ITAA 2013 Annual Conference New Orleans, Louisiana October 15-18, 2013

New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

Culture Track

Alzahrani, Sarah. Saudi Female Entrepreneurs: Business Motivations and Commitment to Solving Women’s Social Issues

Delong, Marilyn, Min, Seoha, Lee, Yoonkyung and Casto, Mary Alice. Attachment to Clothing and Implications for Sustainability within a Cultural Context

Kozar, Joy M. and Kang, Ji Hye. Socially Responsible Apparel Purchasing Intention, Knowledge, and Attitudes: Cross-Cultural Comparison of U.S. and Korean Consumers

Kuttruff, Jenna Tedrick and Kuttruff, Carl. American Imperialism at the 1904 World’s Fair: A Case Study of Philippine Dress

Miller-Spillman, Kimberly and Addo, Kwaku. Organizing Clothing and Textiles Outreach to Ghanaian Women and Girls

Mun, Jung Mee and Johnson, Kim K. P. Rites of Passage: Debutante Balls in Filipino- American Culture

Park, Saet Byul and Delong, Marilyn. Korean Immigrants and their Aesthetic Perspectives on Appearance

Strubel, Jessica and Pookulangara, Sanjukta. The Evolution of Styletribes: A Netnographic Analysis

New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

Saudi Female Entrepreneurs: Business Motivations and Commitment to Solving Women’s Social Issues

Sarah Alzahrani, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Female Business Owners, Saudi Arabia

There are many rules governing women’s professional opportunities in Saudi Arabia; the Ministry of Labor has a set of rules that women are required to follow regarding social and religious expectations. For instance, women cannot work in places where men are employed which limit the job opportunities for women to two significant fields, education and medicine, where women must work in separate schools or medical facilities from men. According to the Saudi Central Department of Statistics & Information, the unemployment rate of Saudi female college graduates is 54%, while the Saudi male college graduate unemployment rate is 23%. Eighty percent of unemployed women in Saudi Arabia have earned a bachelor’s degree (Alharbi, 2010). The purpose of this study was to explore the social role of Saudi women who have succeeded in operating their own small businesses, particularly in providing additional job opportunities for other women. As part of this study, two specific research questions were examined: 1. What are the motives that push Saudi women to enter the apparel production industry? 2. What level of commitment do female Saudi business owners have to providing additional job opportunities for other women? Qualitative data was collected to gain in-depth information about the characteristics of female entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia. In total, 14 respondents were interviewed as part of this study. Prior to collecting data, the respondents were provided a letter of consent, which included an explanation of the research project in general, and the primary research questions in particular. A semi-structured interview format was utilized with a standard probing technique to glean additional information not specifically noted in the initial interview questions. The participants were guided by the interview questions, yet were free to discuss any new thoughts that were not included in the interview questions. The interview questions were developed based on the two primary research questions as noted previously. Each interview lasted for approximately 60 to 90 minutes. As part of this study, 14 female small business owners in Jeddah city, Saudi Arabia, were interviewed. To analyze the data, the responses collected from each respondent were summarized and sent back to respondents. The word-based technique (word repetition and key-word-in-contexts (KWIC)) was used to analyze data as well as to compare and contrast responses to each question. Responses for each question were read across all the participants; then, notes for key concepts and themes were taken. This technique was applied for each interview question. When key concepts and themes for each interview question were identified, the responses to the interview questions were combined to evaluate the primary research questions (Rubin & Rubin, 2005).

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Saudi female entrepreneurs reported financial reasons (i.e., generating more income) as a motive driving them to start small businesses, as well as other non-financial factors, including flexibility, challenge, positive work environment, and limited job opportunities. The meaning of these motives among Saudi entrepreneurs is similar to that of other entrepreneurs as defined in previous studies. For instance, among female entrepreneurs, independence means to be financially autonomous or to have freedom in choices related to work. Flexibility means to have a balance between work and family and/or to have the ability to work from home. Common cross-cultural motivations of female entrepreneurs included the desire to increase personal wealth and/or were necessitated due to limited job opportunities (Hughes, 2005). Yet, in some cases, the meaning of pull motives among entrepreneurs is different. For Saudi female entrepreneurs, a desire to be challenged means to achieve success from nothing; while for other entrepreneurs participating in previous studies, a desire to be challenged means to have creativity, complexity, and variety in daily work. When asking the participants about their ability or willingness to extend their work to accommodate larger numbers of Saudi women, it was found that the business owners had several reasons for not planning to do this. Among the participants in this study, none felt that their operations would grow enough to accommodate additional workers. Interestingly, the majority of Saudi apparel workers are of Filipino descent. It was discovered that among participants, a perception existed that Filipino workers are better skilled than Saudi workers in apparel production. Saudi women are more likely to be employed in beauty salons. In general, it was found that working as a seamstress is not an attractive job for Saudi women whether for the owners or for the employees in this industry. Female graduates of apparel and textiles departments in Saudi Arabia have not been educated to work in this type of industry as they are mainly educated to be secondary education instructors. Especially in the production of evening dresses, a common product produced in Saudi apparel workshops, Saudi workers are not perceived as possessing advanced sewing skills. Consequently, in coordinating apparel and textiles programs in Saudi Arabia, basic and advanced sewing skills should be included in the curriculum. Enhancing business knowledge is another objective that apparel and textile programs should consider since Saudi women seek more advance positions in business management. Business courses related to management, accounting, and product development should be offered in apparel and textile programs to better qualify Saudi women to manage and operate apparel production workshops in Saudi Arabia.

