245ISSN 0041-6436

An international journal of and industries Vol. 66 2015/3

Forest and restoration Enter the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 app competition!

FoFollollowinwing the release of FAO’s GGloblobaall ForForestest ResoResourcesurces AsseAssessmessmenntt ((FFRRAA)) 2015, FAO is launching the “25 years of forest change: Global FFoorestrest ResoResourcesurces Assessment 2015 aapppp ccoommppetition”. Particicipantsipants areare invited ttoo come up withwith mobilemobile applicapplicationsations tthathat can help better manamanagege ourour fforestorest resources and imimprovprovee understandinnderstandingg of forestsforests worldwide.worldwide. SubmissionsSubmissions willwill be acceptedpted ununtiltil TThehe aapppp should be based on the 2244::0000::0000 CET on 21 January 2016.16. FFRRAA 2015 dataset, available via the FiFirrstst prize is a US$2$2 000 papaidid FFoorestrest Data Explorer (FLUDE) assignmenassignment witthh FAO’s Forestryry oonlinenline portaall: http://w/wwwww..faofao.or.org/ DepaDepartmenrtmentt to wworkork on dissemination fforestorest--resourcresources-assessmentes-assessment/ anandd outreachoutreach forfor thethe apapp.p. A tablet will eexplorxplore-data/flude/en/. be awarded to up to threthreee runners-up.up. Targeargett users include the scientific ThThee awarardd ceremony will takkee placplace on ccoommunimmunittyy,, experts, policcyymakers 21 March 2016, tthhe UN Internationarnationall andd//oror thethe generagenerall pupublic.blic. DDaayy of .

FFoorr moremore information on howhow to enterr,, ggoo to hhttttpp::////www.fao.org/ forest-resour-resourcces-assessmees-assessmentnt/ appp-c-contest//eenn// 245ISSN 0041-6436

An international and forest industries Vol. 66 2015/3

Editor: S. Lapstun Editorial Advisory Board: S. Braatz, I. Buttoud, P. Csoka, L. Flejzor, T. Hofer, Contents F. Kafeero, W. Kollert, S. Lapstun, D. Mollicone, D. Reeb, S. Rose, J. Tissari, Editorial 2 P. van Lierop Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, C. Sabogal, C. Besacier and D. McGuire C. Palmberg-Lerche, L. Russo Forest and landscape restoration: concepts, approaches Regional Advisers: F. Bojang, P. Durst, and challenges for implementation 3 A.A. Hamid, J. Meza L. Laestadius, K. Buckingham, S. Maginnis and C. Saint-Laurent is published in English, French and Before Bonn and beyond: the history and future of Spanish. Free subscriptions can be obtained forest landscape restoration 11 by sending an e-mail to [email protected]. Subscription requests from institutions L. Janishevski, C. Santamaria, S.B. Gidda, H.D. Cooper and (e.g. libraries, companies, organizations, P.H.S. Brancalion universities) rather than individuals are restoration, protected areas and preferred to make the journal accessible to conservation 19 more readers. All issues of Unasylva are available online E. Thomas, R. Jalonen, J. Loo and M. Bozzano free of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/ Avoiding failure in : the importance of unasylva. Comments and queries are welcome: genetically diverse and site-matched germplasm 29 [email protected]. FAO encourages the use, reproduction and N. Berrahmouni, M. Parfondry, P. Regato and A. Sarre dissemination of material in this information Restoration of degraded forests and in drylands: product. Except where otherwise indicated, guidelines and way forward 37 material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching M. Sacande, N. Berrahmouni and S. Hargreaves purposes, or for use in non-commercial Community participation at the heart of Africa’s products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and restoration model 44 copyright holder is given and that FAO’s S. Appanah, K. Shono and P.B. Durst endorsement of users’ views, products or Restoration of forests and degraded lands in Southeast Asia 52 services is not implied in any way. The designations employed and the W. Cho and B.K. Chun presentation of material in this information Restoration of the Baekdudaegan mountains in product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and the Republic of Korea 64 Agriculture Organization of the United Nations C. Daoxiong, G. Wenfu, L. Zhilong and S. Dongjing (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or Transforming ’s forests 74 of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation J. Coello, J. Cortina, A. Valdecantos and E. Varela of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of Forest landscape restoration experiences in southern Europe: specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does sustainable techniques for enhancing early performance 82 not imply that these have been endorsed or C. Rebelo and K. Buckingham recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar that are not mentioned. : the opportunities for forest and landscape restoration 91 The publications reviewed in Unasylva are V. Gutierrez and M.-N. Keijzer available on the FAO website (www.fao.org/ publications) and can be purchased through Funding forest landscape restoration using a [email protected]. business-centred approach: an NGO’s perspective 99 FAO Forestry 107 Cover: Montana Conservation Corps (MCC) crews, made up of high school and college World of Forestry 108 students from Wind River Indian Reservation, Books 110 help Chicago Botanic Garden interns collect seeds for the Seeds of Success programme in the Lander Field Office area. © BLM Wyoming editorial

he publication of this issue of Unasylva coincides with two in Southeast Asia, an area that has witnessed both resounding important events for forests. The 196 Parties to the United successes and failures. The restoration of the Baekdudaegan area, Nations Framework Convention on Change have a mountain chain that runs through the Korean peninsula, has Tjust convened at the Paris Conference to broker also encountered numerous hurdles, as described by Cho and a game-changing agreement on climate change. Also in Paris, the Chun, but has made important progress and could also provide 2015 is hosting high-level discussions a basis for regional collaboration. on the research and policy behind land-use issues. Forest and Daoxiong, Wenfu, Zhilong and Dongjing focus specifically on landscape restoration is a key piece in the puzzle. , presenting experimental approaches in China to The Oxford English Dictionary defines “restoration” as the transform the country’s planted forests and degraded lands into “action of restoring a thing to a former state or position”. Forest close-to-nature forests. and landscape restoration (FLR), however, invests the word with The case of southern Europe, an area that has been subjected to a far greater role than that of simply returning to a past state. On significant degradation and climate-related stressors, is examined a planet where the mark of human activity is almost ubiquitous, in detail by Coello, Cortina, Valedecantos and Varela, who restoration is by necessity a concept that has to take into account emphasize the need to boost support for restoration programmes human well-being and ongoing change. to ensure success. In the opening article of this issue, Sabogal, Besacier and Bamboo could be an interesting solution in some areas, as McGuire explore not only the concept, but also the approaches argued by Rebelo and Buckingham, who explore its potential in available – which vary considerably depending on location, tackling the challenges of restoration, notably through innova- scale, size and purpose – and the importance of identifying tive approaches involving the private sector. In the final article, the drivers of forest and . Their article is fol- Gutierrez and Keijzer look more broadly at the funding options lowed by an overview by Laestadius, Buckingham, Maginnis for FLR, also focusing on how to engage the private sector. and Saint-Laurent of the history of FLR. The movement has In order to succeed in the long term, forest and landscape clearly evolved significantly from its origins in forestry in the restoration initiatives will need to successfully engage a range 1990s to the ambitious target set by the 2011 Bonn Challenge of stakeholders, from policymakers to local communities and Ministerial Roundtable of restoring 150 million hectares of the from governments to private actors. This issue maps out some world’s deforested and degraded lands by 2020. of the progress that has already been made, and the challenges FLR also means regarding the landscape as an integrated whole, that lie ahead. u which implies looking at different land uses together, their connec- tions, interactions and a mosaic of interventions which, together, are expected to lead to restoration being more effective than a single land-use approach. In this light, Janishevski, Santamaria, Gidda, Cooper and Brancalion explore the role of protected areas, emphasizing that these areas must not be seen in isolation, but rather maintained and restored together with other parts of the landscape to ensure connectivity between areas, notably to ensure biodiversity conservation in the face of climate change. Restoration initiatives must also ensure that appropriate and genetically diverse planting material is chosen for planting sites. If this is not the case, restoration may fail, although this may become apparent only long after the initiation of the activity, or in the wake of exceptional events, as demonstrated by Thomas, Jalonen, Loo and Bozzano. Several articles look at the specificities of different regions and biomes. Berrahmouni, Parfondry, Regato and Sarre exam- ine approaches to restoring degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, illustrated by a case study in Ica, Peru. Sacande, Berrahmouni and Hargreaves present the experiences of Africa’s Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative, and the way in which it builds upon community involvement. Appanah, Shono and Durst also emphasize the importance of local participation in their overview of restoration activities 3 uercia G i ©FAO/G ANLUIGI Forest and landscape restoration: concepts, approaches and challenges for implementation

C. Sabogal, C. Besacier and D. McGuire

There is an urgent need to Con cepts provides, including biological and water- accelerate the recovery of orest and land degradation is a related goods and services as well as degraded for the serious problem worldwide, par- land-related social and economic goods benefit of humans and nature – ticularly in developing countries. and services (FAO/LADA, n.d.). Forest this requires a comprehensive FApproximately one billion people live in degradation refers to a reduction of the and intersectoral approach. degraded areas, which represent 15 percent capacity of a forest to provide goods and of the Earth’s population, and one third of services (FAO, 2011). the world’s population is considered to be Continued forest and land degradation affected by land degradation.1 poses serious obstacles to the elimination César Sabogal is Senior Forestry Officer in Land degradation is generally defined of poverty and hunger and the reversal charge of Sustainable at as a “persistent decline” in the provision of biodiversity loss in many parts of FAO. of goods and services that an ecosystem the world today, as well as to the abil- Christophe Besacier is Forestry Officer in the Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism ity of farmers and local communities to team in FAO’s Forestry Department. 1 According to ISRIC World Information adapt to the impacts of climate change. Douglas McGuire is Senior Forestry Officer (ISRIC, n.d.), land degradation costs an esti- in charge of coordination of the Forest and mated €30 billion annually worldwide and Landscape Restoration Mechanism team in affects more than a billion people, especially Above: Lowlands village on the FAO’s Forestry Department. in drylands. outskirts of Hlotse, Lesotho, 2010

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Farmer herding cattle, This degradation process also increases with the aim of re-establishing ecological Higo village, Ethiopia, 2010 competition for scarce resources, with integrity2 and supporting human well- possible conflicts between users. These being (Maginnis and Jackson, 2003). Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) in turn threaten the livelihoods, well- A landscape can be regarded as the is an emerging concept that refers to an being, food, water and energy security, heterogeneous mosaic of different land approach involving stakeholders in all and resilience (defined as the ability of uses (agriculture, forestry, soil protection, affected land-use sectors and applying people to adapt to climate change) of mil- water supply and distribution, biodiversity participatory decision-making processes. lions of people. Reversing forest and land conservation, pasture provision, etc.) across According to the most consistent exist- degradation is therefore an imperative task a large area of land or a watershed. A land- ing definition, proposed by the Global for humankind. scape approach seeks to better understand Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration is defined as any intentional and recognize the interactions between Restoration (GPFLR), FLR is “an active activity that initiates or accelerates the various land uses and stakeholders by process that brings people together to iden- recovery of an ecosystem from a degraded integrating them in a joint management tify, negotiate and implement practices that state (IPBES, n.d.). Restoration efforts process (GLF, 2014). Natural resources restore an agreed optimal balance of the should be planned at the landscape level can be better managed when viewed ecological, social and economic benefits of from a broader perspective, considering forests and within a broader pattern of 2 “Ecological integrity” has no uniformly accepted and involving the perceptions, needs and land uses” (GPFLR, n.d.). FLR seeks a bal- definition. According to one interpretation interests of all stakeholders, including local ance between restoring ecosystem services (Steinhoff, 2013), an ecosystem has ecological integrity if it is either pristine, i.e. entirely free communities and individual land users. related to wildlife and biodiversity, of human influence, or has been only minimally Landscape approaches are increasingly water regulation, carbon storage and more, influenced by humans. An ecosystem with seen as essential in developing sustainable and supporting the productive functions of ecological integrity may serve as a standard or benchmark for assessing the degradation of land-use and livelihood strategies in rural land for agriculture and other related uses natural ecosystems by human activities. areas (FAO, 2012). (McGuire, 2014).

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Farmers control soil through crop cultivation, Honduras rri a z z i B i ©FAO/G USEPPE

P lanning restoration carbon and are resilient to adverse change. worldwide. Mining, infrastructure and The implementation of FLR initiatives can The objective, strategy and action plan for urban expansion are also important drivers vary considerably in temporal scale, size landscape restoration have to be custom- of forest and land degradation. Findings and purpose. It can serve one single land- ized to the specific conditions of the place, on global patterns of scape function or objective (e.g. adapting/ including its biophysical conditions and indicate that (commercial) timber extrac- mitigating climate change or biodiversity its stakeholders, and taking into account tion and activities account for more conservation) or it may be carried out their interests and the decisions they make than 70 percent of total forest degradation for multiple combined objectives. These (Van Oosten, 2013). in Latin America and subtropical Asia. might include mitigating land degradation The review (identification and analysis) Fuelwood collection, production, and establishing sustainable land-use and of the agents and drivers of degradation is subsistence agriculture, uncontrolled fire management practices, enhancing land an essential step before embarking on any and livestock overgrazing in forested productivity, supporting livelihoods, restoration work. Most indirect or direct landscapes are also important drivers of contributing to poverty alleviation (e.g. drivers of forest and landscape degrada- forest and landscape degradation in several by supplying a variety of forest and agri- tion are human activities that negatively developing countries, particularly in Africa cultural products to local communities), impact upon lands and result in the loss of (Kissinger et al., 2012). conserving biodiversity and providing biodiversity, fertile lands and carbon stocks. 3 other environmental services (e.g. water Agriculture (in particular, commercial agri- The conversion of forest to another land use or the long-term reduction of the tree canopy and soil protection), and creating land- culture) is estimated to be the main driver cover below the minimum 10 percent threshold scapes that sequester large quantities of for around 80 percent of deforestation3 (FAO, 2011).

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Successful restoration initiatives are likely multiple objectives can be addressed, FLR work, distinguishing land use and to be based on integrated land-use plan- both to enhance ecosystem protection land subtype. ning which means: (i) community-based and improve the productive capacity of landscape planning and decision-making; the landscape. A pproaches to working (ii) effective intersectoral cooperation and Priority areas for FLR include unpro- with forest and landscape coordination among government agencies ductive or abandoned agricultural land, restoration at the national, subnational and local levels; deforested areas converted to grasslands, The FLR concept is based on intersectoral (iii) the strengthening of local institutions brush lands, scrublands or barren areas, and and comprehensive approaches that include to better manage conflicts over land use degraded forests. Forests can be restored multiple action areas such as: assessment and tenure; and (iv) improved policies and rehabilitated by protective measures of landscape degradation (including iden- for integrated management (e.g. on agro- (e.g. protection from fire or overgrazing tification of main agents and drivers of forestry) (FAO, n.d.). and erosion control), measures to accel- degradation) and restoration opportunities; A mosaic approach to restoration that erate natural (e.g. through enabling environment (policies, regulations considers several types of land use over direct seeding or by planting seedlings in and laws); institutional setting; governance a broad landscape is accepted today as degraded primary or secondary forests), issues (e.g. tenure, right to use of natural the best-suited for restoring up to three measures to assist natural regeneration (e.g. resources, local community and its involve- quarters of the world’s degraded land- through weed control on degraded lands ment, etc.); technologies and approaches; scapes (GPFLR, WRI, South Dakota and marginal agricultural sites), and the private-sector investment; resource mobi- State University and IUCN, 2011). In planting of native or introduced trees in lization; capacity development, extension this approach, the scale is large enough single-species or mixed-species planta- and dissemination; and research needs to ensure a significant impact, and tions, in production systems (Figure 2 and Table 1). The idea is to ensure and as trees outside forests. Figure 1 that different action areas are connected 1 illustrates relevant option categories for as the process moves forward. FLR options framework

Land use Land subtype General category of Description FLR option Forest land If the land is without 1. Planted Planting of trees on formerly forested land. Native or introduced Land where forest is, or is trees, there are two forests and species planted for various purposes, fuelwood, timber, building, planned to become, the options: woodlots poles, fruit production, etc. dominant land use 2. Natural Natural regeneration of formerly forested land. The site may be regeneration highly degraded and no longer able to fulfil its past function,  Suitable for e.g. agriculture. If the site is heavily degraded and no longer has wide-scale restoration native seeds, some planting will probably be required. If the land consists 3. Enhancement of existing forests and and stocking, of degraded forests: e.g. by reducing fire and grazing and by liberation , enrichment planting, etc.

Agricultural land If the land is 4. Agroforestry Establishment and management of trees on active agricultural land, Land that is managed to under permanent either through planting or favouring natural regeneration, to improve produce food management: crop productivity, provide dry fodder, increase soil fertility, enhance water retention, etc.

 Suitable for mosaic If the land is 5. Improved Establishment and management of trees on fallow agricultural lands restoration under intermittent fallow to improve productivity, e.g. through fire control, extending the fallow management: period, etc., with the intention that eventually this land will revert back to active agriculture. Protective land and If the land is 6. Mangrove Establishment or restoration of mangroves along coastal areas in buffers degraded mangrove: restoration estuaries. Land that is vulnerable to, or critical in safeguarding If it is other protective 7. Watershed Establishment and restoration of forests on very steep sloping land, against, catastrophic events land and buffer: protection and along water courses, in areas that naturally flood and around critical erosion control water bodies.  Suitable for mangrove restoration, watershed protection and erosion control Source: GPFLR (n.d.), adapted from IUCN (2014).

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TAE BL 1. Key areas of intervention and some important issues to address in forest and landscape restoration planning and implementation Key area of Factors or issues to take into account intervention Assessment •• Decide on the most appropriate assessment methodologies to use (e.g. ROAM,1 LADA,2 etc.). of landscape •• Identify degraded lands and the best opportunities for successful restoration efforts. degradation •• Identify main agents and drivers of degradation within landscapes. and restoration •• Assess the ecological conditions, social-cultural dynamics and other enabling factors. opportunities •• Carry out stocktaking of successful interventions. •• Analyse and evaluate costs and benefits of selected restoration options and carry out a risk assessment of those options for investors. Enabling •• Analyse policies, laws and regulations across different sectors. Are they adequate? Are they complementary/conflicting? environment •• Support drafting, revision and/or harmonization of laws/policies/sectoral programmes and identify specific support, activities and projects to create a more enabling environment. Institutional •• Identify relevant land-use sectors and stakeholders for FLR (forestry, agriculture, livestock/rangeland, energy, mining, etc.). setting •• Support planning processes that are underway (e.g. climate-change national strategy, biodiversity national strategy, national strategy for rural development, etc.). •• Consider all relevant entry points as FLR can be an effective package to generate and share a range of benefits (e.g. biodiversity, food security, climate mitigation and , livelihoods, poverty alleviation, etc. •• Identify/support existing mechanisms/platforms that allow different sectors/stakeholders to engage in dialogue. •• Identify and leverage existing partnerships. Governance •• Assess land-tenure issues and try to secure tenure, especially for local stakeholders, as a key issue to allow investments in FLR. issues •• Identify barriers to people’s participation. •• Analyse decision-making processes. •• Facilitate engagement of all relevant stakeholder groups. Technologies •• Carry out stocktaking of existing technologies and approaches for sustainable land use (reforestation, assisted natural regeneration, and agroforestry, climate-smart agriculture, agroecology, etc.). approaches •• Build on successful experiences and approaches already carried out. •• Set up a portfolio of cost-effective and ecologically robust restoration techniques. •• Identify knowledge gaps. Capacity •• Identify capacity-development needs at the individual and organizational level and propose relevant strategies to meet these needs. development •• Build capacity-development programmes for relevant stakeholders to undertake planning, implementation and evaluation of FLR and extension efforts. •• Develop networks/knowledge platforms (national/regional) between practitioners and extension services in order to disseminate good practices. •• Support the establishment and continued capacity strengthening of networks of practitioners and extension services. Resource •• Estimate the resources already available through existing national/subnational programmes/projects. mobilization •• Elaborate national action plans or national strategies as the basis for building trust with donors in terms of national commitment to FLR. •• Integrate FLR into state budgets and public investment funds. •• Develop monitoring systems for FLR expenditures and mechanisms for collecting data on the costs and benefits of FLR. •• Devise a coordinated approach to informing/sensitizing potential donors (multilateral, bilateral, foundations, etc.) and support the development of new project proposals. •• Mobilize innovative sources of funding through mechanisms such as climate finance instruments and/or payment for environmental services and develop incentive packages that include economic and non-economic benefits. •• Design, adapt and implement national and local financing mechanisms for FLR, in particular by promoting the development of financial instruments at the local level (e.g. local development funds, microfinance instruments, credit lines in local private banks), with positive incentives for local stakeholders to promote sustainable FLR investments. •• Use these financing instruments to implement public incentive schemes (e.g. payments for ecosystem services) and couple these schemes with investments in sustainable value chains to ensure a long-term, self-sustaining financing strategy. Private-sector •• Increase engagement with the private sector, especially with pioneer private-impact funds and other innovative initiative funds as key investment partners in the FLR investment continuum (Figure 3). •• Understand the scope of private-sector involvement in FLR already underway in the country and build a legal and regulatory framework that promotes landscape “readiness for investments” and attracts investors to FLR. •• Facilitate the dialogue between the private sector and other stakeholders in order to decrease transaction costs for private-sector investments. •• Develop a pipeline of bankable restoration projects and raise the awareness of the private sector about FLR opportunities in key value chains (marketplace). •• Foster favourable conditions for public–private partnerships and promote risk-mitigation mechanisms to engage FLR investors at scale. Information •• Facilitate regular access to relevant information with practical knowledge and experiences targeting varied audiences. dissemination •• Identify (biophysical, socioeconomic, etc.) gaps in knowledge that research institutions could address more effectively. Emphasize and research research geared to innovative solutions for local stakeholders. needs •• Develop robust indicators adapted to the local/national context and develop consistent monitoring systems in order to improve the effectiveness of FLR efforts. 1 Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (ROAM, IUCN). 2 Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (FAO).

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2 Key areas of intervention for forest and landscape restoration

• Balancing public goods and Private-sector services provision with private investment Information benefits is key to ensuring the long- dissemination Resource term of the restored and research mobilization landscapes. Poor marketing and needs financial arrangements can prevent large-scale investment in trees and whereas innovative financial tools that provide early Institutional Governance setting Forest and issues rewards can be drivers of investment landscape in FLR. Ex-post and ex-ante cost– restoration benefit analyses of FLR investments (FLR) and risk-mitigation mechanisms are needed to engage FLR investors at Capacity Technologies scale, particularly private investors development and and impact funds and extension approaches • The success of past restoration efforts remains poorly documented Assessment of landscape and disseminated. This missed Enabling degradation opportunity to learn from past environment and restoration experiences and to improve prac- opportunities tices for better success rates and more efficient resource use in future restoration projects is highlighted

Source: Authors. by several authors in this issue of Unasylva. Taking this into account, FLR initiatives should begin with Con clusions includes assessing the vulnerability the questions “What is it we want The articles in this issue of Unasylva pro- of lands and systems to the effects to restore?’’, “What are the tech- vide a number of important considerations of climate and of environmental and niques available for restoration?’’ for FLR implementation in diverse catego- socioeconomic changes in order to ries of degraded landscapes, illustrating understand and address the potential 3 the complexity of FLR issues. risks of investments in FLR. Innovative private equity A few general conclusions can be drawn impact funds from the multiple experiences, and are described below: • The major causes of forest and land degradation vary among regions and specific contexts. It is critical to take into account past trends and foresee future biophysical condi- tions – particularly with respect to the anticipated effects of climate change on temperature, water avail- ability and yield potential – as well as human pressure projections, to

ensure the sustainability of any Source: FAO, 2015b. FLR project in the long term. This

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and “How does policy need to be the restoration projects are in line mechanisms to resolve conflicts adapted to facilitate restoration with the motivations, expectations, between stakeholders. efforts at national, subnational and pressures and needs of the concerned • Often insufficient consideration is local levels?’’ stakeholders. Issues associated with given to the selection of appropriate • Not all stakeholders share the policies, institutions, and social planting material by restoration same views on preferred sites or issues are often more important practitioners around the world. expected outcomes from restoration than technical issues. Crucial Use of inadequate planting material efforts. There are many examples aspects of policy relating to tenure may become even more common of projects that have failed because and equity are often unfavourable, as a consequence of the limited local communities were not properly restrictive and lacking in incentives restoration experience of the many involved in the planning, design for communities to undertake FLR new actors emerging in response and implementation of the project. initiatives. Investments in FLR to the enormous restoration goals A better understanding of the require good governance with a reli- worldwide. Natural regeneration socioeconomic aspects is needed, able, enabling policy environment, and/or assisted natural regenera- to establish whether the purposes of responsible regulation and reliable tion, which are simple and effective restoration measures that require little investment, do not appear to be sufficiently promoted and, when is required, the choice of genetic material and use of native species (trees, shrubs, and grasses) should aim to maximize genetic diversity as well as to enhance resil- ience and sustainable livelihoods. • In spite of the growing international recognition of the importance of ecological restoration, large-scale FLR programmes have only just ba started to be designed, which limits hi C our understanding of the real need and key factors of success of such suyoshi a initiatives for complementing bio-

FAO/Y diversity conservation in protected © areas. • All FLR investors (public or pri- vate) expect a return (financial, social or environmental) on their investment. Potential ecosystem and social benefits such as improved , biodiversity conservation, and improved liveli- hoods and well-being of farmers or landowners are either under- estimated or not properly valued as part of the opportunity costs. ba hi C Above: Village, Betroka Region, southern Madagascar, 2011 a Below: Cultivated fields, Betroka Region, southern

©FAO/Y SUYOSHI Madagascar, 2011

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Source: FAO, 2015b.

4 Risks and barriers for FRL investment applicable guidelines. Forest Resources IP BES. n.d. Intergovernmental Science–Policy Assessment Working Paper No. 177. Rome. Platform on Biodiversity & Ecosystem The resulting underestimation of FAO . 2012. Mainstreaming climate-smart agri- Services website (available at http://www. the benefits of restoration makes culture into a broader landscape approach. ipbes.net/). related investment risks appear Background Paper for the Second Global ISRIC. n.d. World Soil Information website greater, which can discourage Conference on Agriculture, Food Security (available at http://www.isric.org/global- investors (Figure 4). Cost–benefit and Climate Change. Hanoi, Vietnam, issues). analyses and improved marketing 3–7 September 2012. IUCN. 2014. Assessing forest landscape are required to demonstrate that FAO . 2015a. Global guidelines for the restora- restoration opportunities at the national investments in FLR should be con- tion of degraded forests and landscapes in level: A guide to the Restoration Opportu- sidered in some cases as “impact drylands: building resilience and benefiting nities Assessment Methodology (ROAM). investments”,4 in particular in more livelihoods. Forestry Paper No. 174. Rome. Working Paper (Road-test edition). Gland, degraded landscapes where the FAO. 2015b. Sustainable financing for forest Switzerland, IUCN. only direct economic benefits may and landscape restoration. Rome, FAO, and K issinger, G., Herold, M. & De Sy, V. not be attractive enough for private Global Mechanism of the UNCCD. 2012. Drivers of and forest investors. u FAO . n.d. Land resources website (available at degradation. A synthesis report for REDD+ http://www.fao.org/nr/land/sustainable-land- policymakers. Vancouver, Canada, Lexeme management/integrated-approach-to-slm/ Consulting. en/). Maginnis, S. & Jackson, W. 2003. The role of FAOA /L DA. n.d. Land Degradation planted forests in forest landscape restora- Assessment in Drylands website (avail- tion. UNFF Intersessional Experts Meeting able at http://www.fao.org/nr/lada/index. on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable php?option=com_content&view=frontpage Forest Management, 25–27 March 2003, &Itemid=75&lang=en). New Zealand. References G IIN. 2013. Global Impact Investing Network McGuire, D. 2014. FAO’ s Forest and Landscape website (available at http://www.thegiin.org/ Restoration Mechanism. In J. Chavez-Tafur FAO . 1995. Planning for sustainable use of about). Accessed 15 November 2015. & J. Roderick Zagt, eds. Towards produc- land resources. Towards a new approach. GF L . 2014. Global Landscapes forum website tive landscapes. Wageningen, Netherlands, FAO Land and Water Bulletin, 2. Rome. (available at http://www.landscapes.org/ Tropenbos International. FAO. 2011. Assessing forest degradation. glf-2014/about/). Steinhoff, G. 2013. Ecological integrity in Towards the development of globally G PFLR. n.d. Global Partnership on Forest protected areas: two interpretations. Seattle Landscape Restoration website (available at Journal of Environmental Law, 3: 155. 4 “Impact investments” refers to investments http://www.forestlandscaperestoration.org/). Van Oosten, C. 2013. Forest landscape restora- “made into companies, organizations, and G Pflr, WRI, South Dakota State University tion: Who decides? A governance approach funds with the intention to generate a measur- able, beneficial social or environmental impact & IUCN. 2011. The Bonn Challenge: A world to forest landscape restoration. Natureza & alongside a financial return” (GIIN, 2013). of opportunity [brochure]. Bonn, Germany. Conservação, 11(2): 119–126. u

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Before Bonn and beyond: the history and future of forest landscape restoration

L. Laestadius, K. Buckingham, S. Maginnis and C. Saint-Laurent

An overview of the restoration n the late 1990s, and benefits simultaneously at the landscape movement, from its origins in the sustainable management of working level (Maginnis et al., 2004). Central to this forestry in the late 1990s to forests were the primary issues that thinking was not only the need to safeguard the landmark Bonn Challenge Idominated the international forest agenda existing forest goods and services in so- Ministerial Roundtable in 2011, and shaped national policy and action called “intact landscapes” but also the need highlighting the need to transform (IUCN and WWF, 2002). Reforestation to restore them where they were lacking. political commitment into action and tended to be consid- The term “forest landscape restoration” on the ground. ered in terms of industrial or (FLR) was coined in 2000 at a forestry community-level woodlots, with the former meeting in Segovia, Spain (IISD, 2002; often proving controversial (Cossalter and IUCN and WWF, 2000), which defined it L ars Laestadius is Senior Associate at the World Resources Institute. Pye-Smith, 2003). Early advocates of a as: “a planned process that aims to regain Kathleen Buckingham is Research Associate “landscape approach” emphasized the ecological integrity and enhance human with the World Resources Institute. importance of approaching land manage- well-being in deforested or degraded forest Stewart Maginnis is Global Director of the Global Forest and Climate Change Programme, ment as something that is broader and landscapes” (IISD, 2002). The limita- International Union for Conservation of Nature. more comprehensive than a set of site-level tion that the process should be planned Carole Saint-Laurent is Deputy Director technical interventions, and in particular has since been dropped and some actors of the Global Forest and Climate Change Programme, International Union for the opportunity that this presented for bal- Conservation of Nature. ancing trade-offs and delivering multiple Landscape in Ethiopia nnick i M aron © A ©

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(including FAO) have started to use the the Earth Summit, in 2001 IUCN began Workshop in April 2005 in Petrópolis, term “forest and landscape restoration” promoting the idea of setting up a global Brazil, co-hosted by the Governments of without changing the definition. partnership on FLR, which was subse- Brazil and the United Kingdom (IISD, The inclusion of the word “landscape” quently registered at the World Summit 2005). The workshop resulted in the was an important step towards broaden- on (WSSD) in “Petrópolis Challenge”: “to restore forest ing the concept of “forest restoration”, as 2002 as the Global Partnership on Forest landscapes to benefit people and nature it explicitly implied the return of multiple Landscape Restoration (GPFLR). and contribute to reversing the trends of forest and tree-related goods and services The early development of the landscape forest loss and degradation” (IISD, 2005). (Sayer et al., 2003). Forest landscape res- approach is not specific to the forestry sec- Key elements in meeting the challenge toration therefore recognized a matrix of tor. The broad use of landscape planning were to develop the GPFLR and build a landscape options across forestry and agri- tools (geographical information systems) learning network around restoration (Saint- culture (Laestadius et al., 2011), and trees in developing countries during the 1990s Laurent, 2015). The Challenge also called outside as well as within forests (FAO, started to introduce a broader landscape for FLR to be linked with national-level 2000). It was envisioned from the outset as perspective to sectoral planning processes. development processes. The workshop a framework that could be applied across a Early thinking on FLR was heavily influ- was a country- and organization-led ini- range of land uses. The emphasis on restor- enced by experience in Costa Rica (Janzen, tiative of the United Nations Forum on ing ecosystem services to meet societal 2000), which demonstrated the importance Forests (UNFF). The Governments of the needs meant that future options were left of regeneration, and in United Kingdom and Brazil presented the open in order to deal effectively with the the United Republic of Tanzania (Wenger outcomes of the workshop to the 5th ses- uncertainties of climatic, economic and et al., 2005), which showed the benefits of sion of the UNFF in May 2005, where social change, and that FLR was explicitly restoration at scale. Nevertheless, interna- they shaped the Ministerial Dialogue on not a call to return to past visions and pat- tional organizations continued to focus Restoring the World’s Forests held during terns of land use (Laestadius et al., 2011). mainly on plantations and reforestation this UNFF session, the first ministerial- The meeting in Spain was the first mile- (Cossalter and Pye-Smith, 2003). In light level event to address this issue (UNFF, stone of many in the development of forest of this, IUCN produced a series of dis- 2005). Drawing on the outcomes of the landscape restoration. It was followed by cussion papers on plantations (Maginnis Petrópolis Workshop, GPFLR members a workshop in Heredia, Costa Rica, in and Jackson, 2002), recommending that also provided input into forest-related delib- March 2002 (IUCN, 2002), organized by the World Bank include “a landscape erations for the UN Convention to Combat the International Union for Conservation approach” in their “forest policy review” (UNCCD), the Convention of Nature (IUCN) and supported by and consider investment in forest restora- on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United the International tion projects based on a total economic Nations Framework Convention on Climate Organization (ITTO) (amongst others), valuation (Maginnis et al., 2004). At the Change (UNFCCC), ITTO, Tehran Process which stressed that forest landscape res- same time, IUCN, WWF, the Center for on Countries with Low , and toration was more than just an interesting International Forestry Research (CIFOR) other relevant policy processes at the idea but had substance (Maginnis and and ITTO conducted research into second- international and regional levels, includ- Jackson, 2002). However, the challenge ary and degraded forests (ITTO, 2002). ing the Millennium Development Goals and scope of landscape-level decisions To align global restoration activities, the and follow-up to the World Summit on required new partners and approaches to partnership concept was further developed Sustainable Development (Saint-Laurent, doing business (IISD, 2002). during a consultative meeting organized 2005). Prior to the Segovia meeting, IUCN by the Forestry Commission of Great and the WWF had promoted a landscape Britain, IUCN and WWF in Edinburgh, U nderstanding the scale of approach to forest restoration among United Kingdom, in September 2002. the restoration opportunity their common strategic objectives at the The GPFLR, having been registered as a While the issue of FLR garnered sig- international level, and this agenda was WSSD partnership, was then launched at nificant stakeholder support, there was being steadily taken up at regional lev- a session of FAO’s Committee on Forestry a gap in understanding regarding its els (Lamb and Gilmour, 2003). Attention in March 2003 (IISD, 2005). The part- potential scope. In November 2009, was given to documenting the experiences nership aimed to support and influence a High-Level Roundtable on Forest of field projects that had tested aspects global policy and encourage national Landscape Restoration was convened of landscape restoration approaches action (Van Oosten, 2009). In order to do in London by the Government of the (Mansourian et al., 2005). Prompted by so, the GPFLR held the first global Forest United Kingdom and IUCN to bring preparations for the 10th anniversary of Landscape Restoration Implementation together a group of ministers and other

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high-level representatives from govern- commissioned the World Resources opportunities (Röttgen and Khosla, 2011). ment, the private sector, indigenous Institute (WRI), IUCN and South Dakota The Bonn Challenge target of 150 million peoples’ organizations and civil society State University to estimate the global res- ha represents 15 percent of this estimate, to produce the London Challenge, which toration opportunity. Preliminary results consistent with the Aichi Biodiversity focused on the themes of climate change of a comparison between potential and Target 15 of the CBD, which calls for and people, and outlined a work plan for actual forest extent suggested that over restoration of 15 percent of degraded the GPFLR (Saint-Laurent, 2015). In 1 billion ha of deforested and degraded ecosystems (CBD, 2010). preparation for this event, the GPFLR forest landscapes provided restoration In September 2011, at the invitation of the German Government and IUCN, rep- resentatives of organizations and countries engaged in GPFLR came together with world leaders in Bonn to demonstrate support for forest landscape restoration and for the first time to commit to an ambitious global target (GPFLR, 2013). At this event, the GPFLR launched the “Landscapes of Opportunity” map based on a refined analysis of the global restora- tion opportunity by WRI, IUCN and South

chives Dakota State University, with input from r A other partners such as the World Bank’s rest

o Program on Forests (PROFOR) and the F Forestry Commission of Great Britain. The rvard refined analysis estimated the global resto- a

, H ration opportunity at more than 2 billion ha (Laestadius et al., 2011). iversity n The updated map had a pivotal effect U on the emerging restoration movement rvard

a by visualizing and quantifying the global

© H restoration opportunity, and by show- ing that opportunities for restoration may be found in most countries. It also highlighted where the opportunity was greatest – in tropical and temperate areas, with more than 1.5 billion ha best suited for mosaic-type restoration interfacing directly with non-forest land uses, and another 0.5 billion for more conventionally understood wide-scale forest restoration (Figure 1) (Laestadius et al., 2011). By putting a number to the size of the global restoration opportunity, the map made it possible to formulate the Bonn Challenge, i.e. a quantitative goal for FLR. The Bonn Challenge aspires to have 150 million ha of land under restoration by 2020 and is an implementation vehicle ster o

R. F R. Landscape before and a after restoration,

© D vid United States of America

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FOREST AND LANDSCAPE OTHER AREAS RESTORATION OPPORTUNITIES Agricultural lands Wide-scale restoration Wide-scale restoration Recent tropical deforestation Mosaic restoration Mosaic restoration Urban areas Remote restoration Remote restoration Forest without restoration needs Source: Minnemeyer et al., 2011.

