMartian current. electric The assembly’s nickel shoe”“hot theheat conducts operating temperature, bothinspaceandontheplanet’s surface. environment.” with the U.S.of oped the power plant in partnership Department decades after itslaunchin 1977. decades after atmosphere provides thetemperature differential needed to and communicationsmechanicalsystems. Anadditional Curiosity, themobilescience labthatlandedinG that converts heatfromthat converts decaying nuclearfuelinto electricity. the Voyager whichremains craft, operationalmore thanthree versions Earlier wereused to spacecraft. operate American used transforms theheatfrom theplutonium’s naturaldecay into an was helping to power those very instruments:nickel. was helpingto power thosevery with solar panels. Dust in the Martian atmosphere alsoaccumu- with solarpanels. DustintheMartian Energy. Headdsthatthesystem “can operate inthemostextreme planet surfaces where thesun’splanet surfaces rays are too weak to beharnessed power, enough to run the robotic rover’s instruments, computers, produce acurrent. produce laser andX-ray probes to rock analyze anodd-coloured nicknamed lates onsolar panels, reducing theireffectiveness andlongevity. ot long after NASA’sot longafter rover Curiosity thesur beganexploring arth-bound controllers used inAugustface ofMars 2012,itsEarth-bound has no moving parts, so it is very robust,” soitisvery G hasnomoving parts, says Larry G). The isessentiallyanonboard device power plant ale Crater last en- -

“We’ve already decided.we’ll continueto as operate Curiosity The cylinder-shaped MMRT The cylinder-shaped The sowell rover sincetouchdown inAugust has performed that Stainless steel and other nickel-containing alloys were usedinthe Stainless steel andothernickel-containing Spectrometer), the instrument which performs thechemicalanal- Spectrometer), theinstrumentwhichperforms 07718) connect many oftherover’s(N07718) connect aluminumcom- structural 650° Celsius whilemaintainingitshighstrength. exposure to sunlight. and bolts made from the nickel-chromium alloy I and boltsmadefrom thenickel-chromium ysis of the Martian rocks. ysis oftheMartian NASA’s associate administrator for science. N ASA has extended itsprojected mission. two-year NASA hasextended The MMRT I was determined andtheMMRT was determined in diameter, itaccountsfor oftherover’s only43kg weight. 900-kg ing in this extremely harshenvironment.ing inthisextremely rover’s tubingintheMMRT Some construction. poking and prodding at the Martian surface even longer. surface andprodding attheMartian poking couldbe rated for thoughCuriosity atleast14years ofservice, ponents. Alloy 718isableto withstandtemperatures upto rock which isusedto calibrate theAPXS (Alpha Particle X-ray from 304 L (S30403)and316(S31603)stainlesssteel, andnuts latitudes where shorter days and long Martian winters limit days andlongMartian latitudes where shorter long asitisscientificallyviable,” according to J - function Curiosity componentsthatwillkeep ofkey loys are part r  n addition, nickel plate holdsthereferencen addition,nickel sampleofbasaltic Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Radioisotope GeneratorMulti-Mission (MMRTG) . Labeled cutaway showing themajorcomponents view ofthe ust 66 cm long and 64 cm Just66cmlongand64 G iscompact. G ensured itcouldoperate at Nickel Enablin gInnovatio n ickel and nickel al- andnickel ickel G isfashioned ohn Grunsfeld, nconel® 718 G is Ni

13

Image: NASA Re-inventing the wheel Electroless nickel coatings boost the efficiency of automotive engines

t tt e o up ee Pe L ee © o t o: Collini Gr Collini o: t k ph o o c k P h o i st r Above left: Compressor wheel with a nickel-phosphorus coating that allows engines to be efficient and low-emission for 500,000 km or more.