Alharbi, (2010). Minister of Labor: 80% of unemployment graduates women and mechanisms to Address obstacles to women’s work within 8 weeks. Alwatan. Retrieved from http://www.alwatan.com.sa/Local/News_Detail.aspx?ArticleID=31220&CategoryID=5 Hughes, K. D. (2005). Female enterprise in the new economy. London: Universty of Toronto Press Incorporated. Rubin, H. J. & Rubin, I. S. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, London, and New Delhi: SAGE Publications.

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Attachment to Clothing and Implications for Sustainability within a Cultural Context Marilyn DeLong1), Seoha Min2), Yoonkyung Lee1), and Mary Alice Casto1), 1) University of Minnesota, USA, 2) The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA Keywords: culture, favorite, attachment, sustainability

Introduction Extending the life span of clothing through better quality and increased usability can result in fewer resources used in the overall clothing consumption system (Fletcher, 2008). If people experience emotional attachment toward clothing they own, they are likely to manage their clothing with more care, for an increased life span of their clothing (Schifferstein & Zwartkruis-Pelgrim, 2008). In this regard, it is worthwhile to explore people’s attachment to clothing from a sustainable perspective. The research explored how American and Korean consumers in their twenties report attachment to their clothing. The research gives perspective to apparel designers and companies who want to design clothing to be worn for an extended time. Literature Review 1) Emotional Attachment to Clothing and Sustainability Clothing acts as a protective layer between a wearer and the world, so that a wearer has an intimate relationship with clothing (Collin & Aumonier, 2002). In particular, if a person is deeply attached to clothing, he or she is more likely to handle the clothing with care, to repair it, and to postpone its replacement. In such circumstances it is unlikely for the person to dispose of the clothing, so its life is expanded. In particular, people attach to their favorite clothing significantly and keep it longer because favorites serve as storehouses of personal meanings, gender, age, and an owner’s culture (Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988).

2) Attachment to Clothing and Cultural Context Kim (1999) explained that a user perceives clothing based on his or her cultural background associated with clothing. In this regard, approved and preferred design attributes of clothing may be different depending on a user’s cultural background. Thus the way users attach to clothing is different depending on their culture (Overby, Gardial, & Woodruff, 2004). Method As a pilot study, 5 participants (1 male and 4 females) were interviewed about their favorite and long-used clothing. Based on the findings, survey questions were developed. In this research, 89 American (age; m=22.61, SD=2.49, range 19-29) and 91 Korean university students, consumers in their twenties (age; m=21.46, SD=1.45, range 18-25), participated in the survey and were asked to answer 8 open-ended questions in the following categories: (1) demographic questions; (2) open-ended questions regarding clothing they were most and least attached to (3) open-ended question regarding sustainable design constraints in their clothing. To facilitate participants’ understanding, we introduced a brief definition of apparel sustainability at the beginning of the survey and we used the words ‘favorite and long-used clothing’ instead of ‘clothing attachment’ to facilitate responses to the survey.

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Results and Discussion We explored how Americans and Korean participants living in metropolitan cities in their respective countries describe favorite and long used clothing. There is no significant difference between participants from America and Korea in terms of average time of use (3.93 average years reported). Prevailing clothing colors that were similar were black for Americans (31.46%) and Koreans (32.96%) and brown (AP: 11.23%, KP: 12.08%). However other colors reported were different: blue (AP: 26.96%, KP: 12.08%); grey (AP: 17.97%, KP: 8.79%). Other differences were reported: almost half of Koreans (49.45%) but only 10 American participants (10.10%) named either a coat or a jacket as their long-used favorite clothing. In interpreting such a result, a coat as outer clothing could be important to the wearer’s overall fashion image (Lee & Kim, 2004). Since public transportation systems offer a convenient way of exploring metropolitan cities in Korea, Korean people may have more opportunities to reveal their outerwear as part of their fashionable image than those in nonpublic transportation such as riding in a car. Attributes of comfort were listed by 53 Americans (59.55%) and only 27 Korean participants (29.67%) as an attribute of their favorite and long-used clothing, such as stretchable denim pants and a trench coat with comfortable fit. Conclusion In this research, how American and Korean participants are attached to clothing in terms of favorite and long used clothing was explored. One of the main findings is the connection between participants’ attachment to clothing and their cultural background. For example, American participants frequently mentioned comfortable clothing (59.55%), clothing with good fit (55.05%) and functional clothing (38.20%). This result may be related to American’s pursuing of practicality. The research implies that to achieve sustainability, fashion designers and companies need to consider cultural contexts in the design of clothing. In future research, it would be beneficial to conduct in-depth research to explore users’ cultural philosophy regarding attachment to clothing via favorite and long-used clothing.