1 The map shows areas believed to provide This type of restoration was thought to be for existing international commitments opportunities for different types of forest most feasible in deforested or degraded (Saint-Laurent, 2015). It was designed landscape restoration and deserving landscapes with moderate population of further analysis at the national scale. density (10–100 people/km2). Remote to catalyze early action on Reducing Wide-scale restoration aims to restore restoration, finally, is the term used for Emissions from Deforestation and dense forests to the landscape. This type deforested or degraded areas that are Forest Degradation (REDD+) under the of restoration was thought most feasible completely unpopulated and located in deforested or degraded landscapes with far away from human settlements, such UNFCCC (to slow, halt and reverse forest low population density (< 10 people/km2) as northern Canada and Siberia. The cover and carbon loss), as well as action where such forests formerly dominated the reduced density of forests in these areas is towards achieving CBD Aichi Biodiversity landscape. Mosaic restoration integrates probably due to fire and pests rather than trees (scattered across the landscape or human interventions, and their remoteness Target 15 (of restoring at least 15 percent of in patches) into mixed-use landscapes in makes them a more costly, lower-priority the world’s degraded ecosystems by 2020). which agricultural use and settlements restoration opportunity. Forest landscape The Rio+20 Summit in 2012 agreed the are prominent and into dry landscapes restoration does not call for increasing tree with sparse tree vegetation. This is by far cover beyond what would be ecologically global goal of zero net land degradation, in the most widespread opportunity. Trees appropriate for a particular location. It support of the United Nations Convention in these regions can support people by should not cause any loss or conversion to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), to improving water quality, increasing soil of natural forests, grasslands, or other fertility, and boosting other ecosystem ecosystems, nor introduce any alien which the Bonn Challenge also contrib- services. (Reytar, 2014). utes. The first commitments to the Bonn

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Challenge were announced at the Rio+20 of over 100 governments, civil society about if coal-powered stations across the Summit and the UNFCCC Conference and indigenous organizations, and pri- world fully implemented best practices to of the Parties (COP) in Doha, Qatar, vate enterprises (UN, 2014). The Climate improve efficiency. It is also of a similar in 2012, totalling about 20 million ha. Summit saw the announcement of a further magnitude to Russia’s annual greenhouse Table 1 identifies the commitments made 30 million ha of contributions to the Bonn gas emissions (Verdone et al., 2015). Apart to the Bonn Challenge. Challenge, thus bringing the total to more from climate change mitigation, restoration By indicating at a general level the areas than 50 million ha. The UNFCCC COP is an essential component of any practical where restoration opportunities were more in December 2014 saw the formal launch plan to feed an additional 3 billion people likely to be found, the map also provided of Initiative 20×20 – a country-led effort with sustainable and climate-smart agricul- the impetus for deeper research (Maginnis to bring 20 million ha of land in Latin ture (Saint-Laurent, 2015). Restoring the et al., 2014). The map has been an effec- America and the Caribbean into restoration productivity of often highly degraded urban tive tool for leveraging political support, by 2020. Initiative 20×20 seeks to change watersheds and croplands will also increas- but it cannot (and must not) be used as an the dynamics of land degradation in this ingly become a key part of the sustainable operational planning tool at the national region by using US$365 million of new cities agenda (Saint-Laurent, 2015). level (Laestadius et al., 2011). The map, in private investment to restore land. Already, Whilst political commitments are essen- other words, calls for additional analysis seven Latin American and Caribbean tial to build momentum for a restoration at a finer level, “closer to the ground”, countries and two regional programmes movement, it is now urgent to translate which has led to the development of the have committed to begin restoring over them into a sustained process on the Restoration Opportunities Assessment 20 million ha of degraded land by 2020. ground. Ministers from around the world Methodology (ROAM) (see Box 1). This is an area larger than Uruguay (WRI, gathered in Bonn, Germany, in March As a demonstration of further momen- 2014). Of these 20 million ha, 10.1 have 2015 for the second ministerial meeting tum behind the Bonn Challenge target, in been confirmed as contributions to the aimed at building support for ambitious September 2014 the UN Climate Summit Bonn Challenge, bringing the total to global forest landscape restoration tar- included the Bonn Challenge in the 61.5 million ha and putting the halfway gets. The meeting was convened by the New York Declaration on Forests and mark within reach. Other expressions Governments of Germany and Norway, extended it by a minimum of 200 million of interest have also been received; the together with IUCN and WRI. Four major ha more by 2030 – with the endorsement International Network for Bamboo and actions were proposed: 1) creation of a Rattan (INBAR) has called upon its finance working group led by the Global TABLE 1. Results since 2011: 40 members to identify at least 5 million Environment Facility (GEF) and Barclays official commitments announced ha, and the regional “Bosques Modelo” Bank to develop concrete proposals for during the Bonn Challenge programme plans to restore up to 1.6 mil- mobilizing funding and to deepen under- Ministerial Roundtable, the Rio+20 lion ha for its participating landowners and standing of what key funding constraints Summit, the Doha UNFCCC COP managers (Saint-Laurent, 2015). must be addressed; 2) establishment of and the UN Climate Summit 2014 Analysis shows that achieving both the learning exchanges on key topics, includ- Country Area Bonn Challenge and New York Declaration ing business models, effective policies (million ha) targets, which would restore 350 million and planning, citizen mobilization and Brazil/Mata Atlantica Pact 1.1 ha in total, could have significant envi- capacity building and training; 3) ensuring Colombia 1.0 ronmental, economic and social impacts. that countries develop capacity to moni- Costa Rica 1.0 Reaching the 350 million ha by the 2030 tor progress and share lessons learned, target would result in an estimated aver- including innovative platforms and simple Democratic Republic of the Congo 8.0 age of 0.6–1.7 Gt CO2e absorbed per year, progress indicators; 4) the timely organi- El Salvador 1.0 reaching 1.6 –3.4 Gt per year in 2030 and zation of a series of regional gatherings Ethiopia 15.0 totalling 11.8–33.5 Gt over the period to bring discussions closer to the field, Guatemala 3.9 2011–2030 (Verdone et al., 2015). This deepen the understanding of constraints Rwanda 2.0 represents a potentially significant con- and opportunities, and enable neighbour- tribution to combating climate change. At ing countries to share their experiences Uganda 2.5 the low end, 0.6 Gt CO2e is approximately (Sizer et al., 2015). United States 15.0 equal to the annual global increase in emis- Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru and 10.0 sions from fossil fuel combustion.1 At the Conservación Patagónica 1 http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/news_docs/jrc- upper end, 1.7 Gt CO2e is equivalent to the Total amount committed so far: 60.5 2014-trends-in-global-co2-emissions-2014- reduction in emissions that would come report-93171.pdf

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Box 1 The Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (ROAM)

IUCN and WRI created a Restoration Opportunities Assessment Methodology (ROAM) to help stakeholders formulate what might be called the business case for restoration: to determine what restoration activities provide the greatest ecological, social and economic benefits in a particular area of degraded land, to understand the social, legal and institutional context that will best enable restoration, and to formulate strategies for moving forward at the national or subnational level. Governments and non-governmental actors in several countries, including Brazil, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mexico and Rwanda, have already begun detailed restoration opportunity assessments (Laestadius et al. 2015). ROAM includes a number of components: Restoration Opportunities Mapping, Restoration Economic Valuation, Restoration Carbon Accrual Analysis, a Diagnostic of Key Success Factors and Restoration Finance Assessment. It includes descriptions of the individual tools and components as well as guidance on how they can be combined and sequenced to suit different needs (Maginnis et al., 2014). A host of countries, including Costa Rica, the Niger, the Republic of Korea, Sweden, and the United States of America, have recovered forest landscapes during the past century on a scale that is significant relative to the country’s overall size. Analysis of these and other cases suggests that successful restoration exhibits three common themes: 1) A clear motivation exists. Where active restoration was pursued, decision-makers, landowners, and/or citizens were inspired or motivated to restore trees and forests within landscapes; 2) Enabling conditions are in place. Ecological, market, policy, social, and institutional conditions were in place that created a favourable context for forest landscape restoration; 3) Capacity and resources exist for sustained implementation. Capacity and resources were mobilized to implement forest landscape restoration on a sustained basis on the ground. These insights underpin the Restoration Diagnostic – an assessment tool for identifying which key success factors for forest landscape restoration are already in place and which are missing within an area being considered for restoration. By identifying the gaps, decision-makers and land managers can more effectively prioritize policies, incentives, and practices to increase the likelihood that restoration will be a success.

Theme Feature Key success factor Status Motivate Benefits Restoration generates economic benefits Key Restoration generates social benefits In place Restoration generates environmental benefits Partially in place Awareness Benefits of restoration are publicly communicated Not in place Opportunities for restoration are identified Crisis events Crisis events are leveraged Legal requirements Law requiring restoration exists Law requiring restoration is broadly understood and enforced Enable Ecological conditions Soil, water, climate, and fire conditions are suitable for restoration Plants and animals that can impede restoration are absent Native seeds, seedlings, or source populations are readily available Market conditions Competing demands (e.g. food, fuel) for degraded forestlands are declining Value chains for products from restored areas exist Policy conditions Land and natural resource tenure are secure Policies affecting restoration are aligned and streamlined Restrictions on clearing remaining natural forests exist Forest clearing restrictions are enforced Social conditions Local people are empowered to make decisions about restoration Local people are able to benefit from restoration Institutional conditions Roles and responsibilities for restoration are clearly defined Effective institutional coordination is in place Implement Leadership National and/or local restoration champions exist Sustained political commitment is in place Knowledge Restoration know-how relevant to candidate landscapes exists Restoration know-how is transferred via peers or extension services Technical design Restoration design is technically grounded and climate-resilient Restoration limits “leakage” Finance and incentives Positive incentives and funds for restoration outweigh negative incentives Incentives and funds are readily accessible Feedback An effective performance monitoring and evaluation system is in place Early successes are communicated

Source: Hanson et al., 2015.

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Landscape in Ethiopia before and after restoration stralia u A sion i V rld o , W

naudo References i R o CBD. 2010. Decision adopted by the © T ny Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its tenth meeting. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2. 29 October 2010 (available at https://www.cbd.int/doc/ decisions/cop-10/cop-10-dec-02-en.pdf). Accessed 06/17/2015. stralia u Cossalter, C. & Pye-Smith, C. 2003. Fast- A forestry: myths and realities. Bogor, sion i

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Ecosystem restoration, protected areas and biodiversity conservation

L. Janishevski, C. Santamaria, S.B. Gidda, H.D. Cooper and P.H.S. Brancalion ancalion r B e © P DRO

Ecosystem restoration on a his article focuses on the opportu- Aronson and Alexander, 2013; Menz et al., landscape scale strengthens nities for ecosystem restoration to 2013; Rey Benayas et al., 2009; Bullock biodiversity conservation in contribute to biodiversity conser- et al., 2011). protected areas. Tvation within and outside protected areas The Convention on Biological Diversity (as discussed, for example, in Brancalion (CBD) states that each Party shall, as far as L isa Janishevski is Programme Assistant in the Science, Assessment and Monitoring et al., 2013a). possible, “rehabilitate and restore degraded Division of the Convention on Biological Ecosystem restoration on a landscape ecosystems and promote the recovery of Diversity (CBD) Secretariat, Montreal, Canada. scale, alongside the sustainable management threatened species, including through Catalina Santamaria is Forest Biodiversity Programme Officer in the Science, Assessment of other land-use types including agriculture, the development and implementation of and Monitoring Division of the CBD pasturelands, forestry, and the expansion plans or other management strategies”.1 Secretariat, Montreal, Canada. and consolidation of protected areas, is To further the implementation of this Sarat Babu Gidda is P rogram me Officer for in-situ and ex-situ conservation in the Science, increasingly recognized as a necessary part provision and Aichi Biodiversity Targets Assessment and Monitoring Division of the of a package of activities for biodiversity 14 and 15 (Box 1), the Conference of the CBD Secretariat, Montreal, Canada. conservation, enhanced ecosystem services Parties (COP) to the Convention adopted H. David Cooper is Principal Officer in the Science, Assessment and Monitoring Division and sustainable development (SCBD, 2014; a comprehensive decision on ecosystem of the CBD Secretariat, Montreal, Canada. Pedro H. S. Brancalion is Professor in the Department of Forest Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz Above: Blooming Handroanthus College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, impetiginosus tree (Bignoniaceae) 1 Article 8(f) of the Convention: http://www.cbd.int/ Piracicaba-SP, Brazil. in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest convention/text/.

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Box 1 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 was adopted by the CBD COP at its tenth meeting in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010. It is supported by the other biodiversity-related conventions and by the United Nations. It thus provides an internationally agreed framework for action on biodiversity with a vision that foresees that:

By 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people.

The Plan includes twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets including Target 15:

By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 percent of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification.

Actions to achieve the Aichi Targets should be undertaken in a coherent and coordinated manner. In particular, efforts to achieve Target 15 on ecosystem restoration should be closely linked to those aimed at halving deforestation and reducing the loss and degradation of other natural habitats (Target 5), pro- moting and forestry (Target 7) and protecting at least 17 percent of terrestrial areas through a system of protected areas integrated into the wider landscape (Target 11). Achieving these targets will together help to protect threatened species (Target 12), genetic diversity (Target 13) and eco- system services (Target 14). The full text of the Targets is available at: http:// www.cbd.int/sp/targets/default.shtml. At the national level, implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity is promoted through national biodiversity strategies and action plans. Attaining the Aichi Biodiversity Targets will in most cases require the implementation of a package of actions, typically including legal or policy frameworks, socioeconomic incentives aligned to such frameworks, public and stakeholder engagement, monitoring and enforce- ment. Coherence of policies across sectors and the corresponding government ministries is also necessary. Meeting the Aichi Biodiversity Targets would contribute significantly to broader global priorities addressed by the post-2015 development agenda, namely: reducing hunger and poverty; improving human health; ensuring a sustainable supply of energy, food and clean water; contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation; combating desertification and land degradation; and reducing vulnerability to disasters (SCBD, 2014).

restoration in 2012,2 backed up by the implementing these decisions and achiev- of degraded land by 2020. On the margins Hyderabad Call for a Concerted Effort ing these targets, the Forest Ecosystem of the UN Climate Summit in September on Ecosystem Restoration.3 To provide Restoration Initiative, supported by the 20145 a number of governments, as well as support to developing-country Parties on Government of the Republic of Korea civil society and private-sector organiza- through the Korea Forest Service (KFS), tions, signed the New York Declaration 2 Decision XI/16: http://www.cbd.int/decision/ was launched at CBD COP 12 in October on Forests, extending the goal by an cop/default.shtml?id=13177. 2014. additional 200 million ha to be restored 3 The Hyderabad Call for a Concerted Effort These aspirations are reflected in the by 2030.6 on Ecosystem Restoration was made by the Bonn Challenge4 to restore 150 million ha Governments of India, the Republic of Korea 5 and South Africa (as then COP Presidents of the See http://www.un.org/climatechange/summit/. CBD, UNCCD and UNFCCC) and heads of a 4 http://www.forestlandscaperestoration.org/topic/ 6 See Panel-5 discussions at http://www.un-redd. number of international organizations: http:// bonn-challenge; http://www.forestlandscape org/Portals/15/documents/Report%20on%20the www.cbd.int/doc/restoration/Hyderabad-call- restoration.org/sites/default/files/topic/the_bonn_ %20Forests%20Pavilion%2023%20September restoration-en.pdf. challenge.pdf. %202014%20v2.pdf.

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Community-managed agroforests made up of banana, manioc and juçara (an endangered native palm, the fruits of which are exploited for pulp production), at the borders of the Serra do Mar State in the Atlantic Forest of São Paulo, Brazil. Such agroforests supply food and provide income to traditional populations living around the , thus avoiding illegal harvesting of wood and non-wood forest products in the reserve. In this context, forest restoration and rehabilitation are useful to reduce human- mediated disturbances in protected areas and to improve the connectivity of landscapes that embrace protected areas

on reserves, conservation efforts maximize the value of rural landscapes for biodiver- sity persistence, preventing , and for the provision of ecosystem ser- vices (Chazdon et al., 2009). This shift was also reflected in the discussions and outcomes of the 5th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Congress in 2003 under the overarch- ing theme of “Benefits beyond boundaries”, as well as in the goals and activities of the Programme of Work on Protected Areas adopted under the CBD in 2004.

WHY LANDSCAPE RESTORATION IS NEEDED FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION Significant efforts have been made in recent years to develop protected area net- ancalion r works within the framework of the CBD’s B Programme of Work on Protected Areas. e

© P DRO The world is now on track to protect 17 per- cent of terrestrial areas by 2020, in line Efforts to restore ecosystems also contrib- the United Nations Forum on Forests.10 with Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 (SCBD, ute to other internationally agreed goals, Ecosystem restoration is also recognized 2014). However, achieving a well-managed including ecosystem-based adaptation and in the Sustainable Development Goals.11 and representative network will require climate change mitigation under the United Ecosystem restoration at the landscape greater efforts. Moreover, extrapolations Nations Framework Convention on Climate scale reflects a paradigm shift in conserva- of current trends indicate that pressures Change (UNFCCC),7 land-degradation tion science, putting spatial pattern and on biodiversity will continue to increase neutrality under the United Nations scale at the centre of conservation strate- and the status of biodiversity will continue Convention to Combat Desertification gies, where, instead of focusing exclusively to decline. Analysis of the major primary (UNCCD),8 the wise use of wetlands under sectors indicates that drivers linked to agri- the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands,9 and 10 www.un.org/esa/forests. culture account for some two-thirds of the 11 the four Global Objectives on Forests of For details, see https://sustainabledevelopment. projected loss of terrestrial biodiversity un.org/sdgsproposal, and in particular for resto- ration targets 6.6 (water-related ecosystems), (SCBD, 2014). 7 http://unfccc.int/2860.php. 14.2 (marine and coastal ecosystems), 15.1 (ter- Many protected areas are embedded 8 restrial and inland freshwater ecosystems), http://www.unccd.int/. 15.2 (degraded forests), and 15.3 (degraded land within human-modified landscapes 9 www.ramsar.org. and soil). (Melo et al., 2013a), where agriculture

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and urbanization have determined land- a relevant threshold, further empirical test- movement to more favourable sites. In a scape structure and may represent major ing is required (Fahrig, 2003). For example, changing world, we have to improve the disturbances to natural ecosystems. forecasting by Ferro et al. (2014) found dynamic interaction between protected loss and fragmentation is a major that most protected areas in the Brazilian areas and the other components of the threat to biodiversity conservation in Atlantic Forest would become climatically inter-habitat mosaic (Hobbs et al., 2014). this context. Recent studies have shown unsuitable for maintaining the diversity of In other words, we have to manage the that below certain percentages of habitat tiger moths (Arctiinae) by 2080. Climate system (i.e. the landscape), and not only cover, human-modified landscapes show an change will likely impose additional chal- its parts (i.e. protected areas and other abrupt decline in biodiversity as a result of lenges for biodiversity confined to reserves. patches of natural habitat). the lack of connectivity among remaining Some species may be forced to shift their Thus, to sustain desirable levels of habitat patches (Rappaport et al., 2015). geographical ranges in order to find cli- connectivity and foster biodiversity conser- Thus, when embedded in landscapes with mate refuges. For example, not only are vation in protected areas, the maintenance very low habitat cover – predominant in marsupial species in Brazil forecast to shift and restoration of smaller remnants in the many regions – protected areas without ranges towards the southeast of the coun- landscape need to be taken into account, connectivity to the surrounding landscape try, culminating in high species richness in and in highly fragmented landscapes have a limited potential to avoid further that area, but most species will also experi- may be the only option available. In such species extinctions. The critical habitat ence significant range contraction and loss conditions, landscape restoration is vital cover for biodiversity conservation varies of climatically suitable areas within their to support biodiversity conservation over according to ecosystem type, landscape geographic range (Loyola et al., 2012). time, complemented by improved cover- matrix, and focus organisms (Fahrig, 2001) Thus, protected areas increasingly need to age of isolated semi-natural habitats in and, although theoretical research has be functionally connected to other habitat landscape management plans. In human- indicated 20–30 percent habitat cover as patches in the landscape to allow species modified landscapes, the conservation

Multiple landscape restoration interventions in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest: silvopastoral systems, living

fences, natural DRO © P regeneration in e

marginal agricultural B r

areas and restoration ancalion plantations on mountaintops and steep slopes

Unasylva 245, Vol. 66, 2015/3 23 ancalion r B e © P DRO A large part of the Vassununga State Park in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest burned Ervin et al. (2010) have produced a relevant “living fences”, and the establishment of in a fire that began at the borders of guide in the CBD Technical Series. appropriate tree plantations. the road that crosses the park. Climate In identifying possible areas for res- Brancalion et al. (2013b) proposed an change tends to intensify and increase the frequency of forest fires in tropical toration, consideration should be given approach in which forest and landscape regions, representing an important to improving the extent, quality and restoration (FLR) supports biodiversity risk for protected areas. If protected connectivity of high-biodiversity areas, conservation in protected areas embedded areas are connected to other remnants in the landscape through ecological including areas that are home to threat- within human-dominated landscapes. The corridors established by restoration ened or endangered species, and those approach is based on the premise that, in interventions, fauna can better escape that deliver important ecosystem services many tropical areas, forest remnants large from areas submitted to human-mediated disturbances, and the recolonization (Tambosi et al., 2014). Restoration must enough to receive public investments for process of destroyed or disturbed parts be informed by a vision of enhancing strict protection have become scarce, of protected areas can be facilitated native ecosystem functions and avoiding while small- and medium-sized, privately further reduction or conversion of natural owned fragments may play a significant focus thus needs to move beyond the habitat cover, or loss in other natural eco- role in conserving stressed biodiversity. protection of existing remnants, while systems (Latawiec et al., 2015). Vulnerable Historically, the conservation role of such addressing landscape constraints and areas with the potential to contribute to a small remnants has been underestimated interactions to support the persistence of matrix of conservation and sustainable by conservationists because these areas biodiversity (Gardner et al., 2009). use can be accorded appropriate levels of may harbour far lower levels of biodiversity Such an approach is consistent with Aichi protection and targeted for restoration as than do the larger protected or otherwise Biodiversity Target 11, which calls for needed. Areas can be protected against conserved remnants. This reflects a limited “effectively and equitably managed, eco- human-mediated disturbances and recon- view of biodiversity conservation, as small logically representative and well-connected nected to other habitat remnants in the remnants can serve as ecological corridors systems of protected areas and other effec- landscape. In addition, the hospitability or stepping stones. The approach, which tive area-based conservation measures of the agricultural landscape “matrix” the authors call “restoration reserves”, […] integrated into the wider landscape (within which protected areas and other uses the following multi-scale decision- and seascape”. The CBD Programme of areas of native vegetation are embedded) making scheme: Work on Protected Areas elaborates on to species that may move among these 1. definition of priority areas for increas- the concept of integrating protected areas natural patches can be improved through ing landscape connectivity through into wider land- and seascapes,12 and various forms of landscape restoration. ecological restoration at the regional This may include forest restoration and scale; 12 Goal 1.2 of the Programme of Work on Protected interventions to increase tree cover in agri- 2. selection of a given landscape where Areas: http://www.cbd.int/protected/. cultural landscapes, such as agroforestry, ecological restoration shows high

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1 Priority areas for restoration at the landscape level from a biodiversity conservation perspective. Dark green areas (1) depict areas of native vegetation (e.g. remnants of old- growth forest). These areas are a priority for conservation and may already be included in protected areas. The areas shown in yellow (2) and bounded by dark green lines represent degraded native vegetation. Ecological restoration of these areas would improve the integrity of the associated high-conservation areas. Areas shown in mid-green, bounded by broken brown lines (3–6), depict priority areas for restoration from agriculture or rangeland areas, with the following rationales: improving the integrity of existing areas of native vegetation (3) by reducing edge effects and increasing size; providing ecological corridors (4) or stepping stones to improve connectivity (5); and protecting riparian areas from erosion (6). Finally, the hospitability of the agricultural landscape matrix may be improved through agroforestry.

potential for increasing landscape of near-pristine native vegetation are the in agroecosystems. Restoration outcomes connectivity, using this to define the main repositories of biodiversity in human- are also affected by landscape structure, boundaries of the area within which modified landscapes, and are a necessary land-use history and disturbance regime, landscape-scale restoration is to be source of biodiversity for colonizing resto- which increase the risk of using restora- promoted; and ration sites within agricultural landscapes. tion to offset biodiversity losses in natural 3. implementation of ecological resto- Indeed, although restoration has been ecosystems (Maron et al., 2012). ration activities aimed at increasing effective in increasing biodiversity levels Diversity between and within species is biodiversity conservation and land- in degraded sites, it has not been enough to important for effective ecosystem restora- scape connectivity within these areas, achieve the reference values of conserved tion, not only to promote high conservation such as ecosystems (Rey Benayas et al., 2009). value in the restored ecosystems but also • protection of existing forest Consequently, a main premise of landscape to ensure the success of the restora- remnants; restoration should be to halt habitat loss, tion process itself (Thomas et al., 2014; • restoration of degraded areas of especially of those ecosystems that provide Bozzano et al., 2014). Restoration activities native vegetation; essential ecosystem services and have a should also be undertaken in a manner • increasing of the size and/or higher potential to retain their biological consistent with the ecosystem approach improvements to the shape of composition and functions. Although some developed under the CBD.13 In particu- remnants to reduce edge effects; and tropical landscapes have experienced a lar, forest landscape restoration should • restoration of some lands that have where forest gains have only be undertaken where ecologically been converted to agriculture, surpassed deforestation and thus brought appropriate. Although and especially degraded or low- about a net gain in forest cover, old-growth reforestation are part of forest-restoration productivity lands, to establish forest remnants have nevertheless often strategies, such measures should be criti- ecological corridors and stepping been replaced by crop fields and pasture- cally assessed in natural ecosystems. stones or to enlarge existing cor- lands in areas favourable for agricultural Working across the whole landscape with ridors (Figure 1). production (Ferraz et al., 2014). This sig- Ecosystem restoration is not a substitute nificantly affects the viability of species in 13 for conservation, nor should it be used existing and future restoration sites, as well Ecosystem approach operational guidance: https://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/operational.shtml to justify degradation or unsustainable as pollination, pest control, and other eco- and Principles: http://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/ use. Old-growth forests and other areas system services mediated by biodiversity principles.shtml.

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a mosaic of land uses requires assessments THE CAse OF THE BRAZILIAN under the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity of the ecological conditions, sociocultural ATLANTIC FOREST 2011–2020 and the emerging Sustainable dynamics and other enabling factors in Despite growing international recognition Development Goals. It was chosen on the order to assess trade-offs and adjust land- of the importance of ecological restora- basis of the biological importance of the use plans accordingly. Each country needs tion, large-scale FLR programmes are biome concerned, which is among the to determine what is ecologically appropri- only at their beginning, which limits top five Global Biodiversity Hotspots ate and establish its baseline maps, with our understanding of the real needs (Laurance, 2009), and the existence of monitoring systems in place to track and and success factors of such activities a large-scale, successful programme for guide progress in the various ecosystems. for complementing biodiversity conser- FLR: the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact Countries will need to assess opportuni- vation in protected areas. To improve (Melo et al., 2013b). ties for restoring deforested and degraded understanding, we selected the restora- Only 1.05 percent of the original extent landscapes and factor in the rehabilitation tion of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest as of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest is protected of degraded agricultural lands to improve a case study. The study provides local in reserves, which are mostly embedded productivity in mosaic landscapes, without lessons in ecosystem conservation and in highly fragmented landscapes (Ribeiro causing loss or conversion of native forests, restoration with regard to protected-area et al., 2009). Since less than 12 percent grasslands or other natural ecosystems management, and is a concrete example of the original Atlantic Forest cover (Veldman et al., 2015). of a contribution to globally agreed goals (1.2 million km²) remains today, these

Protection of a water and of a riparian buffer by forest restoration interventions in a private landholding in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Although protected areas may be more successful in conserving terrestrial ecosystems, the conservation of freshwater systems relies on management of the whole watershed, and can only be achieved ancalion r if complementary B interventions e are made at the

© P DRO watershed scale

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protected areas are frequently isolated achieving the estimated minimum threshold launched to assess the ecological, socio- from neighbouring forest remnants and, for biodiversity persistence, in association economic and management effectiveness considering the small size of the reserves, with the maintenance and improvement of of restoration projects and programmes are often part of landscapes below the the protected areas network. developed by Pact members, and to identify habitat-cover threshold required to avoid The Pact has developed methodologies the key obstacles to successful restoration an abrupt loss of biodiversity. For instance, for identifying priority areas for resto- and provide collective solutions (Pinto Banks-Leite et al. (2014) observed in this ration that take into account the factors et al., 2014). biome an abrupt decline in the commu- discussed in the previous section (see also The Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact nity integrity of vertebrates when habitat Figure 1) with a view to optimizing the has been integrated not only into global cover fell to approximately 30 percent. contribution to biodiversity conservation initiatives such as the Bonn Challenge, Consequently, maintaining existing pro- without neglecting socioeconomic factors. focusing on large-scale restoration, but tected areas is not enough, in this case, for This view incorporates a well-developed also into new laws and policies supporting the long-term persistence of biodiversity. framework for land-use planning, in order forest restoration in Brazil. The consequent Nor is creating new, formally recognized to create space for large-scale restoration development of innovative models to trans- protected areas on a significant scale a in agricultural areas and avoid displac- form restoration into an economically and feasible solution, since forest remnants ing agricultural activities that may cause socioecologically viable land-use option large enough to receive public investments deforestation elsewhere (Latawiec et al., thus opens promising perspectives. for strict protection have become scarce. 2015). To achieve its goal, the Pact devel- However, conserving small- and medium- oped a thematic map of potential areas for Con clusions sized, privately owned fragments, while restoration, in which nearly 7 million ha of Ecosystem restoration at the landscape restoring small areas around protected less productive pasturelands (slope >15°) – level is an essential part of efforts to protect areas, has been shown to improve the with a low opportunity cost (less than biodiversity and contribute to sustainable connectivity of landscapes (Brancalion US$50/ha/year) due to their low productiv- development. To be successful in this et al., 2013b). In addition, improving ity and returns to farmers – were targeted regard, ecosystem restoration must: tree cover in agricultural landscapes, for for restoration (Pinto et al., 2014). The • help to protect the integrity of example through agroforestry and com- Pact proposes that the implementation of existing areas of native vegeta- mercial tree plantations, may also lead to restoration models designed to produce tion, including protected areas, by increased landscape hospitability to some timber and non-wood forest products, as increasing the size of such areas endangered species. Further, in highly well as to receive payments for ecosystem and reducing edge effects; fragmented landscapes, protecting small services, can be profitable and overcome • improve connectivity in the land- remnants and restoring others may be the the opportunity costs of less productive scape, for example by providing only option available to reach an adequate pasturelands (Brancalion et al., 2012). ecological corridors or “stepping level of representativity: this is the case in Maps of priority regions for increasing stones” between existing areas the protected area network of the Atlantic landscape connectivity have also been of native vegetation, including Forest, where six of its seven biogeographi- produced (Tambosi et al., 2014), which protected areas; cal regions are poorly protected. In such may optimize restoration efforts, especially • make use of a wide diversity of conditions, FLR is even more crucial to in the regions more recently affected by species in restored areas, taking support biodiversity conservation over deforestation. In addition, to increase the into account genetic diversity; time. cost-effectiveness of restoration through • complement efforts to reduce deg- To address this need, a coalition of non- spatial planning, the Pact also looks at radation and habitat loss, thereby governmental organizations (NGOs), the quality of restoration interventions. A protecting old-growth remnants and private companies, governments, and reference book summarizing most of the other near-pristine habitats; and academia launched in 2009 the Atlantic technical and scientific information avail- • be implemented in an ecologically Forest Restoration Pact, which currently able on forest restoration in the Atlantic appropriate manner, avoiding, for consists of more than 300 institutions Forest provides scientific guidance to example, afforestation of non-forest working together to restore 15 million ha practitioners on environmental diagnosis natural ecosystems. of forests by 2050, including a pledge of and planning, restoration methods and Efforts are needed at the landscape level 1 million ha within the framework of the operational interventions, seed and seed- to manage the system rather than just its Bonn Challenge (Melo et al., 2013b). If this ling production, including genetic issues, individual components. This includes not restoration target is met, the Atlantic Forest and monitoring (Rodrigues et al., 2009). only manipulating its biophysical com- would reach 30 percent of forest cover, More recently, a monitoring protocol was ponents, but involving the socioeconomic

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drivers of both habitat degradation and FAO and Bioversity International (available F erro, V.G., Lemes, P., Melo, A.S. & loss and ecosystem restoration. A key step at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3938e.pdf). L oyola, R. 2014. The reduced effectiveness towards the implementation of effective Brancalion, P.H.S., Melo, F.P.L., of protected areas under climate change ecosystem and landscape restoration T abarelli, M. & Rodrigues, R.R. 2013a. threatens Atlantic Forest Tiger Moths. PLoS programmes is to develop governance Biodiversity persistence in highly human One, 9(9): e107792. mechanisms that enable restoration modified tropical landscapes depends on eco- Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., Chazdon, R., advocates to provide better conditions and logical restoration. Tropical Conservation E wers, R.M., Harvey, C.A., Peres, C.A. incentives for restoration activities, while Science, 6(6):705–710. & Sodhi, N.S. 2009. Prospects for tropical creating barriers to stop degradation. But Brancalion, P.H.S., Melo, F.P.L., forest biodiversity in a human-modified overcoming socioeconomic thresholds can T abarelli, M. & Rodrigues, R.R. 2013b. world. Letters, 12: 561–582. be even more challenging than tackling Restoration reserves as biodiversity safe- H obbs, R.J., Higgs, E., Hall, C.M., biophysical factors. guards in human-modified landscapes. Bridgewater, P., Chapin III, F.S., Concerted actions for ecological res- Natureza & Conservação, 11(2): 186–190. Ellis, E.C., Ewel, J.J., Hallett, L.M., toration in forest and other landscapes, Brancalion, P.H.S., Viani, R.A.G., H arris, J., Hulvey, K.B., Jackson, S.T., together with biodiversity conservation in S trassburg, B.B.N. & Rodrigues, R.R. K ennedy, P.L., Kueffer, C., Lach, L., protected areas and a range of complemen- 2012. Finding the money for tropical forest Lantz, T.C., Lugo, A.E., Mascaro, J., tary interventions to promote sustainable restoration. Unasylva, 63(239): 25–34. 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Unasylva 245, Vol. 66, 2015/3 29 omas h T v © E ERT Avoiding failure in forest restoration: the importance of genetically diverse and site-matched germplasm

E. Thomas, R. Jalonen, J. Loo and M. Bozzano

The likelihood of success of forest I ntroduction rates and more efficient resource use in restoration can be improved by hile the international commu- future restoration projects. Case studies choosing genetically diverse forest nity and individual countries demonstrate that failures may have been reproductive material that is well have committed to restoring much more common than successes adapted to the planting sites. Whundreds of millions of hectares of (Wuethrich, 2007; Godefroid et al., degraded forest landscapes,1 the suc- 2011). The causes of restoration failures cesses and failures of past restoration can be manifold. One reason that is often efforts remain poorly documented and overlooked is inadequate consideration of communicated. This is a missed oppor- the source and genetic quality of forest tunity to learn from past experiences and reproductive material (FRM) (Godefroid E vert Thomas is Associate Scientist with to improve practices for better success et al., 2011; Le et al., 2012). Genetic Bioversity International, Cali, Colombia. Riina Jalonen is Associate Scientist with diversity is positively related not only to Bioversity International, Serdang, Malaysia. 1 https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets.http://www.un.org/ Judy Loo is Scientific Domain Leader with climatechange/summit/wp-content/uploads/ Above: Nursery seedlings produced Bioversity International, Maccarese, Italy. sites/2/2014/07/New-York-Declaration-on-Forest for the establishment of a progeny Michele Bozzano is Scientist with -%E2%80%93-Action-Statement-and-Action- trial with native species from Bioversity International, Maccarese, Italy. Plan.pdf. tropical dry forest in Colombia