n recent years designers of gasoline and diesel engines have coating developed by the Collini Group of Hohenems, Austria. Imade great strides in improving automotive fuel economy. The performance requirements for the wheel are nothing less Today’s engines are much more fuel efficient than those that than remarkable. It must function in the heat of the exhaust sys- were manufactured only a few years ago. At the same time that tem at 250°C (480°F), which means its lifespan must be equal their performance has increased, harmful exhaust emissions to that of the entire engine system. Over that lifetime, it must from such engines have fallen dramatically. All of which is good provide excellent resistance to corrosion by exhaust gasses, pro- news since improving overall engine performance in relation to tection against solid particles, together with oleophobic charac- fuel economy is crucial to reducing greenhouse gas emissions teristics to prevent carbon “coking.” and conserving fossil fuel stocks. The basic component is manufactured from an aluminum alloy, One recent innovation is the small aluminum alloy “compressor and the coating technology used must not exceed 250°C (480°F); wheel” which is installed in the exhaust gas recirculation system otherwise the aluminum alloy substrate will recrystallize, caus- ing a reduction in mechanical strength and thus damage to the of engines to increase operating efficiency. The wheel is con- wheel. Electroless nickel was selected since not only does it resist nected to a shaft linked with a titanium turbine driven by the the extremely rigorous working conditions but also because the exhaust gas at 800°C (1470°F) and must rotate at 250,000 rpm. solutions used in the coating process work at a temperature of The key to the performance of the compressor wheel is the approximately 90°C (195°F) - far below the danger level for base 30-micrometer-thick electroless nickel-phosphorus alloy protective metal recrystallization. Ni

UNS details Chemical compositions (in percent by weight) of the alloys and stainless steels mentioned in this issue of Nickel. UNS No. Al B C Cb Co Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Ni P S Si Ti V W N06600 - - 0.15 - - 14.00- 0.50 6.00- 1.00 - 72.0- - 0.015 0.50 - - - p. 15 max. 17.00 max. 10.00 max. min max. max. N06601 1.0- - 0.1 - 1.0 21.0- 1.0 rem. 1.0 - 58.0- - 0.015 0.50 - - - p. 15 1.7 max. max. 25.0 max. max. 63.0 max. max. N07718 0.20- 0.006 0.08 4.75- 1.00 17.0- 0.30 rem. 0.35 2.80- 50.0- 0.015 0.015 0.35 0.65- - - p. 11, 13 0.80 max. max. 5.50 max. 21.0 max. max. 3.30 55.0 max. max. max. 1.15 S30400 - - 0.08 - - 18.00- - - 2.00 - 8.00- 0.045 0.030 1.00 - - - p. 2,7,8,13 max. 20.00 max. 10.50 max. max. max. S30403 - - 0.030 - - 18.00- - - 2.00 - 8.00- 0.045 0.030 1.00 - - - p.2 max. 20.00 max. 12.00 max. max. max. S31600 - - 0.08 - - 16.00- - - 2.00 2.00- 10.00- 0.045 0.030 1.00 - - - p.10,15 max. 18.00 max. 3.00 14.00 max. max. max. S31603 - - 0.030 - - 16.00- - - 2.00 2.00- 10.00- 0.045 0.030 1.00 - - - p.2 max. 18.00 max. 3.00 14.00 max. max. max. S40900 - - 0.08 - - 10.50- - - 1.00 - 0.5- 0.045 0.045 1.00 6xC- - - p. 8 max. 11.75 max. max. max. max. max. 0.75 S41400 - - 0.15 - - 11.50- - - 1.00 - 1.25- 0.040 0.030 1.00 - - - p. 2 max. 13.50 max. 2.50 max. max. max. S41500 - - 0.05 - - 11.5- - - 0.50- 0.50- 3.50- 0.030 0.030 0.60 - - - p.5 max. 14.0 1.00 1.00 5.50 max. max. max. S42200 - - 0.20- - - 11.00- 0.50 - 1.00 0.75- 0.50- 0.040 0.030 0.75 - 0.15- 0.75- p. 2 0.25 12.5 max. max. 1.25 1.00 max. max. max. 0.30 1.25 S43100 - - 0.20 - - 15.00- - - 1.00 - 1.25- 0.040 0.030 1.00 - - - p. 2 max. 17.00 max. 2.50 max. max. max.

14 nickel In use nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 Nickel for memory: Essential for digital storage and retrieval