Reference Collins, M., & Aumônier, S. (2002). Streamlined life cycle assessment of two Marks & Spencer plc apparel products. Marks & Spencer plc. Fletcher, K. (2008). Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journey. London, VA: Earthscan. Kim, S.I., (1999). Hyperspace and Korean Culture. Seoul: Kuhakyungusa. Lee, H. & Kim, J. (2004). Study on type classification and design characteristics of coats. The Research Journal of the Costume Culture, 12 (3), 339- 353. Overby, J., Gardial, S., & Woodruff, R. (2004). French versus American consumers’ attachment of value to a product in a common consumption context: a cross-national comparison. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32 (4). 437-460. Schifferstein, H. N. J., & Zwartkruis-Pelgrim, E. P. H. (2008). Consumer-product attachment: Measurement and design implications. International Journal of Design, 2(3), 1-14. Wallendorf, M. & Arnould, E. (1988). “My favorite things”: a cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage. Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (4), 531-547.

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New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

Socially Responsible Apparel Purchasing Intention, Knowledge, and Attitudes: Cross-Cultural Comparison of U.S. and Korean Consumers

Joy M. Kozar and Ji Hye Kang, Kansas State University, USA

Keywords: cross-culture, Korean consumers, social responsibility, sustainability

The purpose of this study is to cross-culturally examine consumer groups most likely to engage in socially responsible (SR) apparel purchasing behavior. Numerous business studies have investigated the impact of corporate social responsibility (CSR), noting positive relationships between CSR initiatives and financial performance (e.g., McGuire, Sundgren, & Schneeweis, 1988) and attitudes held by consumers (e.g, Lichtenstein, Drumwright, & Braig, 2004). However, studies have also shown that consumers are often unwilling to pay premium prices for SR products (e.g., Creyer & Ross, 1997) and are often skeptical and/or cynical toward CSR campaigns (e.g., Swaen & Vanhamme, 2004). According to Hofstede (1991), consumer behavior and business practices are culturally bound. To date, most CSR studies and SR apparel purchasing behavior studies have been examined within a single country and very few studies have compared CSR activities cross-culturally. As part of the current study, data were collected in academic settings in both South Korea (n = 215) and the United States (n = 325). Questionnaire items included the Knowledge of and Concern with Apparel Social Issues Scale (Dickson, 1999) and the Sustainable Apparel Purchasing Behavior Scale (Kozar & Hiller Connell, 2010). The ages of participants ranged from 18-29 years of age. Among both samples, the majority of participants were female (73.7% of Korean sample; 81.2% of U.S. sample).

Two important differences in participants’ SR apparel purchasing intentions were found. As compared to U.S. participants, the Korean participants were less willing to settle for a lower quality garment in order to purchase from a SR apparel firm (t = -7.96, p < .05). This may be an indication that Korean consumers, as compared to U.S. consumers, perceive product quality as a more important attribute in their apparel purchasing decisions and are less willing to purchase SR goods if perceived quality expectations are not met. Future research should explore other barriers perceived by Korean consumers in engaging in SR apparel purchasing behavior. For example, in one study, researchers determined that U.S. consumers were impeded in their SR apparel purchasing intentions due to the perceived need for increased resources in terms of money and time. Participants also perceived inadequate availability of SR apparel product options and insufficient information about sustainable apparel firms (Hiller Connell & Kozar, 2010).

Interestingly, the two samples did not significantly differ in the willingness to pay premium prices for SR goods. However, as part of the current study, Korean consumers were less willing to buy clothing from SR businesses just to support CSR initiatives (t = -22.45, p < .05). It is possible that U.S. consumers may consider the SR of a firm more frequently when making purchasing decisions; this willingness may also be impacted by consumers’ awareness and depth

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of understanding of SR issues. For example, Korean participants indicated being less knowledgeable about SR clothing businesses (t = -3.89, p < .05) and held stronger beliefs that apparel goods should be labeled to differentiate among SR firms and those produced by mainstream commercial brands (t = 3.21, p < .05). Korean participants also reported lower scores on their beliefs that they are informed about issues in foreign clothing manufacturing factories (t = -2.48, p < .05) and concern with issues surrounding workers in foreign factories (t = -9.75, p < .05). In fact, although not significant, U.S. participants held stronger attitudes toward other apparel social issues, such as the banning of goods in the marketplace produced by child laborers, the need for government regulations to protect apparel manufacturing workers, and the willingness to boycott clothing sold by firms that exploit workers in the production of goods.