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The result of restoration of a gold mine spoil in Cáceres, Colombia, 12 years after initiation (same site, before and after). The site was originally planted with diverse seed mixtures of planting site to ensure adaptedness; and 20 tree species (Moscoso Higuita, 2005) and now contains over 120 different native tree (ii) sufficiently genetically diverse to avoid species and diverse wildlife, including jaguars, boa constrictors, sloths and several species of the adverse effects of inbreeding, provide primates. This project has successfully attained certification for several standards such as the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), Climate, Community and Biodiversity Standard and the gold sufficient genetic variants for natural selec- standard, and it is currently trading verified carbon units (>400kt) on the international carbon tion to occur, and enhance the resistance market. With this, it became the first VCS project in South America, and the first ever in the of established populations to acute and world, with over 100 native tree species generating carbon credits (Thomas, 2014) chronic stressors, such as pests and dis- eases, as well as drought and other effects the fitness2 of tree populations (Reed and (2011) found that knowledge of the genetic of progressive climate change. Frankham, 2003; Schaberg et al., 2008) diversity of the species introduced, and Failure related to the use of poor-quality but also to wider ecosystem functioning integrating that knowledge in seed sourc- FRM may lead to high initial mortality, and resilience (Gregorius, 1996; Reusch ing, significantly enhanced the survival poor growth, susceptibility to biotic and et al., 2005; Sgrò et al., 2011). Adequate rate from the first year after reintroduc- abiotic stressors, and low reproductive suc- attention to the genetic quality of FRM is tion, and that this effect increased over cess after the trees mature. High initial particularly important for forest restora- time. The importance of using appropriate mortality is often witnessed within the tion, including tree-planting activities that germplasm was recently highlighted by planting or maintenance period of restora- aim to ‘‘reinstate autogenic ecological the 12th meeting of the Conference of the tion projects and may be dealt with by processes by which species populations Parties to the Convention on Biological replanting. However, the success of replant- can self-organize into functional and Diversity, which called for “due attention ing depends on the underlying causes of resilient communities that adapt to to both native species and genetic diversity mortality and how well these are addressed changing conditions while at the same in ecosystem conservation and restoration in further planting efforts. Most other time delivering vital ecosystem services’’ activities…” (Decision XII/19, 2014).3 types of failure become apparent later, (Alexander et al., 2011). often long after the project maintenance The origin and genetic diversity of Consequences of low genetic periods have ended, and are more difficult FRM significantly affect the survival, diversity or inappropriate to mitigate. For example, poor growth or growth, and productivity of trees as well origin of forest reproductive survival because of mismatched FRM or as the adaptive capacity and hence self- material low genetic diversity may become increas- sustainability of tree populations (Reed and Two main considerations in the selection ingly apparent over decades. Delayed Frankham, 2003; Schaberg et al., 2008). In of FRM are crucial for bolstering the resil- mortality resulting from susceptibility to a meta-analysis of almost 250 plant species ience of restored forests: planting material biotic or abiotic stressors may manifest reintroductions worldwide, Godefroid et al. should be: (i) well-matched to the (present itself only after certain exceptional events. and predicted future) conditions of the An example is the case of 30 000 ha of Pinus pinaster plantations, which were 2 For a definition of “fitness”, see for example http:// www.fao.org/DOcREP/003/X3910E/X3910E09. 3 http://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-12/cop- established in the Landes region of France htm#TopOfPage. 12-dec-19-en.pdf. with planting material from the Iberian

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peninsula that was susceptible to frost, and of appropriate planting material by res- restoration relies mainly on natural regen- were destroyed during the exceptionally toration practitioners around the world eration, seed sources near the restoration cold of 1984/1985 (Timbal et al., (Bozzano et al., 2014). In the future, use site must be genetically diverse. 2005). of inadequate planting material may be Guidelines for tree seed collection The diversity of the first generation of an even more likely consequence of the that aims to ensure a minimum level trees plays a key role in the success of limited restoration experience of many of genetic diversity exist, but appear to subsequent natural regeneration at a site. new actors emerging in response to major be largely unknown or overlooked by First-generation trees that are established international commitments to restoration restoration practitioners or those who by using FRM from genetically diverse goals. Avoiding this will require the avail- supply germplasm (Bozzano et al., 2014; source populations where the reproduc- ability and mainstream use of user-friendly Godefroid et al., 2011). This is probably tive material is collected but from only knowledge-based tools and protocols to partly because their implementation can one or a few genetically diverse mother guide restoration practitioners’ choices of be both time- and resource-demanding trees will grow normally. However, many species and seed sources. If such tools and and partly because genetic homogeneity is of the planted trees will be full or half protocols are not followed, the choices can not immediately visible while its negative siblings, resulting in inbred offspring in be expected to be predominantly opportun- effects become so only over time (Rogers the next generation which may lead to istic (i.e. focused on using easily accessible and Montalvo, 2004; FAO, 1987; FAO, reduced fitness (Reed and Frankham, and available planting stock), at least in 2003; Palmberg, 1983). 2003; McKay et al., 2005). The first signs the short term. A survey of 23 restoration An additional argument for the use of of the deleterious effects of mating among researchers and experts showed that spe- genetically diverse germplasm is that relatives often become apparent when the cies selection was more frequently based restored forests may later become seed trees reach reproductive age, with a drop on the availability of planting material sources for future restoration activi- in seed quality and quantity as well as than, for example, on the conservation ties. Furthermore, if properly designed, decreased germination and seedling sur- status of the species or their functional restoration efforts offer cost-effective vival rates. In subsequent generations it traits (Bozzano et al., 2014). opportunities for conserving native tree may jeopardize the long-term viability and species and their genetic variation (Sgrò resilience of restored forests. For example, E nsuring that FRM is et al., 2011). This is particularly useful for significantly reduced growth was observed genetically diverse rare, endemic or endangered species for in inbred second- and third-generation Adaptation to changing site conditions which the availability of suitable germ- seedlings of Acacia mangium as compared occurs through natural selection. Effective plasm is often very limited. Maintaining to the mother trees that were originally natural selection depends upon: (i) genetic records of the sources of FRM is essential introduced to Sabah (Malaysia) using FRM diversity in the traits that influence sur- to inform decisions about future collection from Australia in 1967, and which had vival, growth and reproduction; (ii) the and management. Such records will also a very narrow genetic base (Sim, 1984). heritability of these traits; and (iii) large provide valuable information about the Inbreeding depression is more commonly population sizes. When the intention is adaptability and viability of the original expressed in more stressful environ- to establish self-sustaining forest ecosys- FRM used as the restored forests mature ments, such as those characterized by the tems through restoration, it is pivotal that and their fitness can be evaluated (Rogers degraded found at most restoration sourcing or collection of FRM is carried and Montalvo, 2004; Godefroid et al., sites (Fox and Reed, 2010). In the absence out in such a way as to capture a broad 2011; Breed et al., 2013). of an influx of new genes (e.g. through diversity in adaptively important traits for natural or human-influenced gene flow), the target species. This means collecting E nsuring adaptation to this may lead to cascading effects over seed from sufficiently large populations planting site generations, increasing the risk of popula- and from many unrelated mother trees, Germplasm should not only be genetically tion and ecosystem collapse in the longer i.e. a minimum of 30–60 widely spaced diverse but also matched to the current term owing to reduced vigour of trees, and trees or more if vegetative propagules and future conditions of the planting a higher vulnerability to pests, pathogens are used (Kindt et al., 2006; Basey et al., site. There is commonly a preference for and the effects of climate change. Similar 2015). Efforts should be made to avoid the planting stock from local sources (McKay problems occur when planting material successive use of seed collections from et al., 2005; Sgrò et al., 2011; Breed et al., is vegetatively propagated and originates planted stands with low genetic diversity 2013). This is based on the assumption from just a few trees. (Lengkeek et al., 2005), as this may exacer- that local tree populations have undergone In spite of these risks, insufficient bate the effects of a narrow genetic base natural selection, thereby becoming opti- consideration is given to the selection in subsequent populations. Also, where mally adapted to conditions of a nearby

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Individuals of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G.Don (Leguminosae) in a provenance trial established by the National Tree Seed Center of Burkina Faso (CNSF) at the site of Gonsé in 1995. The trial included 15 provenances from across the range of the species. All trees were planted at the same time with planting material of different origin. The tree in the foreground shows signs of maladaptation to the environmental conditions at the planting site

restoration site, an assumption that is not always correct (McKay et al., 2005). Excessive emphasis on “local” germplasm may overlook the fact that geographical proximity to the restoration site is not nec- essarily the best indicator of the quality or suitability of germplasm. Local adaptation may, for example, be hindered by limited gene flow4 or genetic drift5 in small popu- lations. In the degraded soils that often typify restoration sites, conditions may be very different from those under which local tree populations originally developed. Furthermore, environmental mosaics may result in geographically distant sites having similar conditions, while the conditions in nearby sites may be very different. Ideally, the choice of the most suitable seed sources for a given restoration site is guided by provenance trials, if and when these exist. Provenance trials enhance our understanding of differences in responses by different genotypes grown in a particu- lar environment. This is known as genotype by environment (GxE) interaction. Some genotypes may be very stable across a range of environments while others may NCETI © B. V perform much better in some environments i

4 The exchange of genes between populations, than in others. The magnitude and type of of different provenances, survival and usually through pollination and seed dispersal. GxE influence the distances across which growth are always assessed in such trials 5 A change in allele frequency from one generation to another within a population, due to the sam- planting materials can safely be moved and these are basic measures of adaptation pling of a finite number of genes that is inevitable from their local environments. to the site where a trial is planted (Mátyás, in all finite-sized populations. The smaller the Provenance trials can be particularly use- 1994). They can help determine sources population, the greater is the genetic drift, with the result that some alleles are lost and genetic ful in informing restoration practitioners of planting material that are adapted to a diversity is reduced. See for example http://www. about the scale and extent of local adapta- particular site and the range within which bioversityinternational.org/uploads/tx_news/ tion in tree species. Although many current reproductive material of a species can be Forest_genetic_resources_conservation_and_ management__overview__concepts_and_some_ provenance trials were not intentionally moved without significant loss of adapta- systematic_approaches__Vol._1_1018.pdf designed to characterize adaptive traits tion (ecological tolerance limits).

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Globally, some 700 tree species are sub- occurs and where it may be planted. The 2013; Azpilicueta et al., 2013). Recent ject to improvement programmes of some site conditions in a restoration area are advances in suitability modelling and the level, such as selection and provenance often substantially different from those increasing availability of ever cheaper and/or progeny testing (FAO, 2014). While of the surrounding forests. Degraded sites genotyping6 techniques make it possible to the oldest provenance trials were of tem- may be more prone to drought, suffer from better design restoration efforts at the land- perate species, established both within and nutrient-depleted soil or lack other species scape level, not only for matching FRM outside their natural ranges for industrial that would normally be part of a function- to restoration sites, but also for optimizing plantations, trials have also been estab- ing forest ecosystem. The establishment of the connectivity of populations (McRae lished more recently for tropical species, future provenance trials should therefore and Beier, 2007). including those that are important for the also consider incorporating these factors. provision of non-wood forest products. In the absence of provenance trial data, Im n provi g resilience to Even if provenance trials do not exist at suitability modelling and ecogeographical climate change the time of planting, it is worth investing in analyses of the environmental conditions Climate change will have a strong impact their establishment, particularly in light of at the planting site, as well as at the pos- on many restoration sites. Yet currently few expected climate change, as they provide sible sites from which germplasm may be restoration practitioners appear to consider information about the adaptedness of the obtained, provide an alternative approach climate predictions in their design and provenances to changing climate condi- for selecting well-matched seed sources. implementation (Bozzano et al., 2014). tions over the lifespan of the planted trees. If available, the genetic characterization Degraded forest sites typically constitute Ideally, provenance trials should cover the of potential source populations through tough environments for seedling estab- range of environments in which a species the application of molecular markers can lishment and growth. When the climate provide complementary information on the genetic diversity profiles of these popula- Emerging seedlings of the 6 The characterization of biological populations critically endangered tree tions, as well as on the degree of genetic on the basis of DNA sequences through the use species Cariniana pyriformis differentiation among them (Soldati et al., of molecular tools. Miers (Lecythidaceae) omas h T v © E ERT

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simultaneously becomes harsher, natural an admixture provenancing approach relate to the accessibility and availability of or planted propagules experience even has been proposed (Breed et al., 2013). seed sources, efforts to simplify manage- stronger selection pressure. Tree species In admixture provenancing, seed collection ment, the risk of unsold production, or the generally have high genetic variation in is focused on capturing a wide selection lack of appropriate protocols for additional adaptive traits, constituting latent adaptive of genotypes from large populations species (e.g. dormancy breaking) (Lillesø potential which is expressed only when occurring in various environments, with et al., 2011). A solution is to set up nurseries conditions change (Gamache and Payette, no spatial bias towards the revegetation as a part of restoration efforts. This reduces 2004; Alfaro et al., 2014). However, in site and no regard to gene-flow dynamics the dependency of restoration practitioners many cases this may not be sufficient to (Breed et al., 2013). This is intended to on the vagaries and practicalities of supply ensure the long-term viability of local create a large, highly diverse gene pool from commercial nurseries, but requires tree populations. The introduction of so that natural selection can “choose” the adequate training of seed collectors and germplasm collected from more distant best-adapted genotypes. nursery staff to ensure that good-quality populations may therefore be necessary. In some cases, habitat conditions are FRM is obtained. A growing number of studies recom- expected to be altered to such an extent Restoration practitioners who plan to mend the use of seed from mixed sources by climate change and interacting factors, obtain planting material from existing to anticipate the potential impacts of such as fragmentation due to land-use nurseries should communicate early with climate change (Broadhurst et al., 2008; changes, that deliberate movement of FRM nursery managers to provide sufficient Sgrò et al., 2011; Breed et al., 2013). along environmental gradients, beyond the time for propagation of the desired spe- Decision trees have been developed to maximum distance of natural dispersal cies and to allow seed collection standards select the most appropriate seed-sourcing or pollen flow, may be necessary (Aitken for genetic diversity to be met. Public approach, depending on the evidence and et al., 2008; Sgrò et al., 2011). Ideally, authorities, for their part, should demand confidence limits surrounding climate dis- translocation decisions should be based that nurseries and restoration practitioners tribution modelling, and the knowledge of on solid field trial data. Provenance trans- demonstrate that they have applied due population genetic and/or environmental fer based purely on climate distribution diligence in the collection and production differences between populations (Breed modelling is still controversial (Seddon, of planting material to be used in restora- et al., 2013; Byrne et al., 2011). If both GxE 2010; Sgrò et al., 2011). This is due to tion projects, which are often financed and expected climate change are known the uncertainties associated with both with public funds. Countries also need to and expected to be low, a mix of germ- species distribution models and future invest more heavily in the establishment plasm obtained from local healthy tree climate models (Alfaro et al., 2014). In of functional seed distribution systems, populations may suffice. In the more usual situations where no provenance trial data to ensure the availability of appropriate cases where either GxE or climate change are available, the composite or admixture planting material at any restoration site. are unknown, composite provenancing has provenancing approaches described above been proposed as a strategy to increase may be more prudent (Breed et al., 2013). Rmecom endations the adaptive potential of planting stock The targets for restoration should not only (Broadhurst et al., 2008; Sgrò et al., 2011; Av ailability and supply of be quantitative. It is important that they Breed et al., 2013). Composite provenanc- planting material also include qualitative aims to ensure that ing aims to simulate natural gene flow By far the most commonly used planting restored forest landscapes are resilient and dynamics by mixing: (i) a high propor- material for restoration consists of nursery self-sustaining. This means that adequate tion of material sourced locally from a seedlings, partly because this increases attention needs to be given to the origin range of environmental conditions in the the chances of successful establishment and genetic diversity of FRM. same or neighbouring seed zones with (Godefroid et al., 2011). As a consequence, There is an urgent need for the further (ii) a medium proportion of material that the possibility of using optimal species development, application and main- is sourced from intermediate distances combinations and germplasm that is both streaming of user-friendly guidelines and and is ecologically matched (e.g. includ- adapted to site conditions and genetically protocols to assist emerging restoration ing planting material from warmer rather diverse is often limited in practice by what practitioners with the choice of tree species than cooler environments) and (iii) a low is available in commercial nurseries. Seed and sources of FRM proportion of germplasm from distant pop- collectors and nurseries (private or public) There is also a need for strong politi- ulations that are ecologically diverse. For are driven by economic considerations and cal commitment to create a demand and situations where there is a high probability produce what they expect to sell. Nursery ensure availability of seed from diverse, of substantial climate change, but where managers often minimize the number of well-adapted sources of native species the GxE interaction is less well known, species they grow for reasons that may through regulatory frameworks and

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resource allocations. Publicly funded of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources – restoration projects should demand that Thematic Study. Rome, FAO and Bioversity nurseries apply due diligence with respect International. to the collection and production of plant- References Breed, M.F., Stead, M.G., Ottewell, K.M., ing material that is best adapted to target Gardner, M.G. & Lowe, A.J. 2013. Which planting sites. A itken, S.N., Yeaman, S., Holliday, J.A., provenance and where? Seed sourcing It is time for countries, particularly in W ang, T. & Curtis-McLane, S. 2008. strategies for revegetation in a changing envi- the , to invest in the establishment Adaptation, migration or extirpation: climate ronment. Conservation Genetics, 14: 1–10. of provenance trials with native species change outcomes for tree populations. Broadhurst, L.M., Lowe, A., Coates, D.J., across different environmental gradients, Evolutionary Applications, 1(1): 95–111. 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N. Berrahmouni, M. Parfondry, P. Regato and A. Sarre

Forests are a key source of W hat are drylands and why overharvesting of forest resources includ- resilience in drylands; however, do they need to be restored? ing for woodfuel and non-wood forest large areas of dryland forests rylands are characterized by a products, are leading to land degradation and woodlands are degraded and scarcity of water, which affects and desertification, water shortages and need to be urgently restored. both natural and managed eco- major losses of ecosystem services. An Dsystems and constrains the production of estimated 10–20 percent of the world’s livestock as well as crops, forage, wood, drylands suffer from one or more forms of and other ecosystem services (MEA, 2005). land degradation (MEA, 2005) and climate Representing 41 percent of the Earth’s change is expected to increase the inci- N ora Berrahmouni is Forestry Officer land surface and home to 2 billion peo- dence of extreme events such as (Drylands) in FAO’s Forestry Department. ple (UNDP and UNCCD, 2011), drylands droughts and to exacerbate desertification Marc Parfondry is Forestry Expert with the face numerous challenges. Changing land and declining land productivity. FAO Forestry Drylands programme. Pedro Regato is a biologist with a PhD in forest uses and practices such as the transforma- ecology, currently working as an international tion of rangelands and other silvopastoral consultant with FAO, IFAD, WWF, BirdLife and systems to cultivated croplands, wasteful Above: – other organizations. pastoralists and herds of livestock Alastair Sarre is is a writer, editor and policy and unsustainable water use, unsustainable gathering at a water well in a dry analyst specializing in international forest policy. cultivation and grazing practices, and the portion of Lake Magadi, Kenya

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Because of the crucial ecological, social level, as the functionality and sustainability landscapes in drylands to help improve and economic roles they play in drylands, of drylands – both in ecological and socio- livelihoods and strengthen the resilience forests, agrosilvopastoral systems and economic terms – more than anywhere else of forests and landscapes in drylands. The trees are essential to tackling the above- depend on the seasonal availability of lim- guidelines aim to promote and enhance mentioned challenges. They are also a ited resources such as water and restoration efforts in the world’s drylands. source of resilience in the face of climate over large territories, and the long-distance They provide specific guidance for policy- change and variability – the complex movements (e.g. upland–lowland trans- makers and other decision-makers, as well interactions, effects, and feedback between humance or other long-distance spatial as for practitioners. climate-change trends, human population movements linked to a nomadic lifestyle) This article summarizes the main ele- growth and consumption, energy use, land- and strategies that people, livestock and ments of the guidelines.1 use changes and . Large areas wildlife have developed over the ages to The process to produce the guidelines of dryland forests and woodlands are access them and ensure both ecological began in May 2012 in Konya, Turkey, at degraded, however, and there is an urgent and socioeconomic sustainability. the international workshop “Building resil- need for their restoration. ient forest landscapes to global changes in Restoration actions in drylands could A country-driven and drylands”. The workshop brought together range from on-the-ground activities such collaborative process: more than 90 international experts on as habitat protection, sustainable natural assessing, monitoring dryland restoration from forestry depart- resource management, assisted natural and learning ments, research institutions, the private regeneration, sand- stabilization, At the request of member countries, FAO, sector, non-governmental organizations seeding and planting of trees, shrubs and together with partners, launched the (NGOs), international development agen- grasses for multiple purposes, to policy Drylands Restoration Initiative with the cies and other technical and financial improvements, the provision of financial aim of capturing, evaluating and sharing partners representing 24 countries in incentives, capacity development, and con- knowledge gained in dryland restoration Africa, Central Asia, the Near East and tinuous monitoring and learning. To be initiatives worldwide. This process resulted effective and sustainable, dryland restora- in the compilation of Global guidelines for 1 The complete publication can be accessed at tion should be approached at the landscape the restoration of degraded forests and http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf. NO A

Z Dakar international Z workshop participants testing the guidelines with local people in Mboula in the Great Green Wall area, Senegal,

©BIOVERSITY/MICHELE BO February 2013

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the Mediterranean region. A second inter- Promise,2 which includes collaborative a lack of intersectoral coordination national workshop was convened in Dakar, action such as the formation of an open- often means that different institu- Senegal, in February 2013 and gathered ended collaborative network or community tions treat various components of more than 80 international experts on dry- of practice to advance monitoring and land management and restoration land restoration. Both workshops provided assessment of drylands. separately, limiting their capacity to a forum for experts to analyse lessons By measuring progress over time, moni- address the drivers of degradation learned from afforestation, reforestation toring and evaluation provides an evidence associated with competing land uses. and restoration projects and programmes base on which strategies can be built and Multisectoral platforms can be used to in the field, allowing the delivery of robust, adapted, thereby helping build resilience. raise awareness of the extent and nega- experience-based recommendations. Fur- Monitoring and evaluation in restoration tive impacts of dryland degradation, thermore lessons learned from a number initiatives should be integrated into every encourage intersectoral approaches of case studies provided by experts and restoration initiative, including: for addressing dryland degradation, compiled through desk research work were • developing the monitoring plan or and demonstrate restoration benefits used to illustrate the guidelines. These programme in the planning phase; and returns on investment. case studies were compiled through the • promoting the participation of all • Enable and invest in capacity assess- application of a Monitoring and Reporting stakeholders in the design and imple- ment and development – in many Tool for Forest and Landscape Restora- mentation of monitoring; and countries with drylands there is an tion, developed by FAO with contributions • consistently monitoring and evaluat- urgent need for more qualified prac- from workshop participants, experts and ing restoration initiatives and sharing titioners who can deliver restoration practitioners. Finally, draft versions the lessons learned for the benefit of competently and effectively, and also a received feedback from a network of ongoing and future initiatives. need to develop networks of communi- experts through online consultation and cators and opinion leaders to influence the organization of side-events. K ey findings: policymakers. Ensuring the required To advance drylands monitoring and the Guidelines in a nutshell capacities should be part of the initial assessment for restoration and sustain- The guidelines provide guidance for two planning of restoration initiatives, and able management, FAO hosted in January main types of users: (i) policymakers the first step is capacity assessment. 2015 the first Drylands Monitoring Week and other decision-makers, labelled as FAO capacity-development tools can be co-organized with partners including the “enablers”, as they provide the appropri- adapted and used for such assessments. World Resources Institute (WRI) and the ate policies, governance mechanisms and • Improve the supply of, and access to, International Union for Conservation of financial and other incentives; and (ii) prac- plant reproductive material for res- Nature (IUCN) with funding support from titioners, who are the “doers” of restoration. toration – national seed centres and the European Union (EU) and the Global programmes should be developed and Environment Facility (GEF). During this Guidance for policymakers and strengthened to ensure the availabil- week, participants reviewed a wide range decision-makers ity of genetically appropriate seeds in of methods and tools for monitoring and Possible actions and recommendations are the quantities and quality needed for assessing different aspects of drylands, proposed for implementing and sustain- restoration. as well as emerging new technologies. ing effective restoration efforts, including • Improve the governance and policy Participants raised their concern about policy, governance, multisectoral planning, framework – an enabling policy frame- the inadequacy of the current state of the and financial and other incentives. Key work needs to be in place to encourage art, including insufficient scale of applica- messages include the need to: restoration and avoid perverse poli- tion, lack of capacity, and gaps in existing • Enable and invest in assessment and cies that drive degradation. Secure monitoring systems. They called for the monitoring – improved monitoring land tenure is particularly important development of more comprehensive and and assessment are essential to assess for achieving sustainable land man- cost-effective methods, including using restoration needs, identify priority agement and boosting livelihoods. existing methods and tools as building areas, estimate the required level of Local- and national-level institutions blocks and developing new methods financial and technical investment, and should also support local processes by integrating remote sensing and local par- ensure continued progress of restora- providing adequate governance struc- ticipation. Participants issued the Rome tion efforts. tures and policies, encouraging the • Address drivers of land degradation equitable participation of stakeholders, 2 http://www.fao.org/forestry/42520-09d6892b4a by engaging in cross-sectoral dialogue and ensuring the necessary technical 39725e9bb54c2d37988567f.pdf. and planning at the landscape level – and financial support.

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• Creating the right conditions for assessing the progress and impacts of • Plant where necessary – if a plant- investment and resource mobilization restoration activities. Landscape-scale ing strategy is needed, the choice of for restoration – sufficient investments planning takes into account the mosaic species should be made according to are required to initiate and sustain res- of land uses and the diversity of needs clear criteria and local preferences toration activities, and these may come of all stakeholders. Diverse restora- and uses. Special attention should be from a variety of stakeholders. Local- tion strategies should be promoted, and given to using the right species in the level investments can be promoted planting is often only one of several right place, including – where appro- in different ways, and small-scale, possible activities. priate – trees, shrubs and grasses and locally driven tree and • Protect and manage – improvements ensuring the quality of genetic mate- enterprises can broaden local income in protection and management are rial. Native species should be favoured. opportunities through restoration. potentially more cost-effective than The number of species, and their • Encourage knowledge, research, planting in restoration initiatives. A genetic diversity, should be maximized learning and experimenting – develop- good starting point is to protect soils as a way of enhancing resilience. ing collaborative and adaptive learning against erosion, use cost-efficient Adequate nursery techniques should and experimenting processes based on water-harvesting techniques and be employed, and planting times and traditional knowledge and innovative mainstream the use of integrated densities should be chosen carefully research, and promoting the sharing management plans to address threats to ensure optimal use of limited water of knowledge among land users, are such as excessive wood collection, resources. keys for successful restoration. unplanned grazing, and damaging The example provided in the box below fire, pests and diseases. gives an illustration of research institu- Guidelines for practitioners highlight • Promote natural regeneration – tions (the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, the need to: assisted natural regeneration and, and the Universidad Nacional San Luis • Plan and choose the most cost-effective on farms, farmer-managed natural Gonzaga de Ica) working together and restoration strategies – involving com- regeneration are simple and effective hand in hand with local communities and munities in the planning of restoration restoration measures that require little businesses to promote the use of native strategies can be effective in formu- investment. They also have the poten- species in the restoration of Peruvian dry lating restoration interventions and tial to be scaled up quickly in areas forests. The initiative combined research, sustainable goals that address the needs where tree and shrub species have the community-based techniques and used of all stakeholders. Non-degraded ability to re-sprout after harvest and extension, awareness-raising and capacity areas can be used as reference sites where appropriate rights to resource development at the local level. for defining restoration goals and use exist.

Installing a palisade, mechanical dune stabilization,

©FAO/MOUSTAPHA OULD MOHAMED OULD ©FAO/MOUSTAPHA Mauritania

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A mosaic of land uses within a landscape: fynbos, karroid shrublands, vineyards, pastures and forests in the Outeniqua Mountains, South Africa ©PEDRO REGATO ©PEDRO

T he way forward excellent option for complementing domes- drylands: building resilience and benefiting FAO will work with practitioners, experts, tic efforts to implement the guidelines. livelihoods. Forestry Paper No. 175. Rome. policymakers and other decision-makers, Many national, regional and global FAO . n.d.a. Drylands Restoration Initiative as well as other partners and member coun- research networks are active in dryland website (available at www.fao.org/forestry/ tries, to widen and facilitate the community regions. It is essential to create linkages aridzone/restoration). of restoration enablers and build bridges between such networks, restoration prac- FAO. n.d.b. Drylands Monitoring Week web- between practitioners and policymakers titioners and communities as a way of site (available at www.fao.org/forestry/ to boost the implementation of the guide- applying research results on the ground aridzone/88626/en). lines. A major effort is also needed to and combining new learning with tradi- FAO . n.d.c. Action Against Desertification strengthen local governance and develop tional practices. website (available at www.fao.org/in-action/ local leaders and restoration champions, The Rome Promise, which was adopted in action-against-desertification/en/). which can be done by helping strengthen early 2015, is a call to action to improve the MA E . 2005. Millenium ecosystem assessment: community-based organizations, local monitoring and assessment of drylands for ecosystems and human well-being: current administrations, forest producer organiza- their sustainable management and restora- state and trends. Volume 1, Chapter 22. Mil- tions and community enterprises. FAO will tion. The first global assessment of drylands, lennium Ecosytems Assessment. Washington promote and disseminate these guidelines now underway, is an initial step in the imple- DC, World Resources Institute. and opportunities for adapting them to mentation of the Rome Promise and will UN DP & UNCCD. 2011. The forgotten bil- regional, national and local contexts and build a robust baseline to support restoration lion: MDG achievement in the drylands. implementing them on the ground. monitoring efforts and the further develop- Bonn, United Nations Convention to Combat Major restoration initiatives worldwide ment of these guidelines over time. u Desertification and United Nations Develop- in which FAO is involved include GEF ment Programme. co-funded restoration projects in dryland W haley, O.Q., Beresford-Jones, D.G., countries as well as the EU-ACP (African, Milliken, W., Orellana, A., Smyk, A. & Caribbean and Pacific region) co-funded L eguía, J. 2010. An ecosystem approach to Action Against Desertification project in restoration and sustainable management of support of the Great Green Wall for the dry forest in southern Peru. Kew Bulletin, Sahara and the Sahel Initiative and the 65: 613–641. u United Nations Convention to Combat References Desertification (UNCCD) Action Plans in eight countries across Africa, the Carib- FAO . 2015. Global guidelines for the restora- bean and the Pacific. Such projects are an tion of degraded forests and landscapes in

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Restoration activities, Ica, Peru h © O. W © O. aley U se of native species for the restoration and the sustainable use of southern Peruvian dry forests

The initiative was led by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, supported by the United Kingdom’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs’ Darwin Initiative and the Universidad Nacional San Luis Gonzaga de Ica (UNICA). This case study illustrates community-based restoration techniques – with the active involvement of local policymakers – used for the restoration of the natural riparian dry habitats that play vital roles as corridors between the Andean foothills and the coastal plains. The project has raised awareness among landowners, businesses and the regional government of the importance of plant conservation in the restoration of people’s quality of life by demonstrating the income opportunities from tourism and the use of keystone Prosopis spp. (huarango) tree pods. Restoration trials were established in three small local communities and at three agro-industrial sites. A memorandum of understanding was signed with UNICA’s Faculty of Agronomy for the establishment of a plant nursery to produce seedlings of 30 native species from seeds and cuttings. In the local community restoration trials, areas were fenced in agreement with landowners, seedlings were planted and irrigated with water from nearby wells, and empty tree pits were irrigated to encourage natural regeneration. In the agro-industrial trial, native species were planted to replace non-native species in and hedgerows using drip-feed irrigation. Native species were established in comparative plots using low-consumption drip-feed, manual surface and subsurface irrigation regimes and grey (sewage) water. In addition to watering regimes, the trials compared planting techniques and densities. Locally referenced habitat restoration, including measures to attract birds, was also carried out, and drip-feed irrigation and traditional tree-pit watering were compared.

Community involvement • Reconnecting people and plants is a prerequisite for project sustainability. Communication and education efforts (e.g. media dissemina- tion, lectures, learning tours, planting campaigns, and the Huarango Festival)1 were maintained in local communities, with an emphasis on engaging youth. A school programme run by the non-governmental organization (NGO) Asociación para la Niñez y su Ambiente (ANIA) and local women to establish nurseries for native plants was an effective way of fostering the project’s goals; the schools became hubs from which project staff were able to distribute seeds, information and technical advice on native trees and shrubs and the environmental services they provide to the families of schoolchildren and those landowners able to demonstrate sustainable water supplies. • Restoring traditional know-how and techniques on seasonal floodwater-harvesting has the capacity to regenerate communities and cultures.

1 The Huarango Festival promotes cultural connections with the environment through the emblematic tree of Ica, including banquets offering products from native plant species.

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E xtension/training methodologies Extension and training involved workshops, local school programmes and festivals, supported with posters, handouts and didactic publica- tions for local audiences. Staff at the Millennium Partnership and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, also provided training in the development of low-cost seed storage, germination and propagation protocols.

Research Research comprised botanical surveys, flora and fauna inventories and maps incorporating local ethnobotanical knowledge of the ten distinct vegetation communities occurring between sea level and 1 800 m, including the vitally important and poorly understood N-fixing microphytic communities of biological crusts.

Technological development Technologies developed under the project included the following: • During the season, fine nets were able to trap, on average, 10 litres of fog water per day per m2 of net (a Prosopis tree with a 3 x 4-m crown captured up to 9 litres per night). • Traditional techniques were incorporated into practices (i.e. in schools’ planting programmes), such as the use of “coated seeds” whereby clumps of mud and mixtures of seeds of native species are baked, dried and buried in the courses of irrigation channels and ephemeral streams to await natural flooding. • In comparing irrigation regimes, it was determined that an inexpensive subsurface watering technique developed by the project using recycled bottles to dispense 3–4 litres per week provided the best growth (by height and canopy area); compared with traditional tree pit-watering, the growth of Prosopis increased by more than 100 percent, Acacia by 20 percent and Schinus by 300 percent. This subsurface method thus proved an excellent way of avoiding excessive evaporation.

Results The local community trials achieved mixed results in terms of plant survival (for example, Schinus molle and Acacia macracantha became well established, but Capparis avicennifolia proved difficult to grow), with survival challenged by shallow soils and water constraints. Pumping water proved uneconomic, and soils were nutrient-deficient. Viable restoration should be based on rebuilding the river-flooding system with traditional know-how and techniques. Collective labour or machinery is required to move boulders into riverbeds to raise the water level and to capture sediments during seasonal floods, thereby reconnecting river flow with irrigation channel intakes. This technique may have considerably wider application in large-scale restoration. In the agro-industry trials, the project involved industry workers in the planning and field-planting of a 3-ha site with 24 native species, thereby helping the dissemination of local knowledge to workers. Under a low watering regime (1 litre per week) with an asparagus “straw” mulch, Acacia macracantha, Schinus molle and Prosopis limensis seedlings showed double the height growth and three times the canopy area as compared with the control. Sewage dumping allowed the establishment of a high-biodiversity grove of Prosopis limensis and Parkinsonia praecox featuring birds, desert foxes and native bees. Planting densities affected height growth and canopy area in different ways, according to species: for example, the canopy area of Prosopis limensis doubled when grown at a low density compared with the highest-density plantings; A. macracantha height growth in low-density plantings was double that of high-density plantings; and S. molle height growth was ten times greater in high-density plantings than in the low-density plantings. The installation of bird perches and nesting poles attracted 39 bird species acting as pollinators and seed-dispersers and facilitating the recruitment of new plant species (70 new plant species appeared naturally where drip-feed lines provided sufficient humidity). The introduction of native plants promoted a significant increase in the biocontrol of pests by predator insects and birds.

Sustainability The project’s tree nursery continues to be funded by Trees for Cities (a British NGO) and ANIA, and a UNICA graduate has set up a successful private tree nursery for native species. The Huarango Festival is now organized under the auspices of the Ministry of Tourism and is firmly established in the official calendar. Most municipalities are now aware of the importance of native woodlands and are using native species instead of ornamental trees. Several publications promote the many undervalued plant species of the region and their importance for human well-being and livelihoods. International media events have helped promote local pride and interest in culture–environment links and create tourism development opportunities. The involvement of agro-industries in the restoration programme has helped enlarge restoration efforts and secure further funding, mainly for incorporating restoration objectives in production operations.