digital storage and retrieval device is as vital to a com- coating must be extremely hard to allow polishing to the re- A puter as a heart is to a human being and nickel makes two quired finish, a maximum roughness of about 4 Angstroms. essential contributions. This high standard of precision is required since the separa- All computers need a way to store and retrieve data, the most tion between the disk and the read/write head can be as small common type being a hard disk drive (HDD). Most HDDs today as 2 nanometres. Another reason for using high phosphorous contain multiple stacked disks. Yet most computer users are una- electroless nickel is that it is non-ferromagnetic. ware that one of the vital elements in the hard disk, a truly im- The next step involves applying a very thin, soft magnetic pressive piece of engineering, is a layer of electroless nickel. under-layer by a Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) technique, Most such disks are manufactured from an aluminium alloy due often called “sputtering”, performed in a high vacuum. This to that alloy’s light weight and rigidity, and to the ease with layer is made from an alloy typically containing nickel, cobalt which it machines to perfect flatness. However aluminium can- and iron. Some disks will have 2 layers of this material sepa- not be polished to the high level needed and requires a coating. rated by a layer of ruthenium only 4 atoms thick. The coating in question consists of high-phosphorus electro- Several data storage layers come next, typically a cobalt, chro- less nickel which is applied to the surface of the aluminium mium and platinum alloy, applied by the PVD technique. alloy disk. It is the only coating that can be used in this appli- Again they are often separated by a thin layer of ruthenium. cation. Electroless nickel enables the essential flatness to be This is followed by a protective overcoat. maintained since deposit thickness is perfectly uniform. The Annual global production of hard disks containing electroless w The hard disk drive is a truly impressive piece of engineering, nickel and nickel-containing magnetic under-layer is estimat- using both electroless nickel and a nickel alloy deposited by PVD. ed at 300 to 500 million units and new uses are emerging in automotive control systems and other manufacturing sectors. Hard drive disks remain highly competitive with other storage devices such as flash (or Solid State) drives used in smaller devices such as cameras, since the price per gigabyte of storage is considerably lower. Ni

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nickel, vol. 28, no. 1, march 2013 nickel In Use 15 “Life would be almost impossible without it as “N A spark plug has two electrodes:acentral plughastwo A spark The electrodes must withstandhightemperatures for long D N alive: the spark Keeping 97% nickel. While asmallnumberofplugs says RichardK suring theelectrodesresistsuring “spark erosion,” thatis, thelossof stainless steel, andnickel- the high-nickel 601 (N06601),aswell asits own specialty one whichprotrudes from thebottom of engineering for ignition atF plug ignitionelectrodes inthespark world,” able spark plugs to keep theircreations plugsto keep able spark oxidation and chemical exposure. A major challenge is en- chromium offer best balance of per “the of itselectrodes, includingAlloy 600(N06600)and a choicefor electrodes.” and affect anengine’s performance. to buildreliable, durableelectrodesto relyalloysufacturers inturn onnickel to room-sized power plants–require reli - Michigan, U.S.A.,Michigan, alloys for useshigh-nickel most the plugandanL use electrodesmadeof Type 316(S31600) keep their plugs firing dependably. theirplugsfiring keep F which forms thenarrow gapwhere thespark is produced. maker of the well-known Champion®brand. ofthewell-known maker running smoothly. plugman- Andspark metal that can gradually widen electrodesthe gap between alloys thatcontain80- nickel-chromium periods while producing a consistent spark, and also resist while producingperiods a consistent spark, four-cylinder motor underthecar’sfour-cylinder hood formance andcost,” says K ederal-Mogul, whichisbasedinSouthfield, ickel alloys areickel thedefault materials for esigners combustionengines ofinternal big andsmall–from thecompact ickel alloys forickel plugignition spark eller, director ofproduct -shaped ground electrode eller. ederal-Mogul Corp.,ederal-Mogul - and platinum. substrate finishesofiridium forsurface both electrodes aswell as theoptimal r G

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sure the precious metal surface stays bondedsure the precious metalsurface only does the weldability of nickel alloys en- ofnickel only doestheweldability choice to combinewithplatinum. to isalsothemetalof theelectrode, nickel als such as platinum and iridium areals suchasplatinumandiridium added to the sparking surface ofmostplugs. Not surface to thesparking to erosion, alloys ofdurableprecious met ickel and platinum work exceedingly andplatinumwork wellickel Maintaining the specified spark gapis thespecified spark Maintaining “absolutely critical” to prevent misfires or To strengthen an electrode’s resistance shutdowns, K the engine powers apumporgenerator. designed for thesedemandingapplica- automotive plugsfrom corrosion, plugs Service interruptions canbecostly. interruptions Service When tions aremadeby usingaspecial typically ture andhigh-performance ofindustrial N process. racing plugs. While zincplatingprotects customers buyaplugrated to last4,000 terval isaboutasbaditgets.”terval hours, “that’s expect,” whatthey exactly meet or exceed an intended service in- meet orexceed anintended service he notes. “I ickel also plays a key role alsoplays inthemanufac- akey ickel eller notes. N anywhere from 10%to almosta third ofaplatinumalloy usedon plug tips. N ickel-plated steelickel-plated is used for the eller says, particularly wheneller says, particularly n ourbusiness, failure to ickel may accountforickel Ni -

Sparkplug image: Federal-Mogul Corp.