The findings of this study are useful in contributing to a theoretical framework which deepens the interpretation of consumers’ decision making process cross-culturally. This is significant to firms with a strong commitment to CSR; utilizing a comprehensive framework provides answers about those consumers most likely to engage in sustainable apparel purchasing practices. For firms seeking to establish a strong rapport and differential advantage in the supply chain, it is noteworthy to identify those consumer groups in the global marketplace most motivated by CSR in their purchasing decisions.

Creyer, E. H., & Ross, W. T. (1997). The influence of firm behavior on purchase intention: Do consumers really care about business ethics? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 14(6), 421-432. Dickson, M. A. (1999). US consumers’ knowledge of and concern with apparel sweatshops. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 3(1), 44-55. Hiller Connell, K. Y., & Kozar, J. M. (2010). Encouraging sustainable apparel consumption among undergraduate students [Abstract]. Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Kozar, J. M., & Hiller Connell, K. Y. (2010). Socially responsible knowledge and behaviors: Comparing upper- vs. lower-classmen. College Student Journal, 44(2), 279-293. Lichtenstein, D. R., Drumwright, M. E., & Braig, B. M. (2004). The effect of corporate social responsibility on customer donations to corporate-supported nonprofits. Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 16-32. McGuire, J. B., Sundgren, A., & Schneeweis, T. (1988). Corporate social responsibility and firm financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 854-872. Swaen, V., & Vanhamme, J. (2004). See how ‘good’ we are: The dangers of using corporate social activities in communication campaigns. Advances in Consumer Research, 31(1), 302-313.

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New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

American Imperialism at the 1904 World’s Fair: A Case Study of Philippine Dress

Jenna Tedrick Kuttruff, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA Carl Kuttruff, Kuttruff and Associates, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

Key Words: Imperialism, Philippines, dress, culture

This research examines the role of dress of the Igorots, mountain peoples from the northern Philippine Islands, at the beginning of the twentieth century both within their own land and in the United States as a part of the 1904 World's Fair. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, held in St. Louis, Missouri, has been described as the "Coronation of Civilization" (Rydell, 1984) and served as the cultural touchstone for the nation at that time. This largest international exposition the world had ever seen was viewed by over twenty million people. By far the most extensive as well as the most popular of all exhibits at the St. Louis Exposition was that of the Philippine Islands (see Figures 1 and 2). It included nearly twelve hundred Filipinos living in traditional style villages on a forty-seven-acre display. The exhibit included not only the products, resources, manufactures, art, ethnology, education, and government of the Philippine Islands, but also a presentation of the habits and customs of the Filipino people. The imperial message of the United States government's Philippine Exposition Board, organizers of the Philippine exposition, pervaded the display. This display served to affirm the value of the recently acquired Philippine Islands to America's commercial growth and the United States' role as a colonial power. It created, based on then current anthropological theories, a scientifically validated impression of Filipinos as racially inferior and incapable of national self- determination in the near future. Inside the Philippine exposition was a series of three cultural spheres depicting the civilizing influence of the Spanish past, the current ethnological state of the islands, and the beneficial results that both the Filipinos and Americans could expect from the United States possession of the islands. The Igorots, a general term used to refer to any of several cultural groups from the mountain area of northern Luzon, comprised the largest contingent in the series of ethnological villages that portrayed the lifestyles of indigenous Filipino peoples. This paper presents not only the social significance and role of Igorot dress within their own society but also in the U.S. government supported presentation of the Philippine Islands at the 1904 Exposition. Using period descriptions and photographs, Igorot dress is compared and contrasted with the dress of other Filipinos from different ethnic groups and social levels and American dress at that time. Also included in the presentation are photographs and documentation of Igorot textiles and costumes exhibited at the St. Louis Exposition, which were among the early acquisitions now in the collections of the Philippine National Museum in Manila.

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Rydell, R. W. (1984). All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. No Author (1904). Philippine Exposition, World’s Fair St. Louis 1904. Brochure from the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in collection of the authors. No Author (1904). Souvenir Igorot Village. Philippine Photograph Co. World’s Fair, St. Louis, in collection of the authors.

Figure 1. (left) Cover of brochure from the Philippine Exposition at the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis, Missouri (authors’ personal collection). Figure 2. (right) Cover of souvenir booklet from the Igorot Village at the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis, Missouri (authors’ personal collection).