Source: Whaley et al., 2010.

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Community participation at the heart of Africa’s Great Green Wall restoration model1

M. Sacande, N. Berrahmouni and S. Hargreaves

Building on past restoration I ntroduction, scope and use of marginal lands is leading to a decline experiences, Africa’s Great Green main objectives in productivity and consequent increase in Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel ryland forests and agrosilvo- poverty (Bremner et al., 2010). Initiative is taking shape, with the pastoral systems in the Sahel Sub-Saharan Africa is believed to be one “wall” a metaphor for a mosaic of are the source of a wide range of of the regions most vulnerable to climate sustainable restoration and rural Decosystem services on which local com- change (Nakhooda et al., 2011; Fingar, development activities. munities depend. Under pressure from 2008). Increasing temperatures and chang- increasing demand, natural resources ing regimes are projected Moctar Sacande is a forest seed physiologist are being overexploited, which in turn is to exacerbate natural hazards, accelerate and dryland restoration expert. He is leading the leading to degradation and desertifica- desertification, increase exposure to infec- Great Green Wall restoration project in West Africa and working as Research Leader in the tion, putting the world’s most vulnerable tious diseases, compromise food and water Natural Capital Department of the Royal Botanic people at risk. Although a simplification, security and accelerate the degradation of Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. the vicious cycle of land degradation holds ecosystem services (IPCC, 2014). Given Nora Berrahmouni is a forest ecologist, working as Forestry Officer for the Drylands in true in many cases, where the inappropriate the inevitability of some degree of climate FAO’s Forestry Department, Rome, Italy. Serene Hargreaves, an expert in conservation genetics, is the Great Green Wall Project 1 This article is based on the paper of the same title A Great Green Wall village Officer at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, that was submitted to the XIV World Forestry technicians’ tree nursery United Kingdom. Congress, Durban, South Africa, September 2015. close to the planting site in Djibo, Burkina Faso CTAR © M o S a cande

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change and the impacts already observed, to identify priority native species for the Methodology the Great Green Wall (GGW) for the Sahara GGW that meet communities’ needs in S election of villages and the Sahel Initiative supports the adap- addition to being well adapted to the dry- The selection criteria for participation in tation and resilience of natural and human land ecosystems. To date, the intervention the pilot project included: (a) existence systems. Endorsed in 2007 by the African has directly benefited 110 communities in in the villages of degraded land avail- Union, the programme addresses environ- four transborder regions of Burkina Faso, able for planting and land reclamation; mental and development issues through Mali and the Niger. Propagation and resto- (b) motivation and commitment to par- sustainable land-management approaches ration efforts have resulted in the planting ticipate in restoration activities, including tailored to the context of the local commu- and maintaining of over 1 million seed- in-kind contributions; (c) social diversity nities and local environment. The priority lings and seeds of 50 useful native woody of village beneficiaries (gender, age, pro- interventions defined by the GGW notably and herbaceous species. Now in its third fession, etc.), community-based structure include restoration of forest landscapes and year, this model restoration project has and organization; and (d) the availability degraded lands (Berrahmouni et al., 2014; helped communities restore over 1 000 ha of relevant facilities, for example water AUC/ PAG GW, 2012). of degraded land. Scientific expertise, effi- sources for installing a village nursery, or FAO, with the financial contribution of cient technology transfer and capacity opportunities for work with other ongoing the European Union and the countries of strengthening in plant knowledge have programmes/projects in the villages and/ the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group been the core of the success of the GGW or region. of States (EU-ACP), is supporting the restoration activities in these countries. African Union Commission in delivering This article looks at the restoration pro- Community participation in this ambitious initiative, with the contri- grammes in four cross-border regions of prioritizing species butions of numerous other organizations, the GGW: Bankass in Mali; Dori and Djibo Following the selection of participant com- governments, partners and stakeholders on in Burkina Faso; and Tera in the Niger. It munities, village consultation workshops the ground. As part of this collaboration, focuses on the restoration model, with the are set up with all involved parties. This the Royal Botanic Gardens (RBG), Kew, planting of environmentally well-adapted provides an understanding of local needs is using its botanical knowledge and infor- and economically useful local plant species and species uses and preferences, and mation resources, as well as engaging with in agrosylvopastoral systems, including enables agreement on restoration objec- in-country partners and local communities, tree, shrub and herbaceous species. tives from the communities’ perspective. cande a

S Soil preparation for Great Green o Wall planting, Tera

© M CTAR community, the Niger

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INTERNATIONAL Technical and financial partners

Political and strategic partners African Union Commission

NATIONAL Mali, Burkina Faso, the Niger

Financial partners The Dr Mortimer and Theresa Sackler Foundation Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew GGW National focal points LOCAL Bankass, Djibo, Dori, Tera

Village nurseries Facilitating organizations NGOs Village communities Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Local forestry departments World Food Programme National tree seed centres Institut d’Économie Rurale – Mali Local administrations Centre National de Semences Forestières – the Niger Centre National de Semences Forestières – NGOs Burkina Faso

Source: Great Green Wall Transboundary Project, Kew.

1 Consultation is a critical initial step, as the nurseries, and are ready to be planted out Key relationships at each level within the GGW pilot restoration project. communities contribute and commit their within a year. To enable the retention of A list of partners involved in the managed land and labour for implementing maximum moisture from limited - GGW programme can be found at the planned activities. falls and thereby maintain moist soil for http://www.fao.org/in-action/action- against-desertification/en/ Botanical research is undertaken on the the longest possible period, traditional lists of requested species, prioritizing spe- techniques of “half-moon” or “zaï” culti- cies on the basis of availability, knowledge vation are used. This stops water run-off communities and the technical institu- of seed handling, germination and propa- and allows water harvesting by creating tions. A technical management team is gation, speed of return of products for the multiple small dams in the field, giving set up, bringing together representatives local communities and adaptation to local seeds and seedlings a better chance to of all stakeholder groups, from recipient environments. establish. Land scarification is also applied beneficiaries and communities to local in wider inter-village areas. The planting of environmental non-governmental organi- Implementation on the ground seeds and seedlings takes place at the onset zations (NGOs), technical facilitators and and monitoring of and during the rainy , generally sponsors (Figure 1). The team meets once Implementation on the ground includes in June and July in the intervention areas, a year to evaluate and plan for restoration the acquisition of quality seed collections so that the plants receive maximum benefit activities, assessing progress and defining from selected natural stands to capture the from rainwater. roles, responsibilities, accountabilities and genetic diversity of the population sampled Monitoring and field data collection reporting. Capacity development targets and ensure that seed materials are of high on the survival and growth of seed- local farmers, village technicians and com- physiological quality. Seedlings of native lings are carried out by trained village munity representatives, and covers quality woody species are produced in village technicians in collaboration with the seed collection in defined seed zones by the

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TABLE 1. Achievements of the GGW pilot project, including beneficiaries, restored area and seedlings planted in 2013 and 2014 Country Region 2013 2014

Number of Restoration data Number of Restoration data beneficiary beneficiary villages Planted Species Seedlings Seeds villages Planted Species Seedlings Seeds area (ha) used planted (kg) area (ha) used planted (kg) Mali Bankass 5 65 10 35 700 18 4 36 19 15 100 128

Burkina Djibo ––– – – 41 195 5 42 150 – Faso Dori 11 200 15 111 500 16 30 384 8 239 700 –

the Niger Tera 5 55 1 30 000 – 14 214.2 7 71 121 66

Total 21 320 26 177 200 34 89 829.2 39 368 071 194 national forest seed centres, land prepara- Department, and is managed through material for plant production for the resto- tion, seedling production, planting and three national technical partner institu- ration activities. Both local administrations woodland enrichment, and participatory tions, local and national governments in the and NGOs contribute to mobilizing com- forest management. regions, environmental NGOs, and several munities. A designated national focal point other international partners. The team is coordinates interventions and a steering R esults as inclusive as possible, while minimizing committee oversees progress and reports T echnical management and unnecessary complexity, and is composed annually on GGW development. operational team of a large number of stakeholders to guar- As an integrated multisector programme, antee success on the ground (Figure 1). Community consultation and the GGW monitors and evaluates the opera- The in-country technical leadership of species prioritization tions and activities of different components the national tree seed centres addresses A total of 110 village communities were at various levels, from the ground up to the availability of good-quality seed col- selected in 2013 and 2014, including 82 in the international level. The transborder lections, ensuring genetic diversity that Burkina Faso, 9 in Mali and 19 in the Niger restoration project is led collaboratively reflects the original provenances of native (Table 1). A total of 193 plant species were by the RBG Kew and FAO’s Forestry species. These collections serve as base listed as useful by the 110 communities, CTAR © M o Rainwater harvested

on prepared S a

Great Green Wall cande planting site, Dori, Burkina Faso

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consulted using questionnaires and village the Economic Botany Data Collection 25 170 women (51 percent). The number workshops. However, the botanical analyses Standard (Cook, 1995). Medicinal use for of communities has shown a marked of results showed that only 73 percent of humans represented the highest share of increase over the two years of the pro- these species were suitable and appropriate responses, with 143 species listed (74 per- ject, with 89 more villages in 2014 as for dryland ecosystems. The rest of the list cent), followed by 112 for animal feed compared to the initial 21 in 2013. This reflected farmers’ personal knowledge or (58 percent) and 105 for food (54 percent). was due in part to the addition of Djibo aspirations, and included species that were A detailed implementation timetable was during the second year of the project, either exotics or suitable for more humid fed back to the communities and agreed on as well as to the expansion of training environments. Selected species were usu- by all stakeholders, including prioritization programmes across the GGW pilot project ally preferred for their social utility, their of species and activities for restoration. area. Farmers participated in locally run importance as food and feed species, and training programmes, the first of which their environmental adaptation to the imple- Achievements of the took place in Dori, involving national mentation areas and dryland ecosystems. GGW pilot project so far partners and new partners from the Niger Plant-use data given by respondents in the Beneficiaries of the plantations num- and strengthening capacity and collabora- communities were classified according to ber just under 50 000 people, including tion across borders.

TABLE 2. A total of 21 prioritized GGW species were selected by and planted with communities in the four cross-border regions of Burkina Faso, Mali and the Niger in 2013–2014. Of these, 75 percent are woody species, against 25 percent of grasses (4 out of the 21 species), mainly used as feed, fodder and food Family Taxon Life form Height Main uses Seed 1000-seed Average Planted form (m) collection weight germination (month) (g) (%) 1 Leguminosae Acacia nilotica Shrub 4.0 Gum, fodder 1 140.00 100 seedlings

2 Leguminosae Acacia senegal Shrub 4.0 Gum arabic, bees, 3 100.00 100 seeds & forage seedlings 3 Leguminosae Acacia seyal Tree 4.0 Gum, fodder 3 42.69 95 seedlings

4 Leguminosae Acacia tortilis Shrub 4.0 Gum, fodder 4 26.44 100 seedlings

5 Bombacaceae Adansonia digitata Tree 10.0 Food, medicine 3 399.30 80 seedlings

6 Leguminosae Alysicarpus ovalifolius Grass 0.5 Feed, fodder 10 2.50 60 seeds (10 kg/ha)

7 Poaceae Andropogon gayanus Grass 2.5 Roofing, forage 11 2.50 100 seeds (5 kg/ha)

8 Balanitaceae Balanites aegyptiaca Tree 6.0 Food, oils, medicine, 1 3 000.00 100 seedlings fodder 9 Leguminosae Bauhinia rufescens Shrub 3.0 Fodder, fence, rope 10 78.63 100 seedlings

10 Combretaceae Combretum Shrub 3.0 Fodder, food, 12 28.66 100 seedlings micranthum medicine 11 Poaceae Cymbopogon Grass 2.0 Medicine, beverage, 12 1.44 56 seeds (5 kg/ha) giganteus pesticide 12 Leguminosae Faidherbia albida Tree 15.0 Fodder, medicine, wood 3 51.60 100 seedlings

13 Arecaceae Hyphaene thebaica Palm-tree 12.0 Wood, food, fodder 11 24 000.00 100 seedlings

14 Meliaceae Khaya senegalensis Tree 15.0 Wood, medicine, 2 260.00 100 seedlings pesticide, fodder 15 Anacardiaceae Lannea microcarpa Tree 6.0 Food, rope 7 200.00 80 seedlings

16 Poaceae Panicum laetum Grass 0.1 Food, feed 11 1.10 20 seeds (5 kg/ha)

17 Leguminosae Parkia biglobosa Tree 8.0 Food, medicine, bees 4 1 000.00 100 seedlings

18 Poaceae Pennisetum Grass 2.0 Fodder 11 0.98 100 seeds (0.5 kg/ha) pedicellatum 19 Leguminosae Prosopis africana Tree 7.0 Food, medicine, wood 2 106.20 100 seedlings

20 Leguminosae Tamarindus indica Tree 10.0 Food, medicine 3 385.00 100 seedlings

21 Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Shrub 2.0 Food, fence, medicine 11 382.80 87 seedlings

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2 The 86 out of 110 georeferenced villages the plots. Ninety village technicians have security and livelihoods. High poverty participating in and benefiting from the GGW pilot restoration project, across the been trained and mentored in the collection and a high demand for food, feed and four transborder regions of Bankass (Mopti of seeds and production of seedlings in fuelwood, leading to high depletion rates region), Mali; Djibo (Soum province) and village nurseries near the planting sites. of and pressure on natural forest resources, Dori (Seno province), Burkina Faso; and Tera (Tillabery region), the Niger. The size In its first year, the project reached about severely affect the Sahel region (OECD/ of the black circles is relative to the number 70 administrative technicians who were SWAC, 2014). Combining the planting of of villages, with the biggest circles in Soum familiarized with the restoration model and slow-growing native woody plants with (Djibo) representing groups of 10–12 villages committed to contributing to the activities fast-growing native edible herbaceous and on the ground. fodder species for livestock has been a Quality seed collections and seedling great success and is in high demand in production of woody species in selected Discussion other neighbouring communities. The res- village nurseries, with training in local The intrinsic and complex link between toration model also took into account open administrative nurseries, were initiated. people and the landscapes in which they pastureland for animals, which is crucial Over 1 million seeds and seedlings live is of critical importance when devel- for most of the pastoralist communities were produced and planted in the four oping a restoration programme. Projects of the Sahel. As suggested by Weber and trans-border regions. Within the planta- that aspire to address both poverty and Horst (2011), inclusive planning processes tion areas, over 500 000 seedlings were conservation issues face a complex chal- may improve arid and semiarid rangeland planted over the two years of the project, lenge (Turner et al., 2012; McShane et al., ecosystems, incorporating livestock into following traditional local practices and 2011). With humans continuing to be the solutions to the problem of land degrada- the agroforestry planting design of farmers main driving force in dryland ecosystems tion. Benefits are already being seen in the in the Sahel. Seeds of mostly herbaceous (Aronson et al., 1993), incorporating the harvesting of edible grass seeds and the species were sown directly (Table 2). Data needs of local communities and other collecting of fodder from the planted plots. collected on planting and field performance stakeholders is vital both to achieve envi- A recent renewal of interest in the GGW and technical reporting were incorporated ronmental goals and to promote human reflects concerns over desertification and into national GGW plans. well-being. loss of biodiversity in the context of climate Village communities involved in the The long-term success of these restora- change, and the implications for food secu- planting of their land participate in tion actions lies in the return on investment, rity. The programme itself is currently the regular monitoring and evaluation of for both the environment and people’s food being implemented in a piecemeal fashion,

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Land cover with planted grass species in Tera, the Niger cande a S o © M CTAR cande a

S Planted seeds and seedlings in ctar o Great Green Wall site

© M in Tera, the Niger

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depending on countries’ priorities and the IP CC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate mobilization of funds. For example, there Change). 2014. Climate change 2014: has been major land restoration in Senegal impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. and the Niger through the programme References Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge (FAO, 2015), whereas in Burkina Faso and University Press. Mali the current pilot project represents the A ronson, J., Floret, C., LeFloc’h, E., Mc Shane, T.O., Hirsch, P.D., Trung, T.C., very first restoration action on the ground, Ovalle, C. & Pontanier, R. 1993. Res- S ongorwa, A.N., Kinzig, A., Monteferri, B., with work in other GGW countries yet toration and rehabilitation of degraded Mutekanga, D., Thang, Hv., Dammert, J.L., to begin. ecosystems in arid and semi-arid lands. P ulgar-Vidal, M., Welch-Devine, M., An essential aspect of the GGW pro- Vol. I. A view from the South. Restoration Brosius, J.P., Coppolillo, P. & gramme is to ensure local involvement and Ecology, 1: 8–17. O ’Connor, S. 2011. Hard choices: making community ownership of the restoration AU/AG C P G W (African Union Commission/ trade-offs between biodiversity conservation investments. For this reason, the model P an African Agency of the Great Green and human well-being. Biological Conser- approach is based on the consultation and Wall). 2012. Harmonized regional strategy vation – The New Conservation Debate: involvement of local communities and vil- for the implementation of the Great Green Beyond Parks vs. People, 144: 966–72. lages. Within the communities there is Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative N akhooda, S., Caravani, A., Bird N. & buy-in and strong support for this restora- (available at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/ S chalatek L. 2011. Climate finance fun- tion programme. However, assessments templates/europeanunion/pdf/harmonized_ damentals: regional briefing: Sub-Saharan and management interventions must be strategy_GGWSSI-EN_.pdf). Africa. Heinrich Böll Stiftung North Amer- completed at the local level to ensure that Berrahmouni, N., Tapsoba, F., Berte, J.C. ica and Overseas Development Institute success is sustainable. This requires the 2014. The Great Green Wall for the Sahara (available at http://www.odi.org/sites/odi. inclusion of local people at every step in and the Sahel Initiative: building resil- org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion- the process. ient landscapes in African drylands. In files/7474.pdf). M. Bozzano, R. Jalonen, E. Thomas, OECD/SWAC (Organisation for Economic Con clusions D. Boshier, L. Gallo, S. Cavers, S. Bordács, Co-operation and Development/Sahel and The GGW has mobilized and engaged P. Smith & J. Loo, eds. Genetic considera- W est Africa Club). 2014. An atlas of the communities, with over 110 villages in tions in ecosystem restoration using native Sahara-Sahel: , economy and four cross-border regions of Burkina Faso, tree species. State of the World’s Forest security. West Africa Studies. Paris, OECD Mali and the Niger already engaged. While Genetic Resources Thematic Study. Rome, Publishing. this major international project is gaining FAO and Bioversity International. T urner, W.R., Brandon, K., Brooks, T.M., momentum, it is important to note that the Bremner, J., Lopez-Carr, D., Suter, L., Gascon, C., Gibbs, H.K., Lawrence, K.S., communities in these areas have always Davis, J. 2010. Population, poverty, envi- Mittermeier, R.A. & Selig, E.R. 2012. demonstrated resilience and perseverance ronment, and climate dynamics in the Global biodiversity conservation and the in improving their environment and have developing world. Interdisciplinary Environ- alleviation of poverty. BioScience, 62: 85–92. reaped the benefits of their investments in mental Review, 11: 112–26. W eber, T.K. & Horst, S. 2011. Desertification these lands. It is time to provide them with Cook, F.E.M. 1995. Economic Botany Data and livestock grazing: the roles of seden- serious support. Collection Standard. Royal Botanic Gardens, tarization, mobility and rest. Pastoralism: Kew (available at http://www.cabdirect.org/ Research, Policy and Practice, 1(1): 1–11. u Acknowledgements abstracts/19950316220.html). We thank in particular the village com- FAO. 2015. Africa’s Great Green Wall reaches munities, the Millennium Seed Bank teams out to new partners (available at http://www. and The Dr Mortimer and Theresa Sackler fao.org/news/story/en/item/210852/icode/). Foundation, who support the Royal Botanic F ingar, C.T. ed. 2008. Global trends 2025: Gardens, Kew, and Africa’s Great Green a transformed world. Washington, DC, Wall pilot restoration model project in US Government Printing Office (avail- Burkina Faso, Mali and the Niger. u able at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/ hi/pdfs/21_11_08_2025_Global_Trends_ Final_Report.pdf).

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Restoration of forests and degraded lands in Southeast Asia1

S. Appanah, K. Shono and P.B. Durst © FAO/NOEL CELIS © FAO/NOEL

Forest restoration programmes in he Southeast Asia region has given largest concentration of tropical forests the region are unlikely to succeed rise to some of the best scientific (FAO, 2010). The forests in continental without policy reform and the innovations in the history of tropi- Southeast Asia are mainly of the mixed participation of local people. Tcal forestry, such as the taungya system of deciduous types, including the valuable agroforestry and the introduction of teak forests. The insular subregion holds to Java, where it became naturalized and extensive areas of the highly productive a major contributor to the local economy. evergreen dipterocarp forests. The region Yet, in an ironic twist, this region now also has extensive areas of montane, man- requires massive investments to restore grove and peat swamp forests. its degraded forests and lands. These forests are regarded as the oldest Extending from Myanmar in the west existing tropical ecosystems, known for to the Indonesian islands in the east, very high biodiversity (MacKinnon et al., S immathiri Appanah is former Forestry Officer (retired) of the FAO Regional Office Southeast Asia contains the world’s third 1996); some 14–34 million indigenous for Asia and the Pacific. Kenichi Shono is Forest Resources Officer with 1 This article draws extensively on a larger review the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. of forest landscape restoration undertaken for Above: People clear brush and define Patrick B. Durst is Senior Forestry Officer with the Asia-Pacific region (Appanah and Leslie, a fire line to protect an area from the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. in press). forest fires in Danao, the Philippines

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Degraded forest landscape in the Philippines ONO © K. S h

people depend on them for their livelihoods conversion for agriculture, extensive defor- growth, transportation and infrastructure (Mertz et al., 2009). The prevailing highly estation and degradation of forests and development. humid conditions in the region have given lands have taken place in the region. Many Inappropriate land-use policies com- rise to exceptionally productive forests, reviews have been produced on the driv- bined with transmigration policies, for including a large stocking of commercially ers of deforestation and degradation (e.g. example in Indonesia, have led to the valuable timber trees. This wealth of timber Geist and Lambin, 2002; De Jong, 2005). opening of forests for settlements. In the trees has ironically become a challenge to While the drivers are usually distinguished process, lands unsuitable for agriculture the very survival of the region’s forests. according to proximate (direct) and under- were opened and subsequently abandoned Following the post-colonial era, the timber lying (indirect) causes, the results usually when agricultural initiatives failed. industry grew rapidly in the region, and derive from their interactions. Further exacerbating the problems was exports of hardwoods such as teak and In the region, agricultural expansion the lack of recognition of the rights of Philippine mahogany2 took off. By 2011, that includes establishment of permanent local communities to their traditional use the region’s forestry sector provided, on crops (especially cash crop plantations), and access to forest resources. Without a formal basis, employment for about and resettlement of appropriate tenure in place and improved 1.25 million people, and generated about populations has been a major cause of agricultural productivity, landless farmers US$27.4 billion in value added (FAO, deforestation and degradation (Butler, have continued to encroach upon state 2014). In addition, these forests are also the 2009; FAO, 2009). This expansion in agri- forest reserves. largest source of land for massive planta- culture and increased demand for forest Logging in itself rarely results in deforest- tions of export-oriented cash crops such as goods stems from economic development ation directly, but bad logging practices rubber, oil palm and cocoa. For example, and increasing purchasing power across have led to extensive forest degradation. both Indonesia and Malaysia currently have broad segments of society. When this is While methodologies to ensure good log- about 10 million ha under oil palm, which coupled with population growth, deforest- ging practices are available (e.g. regional earn about US$30 billion annually. ation is amplified further. Expansion of and national codes of harvesting [FAO, In the process of pushing for economic biofuel production has placed additional 1999]), they may not be implemented growth based on forestry and forest pressure on forests. Likewise, hydropower effectively and regulations designed to development has resulted in extensive ensure sustainability are often poorly 2 The name “Philippine ” is used to loss of forests. This high level of defor- enforced. The resulting degraded forests refer to a number of commercial timber species in the Shorea genus. Other common names for estation is underwritten by policies that then become increasingly vulnerable to this wood are “Meranti” and “Lauan”. provide strong incentives for agricultural encroachment, fire, pests and diseases.

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TABLE 1. Extent of forest land (2015) and trends in forest change (1990–2015) Country Forest area 2015 Annual change rate

1990–2000 2000–2005 2005–2010 2010–2015

1 000 ha % of land area 1 000 ha/yr % 1 000 ha/yr % 1 000 ha/yr % 1 000 ha/yr %

Brunei Darussalam 380 72.1 -1.6 -0.4 -1.7 -0.4 0 0 -1.3 -0.3

Cambodia 9 457 53.6 -139.8 -1.1 -145.2 -1.3 -127.4 -1.3 -139.5 -1.2

Indonesia 91 010 53.0 -1 913.6 -1.7 - 497.7 -0.5 -684.4 -0.7 -1 101.4 -1.1

Lao People’s 18 761 81.3 -111.9 -0.7 129.0 0.8 189.2 1.0 44.7 0.2 Democratic Republic Malaysia 22 195 67.6 -78.5 -0.4 53.3 0.2 14.2 0.1 -7.2 0

Myanmar 29 041 44.2 -435.0 -1.2 -309.5 -0.9 -546.4 -1.8 - 407.1 -1.2

Philippines 8 040 27.0 47.2 0.7 -18.7 -0.3 240.0 3.3 59.4 0.8

Singapore 16 23.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thailand 16 399 32.1 300.6 2.0 -76.2 -0.5 30.0 0.2 95.8 0.6

Timor-Leste 686 46.1 -11.2 -1.2 -11.2 -1.4 -11.2 -1.6 -11.2 -1.4

Viet Nam 14 773 47.6 236.4 2.3 240.1 1.9 129.0 0.9 216.4 1.8

Total 210 758 - -2 107.4 -0.1 -637.8 -0.1 -767.0 -0.1 -1 251.4 -0.1

Source: FAO, 2015.

A case in point is the current increase the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam, Considering that deforested areas con- in forest fires, which were previously with increases in forest cover. Additional verted to other land uses are often not rare in the natural forests of Southeast perspective is gained when this annual loss available for forestry, it is important to Asia (Wooster et al., 2012). Many other in Southeast Asia of over 1.25 million ha consider the extent of degraded forests policies and regulations, including low is compared with the global annual loss of and degraded lands that are actually avail- stumpage fees and taxes on forest conces- about 5.17 million ha (FAO, 2015). able for forest restoration. ITTO (2002) sions, and inadequate investment in forest But for the purposes of restoration, it estimated that there were 125 million ha of management have resulted in poor forest would be more useful to estimate how degraded forest land and 145 million ha of management and subsequent conversion of much degraded forest and deforested and degraded primary and secondary forests in forest to other land uses. Overall, the situ- abandoned areas exist and are potentially tropical Asia. Table 3 shows estimates for ation in Southeast Asia is a result of rapid available for restoration. While deforesta- Southeast Asia in terms of the total area economic growth that has frequently taken tion is relatively easy to estimate, the extent of degraded lands (grasslands, shrublands, place at the expense of environmental and of forest degradation is more difficult to and degraded secondary forests) and areas biodiversity concerns. This brings us to quantify. Achard et al. (2002) have esti- the countries have identified for restoration the crux of the issue: How much degraded mated that in the 1990s, the annual rate of (Lamb, 2011). The percentages of degraded forest and land exists that can be restored? forest degradation in Southeast Asia was land and forest area vary considerably What experiences can be drawn upon to as high as 1.1 million ha, or about half the among the countries (figures of 4 percent guide such initiatives? global figure (Table 2). for Malaysia and Thailand appear to be

E xtent of degraded forests and lands TAE BL 2. Annual changes in forest cover in the tropics (evergreen and In the early 1990s, Southeast Asia had about seasonal forests, but not dry tropical forests) between 1990 and 1997 15 percent of the world’s tropical forests Activity Southeast Asia Global (FAO, 1995). The forest cover declined from Million ha % Million ha % around 242 million ha in 1990 to around Deforestation 2.5 0.91 0.52 -0.4 211 million ha in 2015 (Table 1). This Regrowth 0.53 0.19 0.08 -1.1 represents a loss of 31 million ha, an area Net forest loss 2.0 0.71 0.43 -1.7 comparable to the size of Malaysia, in only 25 years. The only positive trends come Degraded forest 1.1 0.42 0.20 -0.1 from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Source: Achard et al., 2002.

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TABLE 3. Estimates of areas of degraded lands in some Southeast Asian planting (either gap or line planting), countries (grasslands, shrublands and some secondary forests) and of land in which seedlings of desirable species potentially available for reforestation (compilation of data from 1994 to 2007) are planted as part of the silvicultural Country Area of degraded Percent of Areas planned to be management of the stand. However, land (’000 ha) land area reforested (’000 ha) the most common approach to forest Cambodia 2 600 15 - restoration involves the establishment of Indonesia 56 900 30 47 000 commercial tree plantations (Lamb, 2011). Lao People’s Democratic Republic 8 700 36 - Both and mixed-species Malaysia 1 200 4 - plantations have been established in Southeast Asia. Despite the advantages Philippines 9 300 31 5 500 that mixed-species plantations provide Thailand 2 300 4 - in terms of greater biodiversity, enhanced Viet Nam 9 700 30 5 000 watershed protection and more carbon Source: Lamb, 2011. storage (Kanowski et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2002; Russell et al., 2004), monocultures underestimated) and may not necessarily been developed and tested, which will of exotic timber species continue to be reflect the reality on the ground. Others be discussed later. favoured in commercial plantations for have cited higher figures of as much as The starting point would be: What is it their well-known silvicultural charac- 169 million ha of degraded forests and we want to restore, what are the techniques teristics and productivity (FAO, 2001). lands for Southeast Asia (Gilmour et al., available for restoration, and what poli- Although profit-oriented by nature, large 2000) and 400 million ha of southern and cies are needed to facilitate restoration? industrial plantations can provide varying eastern Asia’s deforested and degraded A broad classification of degraded forests degrees of socioeconomic benefits to local landscapes as potentially available for res- based on the underlying disturbances and communities in the form of employment toration (WRI, 2013). Needless to say, by past land-use practices (Chokkalingam and business opportunities. any of these estimates, there are very large and De Jong, 2001) includes the follow- Various ecological restoration methods areas potentially available for restoration. ing: secondary forests following natural involving the planting of mostly native catastrophes or tree harvesting, swidden tree seedlings have been developed to A pproaches in agriculture, abandoned secondary forests reforest degraded lands (Lamb et al., forest restoration – not intended for forestry, and degraded 2005). Some of these methods aim to technical solutions lands that are completely barren or under recreate an ecosystem that is as close as From the standpoint of environmental Imperata grass. possible to the original one, while others protection, biodiversity and economic ben- A variety of techniques are available strive to establish a functionally effec- efits, the best option would be to restore the for forest restoration, including natural tive and self-sustaining system with as region’s vast degraded forests and lands to regeneration, plantations many of the original species as practically some level of productivity. As alluded to in and mixed-species plantations. The last achievable. Dense to staggered planting the introduction, restoration practices are includes agroforestry, uneven-aged tree of native tree species in various planting not new to forestry in Southeast Asia. In plantations, even-aged plantations with designs, including the framework species Java, teak, which was probably introduced short- or long-rotation species, planting method and “rainforestation” approach, 400–600 years ago, has become natural- of mixtures of species for restoring native have been implemented with promising ized (Troup, 1921, pp. 697–769), and is forest ecosystems (“framework species” results (e.g. Goosem and Tucker, 1995; now grown in plantations and agroforests. [Eliott et al., 2013]) and mosaics of mono- FORRU, 2005; Shono et al., 2007; RFRI, The taungya system for reforesting shift- cultures. Lamb (2011) provides a full review 2015). The considerable financial inputs, ing cultivation areas with teak was first of the various restoration techniques. These which could range from US$2,000 to over introduced in Burma (now Myanmar) by techniques fit the various needs and objec- US$11,000 per ha depending on site con- Dietrich Brandis in 1856, and is frequently tives of the range of forest owners, from ditions and circumstances (Elliot, 2011), associated with the beginnings of scientific smallholders to industrial plantations, and associated with their complex methods, forestry in the tropics (Blanford, 1958). cover a wide spectrum in terms of costs limit their application to relatively small- The system has been widely used in and benefits provided. scale projects (Lamb, 1998). Southeast Asia (Appanah and Weinland, To improve the timber stocking of A simple and cost-effective restora- 1993). Since these early beginnings, a degraded natural forests, the most com- tion approach that captures the natural variety of restoration techniques have monly used approach is enrichment recovery potential of forest ecosystems is

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the assisted natural regeneration (ANR) and useful products) into farmland, the of technical approaches used, are briefly method, pioneered in the Philippines in integration of agricultural crops and trees summarized in this section. the 1980s (Dalmacio, 1989; FAO, 2011a). also ensures that farmers need not forego ANR accelerates succession, converting short-term income generation. Indonesia areas of degraded vegetation to more While Indonesia still enjoys relatively high productive forests by removing or reduc- Country case studies forest cover (53 percent), it continues to ing barriers to natural forest regeneration Countries in Southeast Asia have had face heavy forest degradation and forest (e.g. weed competition, fire and other varied experience in forest restoration, loss from conversion to other uses, mainly recurring disturbances). The cost of depending on economic development for agriculture, including oil palm. While forest restoration through ANR is typi- paths, governance regimes, social context, people traditionally depended heavily on cally less than half that of conventional biophysical conditions and other factors forests for their livelihoods, this option has reforestation approaches (Bagong Pagasa that have shaped the pattern of forest become less viable with policies centred on Foundation, 2009). Agroforestry is also resource use. Almost all countries have land conversion for cash crops and timber gaining importance as another restoration experienced heavy deforestation. Some are production. During the last 50 years, there technique and climate change adaption still experiencing such losses, while others have been 150 official rehabilitation projects strategy that is more relevant to farmers have succeeded in reversing forest loss. in 400 locations nationwide (Nawir et al., with small landholdings (Winterbottom, Past gains have relied predominantly on the in press). Technical approaches include the 2014). At the same time as it introduces the establishment of monoculture plantations establishment of industrial plantations of benefits of forests (e.g. ecosystem services of exotic species. However, many countries fast-growing exotic species, community for- are beginning to recognize the importance estry, planting of high-value timber species

Degraded forest land after grass of accommodating broader objectives in on private lands, agroforestry, enrichment pressing as part of the assisted forest restoration at the landscape level. planting with native species and ANR. natural regeneration method of These country experiences, and the range However, the results of these reforestation forest restoration in the Philippines ONO © K. S h

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efforts have largely been unsatisfactory due to lack of local community participation, tenure issues, ineffective private-sector involvement, premature decentralization, and other problems. The government has taken steps to renew the role of people’s participation in forest restoration. New approaches include the establishment of regional forest management areas, within which forest utilization, rehabilitation and empowerment of local communities are implemented in an integrated manner. This raises the potential for restoring vast areas of degraded lands with a landscape approach.