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New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

Organizing Clothing and Textiles Outreach to Ghanaian Women and Girls Kimberly Miller-Spillman, PhD and Kwaku Addo, PhD, University of Kentucky, USA Keywords: Ghana, Fair Trade, Global Citizenship, Sustainability The purpose of this paper is a call to action for clothing and textiles scholars to aid Ghanaian women and girls in achieving more income and education through a connection with university Family and Consumer Sciences’ (FCS) students, faculty, and homemakers. We are proposing that a consortium of clothing and textile specialists with interests in Ghana be organized to create an ongoing and sustainable effort in Ghana to benefit women and girls. To become part of the consortium, one must commit to travel to Ghana at least once in a five year period (this is an example; actual time commitment to be determined) and report their experiences/findings to the consortium chair with implications as to how to continue to move this effort forward. One of the challenges in the developing world is to meld crafts (i. e., apparel, accessories, and home goods) from artisans into a wearable/useful item that is marketable outside of Ghana. Ghanaians have a distinctive cultural aesthetic of bold, bright, and colorful fabric designs (such as Kente cloth and adinkra cloth). These beautiful fabrics are not widely available outside of Ghana and there is a peculiar lack of availability of these fabrics in the U.S. How is it that these exceptional fabrics have not found a niche market in the US? One reason may be that Ghana’s patriarchal structure and low status of women discourages women from becoming the main wage earners and recognized heads of households. Another challenge are high tariffs on exported garments (Binby-Aidoo, 2006). According to the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS), women have less education than men. Only 4% of women and 8% of men, age 15-49, have more than a secondary education (p. 4). Men and women age 15-49 are employed almost equally (men=99%, women= 91%) but women who earn cash generally earn less money than their husbands (p. 15). According to the World Bank, “gender is an economic issue in Ghana, not just a social issue. Improving labor productivity and access to and control of economically productive assets, especially for females, is important for growth, agricultural performance, food security, household welfare, and poverty reduction” (The World Bank, 2002, p.5). In this paper we propose ways in which US universities can help improve labor productivity of women in Ghana. There are several ways that FCS professionals in the US can assist Ghanaian women. One example are annual Education Abroad programs that spend 2-3 weeks in Ghana and include faculty, students, and homemakers (or other interested citizens). If your university doesn’t have a study tour to Ghana, you can join or partner with programs at other universities. These tours can often change people’s lives. Once individuals experience firsthand a developing country, they will never be the same. Donations of cash, books, and sewing supplies can be hand delivered to women in need through these programs. Delivery of sewing/dying/designing instruction can also take place while there. It is imperative that Education Abroad programs be assessable to FCS students. This responsibility falls on FCS faculty and administration. For instance, at one university, the Page 1 of 2

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Education Abroad Office offers scholarships in the amount of $1,500 while the FCS unit offers scholarships up to $2,000. Combined these scholarships come close to covering the cost of a trip to Ghana (typically $4,000). In order to graduate students who are global citizens, FCS needs to insure that these opportunities are available to all students regardless of financial standing. Engaging FCS students is an important part of a C&T consortium in Ghana. Students need opportunities to use their subject matter expertise and to be engaged in meaningful outreach in other cultures. Providing students with real world problem solving experiences will bolster their self-esteem and feelings of job readiness. In addition, students need opportunities to develop a global perspective that can lead to global citizenship. Women in Ghana, especially village women, need training and supplies to build on basic skills. Given their unique cultural aesthetic (Kente cloth and adinkra cloth), women generally need access to a larger market. FCS researchers can help Ghanaian women by identifying through research which aspects of Ghanaian fabrics have the most appeal. Marketing surveys in university towns would tap into a young and international market. But consumers beyond college age need to be surveyed as well. In addition, research is needed to determine why some consumers do not like “ethnic” prints and to problem solve how to make these prints more desirable. FCS professionals can also assist Ghanaian women with connections to organizations that target fair trade and handmade goods from artisans. Global Mamas is one such organization in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. That organization could be a crucial link between female entrepreneurs and a global market. Faculty at the University of Ghana would be an excellent resource for this type of effort and should be interviewed by Consortium members as part of an overall needs assessment in Ghana. ITAA will have a Ghana Tour in 2014 which will be a great introduction to the area and the challenges in connecting village women to the global market. Once the consortium has a successful track record, it could serve as a model for similar efforts in other places. There are several rural, low income areas in the US that could benefit from a similar effort.

References: Binby-Aidoo, V. (2006). The production and exportation of garments under the AGOA initiative: Challenges facing garment producers in Accra and Tema, Ghana. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Ghana-Legon, Accra.

Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), Ghana Health Service (GHS), and ICF Macro. (2009). Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2008: Key Findings. Calverton, Maryland, USA: GSS, GHS, and ICF Macro. Retrieved at: http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/Catalog- /1387.

The World Bank. Ghana: Strategic Country Gender Assessment (Briefing Note for the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy). (2002). Retrieved at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPGENDER/Resources/GhanaCGA- R.pdf Page 2 of 2

New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

Rites of Passage: Debutante Balls in Filipino-American Culture

Jung Mee Mun and Kim K. P. Johnson University of Minnesota, USA

Keywords: ball, culture, debutante, escort

The debutante ball is a traditional Western ritual often designed to celebrate young women’s transition from childhood to adulthood. The word debut (i.e., to enter into society) comes from French language but came into use by the English during the reign of King George the 3rd (1760- 1820). From 1837 on, the young women were referred to as debutantes later shortened to debs (Haynes, 2005). Being a debutante entails a distinctive aesthetic. The dresses, flowers, and other aspects of appearance (e.g., tiaras, gloves) are concerned with identifying a new adult member of a specific community. During the debutante’s presentation, a debutante is often accompanied by a young man (an escort). Debutante balls within the U.S. lost significance as a rite of passage and suffered a decline in popularity partially due to the cost of the event and to criticisms. These criticisms include that the ritual promotes unhealthy materialism and imprudent spending, encourages women to be obedient, and is a performance of a hegemonic type of femininity (Rodriguez, 2010). Regardless of the critique, the tradition of debutante balls has continued albeit customized by the groups that continue this ritual. For example, the regional Filipino Association (Joles, 2011, February 21) hosts an annual debutante event for both young men and women to celebrate their accomplishments as well as their transition to adulthood. As the idea of a debutante continue to evolve with the adoption of this ritual by diverse cultural groups, our research purpose was to further understand the creation and continuance of the Filipino Debutante ball as a cultural ritual and to identify both the motivation(s) as well as the benefit(s) underlying Filipino youths’ participation in the event. Our research questions were: What is the history of the debutante ball within the Filipino community in Minnesota? What are the motivations for hosting the ritual? What are the participants’ motivations for partaking in the event? What outcomes are linked to participation in the event? Methods: We used purposive sampling methods to recruit participants. Three former debutantes and three escorts volunteered to be interviewed. All the interviews ranged in length from 30 to 60 minutes, were audio taped, and transcribed. In addition to the interview, we attended the debutante ball event in February, 2012 to observe, take photographs, and gain additional information. The interview data were analyzed using components of phenomenological analysis (Moustakas, 1994). Significant statements, sentences, or quotes were highlighted in different colors. The statements were grouped into larger units of information, called “meaning units” or themes developing a description and identifying quotes to elaborate on the experiences associated with each unit. Lastly, the researchers created an interpretive description of each meaning unit. Meanings and relationships between various categories were discussed and explored until mutual understanding was achieved.

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Findings: In February, the Filipino Association (FA) hosts an annual debutante ball. The debutante ball was first held in 1978 to support the growth and development of future leaders within the Filipino-American community. The debutante ball has been sponsored by the organization for 35 years to mentor youth, support their education by providing scholarships, and motivate them. Through the interviews with past debutantes and escorts, four themes emerged concerning motivations to take part in the debutante ball: to abide by a family tradition, to gain attention, to have fun, and coercion. Primary motivation to participate in the event was to abide by a family tradition the consequently will please parents. For example, a former debutante shared, “I wanted to participate because it had been a tradition in our family, and I knew my parents would be proud if I did it.” The debutante ball was also a way for participants to get exclusive attention from family, friends, and community members. There were some incidents where participants took part in the event unwillingly and felt somewhat forced by their family or friends. Coercion was identified by former escorts as reflected in the following comment. “An old family friend was going to be a Deb so they asked me to be an escort. I reluctantly accepted. For me it was just a matter of helping out.” The debutante ball had significant impact on the participants’ lives. All participants shared that they experienced long term changes resulting from their participation in the event. These outcomes included changes in personality, active involvement with the community, appreciation of their culture, and long lasting friendships. Although the event was held for one day, participants normally spent 11 weeks in preparation for the event. During those 11 weeks, participants built strong relationships with family members, friends, and individuals within the Filipino community. Those relationships positively impact them to the present. Interestingly, one participant shared that the event changed his personality to be active and outgoing. “I particularly was very shy when I was younger. When I did the event, interacted with people, it was like coming out of yourself. Got more interactive and outgoing” Conclusions: The findings of this study provide a better understanding of Filipino-American Debutante ball and offer an in-depth information about the motivations as well as the outcomes underlying Filipino youths’ participation in the event. Our findings revealed that parents had a major impact on Filipino youths’ decision making to take part in the event. The debutante ball also initiated changes in participants’ lives: their personality, interests, and involvement with the community.

References Haynes, M. (2005). Debutante dress. In A–Z of Fashion. Retrieved 27 Mar. 2013, from http://www.bergfashionlibrary.com.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/view/bazf/bazf00160.xml Joles, D. (2011, February 21). Rites of passage: The debutantes ball. StarTribune. Retrieved from http://www.startribune.com/galleries/116621018.html. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Rodriguez, E. I. (2010). Coming of age: Identities and transformations in Filipino American debutantes and Mexican American Quinceaneras. Philadelphia: Temple University.