Malaysia While Malaysia has managed to retain a high level of forest cover and relatively good management of natural forests, the challenges of rehabilitating degraded for- LORITA © FAO/ ests and restoring waste lands (ex-mining land, abandoned agricultural land) have f also received considerable attention from the early days of state-managed forestry. botts As far back as 1900, there has been concern about the loss of desired species due to A young man plants Eucalyptus overharvesting of commercial species (e.g. output from natural forests. The State of trees to fight erosion in the Upper Solo River basin, Indonesia Palaquium gutta for gutta percha,3 and Sabah introduced 100-year Sustainable Intsia palembanica and Neobalanocarpus Forest Management concessions in 1997, heimii – heavy hardwoods for railway which requires restoration of degraded forestry has not been fully implemented. sleepers). Wildings of these desirable sites as part of the permit (Toh and Grace, Myanmar’s main efforts to restore forest species were raised in plantations and 2005). The state has also implemented cover have been with the establishment in-line plantings in degraded forests. large restoration and rehabilitation projects of commercial plantations of native spe- Also in the early twentieth century, in cooperation with the FACE Foundation cies (teak, Xylia, Pterocarpus, pine, etc.), afforestation of ex-mining land with both of the Netherlands and others (Reynolds industrial plantations of fast-growing indigenous and exotic species was car- et al., 2011). In addition, the States of Sabah exotic species, watershed restoration, ried out (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). These early and Sarawak have started large plantation and plantations for meeting local wood experiences became the basis for managing programmes with a mixture of indigenous demand, mainly for fuelwood. The taungya degraded forests and waste lands. Line and exotic species. Despite these extensive system, which incorporates annual agri- planting (later called enrichment plant- trials and research into restoration work, cultural crops during the early years of ing) became an important silvicultural the lack of appropriate policies, incentives forest plantation establishment, is still procedure in natural forest management. In and involvement of communities has held widely used for rehabilitating degraded the mid-1950s, large trials of teak (Tectona back attempts to restore degraded forests lands. In addition, enrichment planting is grandis) were introduced in the northern and lands and increase forest cover in done after harvesting in natural forests. states of peninsular Malaysia. In the 1970s, the country. Rehabilitation of degraded natural forests compensatory plantations, mainly with is also recognized as an effective and exotics such as Acacia and Gmelina, were Myanmar cost-efficient strategy to restore degraded introduced to meet the reduction in timber While Myanmar has a rich history in forests. However, with a minimal budget forest management, it is mainly focused of US$6 per ha, positive impacts of such 3 Used as insulation material for the earliest on natural forests. Forest plantations efforts have been slow to emerge (Kaung, undersea telegraphic cables. have remained marginal, and community in press). While there is a huge need for

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stepping up forest restoration, the basic be planted under the programme are native reclaim encroached forest reserves. Since requirements of appropriate policies, insti- forest tree species, while agroforestry the 1980s, large private companies have tutional set-ups and technical knowledge species comprise the other half. The developed eucalypt plantations for pulp. have yet to be met. programme has benefited from a sizeable Although rubber was introduced much national budget, which in 2013 reached earlier, parawood became an important The Philippines 5.8 billion Philippine Pesos (approximately raw material for furniture The Philippines experienced high rates of US$130 million) (DENR, 2015). As a result in the 1990s, and the Department of Agri- deforestation from the 1970s, with its forest of this programme, forest loss has been culture expanded the planting of rubber cover declining to 20 percent in 1990. A stemmed and forest cover has slowly begun trees. Since the 1990s, besides the Royal variety of reforestation techniques have to increase (FAO, 2010). Forest Department and the Forest Indus- been introduced, including plantations of try Organization, the private sector and fast-growing exotic species, enrichment Thailand farmers have been involved in forest res- planting in understocked forests, restora- After experiencing rapid deforestation as toration; through afforestation, restoration tion with indigenous tree species, ANR and a result of encroachment, , of forest concessions and social forestry agroforestry. However, these efforts have fire and other causes, a logging ban on programmes, the area of forest plantations been hampered by inadequate protection natural forests was imposed in 1989. Forest has expanded to 3.986 million ha. and maintenance in the past. In 2011, the restoration approaches in Thailand have Philippines Government launched the evolved over time. Native timber species Viet Nam National Greening Program, which aims were planted in the early days (mainly teak, By the 1990s, forest cover in Viet Nam had to grow 1.5 billion trees over 1.5 million ha Pterocarpus, Dalbergia) to compensate for declined to 27 percent, from overharvest- nationwide by 2016. The programme strat- the decline in productivity of natural for- ing, shifting cultivation, encroachment and egy includes components relating to social ests. In the 1970s, pines and acacias were damage from war. This was mainly reversed mobilization, agroforestry, partnerships used to protect degraded watersheds, while through two large restoration programmes and collaboration, poverty reduction, and exotic fast-growing species (Eucalyptus, in the 1990s (Program 327 and the Five tenure and use rights. Half of the trees to Acacia, Peltophorum) were used to Million Hectares Reforestation Program).

Native tree seedlings h ready for field

© K. S © K. ONO planting in Thailand

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Degraded forest land replanted by Together, this resulted in an increase of of forest plantations (the predominant local communities in Thailand 4.4 million ha of forest, including the approach); and restoration of natural addition of 2.5 million ha of plantations forests through forest zoning for protec- experiences, successes measured on a of mainly fast-growing exotic species. As tion, promotion of natural regeneration national scale are few. Indonesia’s teak a result, Viet Nam’s forest cover increased and enrichment planting. As Viet Nam plantations using the taungya system are to 44 percent in 2010 (FAO, 2010). These approaches its target of 45 percent forest exemplary. Larger monoculture plantations were mainly monoculture plantations of cover, the need to further enhance forest of fast-growing exotics (mainly Acacia, exotic species, initiated by government ecosystem services is being increasingly Eucalyptus and Gmelina spp.) have been agencies with donor support. They also recognized. In this context, the government raised throughout Southeast Asia, mainly created employment for rural populations is now examining approaches to increase for pulp, fuelwood and low-cost . and subsequently increased their incomes the value of natural forests through Parawood, an end product of old rubber from forests. Reforestation by private payments for ecosystem services (PES), plantations, has become an important landowners also occurred spontaneously focusing mainly on watershed services and source of timber for the furniture industries without external support as a result of carbon sequestration but also including in Malaysia, Thailand and Viet Nam. But clarification of tenure and an easing of biodiversity and genetic conservation. the region’s restoration efforts are dotted the regulatory framework for growing and with more failures than successes. The marketing timber. Technical approaches F orest restoration – successes outstanding exception is Viet Nam, which to forest restoration in Viet Nam can be and enabling conditions has proved capable of restoring its forest categorized into two groups: reforestation/ Although there is a long history of for- cover considerably through its large forest afforestation through the establishment est restoration and a broad range of restoration programmes.

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TABLE 4. Examples of costs for various restoration approaches This brings us to the key question of the Degradation stage Method Country Date Present-day enabling conditions for success. Restora- costs (US$) tion costs money, and it is useful to look Stage 1 Protection Thailand - 300–350 at what these costs are (Enters and Durst, 2004). Forest restoration costs have been Stage 2 Assisted natural Philippines 2006–2009 638–739 regeneration difficult to estimate, as they depend on methods, locations and other factors. One Stage 3 Framework species Thailand 2006 2 071 method generalization is that the costs of restora- tion will be determined by the stage of Stage 4 Mine site amelioration Brazil 1985 8 890 with maximum diversity degradation, where the costs of protection are relatively low but the costs of complete Sources: Based on Eliott et al., 2013 ; Nawir et al., in press. site amelioration and planting are much higher. Table 4, compiled from various Bonn Challenge to restore 150 million ha to undertake forest restoration. They also sources indicates that costs vary from of deforested and degraded lands, and often fail to facilitate effective participa- US$300 to US$8 890, depending on the the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation tory decision-making and stakeholder stage of degradation. To a large extent, costs (APEC) pledge to boost forest cover in involvement. Viet Nam’s extensive res- and available budget will dictate the kind APEC countries by 20 million ha by 2020. toration programme was only possible of restoration work that is possible. Hence, National tree planting campaigns such as with supportive policies that provided the private sector has focused mainly on the Philippine’s National Greening Pro- clarity on forest and land-tenure issues and pure plantations of fast-growing species. gram to reforest 1.5 million ha nationwide encouraged people’s participation in the However, efforts that include restoration of by 2016 have followed. In addition, there programmes. Countries that are embark- environmental services require more inno- have been research and training initia- ing on are beginning vative financing. Currently, approaches to tives (e.g. FORSPA4 and FORRU5), and to show stability or an increase in forest the financing of forestry-related climate regional programmes such as AKECOP,6 cover. The shift from state-controlled change mitigation, including voluntary APFNet,7 GIZ,8 and JICA,9 designed to forest management towards people’s carbon markets, REDD+ and PES are support restoration of degraded forests participation, with a strong emphasis on receiving enormous attention and there in Southeast Asia. These programmes reducing poverty, may provide the means are considerable expectations that such and institutions are helping generate the to increase restoration efforts in the region. means can provide the funds necessary momentum, knowledge and financial This can be further strengthened by reduc- to accelerate forest restoration. Through resources needed for increasingly larger ing many of the regulations constraining a combination of approaches, it should forest restoration programmes. local forest producers, such as barriers be possible to keep costs at manageable It is important to address the technical to the growing, cutting and marketing of levels and still restore extensive areas of aspects of forest restoration in order to timber. Removing such barriers could also degraded forest and barren lands. avoid major failures. However, a recent encourage the private sector to invest in With the build-up of global concern review of forest restoration in Asia and forestry as a long-term business venture over climate change, interest in refores- the Pacific (Appanah, in press) points out (FAO, 2011b; FAO, 2012). By the same tation and the reduction of deforestation that technical issues are often secondary token, improving governance would help is rising; restoration approaches can also to questions regarding policies, institutions eradicate informal payments or extortion support various international agreements and social issues. Policies relating to tenure and thereby improve the profitability of such as the Convention on Biological and equity are often unfavourable, restric- tree growing. Furthermore, policy and Diversity (CBD), the United Nations tive and lacking incentives for communities legislative changes outside the forestry Framework Convention on Climate Change sector, such as land-use classification (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean 4 FAO’s Forestry Research Support Programme and the provision of preferential credits, Development Mechanism (CDM) and the for Asia-Pacific. have shown positive impacts on forest United Nations Convention to Combat 5 Forest Restoration Research Unit, Chiang Mai restoration work. University, Thailand. Desertification (UNCCD). This has led Besides supportive policies, other lessons 6 ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation to the formation of the Global Partner- Project. that can be drawn from successes in the ship on Forest and Landscape Restoration 7 Asia-Pacific Network for Sustainable Forest region include some of the following: (GPFLR), a partnership to catalyse for- Management and Rehabilitation. • National-level support: Many success- est restoration, followed by pledges from 8 The German international cooperation agency. ful forest restoration efforts are carried several countries. These include the 9 Japan International Cooperation Agency. out as part of country-wide initiatives

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with strong political backing, fund- Viet Nam, and now Indonesia and the to forest restoration is the effective ing support and effective monitoring the Philippines are making such posi- involvement of local people in restora- that regularly reviews results and tive changes. tion programmes. Viet Nam has already realigns efforts according to objective • Support from other sectors: Recogniz- demonstrated this, and other countries feedback. This is best implemented ing the important impacts that other such as Indonesia and the Philip- under timeframes of c. 10–20 years, sectors (e.g. agriculture, energy, trans- pines are following, to increase people’s so that meaningful results can be portation and urban development) have participation in forest management. demonstrated in a practical manner. on forests, it is essential to ensure that Currently, a landscape approach to forest It was such a vision and long-term their deleterious effect on forests is restoration is increasingly being promoted commitment that yielded successful minimized and mitigated. in Southeast Asia (e.g. Mansourian et al., recovery results in Viet Nam as well as • Diversity of forest services: Instead of 2005; Lamb, 2011; Appanah and Leslie, the recent reversal of forest loss trends a narrow focus on forests as a source in press). The Forest and Landscape Res- in the Philippines resulting from the of wood, successful restoration efforts toration (FLR) Mechanism, launched by National Greening Program. recognize the diverse values of forests, FAO in mid-2014, attempts to integrate • Institutions: One of the biggest obs- including the full range of environ- forest restoration actions with desirable tacles appears to be a rigid state control mental services. Diversification can landscape-level objectives undertaken in of forests, which limits the role of com- be strengthened by attributing value to a participatory manner by all stakeholders, munities and the private sector. Where them, including through the develop- and bring about a balance between conser- government institutions demonstrate ment of PES. vation and production (McGuire, 2014). In flexibility and adapt to the changing • Community participation: The one effect, the FLR approach captures all the environment and stakeholders’ needs, single factor that has brought tremen- factors identified above, which form the successes are more likely (FAO, 2008). dous change and benefits with respect basis for the success of restoration. ONO © K. S Primary peat h swamp forest in Brunei Darussalam

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Con clusions Bagong Pagasa Foundation. 2009. Cost FAO. 1995. Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Southeast Asia’s tropical forests are unique comparison analysis, ANR vs. conventional Global Synthesis. FAO Forestry Paper 124. ecosystems that are immensely valuable reforestation. Paper presented at the Rome. for maintaining the global environment, concluding seminar of FAO project FAO . 1999. Code of Practice for Forest and have provided valuable livelihoods for “Advancing the Application of Assisted Harvesting in Asia-Pacific. Bangkok, FAO millions of its people over the millennia. Natural Regeneration (ANR) for Effective, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Over-exploitation and poor management Low-Cost Forest Restoration” (TCP/ FAO . 2001. Global forest resources assessment have resulted in huge tracts of degraded PHI/3010). 2000. FAO Forestry Paper 140. Rome. forests and lands in the region. The reversal Blanford, H.R. 1958. Highlights of one FAO . 2008. Contributions of the forestry sector of this degradation through restoration of hundred years of forestry in Burma. Empire to national economies, 1990–2006. Forest the forests and lands can bring numerous Forestry Review, 37(1): 33–42. Finance Working Paper FSFM/ACC/08. benefits, measured in enhanced environ- Butler, R.A. 2009. Changing drivers of Rome. mental services and forest goods. The deforestation provide new opportunities FAO. 2008. Re-inventing forestry agencies: techniques for restoring these forests are for conservation. Mongabay (available Experiences of institutional restructuring numerous, and have been well tested from at http://news.mongabay.com/2009/12/ in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, FAO a technical perspective. However, changes changing-drivers-of-deforestation-provide- Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. at the policy, legislative and institutional new-opportunities-for-conservation/). FAO. 2009. State of the World’s Forests 2009. levels are a prerequisite for the success of Chokkalingam, U. & De Jong, W. 2001. Rome. all forest restoration programmes in the Secondary forest: a working definition and FAO. 2010. Global forest resources assessment region. Perhaps the most important key to typology. International Forestry Review, 2010. Rome. success is the participation of local people 3(1): 19–26. FAO . 2011a. Forests beneath the grass. in restoring forests. u Dalmacio, M.V. 1989. Assisted natural Bangkok, FAO Regional Office for Asia regeneration: a strategy for cheap, fast, and the Pacific. and effective regeneration of denuded FAO. 2011b. Reforming forest tenure: Issues, forest lands. Manuscript prepared by the principles and process. Rome. Philippines Department of Environment and FAO. 2012. Voluntary Guidelines on the Natural Resources Regional Office, Tacloban Responsible Governance of Tenure of City, Philippines (unpublished). Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context De Jong, W. 2005. Understanding forest of National Food Security. Rome. landscape dynamics. In Restoring forest FAO. 2014. State of the World’s Forests 2014. References landscapes: an introduction to the art and Rome. science of forest landscape restoration, FAO. 2015. Global Forest Resources Assess- A chard, F., Eva, H., Stibig, H.J., Mayaux, P., pp. 53–60. ITTO Technical Series 23. ment 2015. Desk reference. Rome. Gallego, J., Richards, T. & Malingreau, J-P. Yokohama, International Tropical Timber FORRU (Forest Restoration Research Unit). 2002. Determination of deforestation rates Organization. 2005. How to plant a forest: the principles of the world’s tropical forests. Science, 297: D Enr (Department of Natural Environ- and practice of restoring tropical forests. 999–1002. ment Resources). 2015. Website (available Chiang Mai, Thailand, Biology Department, Appanah, S. (in press). Forest landscape resto- at http://www.denr.gov.ph/). 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H ooijer, A., Page, S., Canadell, J.G., Mac Kinnon, K., Hatta, G., Halim, H. & R ussell, A.E., Cambardella, C.A., Ewell, J.J. Salvins, M., Kwajdijk, J., Wosten, H. Mangalik, A. 1996. The ecology of Kali- & Parkin, T.B. 2004. Species, rotation, and & Jauhiaren, J. 2010. Current and future mantan: Indonesian Borneo. Singapore, life form diversity on soil carbon in experi- emissions from drained Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. mental tropical ecosystems. Ecological peatlands in Southeast Asia. Biogeoscience, Mansourian, S., Vallauri, D. & Dudley, N. eds Applications, 14: 47–60. 7: 1505–1514. (in cooperation with WWF International). Shono, K., Davies, S.J. & Chua, Y.K. 2007. ITTO. 2002. ITTO guidelines for the resto- 2005. Forest restoration in landscapes: Performance of 45 native tree species on ration, management and rehabilitation of beyond planting trees. New York, Springer. degraded lands in Singapore. Journal of degraded and secondary tropical forests. McGuire, D. 2014. FAO’s Forest and Landscape Tropical Forest Science, 19: 25–34. ITTO Policy Development Series 13. Restoration Mechanism. ETFRN News, T oh, S.M. & Grace, K. 2005. Case study: Yokohama, Japan, ITTO. 56: 58–65. Sabah forest ownership. Bangkok, FAO K anowski, J., Catterall, C.P., Procter, H., Mertz, O., Leisz, S., Heinimann, A., Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. R eis, T., Tucker, N. & Wardell-Johnson, G. Rerkasem, K., Thiha, Dressler, W., T roup, R.S. 1921. The silviculture of Indian 2005. Biodiversity values of timber planta- Cu, P.V., Vu, K.C., Schmidt-Vogt, D., trees. Vol. II. Oxford, Clarendon Press. tions and restoration plantings for rainforest Colfer, C.J.P., Epprecht, M., Padoch, C. & Winterbottom, R. 2014. Restoration: It’s about fauna in tropical and subtropical Australia. In P otter, L. 2009. Who counts? Demography more than just the trees. World Resources Erskine, P.D., Lamb, D. & Bristow, M., eds. of swidden cultivators in Southeast Asia. Institute (available at http://www.wri.org/). Reforestation in the tropics and subtropics Human Ecology 37: 281–289. W ooster, M.J., Perry, G.L.W. & Zoumas, A. of Australia using rainforest tree species, N awir, A.A., Gunarso, P., Santoso, H., 2012. Fire, drought and El Niño relationships pp. 183–205. Canberra, Rural Industries Julmansyah & Hakim, M.R. (in press). in Borneo (Southeast Asia) in the pre- Research and Development Corporation. Experiences, lessons and future directions MODIS era (1980–2000). Biogeosciences, K aung, U.B. (in press). Forest restoration at the for forest landscape restoration in Indonesia. 9: 317–340. landscape level in Myanmar. In Appanah, S. In Appanah, S. & Leslie, R. (eds). Forest WRI (World Resources Institute). 2013. & Leslie, R., eds. Forest landscape restora- landscape restoration for Asia-Pacific An opportunity for Asia. World Resources tion for Asia-Pacific forests. Bangkok, FAO forests. Bangkok, FAO Regional Office for Institute (available at http://pdf.wri.org/ Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and Asia and the Pacific & RECOFTC. forest_restoration_asia_brochure.pdf). RECOFTC. R eynolds, G., Payne, J., Sinun, W., W yatt-Smith, J. 1963. Manual of Malayan L amb, D. 1998. Large-scale ecological res- Mosigil, G. & Walsh, R.P.D. 2011. Changes Silviculture for Inland Forests. Malayan toration of degraded tropical forest lands: in forest land use and management in Sabah, Forest Record No. 23. Kepong, Malaysia, the potential role of timber plantations. Malaysian Borneo, 1990–2010, with a focus Forest Research Institute. Restoration Ecology, 6: 271–279. on the Danum Valley region. Philosophical Zhou, Y.Y., Morris, J.D., Yan, J.H., Yu, Z.Y. L amb, D. 2011. Regreening the bare hills: Transactions of the Royal Society of London, & Peng, S.L. 2002. Hydrological impacts Forest restoration in the Asia-Pacific region. series B, Biological sciences, 366(1582): of reafforestation with eucalypts and Dordrecht, Heidelberg, Springer. 3168–3176 (available at http://rstb.royalso- indigenous species: a case study in southern Lamb, D., Erskine, P.D., and Parrotta, J.A. cietypublishing.org/conent/). China. Forest Ecology and Management, 2005. Restoration of degraded tropical forest RFRI. 2015. Rain Forest Restoration Initiative 167: 209–222. u landscapes. Science, 310: 1628–1632. (available at http://www.rainforestation.ph/).

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Restoration of the Baekdudaegan mountains in the Republic of Korea

W. Cho and B.K. Chun GER © R o S h epherd

The Baekdudaegan protected area n this article, we briefly introduce the mountain ridges, known as the Jeongmaek, constitutes an interesting example ecological and sociocultural values of together demonstrating that mountains are of restoration that also has the the Baekdudaegan area and ongoing not just points but lines and planes that potential to contribute to regional Iefforts to protect it. The Baekdudaegan are interconnected with other mountains collaboration. mountains constitute a mountain range and the people who live there (Figure 1). of approximately 1 400 km in length that Although there has been deforestation in runs through the Korean peninsula, from the part of the Baekdudaegan correspond- Mt. Baekdu in the north to Mt. Jiri in the ing to the Democratic People’s Republic south. In keeping with the traditional of Korea (hereafter referred to as North principle that “Mountains divide water, Korea), this article focuses on the part but water does not cross mountains,” the corresponding to the Republic of Korea Baekdudaegan ridge is a watershed that (hereafter referred to as ), for Woo Cho is Professor, working in the delineates the Korean peninsula. Broadly which there is more information available. Division of Tourism, Sangji University, speaking, the Baekdudaegan can be consid- Republic of Korea. Bom Kwon Chun is Senior Forestr y Officer ered to include one major mountain range, Above: Hwangjang-san mountain with FAO’s Forestry Department, Rome, Italy. known as the Jeonggan, and 13 secondary in the Baekdudaegan

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1 Ridge of the Baekdudaegan (thicker line) and those of the Jeonggan and the Jeongmaek (thinner lines)

Understanding mountains and moun- tain ranges is of particular importance to maintaining forested landscapes in these areas.1 The Baekdudaegan is made up of more than 500 peaks and mountains, ranging in altitude from 200 m to 1 915 m above sea level. Its climate is considered to be temperate , with an aver- age temperature of 6–12 °C and annual precipitation varying between 1 091 and 1 985 mm. According to research carried out in the area, 1 835 plant species, or 41.3 percent of all plant species in South Korea, can be found in the Baekdudaegan area (National Institute of Biological Resources, 2015).

S tatus of degraded landscape in the Baekdudaegan protected area There are many degraded sites in the Baekdudaegan protected area. KFS (2010) registered 302 sites in Baekdudaegan PA, categorizing forests and other land-use types related to the construction of roads, military bases, quarries, mines and dams (Table 1). Within the Baekdudaegan PA, most privately owned areas that had been

Source: KFS. used for agriculture, with a corresponding use of fertilizer and pesticide, were severely degraded (Figure 3). Limestone quarrying For the past 50 years, South Korea has issues at stake, South Korea has engaged and mining have also been major drivers of witnessed rapid industrialization and in protecting the Baekdudaegan, empha- degradation; from 1970 to 1980, the area urbanization, which has taken a heavy sizing the traditional Korean conception was popular for such activities, but when toll on the country’s . In of geography. The Korea Forest Service they were wound down the affected parts order to mitigate this massive degradation, (KFS) therefore started establishing the were not properly managed or restored the country has adopted several systems legal framework to pass the Baekdudaegan (Figure 3). for protecting its natural forests and land- Protection Act in 2003 and designated the scapes. The Baekdudaegan, the ecological Baekdudaegan protected area (PA) in 2005. 1 The Baekdudaegan having been neglected for backbone of the country, had suffered According to this legal framework, the some 100 years, KFS published a book in March considerably from limestone quarrying South Korean part of the Baekdudaegan 1996 entitled Baekdudaegan Literature Collec- tion, based on relevant historical documents, in and road construction. Since 1990, thanks range measured 701 km in length in 2015, order to reacquaint the public with the area and to heightened public awareness of the with an area of 2 750.77 km2 (Figure 2). assess its ecological and sociocultural values.

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2 Map of the South Korean Baekdudaegan protected area

TAE BL 1. Degraded sites in the Baekdudaegan protected area Land-use types Number of sites Farmland 162 Ranch 10 Road 63 Dam 4 Residential 4 Industrial 2 Military facilities 3 Telecommunication facilities 2 Public services 5 Other built-up 8 Quarry 11 Mine 10 Abandoned 11 Others 7 Total 302 Source: KFS, 2010.

Source: KFS. 3 Farmlands (left) and abandoned quarries (right) in the Baekdudaegan protected area © Y.H, CHOI © W. CHO © W.

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Conservation efforts in the TAE BL 2. Core projects of the Basic Plan for the Baekdudaegan Baekdudaegan protected area Goals Tasks Major projects KFS recognized the need for a bet- Ecological •• survey environmental and •• Baekdudaegan and Jeongmaek survey ter legal framework for protecting the resources forest resources (2006–present) •• restore degraded forested •• Baekdudaegan ecosystem database Baekdudaegan. On the introduction of the landscapes (2006–present) Baekdudaegan PA, there were conflicts •• restore degraded ecosystems and develop among central and local governments, local ecosystem restoration model (2006–present) •• manage forest resources (2006–present) residents and many other stakeholders, but after numerous public hearings and Sustainable •• develop •• establish natural recreational forest (2010–2015) use programmes •• develop eco-education programmes (2007) discussions, a consensus was reached. •• restore cultural heritage •• construct a Baekdudaegan arboretum In December 2003, the National Assem- •• boost local economy (2010–present) •• maintain trail facilities (2006–present) bly, the legislative body of South Korea, •• assist local business (2006–present) enacted the Baekdudaegan Protection Building •• designate and manage •• designate more protected areas for forest Act, which authorizes KFS to conserve management protected areas genetic resources (2006–2014) capacity •• restrict activities in PA and •• acquire private properties (2006–2014) the Baekdudaegan. In September 2005, ensure advance consultation 2 •• expand protected areas (2013) KFS designated 2 634.27 km (2.6 per- •• acquire private property in cent of the total area of South Korea) as protected areas •• establish a compensation the Baekdudaegan PA, based on a law system that covers 6 provinces, 32 cities and Public •• encourage public participation •• clean up Baekdudaegan (2006–2014) counties, and 108 towns, townships and participation •• promote public education •• develop Baekdudaegan symbols and signposts and (2006) neighbourhoods, with a total population of education 2.2 million (4.5 percent of the population Source: KFS, 2014c. of South Korea). In January 2015, the total protected area increased to 2 750.77 km2, covering the Northeast Asian region and world (thanks to translations into multiple thanks to efforts by KFS to extend the the Russian Federation has also been initi- languages) about the Baekdudaegan’s Baekdudaegan PA by purchasing private ated by KFS. Within this network, several environmental characteristics, endangered properties located inside the area. symposia and conferences have been held species and national treasures. In cooperation with other government that have given better international vis- bodies and local communities, KFS has ibility to the sustainable protection of the Cooperation with stakeholders implemented various policies to manage Baekdudaegan PA. Following the 2003 Baekdudaegan Protec- natural resources in the Baekdudaegan Educational activities for the general tion Act, the designation of the protected PA and has a separate division exclusively public have focused on strengthening area proved to be controversial and KFS for planning and managing the area and national and international awareness of the had to amend its boundaries three times in supporting long-term academic research. Baekdudaegan. KFS has built several eco- one year to reflect stakeholders’ opinions The first 10-year Basic Plan was devel- education centres and managed educational gathered via 242 public hearings, 520 press oped to manage the Baekdudaegan from programmes. In line with its educational conferences, and promotional campaigns 2006 to 2015, and between 2006 and activities, KFS produced a brochure, held during the first four months. Owing 2013, US$1.4 billion were invested to including a map, in order to raise aware- to these public participation processes, the implement the plan. In order to protect ness within the country and around the final protected area was half of that initially the Baekdudaegan more comprehensively, academia and local communities joined TABLE 3. Opinions on government regulations and protection of the forces to support programmes, demonstrate Baekdudaegan (%) pilot restoration projects and educate citi- Category General public Residents Experts (no. = 1,023) (no. = 130) (no. = 90) zens (Table 2). Protection and regulation of the 39.2 18.5 33.3 KFS has also funded long-term monitoring Baekdudaegan are insufficient and research into natural and sociocultural Protection and regulation of the 35.6 46.2 52.2 resources within the Baekdudaegan PA Baekdudaegan are appropriate since 2006, with one activity focusing Protection and regulation of the 4.2 26.9 8.9 specifically on the Jeongmaek since 2009. Baekdudaegan are too strict In order to promote the Baekdudaegan Don’t know/no answer 21.0 8.5 5.6 PA internationally, an ecological network Source: KFS, 2013b.

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4 A Buddhist temple (jikjisa) in the Baekdudaegan © Y.H. CHOI

proposed (a decrease from 5 400 km2 to support to academic research for the the PA. Of the 1 326 plant species, 108 are 2 634.27 km2) (KFS, 2006). monitoring of natural and sociocultural listed as endemic and 56 as rare species. Another survey asked the general public resources and the development of asso- There are also 30 animal species that are and residents for their opinion on whether ciated technology needed to protect the endangered (according to the Convention or not the protection and regulation of the Baekdudaegan. Accordingly, KFS has been on International Trade in Endangered Baekdudaegan PA were at an appropriate monitoring natural resources in the whole Species of Wild Fauna and Flora defini- level. Of the general public, 39.2 percent area since 2006, including a survey of the tion). For these reasons, the Baekdudaegan of respondents answered that protection Jeongmaek. Long-term monitoring and PA includes 7 national parks, 44 protected and regulation of the Baekdudaegan were research for the whole Baekdudaegan PA areas for forest genetic resource conserva- “insufficient”, whereas 35.6 percent felt has been divided into five sections and one tion and 66 wild animal sanctuaries. The that they were “appropriate” (Table 3). section is surveyed per year, i.e. five years area also plays a critical role for water A consensus on the protection of the for one round. The first round of monitoring resources, since major rivers, such as the Baekdudaegan was also reached among was conducted in the period 2006–2010; Han and the Nakdong, have their source in local residents. Of them, 46.2 percent the second round began in 2011 and is the Baekdudaegan PA (KFS, 2011; KFS, responded that protection and regulation expected to finish in 2015. The research 2012; KFS, 2013a; KFS, 2014a; KFS, of the Baekdudaegan were “appropriate”. monitors not only natural resources, includ- 2014b; KFS, 2014c). However, 26.9 percent answered that ing , flora and fauna (mammals, The Baekdudaegan PA has a rich cultural regulation was “too strict,” suggesting that birds, reptiles and amphibians), and forest heritage, with 21 heritage sites. Buddhism many local residents are still dissatisfied landscape, but also sociocultural resources in particular has left an important mark. Of with the conservation of the Baekdudaegan and the level of satisfaction of local com- 935 traditional Buddhist temples in South PA by KFS (KFS, 2013b). munity support programmes. Korea, 173 are located in the Baekdudaegan The Baekdudaegan PA can be described PA or neighbouring areas (Figure 4). There Long-term monitoring as a 701-km-long ecological corridor. are also numerous old villages, distilleries of the Baekdudaegan Results of the long-term monitoring also and traditional markets; as well as a total of In accordance with Article 12 of the show that it is a , with 2 008 registered cultural assets, including Baekdudaegan Protection Act, KFS and more than one-third of the plant species of 32 national treasures and 304 treasures local governments have provided financial South Korea (1 326 out of 4 701) found in (Seo, 2013).

Unasylva 245, Vol. 66, 2015/3 69 © Y.H. CHOI © KFS 5 The results of the monitoring and have been carried out. As of 2005, KFS has An ecological bridge constructed over the road crossing the research have been used to develop and built several eco-bridges to reconnect the Baekdudaegan ridge, Ihwaryeong implement management policies for the fragmented Baekdudaegan ecological cor- (left: before construction; Baekdudaegan PA, and have been shared ridor, restored abandoned military bases, right: after construction) with other government organizations, quarries and mines, protected endangered such as the Korea National Arboretum, species, and maintained trail facilities with herbaceous plants and shrubs whose seeds the Korea Forest Research Institute, the a budget of US$59 million (KFS, 2014c). were collected in the region were seeded to Ministry of Environment and the Korea Since 2012 in particular, ecological cor- facilitate the establishment of the vegeta- Service. KFS is currently ridors have been established following the tion community. preparing the third round and is collecting major ridges of Ihwaryeong, Yuksipryeong experts’ and local residents’ opinions. The and Beoligae in order to reconnect frag- An example of restoration by a private monitoring and research results have also mented areas and help wild animals to party: limestone mine in Mt. Jabyeong been used to register the Baekdudaegan in move (Figure 5). KFS has also purchased Located in the centre of the Baekdudae- international databases covering protected abandoned schools and resting areas for gan, Mt. Jabyeong is one of the largest areas. Since 2012, KFS has been investigat- use as ecological education centres. limestone regions in the Korean peninsula. ing the possibility of the Baekdudaegan’s The limestone quarry opened in 1978, and listing as a UNESCO World Heritage site. An example of restoration by KFS: an since 2000 Lafarge Halla Cement Co. has abandoned military base in Baramjae continued mining. R estoration of forested landscape In Baramjae, one of the Baekdudaegan’s As public awareness of the value of the in the Baekdudaegan major ridges, military facilities such as Baekdudaegan increases, a conflict of inter- Like most mountain areas in South Korea, bunkers, water tanks, and access roads est between and the Baekdudaegan has been heavily were constructed in the 1970s but are no economic interests has emerged. This has exploited for fuelwood and other natural longer used (Figure 6). A restoration pro- been dealt with through continuous nego- resources. Many military bases that were ject began there in 2007 with a preliminary tiations between Lafarge Halla Cement constructed on top of the mountains have site survey and expert meetings. In 2008, Co. and local environmental groups who also degraded its forested landscapes. Res- a detailed ecological survey was carried agreed that the company would not extend toration in the Baekdudaegan focuses on out and a restoration plan was established its mining site further into the main ridge three major tasks: restoration of degraded during the course of 2009 and 2010. Actual of the Baekdudaegan and would cooperate landscapes and landslide protection, refor- restoration was carried out in 2010 and on initiating the Eco-Baekdudaegan 2+ estation and revegetation, and protection 2011, with the aim of restoring the original Movement environmental fund together of wildlife and their habitats. Since the forested landscape. Saplings of Quercus with local environmental groups. enactment of the Baekdudaegan Protection mongolica, a dominant tree species in Thanks to this fund, the environmental Act, several ecosystem restoration projects this region, were transplanted, and other groups are conducting various community

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6 Restoration of abandoned military base and access roads in Baramjae (left: before restoration; right: after restoration)

activities, including environmental educa- tion. Moreover, restoration of the closed quarry site was conducted by an inde- pendent third party. A quarry restoration monitoring committee, consisting of the government, experts, non-governmental organizations and residents, was estab- lished and continuously monitors and advises on the quarry site restoration. A Forest Restoration Conference has been held annually since 2014, with the assistance of KFS’s Central Mountain Management Commission. © W. CHO

7 Limestone quarry in Mt. Jabyeong

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8 Annual changes in vegetation community in the pilot site for restoration in Okgye quarry, Mt. Jabyeong

Year Restored in 2007 Restored in 2008 Restored in 2009 Restored in 2010 2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Source: Lafarge Halla Cement Co., 2014.

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TAE BL 4. Areas of restored quarry sites by the Lafarge Halla Cement Co. The restoration of the quarry is a complex in 2007–2010 (ha) long-term project. A pre-site inspection and pilot project were carried out between Restoration 2007 2008 2009 2010 Total 2007 and 2010. An intermediate restora- Pilot restoration 1.5 5.5 5.0 5.0 17.0 tion of areas where mining was completed Intermediate restoration 2.7 4.3 7.5 3.0 17.5 has been carried out and is continuously Total 4.2 9.8 12.5 8.0 34.5 monitored (Table 4). Figure 8 illustrates Source: Lafarge Halla Cement Co., 2012. how vegetation has been slowly established in the restored quarry area. supported by KFS. The programmes aim types of protected areas. Because differ- to build communities’ capacity, enhance ent protected areas are managed by other Sc uc esses and challenges manufacturing and storage facilities, government organizations with different of the Baekdudaegan assist in marketing forest products, and managerial goals, there have been conflicts protected area construct industrial complexes for forest between organizations. Long-term monitoring shows that the products (Table 2). It was estimated that the Secondly, although KFS spends con- Baekdudaegan PA has many natural and programmes increased production of non- siderable amounts on administrative sociocultural resources. Based on this, timber forest products by 20–30 percent. and technical support for managing the we proposed a peninsula-scale ecologi- Although there is no accurate estimate Baekdudaegan PA, it is still short of funds cal network connecting the Baekdudaegan of the increase in the local community’s and has difficulty controlling visitors to to the Jeongmaek and even smaller for- income, there is indirect evidence that the area. As the Baekdudaegan becomes ests and green spaces in urban areas. We the support programme has been effec- more popular, it is also becoming crowded described this idea as a “nationwide for- tive in boosting this income. For instance, by visitors. Today, disturbances caused by est eco-network with the Baekdudaegan local residents had a higher level of par- visitors, such as direct physical destruc- as a backbone”, which would play a core ticipation in community programmes and tion of vegetation and along role in the conservation of regional forest received greater economic support from trails, are one of the most serious prob- landscape and biodiversity in both South KFS in relation to the protection of the lems in conserving the Baekdudaegan PA. and (Figure 9). We believe Baekdudaegan (KFS, 2011; KFS, 2012; Funds are needed to hire and operate field that the experience in forest restoration KFS, 2013a; KFS, 2014b). Also, local rangers, as well as to monitor and research in mountainous areas gained during the residents showed greater willingness to the impacts of tourism on the ecosystem. restoration projects will be useful for cooperate in preparing for the area’s list- Thirdly, the Baekdudaegan PA has only future ecosystem restoration throughout ing as a UNESCO biosphere reserve, all been designated on the South Korean side. the nationwide forest eco-network. of which suggests that KFS’s community This means that the current Baekdudaegan Collaboration with local communities support programme can be a model for PA represents only half of the ecologi- is essential for effectively managing the other protected areas. cal and sociocultural value of the total Baekdudaegan PA. According to KFS Despite these many indications of suc- Baekdudaegan area. We believe that the (2011, 2012, 2013a, 2014b, 2014c), 60 per- cess, there are still a number of practical Baekdudaegan can help enhance peace in cent of local residents were satisfied with difficulties to overcome. the community support programmes, Firstly, a large proportion of the 9 which spent a total of US$9.1 billion, Baekdudaegan PA overlaps with other Nationwide forest eco-network with the Baekdudaegan as a backbone

Urban forest Jeongmaek Baekdudaegan Jeongmaek networks networks

Ecosystem conservation based on the nationwide forest eco-network with the Baekdudaegan as a backbone

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this region if the two Koreas collaborate to KFS. 2006. Baekdudaegan Mt. white paper. KFS. 2014c. Assessment of the Basic Plan for conserve it. The area also has the potential KFS, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. the Baekdudaegan Protection and a study to be a Northeast Asian ecological axis KFS. 2010. Database of degradation in the of the direction of the Second Basic Plan. by connecting other protected areas in Baekdudaegan protected area. KFS, Daejeon, KFS, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. China and the Russian Federation (Cho, Republic of Korea. L afarge Halla Cement Co. 2012. Annual 2014). There may be numerous obstacles KFS. 2011. Natural resources change sur- report on vegetation restoration for the to overcome, but fortunately neighbour- vey and management practice study of the Okgye quarry in Mt. Jabyeong. ing countries are in agreement about Baekdudaegan mountains. KFS, Daejeon, National Institute of Biological Resources. conserving natural forested landscape in Republic of Korea. 2015. Website (available at www.nibr.go.kr/ this region. It may take a long time, but KFS. 2012. Natural resources change sur- species) [in Korean]. we trust that we will achieve this goal and vey and management practice study of the S eo, J.C. 2013. Mountains and Buddhism cul- contribute to peace in the region. u Baekdudaegan mountains. KFS, Daejeon, ture of the Baekdudaegan mountains, Korea. Republic of Korea. Symposium for Cooperating Protected Areas KFS. 2013a. Natural resources change sur- Management of Northeast Asia, pp.31–50. u vey and management practice study of the Baekdudaegan mountains. KFS, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. KFS. 2013b. Survey on the awareness of the Baekdudaegan. KFS, Daejeon, Republic References of Korea. KFS. 2014a. Natural resources change sur- Cho, W. 2014. Challenges for conserving and vey and management practice study of the exploring other values of Baekdudaegan Baekdudaegan mountains. KFS, Daejeon, Regions. Paper presented at the Symposium Republic of Korea. for Ecological Axis of Northeast Asia, Seoul, KFS. 2014b. Baekdudaegan. KFS, Daejeon, Republic of Korea, 4 October. Republic of Korea.

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Transforming China’s forests

C. Daoxiong, G. Wenfu, L. Zhilong and S. Dongjing

Experimental management hina is engaged in a massive re- in 2008 it embarked on an experimental approaches could transform programme with the programme to test a range of approaches China’s vast plantation forests aim of redressing the environ- to close-to-nature forestry. The results are and degraded lands into Cmental problems caused by previous now starting to materialize. close-to-nature forests. deforestation. But some of the new forests This article describes China’s massive are experiencing difficulties. In southern reforestation programme, the increasing China, monocultures of eucalypts and need to diversify the plantations, the conifers are at high risk of attack by for- philosophy behind the ECTF’s close- est pests and are suffering declines in soil to-nature approach, and two of the eight fertility. Their sustainability is in jeopardy. experimental close-to-nature designs that More than a decade ago, scientists at are being tested in subtropical China. the Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry (ECTF) perceived a need to move Chinese forestry towards “close-to-nature” Above: Professor Cai (right) presents the close-to-nature approach to P rofessor Cai Daoxiong is Director, approaches that would make greater use Dr Li Chao (middle) from the Northern Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry, of native species and create resilient, Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Piangxiang, China. species-diverse forests. In 2004, the ECTF Canada, in a rehabilitation site Professor Guo Wenfu, Dr Liu Zhilong and consisting of patches of 30 native Ms Sun Dongjing are scientists, also at the began cooperating with scientists at the broadleaved species in the Experimental Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry. University of Freiburg in Germany, and Center of Tropical Forestry

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C Hina’S REFORESTATION ecological programmes (such as the area increasing by an average of 3.0 million PROGRAMME Three-North Shelterbelt Programme) have ha per year between 2000 and 2010 (FAO, Two major reforestation initiatives were several purposes, including addressing 2010). At the United Nations Summit launched in China in 1999: the Natural severe environmental problems, such as on Climate Change in December 2009, Forest Protection Programme, and flooding, soil erosion and desertification, President Hu Jintao committed China to the Conversion of Cropland to Forest and helping to meet China’s escalating increasing its forest area by 40 million ha Programme, also known as “Grain-for- demand for wood. by 2020 compared with 2005 and its timber Green” and “Sloping Land Conversion”, China’s reforestation programme has stock to 14 billion m3. respectively. These and other major made significant progress, with the forest By 2013, China had an estimated 69 million ha of planted forests, including 13 million ha planted since 2008 (State T he Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry Forestry Administration, 2014). The total forest area, including natural forests, is The ECTF, which is part of the Chinese Academy of Forestry, is located near Pingxiang about 207 million ha (FAO, 2010), and in Guangxi Autonomous Region, southern China. Guangxi’s naturally occurring monsoon this is likely to expand further in coming evergreen broadleaved forests and tropical monsoon forests have largely been lost due to decades. A large proportion of the new long-term intensive activities such as timber harvesting, woodfuel collection and conversion forests will help make up the “Great Green to agriculture. Monocultural tree plantations, natural secondary forests and shrub–grass Wall” stretching from Xinjiang Province formations are now common. in China’s northwest to Heilongjiang Guangxi Autonomous Region is part of the hilly forest region – which also includes parts of the Province in the northeast, but large new provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi and Zhejiang – in southeastern areas of planted forests have also been China that grow most of the country’s timber and industrial fibre. Monocultural forest plantations established in southern areas, including have been a major land use in Guangxi for nearly 90 years, including at the ECTF. Guangxi Autonomous Region, Yunnan The Guangxi Longzhou Forest Farm in Guangxi was established for in 1927 Province, Guangdong Province and Hainan and planted mainly with Pinus massoniana (Masson’s pine) and Cunninghamia lanceolata Province, all of which are either tropical (Chinese fir). This state-owned estate became the Guangxi Daqingshan Experimental Bureau or subtropical. in 1979. In 1991 it was renamed the ECTF and designated as one of 21 subordinate bodies of the Chinese Academy of Forestry, thus becoming a national base for forest-related scientific T he need to diversify experimentation and demonstration. Most of China’s new forests are mono- cultures of fast-growing species thought to have high economic potential, such as Eucalyptus, poplars (Populus spp.), larch (Larix spp.), Cunninghamia lanceolata and Pinus massoniana. For example, the main planted species in Guangxi are Pinus massoniana, Cunninghamia lanceolata and a Eucalyptus hybrid (Eucalyptus grandis x E. urophylla). Not all the new forests have established themselves suc- cessfully, however, especially in marginal areas. Moreover, many plantations have begun to exhibit low productivity, poor soil stability and a high vulnerability to pest and diseases, and their biodiversity is low. For example, even with the addition of fertilizers, the productivity of the second, third and fourth generations of Eucalyptus plantations in the ECTF has been shown © A. SARRE to decrease by 20 percent, 28 percent and The headquarters of the Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry nestles among limestone peaks and rice paddies near Pingxiang, Guangxi Autonomous Region 46 percent, respectively, compared with the first generation (Yu, Bai and Xu, 1999).

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TAE BL 1. Changes in micro-organisms and nutrition in the surface soil of C OLose-T -NATURE FORESTRY first- and second-generationPinus massoniana plantations Close-to-nature forestry is a potential way First Second Percentage of controlling and gradually diminishing generation generation decrease in second generation the risks to monocultural forests posed Quantity of Bacteria 146.0 101.0 30.7 by damage, pest outbreaks and micro-organisms other threats through the use of simple (’000 colony- Actinomycetes 24.6 24.0 2.52 forming units management interventions. Rather than Fungi 22.7 11.3 50.3 per gram of mimicking nature, close-to-nature forestry soil) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria 9.58 3.29 65.7 uses it to best advantage: the aim is to Enzyme activity Polyphenol oxidase activity 0.14 0.04 71.4 achieve a healthy, functioning, produc- (milligrams per gram of Urease activity 0.04 0.03 25.0 tive forest that is resilient to change and soil per hour) Protein enzyme activity 0.26 0.06 76.9 economically profitable, using as few Nutrition Available nitrogen 89.4 78.7 11.9 human interventions as possible. Genetic (milligrams per and structural diversity help confer resil- Available phosphorus 1.12 0.97 13.4 kilogram of soil) ience, which is a precondition for species Calcium 9.07 4.57 49.6 in adapting to changing climatic condi- Source: ECTF field data. tions. The large number of trees that are established through natural regeneration in Declines in soil quality and fertil- nutrition than first-generation plantations close-to-nature forests means that genetic ity are also measurable. For example, (Table 1). Moreover, the pine caterpillar recombination is an ongoing process, second-generation Pinus massoniana (Dendrolimus punctatus) has defoliated helping to maintain genetic diversity plantations in the ECTF have lower den- significant areas of Pinus massoniana (Küchli, 2013). The ECTF applies four sities of soil micro-organisms and lower plantations. basic operating principles:

Defoliation in a plantation of Pinus massoniana caused by pine caterpillar, Guangxi

© EXPERIMENTAL CENTER OF TROPICAL FORESTRY Autonomous Region

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1. Native species should be used wherever ecosystem sustainability, achieves high plantations of Pinus massoniana and possible, but may tree growth rates, generates income in the Cunninghamia lanceolata established in also be used if they are adapted to local short term and over the longer term, and 1993. The second thinning was carried conditions and will not be invasive. produces large-diameter trees of broad- out at year 15 (2007, instead of year 11, 2. The structure of stands should be leaved species suitable for high-value end which is the standard practice), in which stable, with the capacity for ongoing uses such as the manufacture of furniture. high-quality stems were retained at vary- natural succession. Two of the ECTF’s experimental designs ing densities. The best-formed dominant 3. Notwithstanding commercial objec- are presented below. The design in case individuals were marked as “potential crop tives, close-to-nature forestry should study 1 aims to move existing monocultural trees”, the aim being to provide these trees make use of natural processes to the conifer plantations towards close-to-nature with optimal canopy space by removing greatest extent possible. forests. The design in case study 2 aims to individuals that interfere with their growth, 4. Management should be adaptive, restore degraded forest land. allowing them to grow at the fastest possi- requiring that forest health and the ble rate while maintaining the best-possible effects of interventions are monitored C Ase STUDY 1: SHIFTING EXISTING form. closely over time. MONOCULTURAL CONIFER In 2008 (year 16 of the plantations), The ECTF’s multifunctional, close- PLANTATIONS TOWARDS two-year-old containerized seedlings of to-nature forest research has six main CLOSE-TO-NATURE FORESTS high-value local broadleaved species were components: In China, monocultural plantations of planted (in holes 50 cm × 50 cm wide and 1. Improving the quality of seedlings Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia 30 cm deep) in the stand openings created by using high-quality seeds, apply- lanceolata have traditionally been man- by the thinning event in the previous year. ing containerized seedling systems, aged according to a standard thinning Two configurations were used (Figure 1): and cultivating large, robust seedlings regime. With an initial planted density of 1. seedlings distributed evenly through- for planting. 3 000 stems per ha, weeding and tending out the stand at a spacing of 5.4 m; and 2. Using the most suitable tree species practices are carried out six times in the 2. clusters of five seedlings planted with for each site. first three years to reduce competition on a spacing between clusters of 10 m. 3. Adjusting stand density in line with planted seedlings. A release thinning is The species used for interplanting were the quality of seedlings, site conditions carried out at year 7 to remove suppressed Castanopsis fissa, Castanopsis hystrix, and management objectives. and poorly formed trees, reducing stand Erythrophleum fordii, Mglietia glauce, 4. Shifting from monocultures to mixed- density to 1 650 stems per ha. A second Mesua ferrea and Michelia hedyosperma. species plantations in line with close- thinning is conducted at year 11, reducing Each of these broadleaved species is native to-nature principles. stand density to 1 050 stems per ha. to the region and suitable for growing at the 5. Exploring effective arrangements of experimental site; Erythrophleum fordii is tree species in mixed forests to achieve The management model also a nitrogen-fixing species. optimal growth rates and tree form and With a view to moving these monocultural The plantings of high-value species were ensure efficient planting, tending and conifer plantations towards close-to-nature tended 2–3 times per year for the first three harvesting practice. forests, an experiment was conducted in years. In year 4 or 5, the high-value trees 6. Developing species mixes in Eucalyp- tus plantations involving high-value native broadleaved species to attenuate the soil degradation associated with large-scale Eucalyptus plantations. The long-term aim of the ECTF’s research is to develop multifunctional, close-to-nature forestry that ensures

1 Two approaches to intercropping high-value broadleaved species in Pinus massoniana Broadleaved species openings in a Pinus massoniana stand: in-line planting (left) and cluster planting (right)

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This Pinus massoniana plantation is in the process of converting to a close-to-nature broadleaved forest in the Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry

were pruned to remove lower lateral and dead branches and poorly formed higher branches to ensure that the young trees develop symmetrical canopies. As the plantation continues to grow, stand density is being adjusted to pro- vide an optimal growth environment for the broadleaved trees as well as for the conifer crop trees. Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata trees will © EXPERIMENTAL CENTER OF TROPICAL FORESTRY TROPICAL OF CENTER © EXPERIMENTAL be harvested selectively as they reach an appropriate size (diameter at breast height [dbh] = 40 cm), and these species will not be replanted. The high-value species will be encouraged to regenerate naturally so that, over time, the original conifer planta- tions will shift towards close-to-nature broadleaved forests.

Results Potential crop trees achieved a higher mean annual diameter increment at TABLE 2. Growth of broadleaved species planted in 15-year-old plantation lower stand densities for both Cunning- forests with differing thinning intensities (and therefore upper-storey densities), hamia lanceolata and Pinus massoniana five years after planting (although the total stock volume of these Species in Broadleaved species Thinning intensity species was reduced because of the higher upper storey rate of thinning). This finding is in accord- High* Medium Low High Medium Low ance with standard forestry practice, but it Average height (m), 2012 Average diameter (cm), 2012 is stressed here because of its importance Pinus Castanopsis hystrix 5.1 4.4 4.2 3.5 2.9 2.8 massoniana to the overall silvicultural strategy. Michelia hedyosperma 3.8 3.3 3.0 4.0 3.4 3.2 Table 2 shows that of the six native, Castanopsis fissa 9.1 8.8 8.1 8.5 8.1 7.6 high-value broadleaved species planted, Castanopsis fissa achieved the best growth Erythrophleum fordii 3.5 3.3 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.2 rates five years after planting, followed by Manglietia glauce 7.4 7.0 6.8 7.1 6.9 6.5 Manglietia glauce, Castanopsis hystrix, Mesua ferrea 1.3 1.0 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.1

Erythrophleum fordii, Michelia hedyo- Cunninghamia Castanopsis hystrix 5.6 5.0 4.5 4.1 3.6 3.0 sperma and Mesua ferrea. Castanopsis lanceolata Michelia hedyosperma 4.1 3.5 3.1 4.3 3.8 3.3 fissa, Manglietia glauce, Castanopsis hystrix and Erythrophleum fordii are Castanopsis fissa 9.4 8.9 8.3 8.8 8.5 8.0 particularly well suited to planting under Erythrophleum fordii 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.3 4.0 3.8 Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia Manglietia glauce 8.1 7.5 7.0 7.7 7.2 6.3 lanceolata. For all species, the best height Mesua ferrea 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.8 1.5 1.1

and diameter growth was achieved in * Note: “high” = high thinning intensity (225–300 residual stems per ha); medium = medium thinning intensity stands thinned at the highest intensity. (375–450 residual stems per ha); and “low” = low thinning intensity (600–750 residual stems per ha).

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TABLE 3. Changes in biodiversity, close-to-nature stands versus no treatment Upper-canopy Treatment Canopy density* Class of Biodiversity indicator species community Number of species Shannon-Wiener Pielou’s evenness index** index*** 2007 2012 2007 2012 2007 2012 2007 2012

Pinus Replacement 0.40 0.59 Trees 1.0 9.0 0 1.14 - 0.82 massoniana planting Shrubs 34.0 47.0 1.31 2.78 0.81 0.89

Herbaceous 11.0 15.0 0.86 1.46 0.78 0.70

Control 0.81 0.86 Trees 1.0 1.0 0 0 - - (i.e. no treatment) Shrubs 31.0 33.0 1.42 1.93 0.79 0.75

Herbaceous 12.0 10.0 0.91 1.29 0.66 0.72

Cunninghamia Replacement 0.35 0.56 Trees 1.0 13.0 0 1.37 - 0.76 lanceolata planting Shrubs 35.0 45.0 1.44 2.58 0.69 0.80

Herbaceous 15.0 18.0 1.12 1.82 0.81 0.79

Control 0.80 0.86 Trees 1.0 1.0 0 0 - - (i.e. no treatment) Shrubs 34.0 33.0 1.53 2.01 0.74 0.74

Herbaceous 12.0 12.0 1.07 1.51 0.66 0.73

* Canopy density is the percentage of forest floor covered by the tree canopy, viewed from above. ** The Shannon-Wiener index increases as the richness and evenness of an ecological community increase, where evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of species. *** Pielou’s evenness index is another indicator of species’ evenness. The closer this index is to 1, the more even the number of individuals of the different species.

Benefits biodiversity, large mature trees and little mixed forest community comprising The amended thinning regimes help human interference. As China’s population small monocultural blocks (“patches”) ensure that the planted Pinus masso- increased and human activity expanded, had been established at the demon- niana and Cunninghamia lanceolata however, most of this primary forest was stration site. trees remain healthy and grow at an encroached upon and became degraded. 2. Promote close-to-nature restoration optimal rate. A focus on potential crop Seriously degraded forests typically (since 2002). The pioneer tree species trees means that those trees will achieve lack climax and subclimax tree species. used in the first phase were mostly a harvestable size earlier than under the Therefore there are no natural seed sources incapable of forming subtropical traditional thinning regime, bringing the for these species and little prospect of climax forest. In addition, the single- economic benefits forward. In the longer developing climax and subclimax com- species patches had low biodiversity term, the high-value broadleaved spe- munities through natural regeneration or and were unable to provide high- cies are expected to increase the value recreating primary forests through natural quality environmental services. of the forest and yield high-value timbers, succession. Therefore, a close-to-nature restoration whose processing into furniture and other The ECTF has been investigating the method was applied to prune trees and high-value products is likely to generate restoration and rehabilitation of seriously thin the single-species patches created significant employment. degraded subtropical forest ecosystems in the first phase. In the spaces under Table 3 shows that, by a range of meas- since 1979. This research has been carried the canopies created by these meas- ures, replacement planting increased out at a 173-ha demonstration site in two ures, climax and subclimax, long-lived, floral biodiversity substantially in both phases: shade-tolerant tree species – such as Cunninghamia lanceolata and Pinus 1. Establish forest plant communities Aquilaria sinensis, Castanopsis hys- massoniana plantations between 2007 (1979–1986). The main activity in trix, Parashorea chinensis, Phoebe and 2012. this phase was to introduce more bournei and Pterocarpus indicus than 30 indigenous – were planted. In this way, single- C Ase STUDY 2: RESTORING to the demonstration site; they were stratum forests were transformed into DEGRADED FOREST LAND then out-planted in various arrange- mixed-species, uneven-aged forests, Much of the land in southern China ments according to their physiology with a development trajectory towards was once dense primary forest with rich and microsite conditions. By 1986, a climax forest.

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The basis for the restoration approach is spatially. A diversity of niches can of the pioneer species at a density of 4 m × set out below:1 facilitate increases in biodiversity over 5 m (450–600 seedlings per ha), evenly • Dominant abiotic factors. The ecologi- time and increase the productivity and or randomly spaced, depending on spe- cal environment in China’s subtropics functionality of the ecosystem. cies’ configurations and proportions. is complex and composed of hetero- • Restoration ecology. Restoration Suitable species for this interplanting genic microsites with many varying ecology supports the adoption of include Manglietia hainanensis, Mesua abiotic factors, such as those related techniques and methods to initi- ferrea, Michelia macclurei, Paramichelia to climate, aspect, slope, soils and site ate or accelerate the recovery of an baillonii and Tectona grandis. The shade- history. The adaptive capacity of tree ecosystem with respect to its health, tolerant species are planted in holes 0.6 m × species also differs, requiring that integrity and sustainability. 0.6 m × 0.35 m deep; the newly planted tree species are selected carefully in seedlings are tended for the first three light of the abiotic factors that will Restoration practice years, as in the method described above apply during the restoration process The restoration technique now employed at for the pioneer species. After the first three (i.e. site-specific reforestation). the experimental site – having been revised years they are allowed to grow naturally, • . Ecological over time in the light of experience – is with no interventions. succession may be defined as the pro- described in general terms below: Proposed future management regime. gressive change in species composition Planting. The initial planting density A selective cutting regime will be applied and forest structure caused by nat- is 2 m × 2 m using 1-year-old bare-root to the forest as the trees mature. At year ural processes over time (ITTO, 2002). seedlings of the pioneer species Mytilaria 40–50, trees with a dbh of 50 cm or Ecological degradation, on the other laosensis, Castanopsis hystrix and Betula greater will be harvested. Care is needed hand, is the retrogressive succession of alnoides, planted into holes 0.6 m × 0.6 m × to minimize damage to the stand during an ecosystem that has been disrupted 0.35 m deep in small monocultural patches. harvesting – a cable yarding system tested and damaged, leading to changes Seedlings are planted in spring, ideally on in the experimental forest in 2012 caused in ecosystem structure, the loss of cloudy days after rain. little damage to the remaining trees. After ecological functions, and disruptive Tending. Tending involves clearing the first selective harvesting, there will be interspecific relations. Restoration competing vegetation from around the no more plantings. Natural regeneration aims to ensure that the ecosystem has seedlings (to a radius of 0.8–1.0 m), with will emerge through the gaps created by sufficient resilience to self-repair in the cut weeds then acting as mulch to harvesting and become the new generation the face of disturbances. Therefore, retain soil moisture, reduce the growth of of canopy trees, to be managed as potential the ECTF restoration approach aims new weeds and provide nutrition as they crop trees. Thus, a semi-natural forest will to use ecological succession to recre- decompose; the soil is also loosened to be created, with the potential for sustain- ate the original ecosystem structure. encourage water infiltration. Seedlings able management. • Niche-based theory of community are tended twice a year (in March/April assemblages. A species occupies a and July/August) for the first three years, Current status certain multidimensional space in an although some sites with a high density After 30 years, the biodiversity at the ecosystem; the sum of the various envi- of competing vegetation may require experimental site has increased and diverse ronmental conditions and resources additional tending (in September/October). plant communities have formed. The aver- required by a species is called its niche, The site is tended again in year 8 to age dbh of 30-year-old trees is 28–35 cm, with the size of the niche reflecting remove vines, dead wood and withered, average height is 18–25 m and the standing the genetic, biological and ecological damaged or sick trees. A first thinning is volume is 420–625 m3 per ha. Average attributes of the population. In for- conducted at year 10 to remove 40 percent annual dbh increment is 1.1 cm and average est restoration, it is preferable to use of the pioneer tree stock. At year 15, a annual height increment is 0.8 m. tree species with differing niches to second thinning is conducted to remove The forest has developed into a natural avoid direct competition and to cre- 50 percent of the remaining trees. A third succession state and forest trees are regen- ate plant communities that occupy thinning is conducted at year 20; depend- erating naturally – especially Castanopsis different strata, both temporally and ing on the attributes of the various tree hystrix, Erythrophleum fordii, Michelia species, the intensity of this thinning could macclurei and Mytilaria laosensis. In 2012, 1 The discussion in this section is derived from be 50–70 percent, to achieve a final density naturally established Castanopsis hystrix various sources, including ECTF research. It pro- of 300–375 trees per ha. seedlings, for example, were present at the vides a general overview of the ECTF approach to the restoration of degraded subtropical forests At year 20, high-value shade-tolerant tree site at a density of about four seedlings but is not meant to be comprehensive. species are interplanted in the understorey per m2 and a height of 0.25–1.50 m.

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Naturally established Mytilaria laosensis and to build ecological resilience by seedlings were present at a density of five encouraging diversity – in the number seedlings per m2 and a height of 0.2–2.5 m. of species, in forest structure, and across This forest restoration approach, therefore, landscapes. Over time, close-to-nature References is facilitating an increase in biodiversity forestry improves ecological functions, and helping to stabilize the ecosystem, reduces soil erosion, and improves water FAO . 2010. Global forest resources assessment. restore environmental services and improve quality and the scenic value of landscapes. Main report. FAO Forestry Paper No. 163. forest productivity and economic value. More research is required into costs and Rome. It has become a leading example of the benefits to ensure that the approach meets ITTO. 2002. Guidelines for the restoration, restoration of degraded natural forests in economic goals. The signs are positive, management and rehabilitation of degraded China’s subtropics. however, given the very high prices that and secondary tropical forests. International can be obtained for the species being Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama, CN O CLusion grown and the potential for conducting a Japan. The scale of China’s forest plantation pro- wide range of income-generating activities K üchli, C. 2013. The Swiss experience in forest gramme is unprecedented globally. Despite in the growing forests. sustainability and adaptation. Unasylva, the programme’s overall success, however, The experimental designs described in 64(240): 12–16. it is clear that China’s new forests face this article, and other designs (including S tate Forestry Administration. 2014. Eighth significant challenges. Growing trees in those for Eucalyptus plantations) offer a national . Beijing, China. monocultures may be a financially efficient potential means for transforming China’s Y, u X., Bai,X., Xu, D. & Chai, J. 1999. Nutrient way of producing wood, but such planta- vast monocultural plantations into close- cycle of Eucalyptus plantations with differ- tions are vulnerable to pests, diseases and to-nature forests that provide economic ent continuous-planting rotations. Chinese changing environmental conditions, and returns and ultimately create a very- Journal of Tropical Crops, 20(3): 60–66. second and subsequent generations often high-value resource. Encouraged by the A comprehensive account of the ECTF’s decline in productivity. There is an urgent ECTF’s success, all twelve major forest close-to-nature experimental designs was pub- need to find more sustainable approaches experimental centres in China are now lished recently by the Asia–Pacific Network that ensure the long-term productivity and pursuing similar research with the aim of for Sustainable Forest Management and resilience of the new forests while also developing close-to-nature forestry to suit Rehabilitation. u meeting economic, social and environ- conditions in other biogeographic regions mental needs. and landscapes in China. The ECTF’s

Close-to-nature forestry makes strong approach could also be applied elsewhere After 30 years of restoration, degraded land environmental sense. It aims to use natural in tropical and subtropical Asia. u is covered by various broadleaved species processes to the greatest extent possible planted in patches at the Baiyun Forest Farm, Experimental Center of Tropical Forestry © EXPERIMENTAL CENTER OF TROPICAL FORESTRY

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Forest landscape restoration experiences in southern Europe: sustainable techniques for enhancing early tree performance

J. Coello, J. Cortina, A. Valdecantos and E. Varela

It is crucial to raise awareness T he southern European exceptional levels of plant endemism and about the goods and services context serious habitat loss, and which therefore that forests provide, and the risks outhern Europe is a region of great merits significant conservation efforts. that they face in an increasingly ecological variety, with 13 out of a A distinctive feature of southern Europe harsh climate, in order to total of 21 European bioclimates is its Mediterranean climate, with mild wet boost support for restoration S(Rivas-Martínez et al., 2004), owing to and hot dry . Another key programmes in southern Europe. its combination of a wide range of physi- feature of this area is its history of intense cal conditions, uneven relief and complex human activity, spanning millennia. The Jaime Coello is Forest Engineer and Researcher, land-use history (Vallejo et al., 2012a).1 resulting cultural landscapes are rich but Sustainable Forest Management Unit, Forest Sciences Centre of Catalonia (CTFC), Spain. The Mediterranean area, in which southern have been subjected to episodes of major Jordi Cortina is Professor, Department of Ecology Europe is situated, is one of the world’s environmental degradation, mainly due to and Multidisciplinary Institute for Environmental 25 biodiversity hotspots (Palahí et al., the conversion of forests for agriculture Studies, University of Alicante, Spain. Alejandro Valdecantos is Senior Researcher, 2008), i.e. an area characterized by both or grazing land and the Fundación Centro de Estudios Ambientales del Mediterráneo (CEAM), Valencia, Spain. 1 For the purposes of this article, southern Europe Elsa Varela is Researcher, Mediterranean is considered to refer to the Mediterranean areas Above: Aleppo pine planted Regional Office of the European Forest of the Balkans, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain and with soil conditioner and yute Institute (EFIMED), Barcelona, Spain. Turkey, as defined by Vallejo et al. (2012a). mulch in semiarid conditions

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of forest resources. This has been further in coastal regions (Grove and Rackham, or restoration plans. This also results in exacerbated by the slow recovery rate of 2003). These changes and this increase in unintended negative effects, including ecosystems, linked to limited and uneven wealth come at a cost: the Mediterranean increased fire risk leading to market- water availability as well as to natural region, especially southern Europe, has able (e.g. forest products, infrastructure) and human-induced forest fires. These an important ecological deficit, i.e. the and non-marketable (e.g. biodiversity, factors have resulted in predominantly difference between the ecological footprint landscape quality) losses, and a larger low profitability from the management of consumption (area of biologically produc- dependence on non-renewable materials. these ecosystems and a lack of commercial tive land and water required to produce interest in their restoration, which tends to the goods consumed and to assimilate the F orest landscape restoration rely on funding from public and non-profit waste generated) and the real capacity of in southern Europe organizations. these ecosystems. This imbalance rose by Forest landscape restoration (FLR) is Over the past decades, land use has 230 percent between 1961 and 2008 (GFN, a planned process that aims to regain become polarized. The least productive 2012). The combined impact of these ecological integrity and enhance human and hardest-to-access areas have wit- pressures has led to severe environmental well-being in deforested or degraded forest nessed the abandonment of agricultural, degradation at local levels and continuous landscapes (WWF and IUCN, 2000). This livestock and forestry uses. As a result, or seasonal overuse of resources, notably approach has been identified as an ideal the traditional mosaic pattern of land use water (Daliakopoulos and Tsanis, 2013). basis for the management of Mediterranean is being replaced by more homogeneous The forests in southern Europe are widely terrestrial ecosystems, due to its focus on landscapes, where forest vegetation rapidly recognized for their multifunctionality in the restoration of landscape functionality, colonizes abandoned fields. Between 1990 terms of the production of goods (i.e. tim- its holistic approach, and its combination and 2000, Spain, Italy and France showed ber, biomass, cork, edible nuts, medicinal of production- and conservation-related an annual net gain in forest area of 2.1, and aromatic plants, honey, game, resin) objectives (Soutsas et al., 2004). 1.0 and 0.6 percent respectively, ranking and services (i.e. hydrological regulation, As mentioned above, southern Europe them among the ten countries in the world water quality, soil and biodiversity pro- has witnessed a significant increase in for- with the highest increase in forest surface tection, recreation, landscape). Different est area since the 1990s, often linked to the area (FAO, 2010). Most of the resulting studies have estimated that non-wood abandonment of agriculture and grazing ecosystems are structurally imbalanced forest products (NWFP) account for more and the resulting colonization of open (most trees being of the same age) and than 40 percent of the total economic areas or encroachment of forest areas with overly dense (growth halted due to com- value of forests in the Mediterranean sparse vegetation (Abraham et al., 2014). petition), and show low vigour and poor areas (Merlo and Croitoru, 2005). In However, reforestation and afforestation regeneration capacity, which results in low addition, growing demand for amenities initiatives have also contributed to this resilience when faced with disturbances. and social services, and recognition of increase. Two countries on the northern rim On the other hand, easily accessible areas forests’ role in the protection of water and of the Mediterranean (Turkey and Spain) and lowlands have seen a significant inten- soil, demonstrates the importance of the rank among the top ten countries of the sification of uses, boosted by economic non-market dimension of forests, and could world for afforested area, with 87 300 and development and European Union (EU) boost the valorization of those ecosystems, 30 461 ha yr-1, respectively in 2003–2007 support in the last three decades. Many promoting their conservation. (FAO, 2010). The most common types of traditionally poor regions have launched The type of forest ownership has FLR initiatives in the last decades have programmes to support agricultural important implications for the use and been linked to restoration after forest fires, intensification (such as irrigation and conservation of these forests. In southern prevention of land degradation, combating greenhouses) and livestock production, Europe, more than 60 percent of forests desertification, and the afforestation of and southern EU countries are now the (98 percent in the case of Portugal [FAO, former agricultural land. primary suppliers of fruit and horticultural 2010]) are privately owned (FOREST Restoration after forest fires has been products to central and northern Europe EUROPE, UNECE and FAO, 2011) with particularly relevant in Portugal and Spain, (EU, 2014). Other activities that have very fragmented estates, e.g. in Portugal, where burned area represented 45 percent expanded over recent years include hous- 85 percent of forest holdings are smaller of the total area affected by forest fires in ing development and tourism, which have than 5 ha (FOREST EUROPE, UNECE Europe in 1960–2000 (Schelhaas et al., become major economic pillars for most and FAO, 2011). The lack of economic 2003); the trend continued in the following southern European regions. The popula- profitability and of targeted incentives to decade, with 2 million ha burned only in tion in southern Europe is increasingly promote active ownership makes it dif- Portugal between 2000 and 2013 (Schmuck concentrated in urban areas, especially ficult to set up shared forest management et al., 2014). Greece and the western

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Balkan countries have also suffered from Finally, afforestation of agricultural land southern European countries has been severe forest fires in the past decades. has been the main type of forest restoration particularly limited since the beginning Land degradation is a common problem carried out in the southernmost countries of the economic crisis, which has had a in most southern European areas, being (Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain) of the major impact on the economies of these especially relevant in those with limited EU since the implementation of the EU’s countries and, in turn, on the implementa- water availability, as a result of their slow Common Agricultural Policy measures tion of large-scale restoration projects. recovery rates, whether due to natural (1992–1999) and other EU rural develop- At present, many reforestation activities, phenomena – such as low rainfall and ment policies (from 2000 onwards). generally on a small scale, are performed high evapotranspiration rates – or human The main factors that will shape FLR with the financial and logistical support of causes – such as overuse of opportunities in southern Europe in the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) resources and salinization from improper short and medium term concern financial and volunteers. agricultural techniques (Gunal, 2014). constraints, climate change and EU envi- The Mediterranean basin is regarded as Countries such as Turkey and Spain ronmental and research policies. one of the areas most vulnerable to climate have launched long-term programmes As mentioned before, the funding of FLR change (IPCC, 2007a, 2007b; Regato, for combating desertification, such activities in southern Europe cannot rely 2008; Vayreda et al., 2012). This includes as, respectively, the Eastern Anatolia solely on economic returns on invest- a rise in temperature, together with a Watershed Rehabilitation Project ment, but depends instead on ecosystem decrease in precipitation and shifts in its since 1993 (Cevik et al., 1999) and the services that are often non-marketable. seasonal distribution, and more frequent LUCDEME Project (LUCha contra la Thus, public investment may be essential DEsertificación en el MEditerráneo) since to ensure the implementation of FLR. The Ecosystem degradation after 1981 (MAGRAMA, 2015). availability of national funds in most human-induced forest fires, Sierra de Chiva, Valencia, Spain DY © A n M c G e eney

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Forest landscape restoration on marginal agricultural land, Avinyo, Barcelona, Spain © AGS-CTFC

extreme events (torrential and restoration in the EU”, which represents Main constraints for FLR in southern droughts). This may dramatically affect an opportunity to move forward in the Europe the provision of goods and services from prioritization of target systems using The most relevant constraints for FLR in forest ecosystems, including the regulation landscape restoration’s holistic approach. southern Europe include socioeconomic, of the water cycle, carbon storage, delivery Another major EU programme related to biotic and abiotic factors: of wood and non-wood products and a wide FLR is the commitment to restore, by 2020, Economic: The predominantly poor range of other services in the medium and 15 percent of degraded land in Europe, an cost–benefit ratio of FLR (in economic long term (FAO, 2013). Overall, climate initiative launched by the UN’s Convention terms) makes it largely dependent on public change is likely to reduce the ability of on Biological Diversity (CBD).2 funding, whose main aim for FLR is the pro- Mediterranean forests to withstand dis- vision of ecosystem services (Vallejo et al., turbances such as increased frequency and T echnical approach to FLR 2012b). The main economic constraints are: severity of pathogen outbreaks, in southern Europe • low productivity, which discourages and drought (FOREST EUROPE, UNECE The technical approach to FLR in southern private initiative; and FAO, 2011). The mainstreaming of the Europe is based on specific constraints. • difficult access: it may be expensive need for climate change action, including to mechanize interventions, e.g. in mitigation policies and initiatives at all the case of steep slopes, sparse and/ 2 levels, represents a significant opportunity According to the CBD definition, “A degraded or low-quality road networks; forest is a secondary forest that has lost, through for the development and implementation of human activities, the structure, function, species • relatively high labour costs com- further FLR initiatives in southern Europe. composition or productivity normally associated pared to the southern rim of the Finally, the EU’s environmental and with a natural forest type expected on that site. Mediterranean basin. Hence, a degraded forest delivers a reduced sup- research policies pay special attention ply of goods and services from the given site Social: Infrequent social involvement to climate-related issues for the period and maintains only limited biological diversity. in FLR (definition of targets, support to 2014–2020. In the case of FLR, there is Biological diversity of degraded forests includes implementation and monitoring), which many non-tree components, which may dominate a specific funding call in Horizon 2020 in the undercanopy vegetation.” (https://www. limits the opportunities for implementing under the topic “More effective ecosystem cbd.int/forest/definitions.shtml) FLR close to populated areas.