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13 Korean Immigrants and their Aesthetic Perspectives on Appearance

Saet Byul Park and Marilyn DeLong University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, USA

Keywords: aesthetic experience, cultural change, immigrants, appearance

Background and Context Beginning in the late 1960s, mass immigration has increased the diversity of ethnic groups in American society (Alba & Nee, 2003). As the geography of U.S. immigrant population has shifted from Europe to Asia, Africa, and Latin America, a more favorable environment has been provided for nonwhite immigrants than in the past (Alba & Nee, 2003). Current immigrants think that cultural differences in society are valuable and express interest in maintaining their own cultural origins and cultural objects. Different values and views co-exist in contemporary American society. In spite of that, the individual immigrants of minority ethnic groups are likely to experience an acculturation or assimilation process, that is, as they enter into a new cultural environment, they learn and adopt cultural traits, norms, and values of the new dominant culture that are different from the ones where they were originally reared (Berry, 1997). As a result, immigrants experience attitudinal and behavioral changes in their everyday lives. As a learned attitude and behavior within a culture, apparel preference affects how we think about and behave toward our appearance (DeLong, 1998). Apparel preference changes based on aesthetic perception that is defined as learning about what is valued as an ideal and how people desire to look according to the dominant images of the time or place (DeLong, 1998). As immigrants learn and adopt the attitudes, behaviors, and values of the host culture, their appearance to some extent may emulate that of dominant group members. But, their appearance may also mark their status as a cultural minority (Gans, 1962). It is because both their culture of origin and the present culture they live in simultaneously influence their aesthetic experience, even if the culture of origin is not currently part of their experience (DeLong, 1998). Our study indicates that immigrants in the U.S. experience some form of cultural change as they enter the new environment and as a consequence, their aesthetic experience is influenced. Appearance especially can be a key indicator of their aesthetic experience. Therefore, we explored what could influence immigrants’ aesthetic perspectives on appearance and their resulting attitudes and behaviors.

Theoretical Framework and Method According to the optimal distinctiveness model,individuals have two fundamental and opposing needs that govern the relationship between the self-concept and membership in social groups: the need for assimilation and inclusion, a desire for belonging that motivates immersion in social groups and the need for differentiation from others that operates in opposition to the need for immersion (Brewer, 2003). This model proposes that social identities are selected and activated to the extent that they help to achieve a balance between

14 needs for inclusion and for differentiation in a given social context (Brewer, 2003). We adopt this framework to determine how the experiences of immigrants in different cultural contexts influence their aesthetic perspectives, attitudes, or behaviors concerning appearance and how they balance their identities and memberships in these multiple contexts by way of their appearance. Thirty Korean immigrant women ranging in age from 23 to 58 years from a major city in the Midwestern United States were recruited for in-depth interviews by purposive sampling methods. Interviews were audio-recorded and interviewees’ preferred dress was photographed that would be worn in their everyday lives in the host culture and on occasions within their Korean community.

Findings and Conclusions We find that there are differences in how interviewees deal with their cultural change by means of their appearances at the individual level. Factors such as age, status, migration motivation, cultural distance (e.g., language), length of time, and socioeconomic attainment contributed to these differences among the interviewees. As a group, interviewees share common characteristics that can be identified from other ethnic groups. Especially their distinctive characteristics related to dress such as preference for national brands or price priority influenced their behavioral and attitudinal aspects about appearance. Interviewees reported that their opinions about the appropriateness of appearance aredivergent according to different cultural contexts. Assigning value, interest, effort, and behaviors for interviewees to constitute proper dress varied, depending on the cultural circumstance in which the individuals were located. Therefore, there was a conflict in the way they dress in their Korean community and in other communities. A majority of interviewees responded that they try to blend into their host culture by dressing casual and the reason being, they do not want to be marked as aliens by standing out in those contexts. On the other hand, they tend to dress up for their Korean communities in order to meet standards or norms of appearance because in Korean culture, dress is typically considered as an identifier of self, and people consider it to be beneficial to display their social achievements through their attire. By adjusting their appearance for their multiple lives, immigrants balance their needs to belong to multiple cultures as well as their needs to be differentiated as an individual.

Key References Alba, R. & Nee, V. (2003). Remaking the American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Berry, J. W. (1997). Cultures in contact: Acculturation and change. Allahabad: G. B. Pant Social Science Institute. Brewer, M. B. (2003). Optimal distinctiveness, social identity, and the self. In M. R. Leary & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of Self and Identity (pp. 480-491). NY: Guilford Press. DeLong, M. R. (1998). The nd way we look: Dress and aesthetics, 2 ed. New York: Fairchild Publications. Gans, H. J. (1962). The Urban villagers: Group and class in the life of Italian-American. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.