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TABLE 1. Main techniques applied to promote the successful establishment Availability of soil resources, including of trees and shrubs within FLR in southern Europe water: Low annual precipitation levels may Techniques for increasing water and soil availability (especially relevant at drier sites) conceal high year-on-year and seasonal Action Technique Description variability, with drought often followed by Soil Water harvesting Modify soil profile in the area around the tree to promote runoff preparation concentration and storage: it can be complemented by an torrential rain. This climate regime affects impermeable area to concentrate runoff and/or a highly permeable vegetation directly, because of water short- area (column of stones or dry well) immediately upslope of the seedling to enhance water infiltration age, resulting in loss of growth and vigour Deep/large Deep soil preparation (soil ripping, pit excavation: 60–90 cm) and consequent risk of death. Moreover, plantation pits for enhancing water retention and promoting root growth Watering Irrigation with water Application of water from deposits, water wagons or reservoirs, there are indirect effects on the ecosystem: wagons/drippers directly on the plant or through partially buried tubes fire risk and slow soil develop- Adapted/ Use of well-adapted Native species from local provenances; seedlings of good improved planting stock physiological and genetic quality ment, which is affected by erosion and by forest Mycorrhized Use of seedlings incorporating a specifically chosen the poor rate of accumu- repro- seedlings mycorrhizal (plant and fungi) association that fosters water lation. The resulting soils, predominantly ductive and nutrient uptake material/ stock and thin, have poor fertility (Pausas et al., 2004) techniques Promotion of Use of a variety of species with different characteristics functional (sprouters and seeders, deep-rooters and shallow-rooters, and low water-retention capacity. This fac- diversity N-fixing species) tor is especially critical in areas with low Direct sowing Use of seeds instead of seedlings to reduce costs precipitation and negative physiography Optimization of Planting and sowing when moisture availability and planting/sowing temperature are optimal for plant growth (e.g. steep slope or convex shape). time Competing vegetation: Spontaneous and Soil fertility Soil conditioners Granulated product mixed with the soil in the plantation pit, ameliora- with hydro- absorbing the excess of water after rain, retaining it and often unwanted grasses may compete with tion absorbent releasing it progressively; other ingredients of the soil the desired (i.e. planted or sown) vegetation polymers conditioner include fertilizers and root-growth stimulators Soil fertilizers Enhancing soil fertility with slow-release fertilizers and organic for water, light and nutrients, ultimately and amendments amendments hampering their survival and growth FLR imple- Working scale: Implementing FLR in optimal microsites, such as those accumulating mentation, microsite runoff water. In drylands, it may be beneficial to plant near (Willoughby et al., 2009). Competition may considering pre-existing nurse plants, i.e. herbs or shrubs that be especially intense at the wettest sites. microsite can protect the seedling against excessive radiation, conditions nutrient scarcity and predation during the first years Browsing damage: Domestic and wild Techniques to control competing vegetation (especially relevant at wet sites) may compromise the success Action Technique Description of sowing or planting and in turn the Chemical Application of herbicides to suppress weeds, provided that no weeding environmental or legal constraints apply; recurrent intervention survival and growth of the resulting vege- Mechanical Mechanical Manual or tractor-operated weeding; recurrent intervention with tation. Growing populations of deer, roe weeding weeding the risk of damaging the installed trees or shrubs deer and wild boar in the wettest areas Mulching Plastic film Flexible sheet or mat installed in the soil around the tree to suppress mulching competing vegetation; one-time application, effective (Van Lerberghe, 2014) and of rabbit and to increase soil water retention; requires removal hare in drier ones represent a major chal- Biodegradable Biodegradable cover (bioplastic, plant fibre); outcomes similar to plastic film mulching films, higher purchase cost but the cover does not require removal lenge for sustainable FLR. Particle mulching Mulching soil with a layer of organic (agricultural or forest waste: Local limitations: Specific areas may straw, chips …) or inorganic (stones) pieces. Similar effect to film mulches, with the possibility of recovering organic waste present additional limitations, e.g. thin soils, Living mulch Seeding the soil around the tree with desired species, avoiding the a high proportion of soil volume consist- spontaneous establishment of weeds; requires good knowledge of site, plant ecology and plant–plant interactions ing of stones and rocks, high carbonate or Silvicultural High density Utilization of high initial sowing or planting densities, active limestone content, or alkaline soils. techniques preferably of a range of species, to promote early canopy closure; self-maintaining technique, suitable in rich sites Techniques against browsing damage FLR solutions in southern Europe Action Technique Description Experience with FLR in southern Europe Areal Fence Closing the perimeter with a physical barrier, made of metal has enabled the development of a range of protection mesh or with lines plugged to an electricity generator Chemical Commercial or homemade repellents that can have a chemical technical solutions to promote the success- repellent function (e.g. human hair), recurrently applied ful establishment of trees and shrubs and Individual Solid-walled Shelter (preferably ventilated) with greenhouse effect: higher maximum favour their survival and resilience. The protection shelter temperature, lower irradiance and exposure to desiccating wind Meshed shelter Cylinder-shaped mesh, with low or negligible greenhouse effect to most common techniques used to over- avoid excessive seedling slenderness and heat damage come the biotic and abiotic constraints Silvicultural Hiding/repelling Preferably in high plantation densities: utilize species that limit techniques species the access of wildlife (thorny, unpalatable) mentioned above, which are particularly Sources: Mansourian et al., 2005; Chirino et al., 2009; Coello et al., 2009; Oliet and Jacobs, 2012; Vallejo et al., critical during the first years of the restora- 2012b; Piñeiro et al., 2013; Stanturf et al., 2014. tion, are shown in Table 1.

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A pplication and development These techniques are evaluated, individu- (SMEs) developing novel techniques of innovative FLR techniques ally and in combination, and are compared (DTC, EcoRub, La Zeloise, TerraCottem Two relevant forest restoration initiatives to reference techniques (i.e. commercial Internacional), two SMEs commercial- in southern Europe are presented below. soil conditioner, plastic mulching and izing FLR products (Terrezu, Ceres application) in eight field trials International) and four research and Bridging effectiveness and distributed across a range of climatic development (R&D) centres (CTFC – sustainability in afforestation/ conditions in northeastern Spain, rep- project coordinator, Centre national de la reforestation in a climate change resentative of the main bioclimates in recherche scientifique (CNRS), Centexbel context: new technologies for southern Europe: semiarid (BS – Steppe and Edma Innova). improving soil features and plant climate cold, according to the Köppen The preliminary results, after two years performance (SustAffor Project climate classification), Mediterranean of field experience, suggest that innova- [FP7-2013-SME-606554]), 2013–2015 continental (Csb – Temperate, dry mild tive soil conditioners have a significantly The project’s main objective is to con- ), Mediterranean humid (Cfb – positive impact at the sites characterized ceive, produce, develop and validate in the Maritime temperate), and montane (Cfc/ by poor soils, with low water and nutrient field novel techniques that aim to improve Dfb – Temperate/Continental). The field retention capacity (semiarid and montane). afforestation/reforestation projects from an trials in semiarid (with Aleppo pine, Mulching, either with innovative or tradi- environmental, technical and economic Pinus halepensis) and montane (with tional materials, is an excellent option for point of view, and to explore the synergies ash – Fraxinus excelsior and birch – extensive management of forest planta- between them, in a wide range of ecologi- Betula pendula) conditions represented tions at productive sites (Mediterranean cal conditions representative of southern typical protective forest restoration inter- continental and humid). Europe. These novel techniques include: ventions promoted by public entities in • A new generation of soil condition- steep-sloped, hard-to-access areas. Field Albatera demonstration project ers, including a new hydro-absorbent trials in Mediterranean continental and Demonstration projects implement polymer in an improved mixture. humid conditions consist of productive techniques that have proven successful The aim is to diminish post-planting plantations and are commonly carried in small-scale experiments and pilot stress and to increase soil water out by private actors in the framework of projects, and are an excellent tool for availability during dry periods. afforestation of small agricultural fields: disseminating best practices. A demon- • Innovative mulching products: species include hybrid walnut (Juglans x stration project for restoring degraded (i) fully biodegradable framed intermedia) for valuable timber production, semiarid areas was established in the bioplastic mulch, based on a new holm oak (Quercus ilex) with mycorrhizal Sierra de Albatera, southeastern Spain, biopolymer formula, fused to a inoculation of black truffle Tuber( melano- in 2002, based on collaboration between flexible bioplastic sheet; (ii) fully sporum), and stone pine (Pinus pinea) for public administrations (Dirección General biodegradable semi-rigid bioplastic nut production. de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, mulch, based on a new biopolymer The effects of the different techniques, Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación formula; (iii) fully biodegradable alone and combined, in a total of 17 treat- y Medio Ambiente; Conselleria de mulch made with woven jute cloth, ments per field trial, were assessed at three Infraestructuras, Territorio y Medio treated with furan bio-based resin levels: Ambiente, Generalitat Valenciana), for increased durability; and (iv) a • tree: survival, diameter and height CEAM, the University of Alicante and long-lasting mulching mat, based growth, physiology (water-related the Centro de Investigaciones sobre on recycled rubber (worn-out variables) and biomass allometry Desertificación (CSIC-CIDE) (Vilagrosa tyres, conveyor belts), reusable in (above-ground and below-ground); et al., 2008). successive tree planting projects. • soil: effects of the trees on the most The area concerned is highly vulner- The biodegradable mulches are important parameters related to soil able to desertification due to its semiarid intended to become an alternative fertility and biochemical changes in climate, with scarce but torrential rainfall to plastic mulching, being more soil organic matter; and high summer temperatures, the pres- environmentally friendly and not • environmental conditions at ence of highly erodible soils and rough requiring removal. The long-lasting micro-site level: soil moisture and topography. This vulnerability is also a rubber mulch aims to re-use indus- temperature. result of its land-use history, including trial waste, a promising technique, The project consortium is composed of intensive harvesting for fuelwood and especially for restoration in urban ten entities from four countries, includ- fibre, and grazing. After abandonment, environments. ing four small and medium enterprises in the mid-twentieth century, spontaneous

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recovery was scarce, and the planting of 2. selection of different sets of autoch- semiáridos degradados y su relación con Pinus halepensis often met with limited thonous woody species suited to each las actividades de reforestación] and success. Terraces aimed at improving pine unit, maximizing their capacity for PRACTICE [Prevention and Restoration establishment often had the opposite effect, protecting the soil and recovering after Actions to Combat Desertification. An as they frequently reduced fertility, disturbance; Integrated Assessment]). and, despite concentrating runoff, led to 3. use of high-quality seedlings adapted further sediment transport and erosion. to harsh environmental conditions; Con clusions and lessons Large areas of the 25-ha catchment were 4. application of best planting techniques, learned severely disturbed by a water pipe and a adapted to each unit, including deep FLR is expected to continue to be funda- dense network of unpaved roads. planting holes, micro-watersheds to mental for restoring degraded ecosystems After an initial diagnosis, the project concentrate runoff, organic amend- and ensuring the provision of crucial ser- identified four major objectives: (1) to ments, organic and stone mulches, and vices in southern Europe. Because of the reinstate catchment functionality by estab- tree shelters; generally slow dynamics of ecosystems, lishing vegetation patches and restoring 5. implementation of an efficient evalu- and their level of human intervention, their key role in water, carbon, sediment ation and monitoring plan. active restoration is expected to be the and nutrient cycles, and facilitating their The project was successful, as it allowed preferred approach. positive impact on community assembly the establishment of key woody species The low commercial interest in FLR in (arrival of new species in the ecosystem); in the area, responding to the original southern Europe makes it necessary to (2) to increase biodiversity, and resistance objectives, and facilitated the dissemi- identify innovative funding mechanisms, and resilience to future disturbances and nation of good restoration practices. building on social concern about the sources of stress; and (3) to prevent further Guided visits have been conducted for importance of preventing land degradation. site degradation by reducing the risk of over 500 visitors, including practitioners, In the framework of current and future erosion and downstream flooding. postgraduate students, researchers and challenges, notably climate change and the In accordance with the diagnosis and lecturers from dryland areas worldwide. associated increased severity of drought the objectives defined above, five strategic Project design and results have been the and fires, the ongoing experimental field areas were identified: subject of numerous lectures, conferences trials in southern Europe will serve as a 1. a detailed examination of the current and workshops. In addition, the area has fundamental infrastructure to pilot the situation and potentialities, including been used for further research projects migration of techniques from drier areas the spatial definition of uniform inter- (e.g. FUNDIVFOR [Interacciones entre to wetter areas, both within and beyond vention units; funcionalidad y diversidad en ecosistemas the region.

Shrub restoration, decantos water harvesting al

V and multiple seedling planting in semiarid conditions,

lejandro Sierra de Albatera,

© A © Alicante, Spain

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Forest landscape restoration on agricultural land, Pontos, Girona, Spain © AGS-CTFC ©

Due to uncertainty regarding future Acknowledgements Cevik, B., Cetin, M. & Kusek, G. 1999. Eastern environmental conditions and the long The research leading to the Sustaffor Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project. lifespan of FLR projects, a conservative results received funding from the EU’s Paper presented at the 9th International and adaptive management approach is Seventh Framework Programme man- Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference. recommended. Techniques for successful aged by the REA-Research Executive Petrolina, Brazil. FLR in southern Europe should be: Agency http://ec.europa.eu/research/rea Chirino, E., Vilagrosa, A., Cortina, J., • cost-effective throughout the full (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement Valdecantos, A., Fuentes, D., Trubat, R., life cycle (production, transport, no. 606554. Luis, V.C., Puértolas, J., Bautista, S., Baeza, installation/execution/application, J. Cortina’s research is funded by the M.J., Peñuelas, J.L. & Vallejo, R. 2009. disposal) and requiring minimal project UNCROACH (Spanish Ministry Ecological restoration in degraded drylands: labour investment; of Science and Innovation): CGL2011- the need to improve the seedling quality and • resilient: effective in the short and 30581-C02-01. u site conditions in the field.In S.P. Grossberg, medium term and applicable in a eds. Forest Management, pp. 85–158. Haup- range of conditions; self-sustained page, NY, USA, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. and in synergy with natural pro- Coello, J., Piqué, M. & Vericat, P. 2009. cesses and with other restoration Producció de fusta de qualitat: plantacions techniques; de noguera i cirerer: aproximació a les con- • environmentally friendly: respectful dicions catalanes – guia pràctica. Barcelona of the environment during the whole Generalitat de Catalunya, Departament de life cycle. References Medi Ambient i Habitatge, Centre de la Research and knowledge transfer are Propietat Forestal. fundamental steps in the development and A braham, E.M., Evelpidou, N. & Daliakopoulos, I.N. & Tsanis, I.K. 2013. application of best practices and for raising Kyriazopoulos, A. 2014. The present Historical evolution of dryland ecosystems. social awareness about the importance state of restoration in Greece. Desert CASCADE Project Deliverable 2.1. Cascade of FLR. Restoration Hub, ES1104 Action COST, Reports series. Crete, Greece, Technical 5th MC Meeting. Timisoara, Romania. University of Greece.

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EU. 2014. Eurostat regional yearbook 2014. to restoring tree cover at the site level. In S tanturf, J.A., Palik, B.J. & Dumroese, R.K. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the S. Mansourian, D. Vallauri and N. Dudley, 2014. Contemporary forest restoration: A European Union (available at http://ec.europa. eds. Forest restoration in landscapes: beyond review emphasizing function. Forest Ecology eu/eurostat/documents/3217494/5785629/ planting trees. New York, USA, Springer and Management, 331: 292–323. KS-HA-14-001-EN.PDF/e3ae3b5c-b104- (in cooperation with WWF International). Vallejo, R., Allen, E.B., Aronson, J., 47e9-ab80-36447537ea64). Merlo, M. & Croitoru, L. 2005. Valuing Medi- P ausas, J.G., Cortina, J. & Gutiérrez, J.R. FAO . 2010. Global Forest Resources terranean forests. Towards a total economic 2012a. Restoration of Mediterranean-type Assessment: Main Report. FAO Forestry value. Wallingford, UK, CABI International. woodlands and shrublands. In J. van Andel Paper No. 163. Rome. O liet, J. & Jacobs, D.F. 2012. Restoring & J. Aronson, eds. Restoration ecology: FAO. 2013. State of Mediterranean Forests. forests: advances in techniques and theory. the new frontier, pp. 193–207. Oxford, Rome. New Forests, 43(5): 535–541. Wiley-Blackwell. FOREST EUROPE, UNECE & FAO. 2011. P alahí, M., Mavsar, R., Gracia, C. & Birot, Y. Vallejo, R., Smanis, A., Chirino, E., State of Europe’s Forests 2011. Status and 2008. Mediterranean forests under focus. Fuentes, D., Valdecantos, A. & trends in sustainable forest management in International Forestry Review, 10(4): Vilagrosa, A. 2012b. Perspectives in dryland Europe. Aas, Norway, FOREST EUROPE, 676–688. restoration: approaches for climate change UNECE & FAO. P ausas, J.G., Blade, C., Valdecantos, A., adaptation. New Forests 43(5): 561–579. GN F (Global Footprint Network). 2012. Seva, J.P., Fuentes, D., Alloza, J.A., Van Lerberghe, P. 2014. Technical guide: Mediterranean Ecological Footprint trends. Vilagrosa, A., Bautista, S., Cortina, J. protecting trees against browsing damage – Châtelaine, Switzerland, GFN (available at & Vallejo, R. 2004. Pines and oaks in the Mesh-walled tree shelters. Paris, CNPF-IDF. http://www.footprintnetwork.org/images/ restoration of Mediterranean landscapes of Vayreda, J., Martinez-Vilalta, J., Gracia, M. article_uploads/Mediterranean_report_ Spain: New perspectives for an old practice – & Retana, J. 2012. Recent climate changes FINAL.pdf). a review. Plant Ecology, 171(1): 209–220. interact with stand structure and management Grove, A.T. & Rackham, O. 2003. The nature Piñeiro, J., Maestre, F.T., Bartolomé, L. & to determine changes in tree carbon stocks of Mediterranean Europe. An ecological Valdecantos, A. 2013. Ecotechnology as a in Spanish forests. Global Change Biology, history. New Haven, Conn., USA, Yale tool for restoring degraded drylands: A meta- 18(3): 1028–1041. University Press. analysis of field experiments. Ecological Vilagrosa, A., Chirino, E., Bautista, S., Gunal, H. 2014. Land degradation/ Engineering, 61: 133–144. U rgeghe, A., Alloza, J.A. & Vallejo, V.R. desertification and examples of studies on Regato, P. 2008. Adapting to global change: 2008. Proyecto de demostración de lucha combating land degradation/desertification Mediterranean Forests. Malaga, Spain, contra la desertificación: regeneración y plan in Turkey. Desert Restoration Hub, ES1104 IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation. de manejo de zonas semiáridas degradadas Action COST, 5th MC Meeting. Timisoara, R ivas-Martínez, S., Peñas, A. & en el T.M. de Albatera (Alicante). Cuadernos Romania. Díaz, T.E. 2004. Bioclimatic map of de la Sociedad Española de Ciencias IPCC. 2007a. The physical science basis. Contri- Europe – Thermoclimatic belts (available Forestales, 28: 317–322. bution of Working Group II to the Fourth at http://www.globalbioclimatics.org/form/ W illoughby, I., Balandier, P., Bentsen, N.S., Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental tb_med.jpg). Accessed 27 March 2015. McCarthy, N. & Claridge, J., eds. 2009. Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change S chelhaas, M., Nabuurs, G. & Schuck, A. Forest vegetation management in Europe: 2007 Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK and New York, 2003. Natural disturbances in the European current practice and future requirements. USA, Cambridge University Press. forests in the 19th and 20th centuries. Global Brussels, COST Office. IP CC. 2007b. Climate Change 2007: synthesis Change Biology, 9(11): 1620–1633. WWF & IUCN. 2000. Forests reborn: A report. Contribution of Working Groups I, S chmuck, G., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., workshop on forest restoration. WWF and II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report Camia, A., Durrant, T., Boca, R., IUCN (available at https://cmsdata.iucn.org/ of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate L ibertà, G., Petroliagkis, T., Di Leo, M., downloads/flr_segovia.pdf). u Change. Geneva, IPCC. Rodrigues, D., Boccacci, F. & Schulte, E. MA AGR MA. 2015. LUCDEME project 2014. Forest fires in Europe, Middle East and (available at http://www.magrama.gob.es/ North Africa 2013. Luxembourg, European es/desarrollo-rural/temas/politica-forestal/ Commission Joint Research Centre. desertificacion-restauracion-forestal/lucha- S outsas, K.P., Papageorfiou, A.C., contra-la-desertificacion/lch_lucdeme.aspx). Tampakis, S., Arabatzis, G. & Accessed March 2015. K asimiadis, D. 2004. The concept of Forest Mansourian, S., Lamb, D. & Gilmour, D. Landscape Restoration in the Mediterranean 2005. Overview of technical approaches Basin. New Medit, 3(4): 57–62.

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Bamboo: the opportunities for forest and landscape restoration

C. Rebelo and K. Buckingham mboo a B l P c © E o anet

A fresh look at bamboo’s potential n forestry circles, bamboo is not always (unwanted plants) (Scott, 1998). To this in tackling restoration challenges given the credit it deserves. And yet, day, bamboo, stuck somewhere between and improving resilience to with adequate attention, investment, forestry, and agriculture, climate change. Iand standards, bamboo could play a defies any attempt at neat categorization, prominent role in forest and landscape and international forestry institutions still restoration and become a major renew- tend to overlook it as an important nat- able and sustainable crop (Buckingham, ural resource (Buckingham, 2014a). In 2014a). Perceptions of a natural resource recent times, bamboo has been associated often shape its usage. In this case, bam- with the “alternative” green movement. boo’s sometimes unfortunate image is Entrenched in hippy stereotypes, its image linked to European notions of landscape, has not translated well in financial mar- plant value and utility. For example, the kets. However, as institutional investment advent of modern agriculture and modern in forestry hits the US$ 100 billion mark forest management during the eighteenth (New Forests, 2015) and the demand for and nineteenth centuries influenced the new fibres increases, bamboo’s position is European approach to plant management. poised to change. Camille Rebelo is Co-founder of Forests became valued as “timber”, while EcoPlanet Bamboo. Kathleen Buckingham is Research Associate other plants were considered to be either Above: Aerial image of EcoPlanet Bamboo’s with the World Resources Institute. “crops” (valuable plants) or “weeds” Nicaraguan farm shortly after planting, 2011

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As an alternative fibre, bamboo has the potential to transform major timber industries, reducing pressure on remaining natural forests, 2015 ANET O © E c P l B a mboo

In light of the challenges of the twenty- a key way of dealing with contemporary high yields without any requirements for first century, we need to reassess the plants natural resource deficits. Bamboo reaches replanting, bamboo has the potential to we use and how we use them. As the planet maturity within seven years and if man- overcome these investment barriers, and moves towards 9.6 billion people by 2050 aged correctly can be harvested every year attract new sources of capital, while meet- (United Nations, 2013), we need to con- thereafter. Moreover, it grows on marginal ing restoration goals in a tangible time sider new challenges in natural resource land, and under this production framework frame and an economically viable man- management, resilience to climate change, does not compete with food production ner. Commercial bamboo plantations can new notions of landscapes, plant value, and requires little fertilizer or water in therefore help achieve these international and utility as well as potential resource comparison to traditional sources of fibre restoration goals by using degraded and deficits. Increasing populations and the (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2015b). deforested land to restore critical ecosystem growth of the global middle class have Global commitments to the Bonn functions, while producing a sustainable resulted in a rising demand for wood- and Challenge and the New York Declaration source of fibre. This in turn serves as an fibre-based products, contributing to a on Forests, as well as regional commit- alternative to traditional timber and as a multitude of drivers of deforestation and ments such as Latin America’s Initiative resource to stimulate national and local putting pressure on the planet’s remaining 20 × 20, to bring a collective 350 million ha economies and reduce foreign imports. forests. Plantations currently provide less of degraded and deforested land under res- Bamboo could play an important role than 50 percent of the world’s demand toration by 2030 (Messinger and DeWitt, in the growing field of forest and land- for roundwood, but a far lower percent- 2015). Investment into timberland and scape restoration. Forest and landscape age of other wood products, and both traditional forest plantations, both of native restoration aims to recognize a matrix temperate and tropical forests continue and exotic species, requires patient, long- of landscape options across forestry and to be cleared (WWF, 2015). As one of the term, illiquid capital. Adding degraded agriculture (Laestadius et al., 2011). It was fastest-growing plants on earth, with an land into the equation further increases envisioned as a framework that could be estimated 1 200 (Jiang, 2007) to nearly the timeline for productivity and financial applied across a range of land uses with an 1 500 species worldwide (Zhou et al., returns. In contrast, with its fast growth emphasis on restoring ecosystem services 2005), bamboo’s substitutability provides rates and unique ability for continuous to meet societal needs. Explicitly it is not a

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call to return to past visions and patterns of Bab m oo restoration benefits after planting. It grows and establishes itself land use (Laestadius et al., 2015). To date, Rapid growth, soil binding and erosion con- well on sloping terrains, hill slopes and around 47 percent of the world’s forest area trol, adaptive capability, nutrient and water embankments. The root system or rhizomes has been cleared or degraded to make way conservation of land and the provision of of bamboo form an underground network for crops, cattle, cities and roads. In order a continuous and permanent canopy all – the rhizosphere – which helps bind soil to achieve large-scale restoration, artificial enable select and carefully chosen bamboo while its dense canopy reduces the impact boundaries of forestry and agriculture need species to act as succession species for the of the elements on exposed soils. Most to be assessed and landscapes viewed as restoration of degraded land. In a nutshell, bamboo rhizomes are present in the top “mosaics” – areas that can provide different bamboo provides key ecological benefits layer of soil (0–30 cm), which enables it functions. Globally, 1.5 billion ha would for soil, water and carbon sequestration to be effective in controlling soil erosion be best suited for mosaic restoration, in as well as livelihood benefits. Firstly, and stabilizing ecosystems (Mishra et al., which forests, trees and bamboo could be soil – bamboo can grow on degraded and 2014). According to research in China, the combined with other land uses, including marginal soils, where many native species, ability of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys agroforestry, smallholder agriculture and particularly in tropical regions, have dif- heterocycla pubescens) forests to stabilize settlements. By planting bamboo as part of ficulty becoming established. In the case soil (control of soil loss per unit area and per a larger landscape, degraded lands could be of compacted soils, bamboo’s extensive unit time) is 1.5 times greater than Chinese restored to productive use, thereby alleviat- interconnected root system can break up pine forest (Pinus massoniana) (Zheng and ing some of the pressure on forests from soil particles, increasing permeability, Hong, 1998). Moreover, bamboo can thrive development uses, and providing communi- reducing compactibility and over time in soils that are depleted of nutrients and ties with secure incomes, thereby reducing allowing other less competitive species to the introduction of bamboo can enrich soil smaller-scale pressures that drive contin- become established. Similarly bamboo has fertility. Because of its fast-growing nature ued degradation (Laestadius et al., 2011). the potential to control soil erosion quickly and dense foliage, bamboo is able to rapidly

EcoPlanet Bamboo’s

mboo operations provide a

B permanent and long- term employment l

P for both skilled c and unskilled

© E o anet individuals, 2015

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create and maintain a thick layer of litter. land into bamboo forests has been shown area into green, productive land (INBAR, This litter layer maintains a microclimate in to regenerate water tables, securing more 2003). However, the bamboo industry has the understorey and soil moisture – some of regular rainfall patterns and increasing generally centred on a patchwork of small the most important factors for the restora- the occurrence of streams, rivers and other farms which cannot provide the security tion of degraded lands (Zhou et al., 2005). water bodies. of supply or quality of product global In the case of clumping , the root Thirdly, carbon sequestration – with companies require, particularly those in system does not spread beyond the centre their rapid growth rate and high annual the timber industry considering a fibre of the plant; it forms an intricate network regrowth after harvesting, bamboo forests switch. EcoPlanet Bamboo is attempting to that has the ability to break up compacted have high carbon storage potential (Lou industrialize the bamboo industry through soils and restore permeability and aeration. et al., 2010). Because of bamboo’s rapid the development of plantations in Central It also slows the flow of water through growth, the annual carbon fixation of Moso America, southern Africa, West Africa and the layers of soil. Each individual clump bamboo forests is estimated at 1.3 times Southeast Asia using non-invasive clump- puts up multiple stems or culms each year. the value of that of a tropical mountain ing bamboo species (EcoPlanet Bamboo, These break through the soil and create rain forest (Zhou and Jiang, 2004), and 2015c). Currently EcoPlanet focuses on a multidimensional structure, providing 1.4 times the value of that of Chinese fir replacing wood and fibre sourced from old habitat for a range of insects, birds and (Cunninghamia lanceolata) (Zhao et al., growth forests across industries includ- mammals. In contrast to traditional tree 2009). In contrast to timber plantations ing textiles ( and viscose), pulp and plantations, which generally clear-cut large under harvest, the long-term average of paper (targeting toilet and tissue paper) and areas during harvesting, individual culms bamboo’s carbon sequestration does not bioenergy, but eventually aims to extend from each bamboo plant within a plantation represent a bell curve, but rather a static this substitutability within the textile can be removed annually, an approach that line. This is due to the fact that although industry to cotton. Cotton causes severe stimulates growth and ensures a continuous a portion of bamboo biomass is harvested and widespread deforestation and requires canopy cover. Because these individual and removed each year, this is rapidly significantly more water and chemicals per culms die naturally, their removal has replaced within a single growing season. ha to grow than bamboo. If grown cor- little effect on forest composition, ensuring The long-term average carbon sequestra- rectly, bamboo is a far more sustainable minimal disturbance to forest landscapes tion and storage of a bamboo restoration solution (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2015b). (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2014a). project is static, regardless of the end use In contrast to donor aid or payments for Secondly, water: bamboo has evergreen of the product. This high annual rate of ecosystem services (PES), EcoPlanet’s leaves, a dense canopy and numerous carbon accumulation indicates that the operations provide a private-sector exam- culms, which creates a strong capacity bamboo forest is one of the most efficient ple of an economically viable means by for rainfall interception and moisture types of forest vegetation for carbon fixa- which to achieve landscape restoration at retention. For example, Zheng and Hong tion (Zhou et al., 2005). the landscape scale. EcoPlanet is work- (1998) found that the rainfall interception Finally, a bamboo forest or plantation ing to restore an initial 40 000 ha globally ratio (vegetation canopy intercepting rain- under active management represents a while also providing a certified and secure fall) of Moso bamboo forest is 1.3 times high need for labour. In contrast to timber source of fibre for products and markets greater than Chinese fir forests. The water plantations or managed forests, where these that still contribute to global deforestation. conservation function (an index including jobs are sporadic due to the intermediate While PES can provide initial financing, canopy interception, water holding capac- timeframes associated with tree growth bamboo projects become self-sustaining ity of the litter layer and soil infiltration) and subsequent harvesting, such jobs are after bamboo reaches maturity, typically in Moso bamboo forests is approximately permanent and long-term. within five to seven years. As governments 30 to 45 percent greater than Chinese fir around the world work to meet conserva- forests (Cunninghamia lanceolata). In Bab m oo restoration tion commitments and companies seek China, more than 90 percent of bamboo case studies to identify sustainable sources of timber, forests are found in regions of major rivers Bamboo benefits go far beyond just restora- bamboo should be considered as a resource and lakes and along riverbanks, where tion ecology (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2014a). that can simultaneously achieve these goals they play an important role in regulating Case studies of bamboo restoration remain (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2014b). the flow of water through an ecosystem, relatively small-scale, but some have shown In Nicaragua, EcoPlanet began operating protecting water sources, and reducing the promise. In India, the International Network in 2011. Located within the semi-autono- effects of soil erosion caused by rainfall for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) com- mous Southern Atlantic State of Nicaragua’s on bare ground (Zhou et al., 2005). In pleted a prize-winning bamboo restoration Caribbean coast, the area underwent severe other areas, the restoration of degraded project, which turned a degraded mining deforestation during the 1970s and 1980s.