New Orleans, Louisiana 2013 Proceedings

The Evolution of Styletribes: A Netnographic Analysis

Jessica Strubel, Sanjukta Pookulangara, University of North Texas, USA

Keywords: Netnography, Styletribe, Neotribe, Consumption

Today’s technology enables consumers to trade millions of dollars, conduct online banking, access entertainment, and do countless other activities at the click of a button. Online social networks (SNS) have become a cultural phenomenon that allows for individualistic consumerism. People are increasingly utilizing social networking sites to share ideas, build communities, and contact fellow consumers who are similar to themselves. Most communication now takes place online, where the level of online contribution defines one’s roles and status within the online community. Online communities especially serve as a new form of reference group that can have a significant influence on consumers buying decisions through electronic word of mouth (eWOM).These reference groups online can be termed as “neotribes” which is similar to subcultures. Contemporary leading theorists prefer the term neotribe or stylestribe over subculture (Bennett, 2000). Styletribes are symbolic rather than functional and is typified by fluidity and interspersed gathering implying the quick movement of an individual from one subculture to another because of their constantly shifting style preferences in a society where deviation from the norm seems normal (Bennett, 2000; Malbon 1998). The purpose of this study was to explore information on the consumption of music related consumer cultures using netnography to provide a holistic perspective of online music communities and consumption.

Rationale of the study: The global music industry is worth $168 billion annually (“How Much”, 2011). Not only is information about music and performance disseminated online, but musical commodities are sold and traded online. The Internet not only provides a space for fans to engage freely with each other about the music and for bands to maintain communication with their fans and promoting their events, it is also an open space for subcultural commodification. The global apparel industry was estimated to be worth $1.175 trillion at the end of 2011 and predicted to value at $1.348 trillion by 2016. Approximately 9% of the total apparel market share is comprised of online/Internet sales (Sage, 2010). Because of the shift of subcultures to online styletribes, there is an obvious need to understand how online communities now act as primary reference groups and to what degrees that have an impact on consumer evaluations, aspirations, and purchase behaviors.

Results: Data was collected from public profiles of users on four music community websites using netnographic (Kozinets, 2002) methodology. Observations took place on the following websites: 1. Dieselpunks.com (a local website devoted to the Interbellum period and all things Dieselpunk) 2. www.thesteampunkempire.com/forum (A forum dedicated to aficionados of the Victorian era) 3. www.goth.net/forums/ (A multi-faceted forum for all things gothic and steampunk) 4. www.absolutepunk.net/forum.php (A definitive source for punk rock news) The following observations were recorded for twenty-five users from each of the four online communities: (1) number of posts; (2) number of community friends (if known); (3) duration of time in the community (if known); (4) theme of the discussions participated in or initiated (See Table 1). After analyzing the data the following themes emerged: Page 1 of 2

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The Nostalgia Factor: There is an obvious difference between Steampunks and Dieselpunks and the Goths and Punks. Dress is central to the process of self-shaping, and the fantasy self becomes an essential part of the Steampunk or Dieselpunk identity. Their generic style has elements of DIY, but it is mostly in the form of ‘modding’ contemporary goods to make them look antique. Subcultural Commitment: The Steampunks have the highest average number of friends, but the lowest average number of posts, demonstrating their lack of commitment to the community. Product Consumption: The neotribes had the following distinct consumption patterns: (1) punks primarily purchase digital music and videos online; (2) Steampunks and Dieselpunks purchase ‘modded’/nostalgic apparel from online auction sites and craft networks; (3) Goths are searching for generic gothic attire preferably from online specialty stores catering to gothic needs.

Table 1. Observations (n= 25 for each website) Steampunkempire Goth.net Dieselpunk.org AbsolutePunk Statistics Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Posts 165.52 1 2747 939.28 22 9249 217.84 2 2026 4453.08 34 44324 Friends 84.16 2 1243 — — — 20.8 4 171 16.68 0 103 Duration* — — — 37.68 2 132 17.92 1 36 48.36 12 96 *(months) Duration is in months

Conclusions and Implications: According to this study and previous studies, there is an evident shift in subcultural community dynamics. Countercultures, which once led and shocked the world with fashion change, are no longer the visibly rebellious youth that once gathered in the streets for public display. They are now reticent, and often, passive consumers who prefer the comfort and safety of their home for communication with their community of choice. However, they have not abandoned the sartorial element that so readily defines subcultures. Their subcultural dress is reserved for weekends and demonstrates what Polhemus (1994) says is a tendency towards nostalgia, rather than anything novel. There is an obvious need for future research that would include a comparison between the online communities and the reality based communities to determine whether they maintain consistent behavioral patterns with regards to friendship patterns (reference group influencers), pre-purchase decision behaviors, and where they make their final purchases as a result of the previous two variables. Researchers can use the exchange of eWOM in online communities to gain great insight on consumers wants and needs, choices, issues, preferences of products or services, as well as areas in need of attention, change, or doing away with. References Bennett, A. (2000). Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music, Identity and Place. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc. How much is the music industry real worth? (2011). Retrieved from http://www.digitalmusicnew.com Kozinets, R. V. (2009) Netnography: Doing ethnographic research online. Sage Publication Limited. Malbon, B. (1998), ‘Clubbing: consumption, identity, and the spatial practices of every-night life’, in T. Skelton and G. Valentine (eds.), Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Cultures, London: Routledge, pp. 266-288. Polhemus, T. (1994). Street Style, New York: Thames & Hudson. Sage, A. (2010). US Web retail sales to reach $249 bln by '14-study. Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com Page 2 of 2