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Selective manual harvesting of individual culms ensures that restoration and ecosystem benefits are permanent, 2015 ANET O © E c P l B a mboo

Once exposed to heavy rainfall, the shal- This plantation is focused on naturalized of microclimates for the cocoa industry. low topsoil was quickly eroded, and Bambusa balcooa grown from tissue cul- Lack of available funds combined with productivity of the soils rapidly decreased. ture plantlets. The South African case is high pressure from illegal charcoal pro- Agriculture was stopped, and low-intensity the first example in the world of large-scale duction have turned these reserves into cattle farming followed, resulting in high restoration using tissue culture plantlets highly degraded areas with remnant forest soil compaction. The project uses Guadua to overcome a lack of bamboo planting patches. EcoPlanet’s initial project involves aculeata, a native species of giant clump- material. The lack of restoration projects restoring 3 500 ha in the Ashanti Region, ing bamboo that occurs naturally within using tissue culture plantlets has been a and protecting the remaining forest from the forest, to restore 5 000 ha of highly major barrier to the industrialization of further deforestation through the provision degraded land into commercial planta- bamboo outside China. The project has of secure and attractive employment to tions, providing more than 250 permanent restored 485 ha of highly degraded land, surrounding communities which suffer jobs and conserving more than 600 ha of preserved more than 140 ha of wildlife extreme poverty. Restoration of a further remnant patches of tropical forest, resulting corridors and native vegetation, and cre- 11 500 ha in Ghana’s Northern Region, an in habitat connectivity and increasing the ated approximately 100 jobs in an area area that has been heavily marginalized ability of the landscape to provide core that has suffered severe unemployment and has suffered severe land clearance, ecosystem functions. Native Guadua since the crash of South Africa’s pineapple is set to begin in 2016. These projects are aculeata is one of the few plants that is industry. The project further stimulates aimed at the production of toilet paper for able to withstand these conditions and is local economies by providing an alterna- European and US markets, replacing old better able to tolerate the region’s extreme tive fibre for the manufacturing of activated growth boreal fibre. Many major brands rainfall and compacted soil than native carbon for domestic markets. have already made public commitments tree species (EcoPlanet Bamboo, 2014a). In West Africa, EcoPlanet has under- to move to such an alternative fibre, in In southern Africa, EcoPlanet’s farm is taken a public private partnership with an attempt to reduce their deforestation located in the agricultural belt of South the Ghana Forestry Commission aimed footprints. Africa’s Eastern Cape. Farms in this area at restoring 15 000 ha of highly degraded In Asia, the deforestation footprint is were under intensive chemical agricul- land located within the country’s system significant. With countries such as the ture for the production of pineapples for of forest reserves. Contrary to the name, Philippines and Indonesia being composed over a century, resulting in soils that are these areas are not protected natural forest, of thousands of small islands and char- highly depleted. With the decline of South but areas highlighted as being of critical acterized by rapidly growing economies, Africa’s pineapple industry, many of the importance for maintaining the coun- the need to stabilize land clearance while farms in this area went out of production. try’s ecosystems benefits and protection providing a fibre to feed pulp mills, as well

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as an increasing need for energy security, tasked 40 nations to restore 5 million as a forest species. This poses a number has become a priority for governments. ha of degraded lands and areas of low- of policy challenges. It is unclear whether In the context of the energy security of an quality bamboo production into productive, bamboo plantations should come under the island nation it must be distributed, local healthy bamboo forests. For example, the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Forestry, and available on demand. Bioenergy meets Chinese State Forest Administration has the Ministry of Agriculture or some other all these requirements and bamboo can be pledged to plant 1 million ha and restore entity. The ecology and growth patterns of a sustainable feedstock requiring mini- 3 million ha, the Philippines will reforest bamboo are those of a grass, and yet a grove mum land area to feed bioenergy facilities. at least 500 000 ha, and India will have of giant bamboos, more than 30 metres tall EcoPlanet’s Southeast Asia expansion is 100 000 ha of degraded land under bam- and with diameters not dissimilar to trees, targeting the restoration of highly degraded boo restoration programmes by 2020. The has some of the characteristics of a forest. landscapes to provide a dedicated source Ethiopian Government plans to restore Furthermore, bamboo provides a fibre that of bamboo biomass for the combined pro- nearly 500 000 ha of degraded land is similar to wood (EcoPlanet Bamboo, duction of renewable energy and a cleaner (Buckingham, 2014b). 2014c). In order to truly integrate bamboo, pulp for the textile industry (EcoPlanet While it may be seen as a weed or global policy and markets need to change. Bamboo, 2014a, 2014b, 2015b). General perceived mostly as an invasive species Crisis in natural resource management has Electric’s biogasification technology has (although there are native bamboo species historically led to innovation. The timber been developed for distributed power, on almost every continent and only a small crisis in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century enabling smaller islands such as those in portion of the entire genera show charac- Europe, when timber was the key energy the Philippines or Indonesia to combine teristics of invasiveness), the perception resource, led to the development of coal as smaller-scale bamboo restoration projects of bamboo needs to be updated, brought a fuel, which in turn made the technologies with onsite power generation (General into mainstream forestry institutions, inte- of the Industrial Revolution. It is argued Electric, 2014). grated into national definitions of forests that the Industrial Revolution occurred in and brought into national the United Kingdom 50 to 100 years ear- Challenges and opportunities inventories (Buckingham, 2014b). For lier than any other country because of the International support is growing for example, in South Africa, as elsewhere, innovative response to scarcity of resources bamboo to be seen as an important plant bamboo is not part of the natural forest (Hobhouse, 2004). Bamboo therefore can for landscape restoration. INBAR has matrix in the country and is not recognized fit into a new resource paradigm, in an age

Two-year-old native bamboo ANET O © E reconnecting c

remnant forest P l patches while securing an B a

economic mboo future for the landscape, 2013

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that needs innovative responses to scarcity while restoring, rather than extracting, bamboo requires considerable inputs and of resources (Buckingham, Wu and Lou, natural resources is not only possible management to be produced commer- 2013). Planting bamboo is particularly but preferable. Restoration efforts often cially. The level of these inputs affects important in locations where a return to focus on planting native species, but fail to productivity and the quality of the fibre. pure or mixed forested areas is not realistic. provide the funds necessary for the long- A smallholder model is unlikely to be able In a landscape mosaic approach, bamboo term efforts required for ecosystems to to provide enough high-quality resources is planted in areas that combine forests become self-regenerating. Tree plantations for a large-scale industry, and lower levels and trees with other land uses. That is not also require long-term capital. EcoPlanet’s of processing (such as handicrafts) cannot to suggest that bamboo should be utilized model has successfully overcome these sustain the costs associated with produc- to restore all landscapes. Of course, bam- capital requirements, reducing the time for tion. Scaling up restoration efforts to the boo cannot be a panacea; there are many return on investment and proving competi- level necessary to achieve a significant management, propagation and technology tive returns. The projects have also secured global impact requires a shift in approach challenges to overcome, as well as concerns political risk insurance, which has been from non-governmental organizations to that to provide such restoration benefits significant in overcoming many invest- the private sector (EcoPlanet Bamboo, it is only grown and harvested under a ment barriers in regions that have a high 2014a). Private-sector engagement with framework of sustainability. perceived risk from a capital perspective. alternative resources will open the door EcoPlanet’s experiences demonstrate Access to such insurance encourages fur- for more sustainable approaches to natural how bamboo is able to address both ther investment from institutional sources, resource management. History has shown natural resource management challenges allowing projects to be scaled up and res- us that the value of natural resources and the need to facilitate restoration of toration efforts maximized. changes over time. It is time to reassess degraded lands. The case studies are Without addressing the underlying driv- bamboo’s famous “weedy” reputation examples of restoration at the landscape ers of deforestation and land-use change, and evaluate how it can be used for cli- level that meet economic, environmental it is unlikely that restoration efforts will mate change resilience and restoration. and social objectives. They demonstrate succeed. For major industries to shift to Today’s weeds can become tomorrow’s to individuals and investment institutions bamboo as an alternative fibre, the sup- valuable resources. u that securing attractive long-term returns ply must be secure. Like any other crop, mboo a B Bamboo integrated l

P into the landscape c prior to complete

© E o anet canopy closure, 2014

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(available at http://www.ecoplanetbamboo. uploads/2015/07/New-Forests-Timberland- com/news/business-green-features- Investment-Outlook-2015-2019.pdf). ecoplanet-bamboo). Scott, J.C. 1998. Seeing like a state. New References Eo c Planet Bamboo. 2015c. Restoring land Haven, Yale University Press. and reducing deforestation (available at Song, X., Zhou, G., Jiang, H., Yu, S., Fu, J., Buckingham, K. 2014a. Bamboo: The secret http://www.ecoplanetbamboo.com/global- L i, W., Wang, W., Ma, Z. & Peng, C. weapon in forest and landscape restoration? plantations). 2011. Carbon sequestration by Chinese World Resources Institute blog (available General Electric. 2014. GE supports need bamboo forests and their ecological benefits: at http://www.wri.org/blog/2014/02/ for distributed power in Indonesia with Assessment of potential, problems, and bamboo-secret-weapon-forest-and- announcement of key projects. Press release future challenges. Environmental Reviews, landscape-restoration). (available at http://www.genewsroom. 19: 418–428. Buckingham, K. 2014b. Rebranding bamboo com/Press-Releases/GE-Supports-Need- U nited Nations. 2013. World population for Bonn – The 5 million hectare bamboo for-Distributed-Power-in-Indonesia-with- projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. United restoration pledge. World Resources Announcement-of-Key-Projects-273673). Nations (available at https://www.un.org/ Institute blog (available at http://www.wri. H obhouse, H. 2004. Seeds of wealth: Four en/development/desa/news/population/ org/blog/2014/12/rebranding-bamboo-bonn- plants that made men rich. London, Pan un-report-world-population-projected-to- 5-million-hectare-restoration-pledge). Publishing. reach-9-6-billion-by-2050.html). Buckingham, K., Jepson, P., Wu, L., INBAR. 2003. Greening red earth. Beijing, WWF. 2015. Saving forests at risk. In: Living R ao, I.V.R., Jiang, S., Liese, W., Lou, Y. INBAR. Forests Report, Chapter 5. WWF (available & Fu, M. 2011. The potential of bamboo Jiang, Z.H. 2007. Bamboo and rattan in the at http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront. is constrained by outmoded policy frames. world. Beijing, China Forest Publishing net/downloads/living_forests_report_ AMBIO, 40(5): 544–548. House. chapter_5_1.pdf). Buckingham, K., Wu, L. & Lou, Y. 2013. L aestadius, L., Maginnis, S., Minnemayer, S., Zhao, M., Xiang, W., Peng, C. & Tian, D. Can’t see the (bamboo) forest for the trees: P atapov, P., Saint-Laurent, C. & Sizer, N. 2009. Simulating age-related changes in Examining bamboo’s fit within international 2011. Mapping opportunities for forest land- carbon storage and allocation in a Chinese forestry institutions. AMBIO, 43(6): 770-778. scape restoration. Unasylva, 238 (62). fir plantation growing in southern China Crosby, A.W. 2004. Ecological imperialism: L aestadius, L., Reytar, K., Maginnis, S. using the 3-PG model. Forest Ecology and The biological expansion of Europe, & Saint-Laurent, C. 2015. Demystifying Management, 257(6): 1520–1531. 900–1900. Studies in Environment and the world’s forest landscape restoration Zheng, Y. S. & Hong, W. 1998. Management History. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge opportunities. World Resources Institute of Phyllostachys pubescens stand. Xiamen, University Press. blog (available at http://www.wri.org/ Xiamen University Publishing House. Eo c Planet Bamboo. 2014a. 4.6 Commercial blog/2015/03/demystifying-worlds-forest- Zhou, B., Fu, M., Xie, J., Yang, X. & Li, Z. bamboo plantations as a tool for restoring landscape-restoration-opportunities). 2005. Ecological functions of bamboo forest: landscapes. ETFRN news 56: Towards L ou, Y.P., Li, Y.X., Buckingham, K.C., Research and application. Journal of productive landscapes. November 2014. H enley, G. & Zhou, G.M. 2010. Bamboo Forestry Research, 16(2): 143–147. Eo c Planet Bamboo. 2014b. Bamboo: A and climate change mitigation. Beijing, Zhou, G.M. & Jiang, P.K. 2004. Density, mechanism to reconnect forest fragments INBAR. storage and spatial distribution of carbon and restore ecosystems; landscapes for Messinger, J. & DeWitt, S. 2015. Bonn in Phyllostachys pubescens forest. Scientia people, food and nature (available at Challenge on track to meet land restoration Silvae Sinicae, 6: 20–24. u http://peoplefoodandnature.org/blog/ goal by 2020. World Resources Institute bamboo-a-mechanism-to-reconnect-forest- blog (available at http://www.wri.org/ fragments-and-restore-ecosystems). blog/2015/03/bonn-challenge-track-meet- EcoPlanet Bamboo. 2014c. Land restoration land-restoration-goal-2020-0). with bamboo, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Mishra, G., Giri, K., Panday, S., Kumar, R. 20 June 2014. EcoPlanet Bamboo South & Bisht, N.S. 2014. Bamboo: Potential Africa. resource for eco-restoration of degraded Eo c Planet Bamboo. 2015a. EcoPlanet lands. Journal of Biology and Earth Bamboo. Website (available at http://www. Sciences, 4(2): 130–136. ecoplanetbamboo.com/about-us). N ew Forests. 2015. Timberland investment Eo c Planet Bamboo. 2015b. Business green outlook 2015–2019 (available at https:// features EcoPlanet Bamboo. 12 January 2015 www.newforests.com.au/wp-content/

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V. Gutierrez and M.-N. Keijzer

The private sector constitutes here is a growing realization that understanding and experience of corporate a promising source of funding the private sector constitutes a engagement.1 It will look beyond tradi- for the restoration of degraded promising funding mechanism for tional funding mechanisms to discuss forest landscapes. Ta wide community of players working to the need for business-centred approaches restore degraded forest landscapes. For that engage with the corporate community, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including end users. By illustrating how an understanding of businesses’ needs, WeForest (WF) has procured corporate the motivations of private enterprises funding through marketing services and and appropriate engagement strategies all “tree planting”2 products, it will argue that require careful consideration, particularly as traditional funding options are unlikely 1 Although the private sector comprises a broad to suffice in an evolving environmental range of organizations of various sizes and finance market. ownership structures, the article will focus on companies and corporates, since these represent The aim of this article is to examine the core of WeForest’s activity and have the financial solutions for forest landscape res- greatest capital potential for funding FLR in toration (FLR) projects through WeForest’s the near future. Victoria Gutierrez is the Director of 2 The term “planting” is used in a broad sense Reforestation Projects at WeForest. to refer to any practice that grows trees, from Marie-Noelle Keijzer is the Chief Executive Above: Umiam watershed in the physically placing seedlings on the ground to Officer and Co-founder of WeForest. East Khasi Hills, northeast India project seed sowing and assisted natural regeneration.

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Box 1 WeForest

WeForest (WF) is a non-profit organiza- tion that, since 2010, has mobilized nearly 140 private companies from 24 countries to invest in a portfolio of reforestation and restoration projects designed to increase tree cover along with social, economic, and other ecological benefits. Contrary to environmental NGOs that generate monies from subscription fees or statutory funding, WF is financed by the private sector, and to a limited extent, by pri- vate individuals. Over half of WF’s sponsors (53 percent) fall within five industry sec- tors (i.e. service providers and consulting, information technology and telecommuni- cations, fashion and beauty, manufacturing and environmental industries). The man- ufacturing sector, followed by food and fast-moving consumer goods, constitute the top three financial contributors. WeForest uses the concept of impact marketing to involve and enable com- panies to connect with their end consumers through wider outreach campaigns that have tangible benefits for their business and clear benefits for the environment.

corporate engagement strategies that are associated with a positive impact for the

environment constitute a strong alternative © WEFOREST to traditional philanthropic funding. The past 20 years have seen a shift in the way that the private business community is perceived. Corporates, often viewed Smallholder farmer in as agents of environmental damage and Nevertheless, it is now widely accepted that the United Republic of Tanzania ecological crisis, are being called upon as the business and industry sectors need to conservation programmes, agroforestry essential partners in ecosystem conserva- be part of the solution to global environ- systems, and green commodity markets that tion and restoration. Detractors describe mental problems (Kissinger, Morogo and secure the ecosystem products and services the involvement of private enterprises as Noponen, 2015). on which their sustainability depends. For controversial, since businesses prioritize In recent years, the urgent need to respond example, the investment in, or payment for, profit maximization over the preserva- to climate change, deforestation and land watershed services is an emerging sector tion of the public good (Newell, 2000). degradation challenges has intensified that has received attention from the bever- Discrepancies between what companies interest in exploring partnership opportuni- age industry (Stanton et al., 2010). About report and what they do on environmental ties that benefit both the environment and US$6.5 billion (62 percent of the annual issues continue to attract criticism (see, for the private sector. More than ever, busi- global funding for conservation) is provided example, Bowen and Aragon-Correa, 2014). nesses are looking to invest in large-scale by green commodities as investment in

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to US$100 million) and expected the capital deployed in general conservation to nearly triple in 2014–2018 (i.e. US$5.6 billion). Unfortunately, the corporate sector was under-represented in the report and FLR was not explicitly accounted for. Despite the shortage of data, it remains the case that a strong demand from private investors can offer financing for scalable and effective programmes that can generate returns (CS, WWF and McKinsey & Company, 2014). In this respect, advances in technological capacity to monitor forests are likely to facilitate performance-based investment for forests. There are multiple reasons to involve businesses in landscape restoration ini- tiatives. Firstly, endorsing good practices within the industry sector can have a major impact on forest protection and on the sus- tainability and traceability of commodity markets, as well as influencing sustainable consumer behaviour. Secondly, individual companies and industry associations may have a significant influence on govern- ments. And thirdly, these players are well placed to take action and have the resources to facilitate the implementation of envi- ronmental policies, engage in sustainable entrepreneurial initiatives and evaluate impact. The private sector can play an important role in the implementation of environmental frameworks, for example in relation to representing and implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity (Bled, 2009).

© IPE Beyond philanthropy Tree seedlings at a nursery in Brazil Despite claims that philanthropy is thriv- interests in FLR (Dewees et al., 2011), and, ing, funds sourced via this mechanism sustainable and certified products, whilst when explored, the analysis has generally are insufficient to deliver the finance US$3 billion (29 percent) is allocated to focused on commodity markets or on pay- required to meet the climate mitigation carbon offsets (Parker et al., 2012). The ments for ecosystem services. For example, goals or conservation funding targets. For scale of these markets is significant because the first report examining the market for example, according to The Foundation it allows the trade of ecosystem products conservation-related impact investments Center, donations earmarked for climate and services on a global scale. indicated rapid growth and interest in areas change efforts are on a continuous growth that focus on habitat and natural resource curve. The Forbes’ BNP Paribas Individual S tate of private business protection (EKO and NatureVest, 2014). Philanthropy Index for 2013 reports that investment The 56 investors surveyed quadrupled their environmental causes were the focus of Very few studies have explicitly quantified investments between the periods 2004– 46 percent of core programmes funded by private-sector investment practices and 2008 and 2009–2013 (from US$23 million more than 300 high-net-worth individuals

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worldwide. Also, the 2014 Coutts Million the need to demonstrate impact. Interviews not a decisive factor for the companies Dollar Donors Report indicated that the with senior corporate executives suggest that were willing to fund carbon-certified total value of donations of US$1 million or that the biggest frustration for investors projects. higher has steadily increased in all areas was the shortage of solid business cases WeForest has not engaged in the vol- during the past eight years, reaching a total for investment opportunities and the bur- untary carbon credit market. Several of of US$26.3 billion in 2013. Yet, from this den of documenting impact (EKO and its projects are carbon certified or in the budget, only US$170 million (less than NatureVest, 2014). As trends in global process of completing validation under the 1 percent) was allocated to environmental market demand for environmental action Plan Vivo standard, which is particularly causes. will continue into the future, it becomes suitable for smallholder- and community- Moreover, philanthropy has a range of urgent to create opportunities for busi- based projects since it emphasizes social priorities in addition to climate change nesses to finance responsible FLR. and biodiversity dimensions. At the project and the environment, some of which may Traditionally, purchasing carbon credits level, the standard adds value to the diver- be in direct competition. It is subject to within the voluntary carbon market has sification of income streams and long-term changing influences and is therefore a been the main option for a company to incentives that can motivate local popula- non-sustainable strategy for solutions that offset its footprint in compliance with CSR. tions to safeguard their assets. require implementation over a long period The advantage of carbon offsetting is its Like carbon offsetting, insetting is (philanthropic donations, for example, ubiquity across industries, which makes it a strategy that enables firms to gener- witnessed the highest level of donor a straightforward and broadly applicable ate positive climate and social impacts fatigue among WF’s funding sources). action. While an increasing number of by supporting schemes that benefit the Philanthropy may be relevant in some companies seek to understand and report company’s stakeholders. Companies may instances, such as for project seed fund- on their environmental footprint, most fund projects within their supply chain ing or capacity building. Charity giving firms will focus on carbon emissions, with and offset their carbon footprint within the can notably play a key role in financing fewer being concerned about water or for- business ecosystem of suppliers, partners initial costs associated with carbon certifi- est footprints (WWF, 2014). Exceptions are and local communities. For businesses, cation. However, organizations seeking to found within the fashion industry, where insetting brings social co-benefits that attract sustainable finance will need to look companies are beginning to report on the work to strengthen the long-term business beyond private or corporate philanthropy. footprint associated with water-intensive strategy, and helps businesses understand cotton production; some other companies and potentially improve their supply chain, Corporate engagement have begun to report on their supply-chain which in turn can generate competitive options, from corporate forest footprint (Hulse et al., 2013; WWF, advantage. For example, in 2014 Nespresso social responsibility to 2014). European buyers generated the declared its intention to inset its operational impact marketing largest demand for forestry emission reduc- carbon footprint through an agroforestry Firms that engage in environmental tions in 2013, and constituted the largest scheme designed to increase resilience to action are motivated to do so for a num- source of demand for projects based in climate change. Insetting initiatives may ber of reasons: compliance with voluntary Latin America, Asia, and Africa (Goldstein be developed as investments by firms in production standards to attain greater and Gonzalez, 2014). partnership with external stakeholders, supply-chain efficiency; diversification and Non-extractive forest initiatives are of but the significant effort that is required market expansion; leadership and market interest to financiers who prioritize cli- to develop and manage the scheme may positioning; improvement of public image mate change mitigation solutions. Carbon make this strategy unattractive to some and boosting of staff motivation; improve- credits, when associated with livelihood companies. ment of external relations and avoidance of projects, provide a variety of climate Despite a short history, WeForest has bad reputation risks that could negatively change adaptation and mitigation bene- adapted to new ways of working with impact the firm’s activities (Allet, 2014). fits. For example, in 2013, carbon offset firms. Once solely funded through private Accordingly, companies can take distinct initiatives were reported to have created philanthropy, the organization has broad- approaches. One such is the corporate 9 000 jobs, trained or built the capacity of ened its fundraising strategy to develop social responsibility (CSR) path, which 150 000 people and protected 13 million ha products and services designed to serve comprises philanthropic donations and of habitat for endangered species, as well the interests of companies, initially cater- offsets, and is mainly viewed as a branding as offering US$41 million in livelihood ing to the needs of firms looking to offset strategy. Alternatively, the investment route benefits such as education, healthcare and their business footprint and subsequently is driven by financial return on investment infrastructure (Goldstein and Gonzalez, offering custom-made marketing tools (ROI), risk assessment and, more recently, 2014). These co-benefits, however, were that embed trees into the core business

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of consumer-facing companies. Trees are activities, the multiple benefits of forests, combined (core to CSR) generated less than used as a currency to engage stakeholders and the need for a sustainable future. Trees US$200 million in 2013. Thus marketing and to have an impact on local ecosystems planted can be shared on social media, strategies have the potential to mobilize through reforestation projects that focus boosting visibility and brand aware- financing on a scale needed to fund FLR. on local communities. ness, shifting from traditional marketing Secondly, advertising budgets take prior- WF’s approach to fundraising moves towards crowd marketing. ity over CSR in times of spending cuts, across the divide between traditional CSR For WeForest, these business approaches and are therefore more protected by com- and impact marketing (cause marketing). have led to similar average revenue and panies from budget fluctuations. Thirdly, While companies who invest in CSR have had no significant impact on donor strategies differ in the visibility created activities typically do so by associating a loyalty. However, the advantage of this around project activities, which contrib- brand name with the benefits derived from approach over a CSR strategy is three- utes to environmental and socioeconomic initiatives such as carbon offsetting, impact fold. Firstly, there are far larger budgets awareness. For impact marketing, there is marketing involves packaging a product or available for marketing. According to an amplifying outreach factor since with service with a specific FLR project and eMarketer 2014, advertisers worldwide every item or service sold, there is an envi- consequent impact (e.g. planting trees with were expected to spend US$545.40 billion ronmental message that can speak to the the purchase of product items). It is posi- on paid media in 2014 (US$667.65 billion end consumer. The environmental message tioned halfway between philanthropy and by 2018). In contrast, in 2014 the World that relates to trees and the co-benefits of investment. For the company, the product Bank valued global carbon trading forests for communities, biodiversity, etc. or services offered can be made visible schemes at US$30 billion; carbon offsets can be more widely disseminated to the through association with tree-planting from forestry and land-use interventions public. The added value of message ampli- fication may serve to raise awareness and possibly stimulate appropriate consumer Box 2 behaviour. Compared to CSR, impact Case study: Eneco’s impact marketing campaign marketing is a wider outreach strategy. Impact is sought at the level of the project In 2014, WF provided Eneco (Belgium), a green energy supplier, with a consumer engagement and at the level of end-user engagement. tool that enabled the company to offer its customers the choice of a discount of 20€ on their The majority of companies (52.8 percent) next bill or the planting of 40 trees in one of two of WF’s projects. Results showed that 20 who have financed WeForest’s project percent of customers chose to plant trees using WF’s TreeApp. Two-thirds of customers portfolio did so to develop their CSR, visited the company’s website and 50 percent went on to read more about the company’s while 45.6 percent of firms spent funds sustainability strategy, spending an average of 50 seconds online. The app can be tailored to from their marketing budget, and just over appeal to a wide range of businesses, fitting almost any requirements, including customized 1 percent of contributions were classified gamification. Recipients can follow the progress of the project and share their tree-planting as philanthropic donations. This is in contribution via social networks. line with a general trend in which CSR is the most common “buyer” motivation. In 2013, the majority of carbon credits

(a total of 29 MtCO2e) were purchased by firms seeking to meet CSR objectives or demonstrate industry leadership (Goldstein and Gonzalez, 2014). WeForest has observed a growing interest from companies in linking positive actions and story-telling with their products and services. “Business-to-consumer” and “business-to-business” companies can promote their products while supporting reforestation projects by using “doing good” messages. “Trees”, rather than land cover, are used as currency since the concept and benefits of trees are easily understood by most stakeholders.

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For example, a buy2-get-1tree campaign trend. CSR strategies continue to be con- What next? allowed Délifrance to plant over 2 mil- strued as a tactic used by companies to Pioneering companies are thinking beyond lion trees; the search engine Ecosia is greenwash or to evade binding regulations, being transparent about their environmental planting a tree every several mouseclicks since footprint disclosure relies on busi- footprint, realizing that revenue should be and allocating 80 percent of its revenue to nesses’ goodwill in applying voluntary attached to positive impact. Firms are aware FLR, expecting to restore 3 000 hectares regulations (Clapp, 2005). Exceptions to of the need to enhance credibility through in 2015 (3 million trees). For companies, the rule are found in France, where busi- tangible impacts, to innovate and improve the mobile TreeApp can be used as a new nesses with more than 250 employees are sustainable practices, and to engage with type of loyalty programme around tree required by law, as of December 2011, to stakeholders, especially consumers. Yet planting that reinforces a positive message measure and report on greenhouse gas innovative leaders need to take this further far beyond that associated with offsetting (GHG) emissions. The negative images so as not only to pursue positive social and schemes. These initiatives provide busi- surrounding corporates, however, and the ecological impacts through FLR initiatives, nesses with a low-risk, positive message fact that carbon neutrality does not pre- but to take responsibility for the outcomes. that can be easily understood by stake- clude companies from producing negative Social impact bonds – investments target- holders and end consumers. social or environmental impacts, has led to ing positive social impacts as well as a some resistance from companies to engage financial return – are a new investment Barriers to engagement in carbon-offsetting initiatives, since they mechanism that has the potential to ben- Public trust in corporate CSR performance, will remain under scrutiny regardless. efit society, the ecosystem and investors following a series of revelations concerning These companies may be more inclined to (Center for Global Development and Social corporate scandals, has followed a negative improve public image through marketing. Finance, 2013). Previously applied to social

Acacia raddiana

o seedling emerging F e after rains in

© W REST Burkina Faso

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and health outcomes, there may be oppor- tunities to explore their application in the Box 3 context of FLR. For example, thanks to increased crop yields, the implementation of agroforestry projects can reduce land encroachment into protected forest land and thereby lead to financial returns for investors in the form of decreased social expenditure. The initial investment plus interest will be repaid by a donor organi- zation if, and only if, the desired impact is achieved. Mobilizing investors, however, will require wider sets of skills from NGOs. o

For example, outcome-based financing F mechanisms require specialized capac- e © W REST ity and skills for development, which is Khasi women form self-help groups that support individual economic development likely to exclude most small to medium through interloaning and livelihood schemes environmental NGOs from accessing this finance. Expertise on financial feasibil- India, building capacity to facilitate investment ity and business case proposals requires a good working knowledge of the ROI Since 2014, WeForest has partnered with the KSKHAWUMW society, a federation formed methodology. Allocation of funds for by 10 Himas (governing units) in the East Khasi Hills to restore degraded forest landscape additional capacity building within NGOs through assisted natural regeneration and enrichment planting. So far, the project has funded is often construed negatively by NGO the reforestation of 1 500 ha, built capacity for community-based ecotourism enterprise, and watchdogs that focus on financial perfor- enabled microfinance and livelihood schemes, including home-based nurseries run by women. mance. Hence, NGOs that are concerned These livelihood initiatives integrate sustainable natural resource management, and are integral about their reputation are under pressure elements of small-scale enterprises. This approach prepares the stage for investors seeking to maintain low overheads, which keeps business opportunities that have organizational and entrepreneurial capacity. In the case of India, capacity-building potential to a minimum, business potential could be linked to non-timber forest products such as medicinal wintergreen oil. and thereby limits diversification of fund- ing streams and scalable impact. Zambia, promoting market opportunities to integrate smallholders in the bioenergy supply chain through Con clusions ecological restoration and livelihood development Now, more than ever, private industry is seen as an important stakeholder in In partnership with the local private sector, the project aims to create output market linkages identifying solutions for the reforestation for the supply of sustainable biomass that is expected to result from the ecological restoration and restoration of forest landscapes. By of 400 underused and degraded miombo woodlots managed by smallholder farmers for natural recognizing the multifunctionality of land- regeneration and biomass harvest. The biomass is sold by farmers to a local mill for processing scapes, the FLR approach is well-suited into woodchips, designed to fuel the Peko Pe cooking stove sold by a local company. Woodchips to bringing together, from across indus- are sold alongside cooking stoves as a clean alternative to the unregulated charcoal market try sectors, investors seeking attractive that continues to drive deforestation in Zambia. WeForest is subsidizing up to 3 000 stoves to and diverse returns while safeguarding stimulate sales in the region and, at the same time, create a demand for woodchips. Through a the ecosystem and people’s livelihoods. performance-based approach, the scheme manages behavioural change on the part of farmers NGOs have an important role to play in through training, peer-to-peer knowledge transfer, and participatory data collection through accessing innovative financing sources SMS mobile technology. The project is part of a larger programme of livelihood initiatives to address the gap in national and inter- (i.e. honey production, women’s home-based nurseries of high-value fruit trees, and the planting of national forest restoration financing, and trees for timber) that are key in promoting the resilience of both farmers and the local businesses. to translate these into sensible action. This By developing and linking both suppliers and markets, the project enables the development of will require continuous adaptation to an the value chain in terms of forest and non-forest timber products while gaining net forest cover. evolving finance market. u

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CS, WWF & McKinsey & Company. 2014. N ewell, P. 2000. Climate for change: non- Conservation finance: moving beyond donor state actors and the global politics of funding toward an investor-driven approach the greenhouse. Cambridge, Cambridge (available at https://www.credit-suisse.com/ University Press. References ch/en/about-us/corporate-responsibility/ P arker, C., Cranford, M., Oakes, N. & banking/conservation-finance.html). L eggett, M., eds. 2012. The little biodiversity A llet, M. 2014. Why do microfinance Dewees, P., Place, F., Scherr, S.J. & finance book. Oxford, UK, Global Canopy institutions go green? An exploratory study. Buss, C. 2011. Investing in trees and Programme. Journal of Business Ethics, 122(3): 405–424. landscape restoration in Africa: what, S tanton, T., Echavarria, M., Hamilton, K. & Bled, A. 2009. Business to the rescue: private where, and how. Washington, DC, Profor. O tt, C. 2010. State of watershed payments: sector actors and global environmental EKO & NatureVest. 2014. Investing in an emerging marketplace. Ecosystem regimes’ legitimacy. International Envi- conservation: a landscape assessment of Marketplace (available at: http://www. ronmental Agreements: Politics, Law & an emerging market (available at http://www. ecosystemmarketplace.com/pages/ Economics, 9(2): 153–171. naturevesttnc.org/pdf/InvestingIn dynamic/resources.library.page.php?page_ Bowen, F. & Aragon-Correa, J.A. 2014. Conservation_Report.pdf). id=7599§ion=home). Greenwashing in corporate environmental- Goldstein, A. & Gonzalez, G. 2014. Turning WWF. 2014. Living Planet Report 2014. ism research and practice. The importance over a new leaf: State of the Forest Carbon Species and spaces, people and places. of what we say and do. Organization & Markets 2014. Forest Trends (available at McLellan, R., Iyengar, L., Jeffries, B. & Environment, 27(2): 107–112. http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/ Oerlemans, N., eds. Gland, Switzerland, Center for Global Development & Social files/doc_4770.pdf). WWF. u F inance. 2013. Investing in social outcomes: H ulse, J., Crosbie, L., McCoy, K., development impact bonds. Report of the W alker, N. & Davis, F. 2013. The forest Development Impact Bond Working Group footprint disclosure annual review 2012. (available at http://international.cgdev. Oxford, UK, Global Canopy Programme. org/sites/default/files/investing-in-social- Kissinger, G., Morogo, M. & Noponen, M. outcomes-development-impact-bonds.pdf). 2015. Private sector investment in land- Clapp, J. 2005. Global environmental scape approaches: the role of production governance for corporate responsibility standards and certification. In Minang, and accountability. Global Environmental P.A., van Noordwijk, M., Freeman, O.E., Politics, 5(3): 23–34. Mbow, C., de Leeuw, J. & Catacutan, D. Coutts Million Dollar Donors Report. 2014 Climate-smart landscapes: multifunction- (available at http://philanthropy.coutts.com/ ality in practice. Nairobi, Kenya, World en/reports/2014/executive-summary.html). Agroforestry Centre.

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fao forestry

FAO European Forestry Commission highlighted sustainable management of Europe’s forests Hosted by Switzerland in the town of Engelberg, the joint session of the FAO European Forestry Commission and the UNECE Committee on Forests and the Forest Industry (Silva2015) took place on 2–6 November, concurrently with European Forest Week 2015. Sustainable management of forests, which cover 33 percent of Europe’s land area, was a major focus of the meeting. Government representatives, forest owners, businesses, envi- ronmental NGOs, academics and students attended the event,

© FAO which also focused on the role of sustainable forest industries in Landscape in Morocco the region’s economy. The session reviewed recent global and regional policy develop- The Forest Communicators Network ments and their impact on Europe’s forestry agenda, including the in the Mediterranean and Near East recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals and the outcomes reinforced its pledge to increase the visibility of the XIV , held in South Africa in September. of forest issues in the region Other topics of discussion included the region’s action plans for Communications experts from Algeria, France, Greece, Lebanon, biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation and adapta- Morocco, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey met on 9–11 November 2015 in tion, as well as the need for countries to recognize the “invisible” Rabat, Morocco. The network agreed on a series of commitments contribution of forests to human safety and wellbeing, such as soil that include stepping up communication on the need to boost the stabilization, protection against avalanches and landslides, and water resilience of the region’s forests to increasing threats – largely from filtration. The need to modernize forestry education and unleash climate change, fire, , pests and diseases. untapped potential for women and young people to play a stronger The network pledged to define a common vision and clear messag- role in achieving the sustainable management of forests was also ing for the region’s forests to improve cooperation on communication on the agenda. issues, and to advocate for communication to be incorporated into Meeting every two years, the European Forestry Commission policy decisions and planning from the outset. Facilitated by FAO (EFC) is one of six Regional Forestry Commissions established by with support from GIZ and the governments of Austria and Finland, FAO to provide a forum for countries to discuss and address forest the workshop also provided participants with capacity-building to issues on a regional basis. refresh social media skills. More information about the regional Forest Communicators Networks can be found here: http://www.fao.org/forestry/communication-toolkit/en © Inger M © Inger a r i e Mulv “Morning in Dyrehaven”, shortlisted

entry in the European Forest Week a “Value of forests” photo competition d

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world of forestry © FAO/ Gi useppe C useppe a r o tenut o

XIV World Forestry The XIV World Forestry Congress stressed Congress session the need to “invest in a sustainable future” Approximately 4000 people from 138 countries met at the XIV World Forestry Congress, held in Durban, South Africa, on 7–11 September It further emphasizes the need to integrate forests and trees with 2015. The Congress, held on the theme “Forests and people: investing other land uses such as agriculture, in order to address the causes in a sustainable future”, was hosted by the Republic of South Africa of deforestation and conflict over land. with the support of FAO. Participants included representatives from Other Congress outcomes included a message to the United Nations civil society, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental Sustainable Development Summit regarding forests’ role in achieving organizations, universities and the private sector as well as around the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a message to the 30 ministers and deputy ministers. 2015 Paris Climate Change Conference, and a five-year forests and One of the main outcomes of the Congress was the Durban water action plan. Declaration, which sets out the Congress’s vision of how forests For more information on the World Forestry Congress and the and forestry should look in 2050. The declaration outlines a series Durban Declaration, see www.fao.org/forestry/wfc of actions, including further investment in forest education, com- munication, research and the creation of jobs, especially for young people. It also stresses the need for new partnerships among the forest, agriculture, finance, energy, water and other sectors, and strong engagement with indigenous peoples and local communities.

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The 12th Conference of the Parties of the An agreement reached at the conference aims to ensure that the UN Convention to Combat Desertification amount of healthy and productive land remains stable from 2030. focused on the links between land, climate This is a direct response to one of the Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals Goal targets for 2030, which is to combat desertification and restore Held in Ankara, Turkey on 12–23 October, UNCCD COP 12 brought degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, together a number of high-level speakers, including the new COP 12 drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land-degradation-neutral President, Veysel Eroğlu, Minister of Forestry and Water Affairs of world. Parties also agreed on the indicators to be used, not only to Turkey, UNCCD Executive Secretary Monique Barbut, and Nicolas measure progress, but also to strengthen measures to make the Hulot, Special Advisor to the President of France. land resilient to climate change and to halt the biodiversity loss that The interlinkages among desertification, land degradation and follows the destruction of ecosystems. drought, food insecurity, migration, conflict and political instability were highlighted, with land restoration and afforestation recognized as key parts of the solution, notably via the adoption of voluntary national targets on land degradation neutrality. Opening of UNCCD COP 12 D CC © UN

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books

More and better data about the world’s forests The role of trees and forests in drylands

Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 – How are the world’s forests changing? Global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in 2015. Rome, FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-108821-0. drylands – building resilience and benefiting livelihoods. 2015. FAO Forestry The contributions of forests to the well-being of humankind are far- Paper 175. Rome, FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-108912-5. reaching. Forests provide vital wood supplies and help to combat Drylands cover 41 percent of the earth’s land surface and are home to rural poverty, ensure food security and provide decent livelihoods; 2 billion people. They face extraordinary challenges, including those they offer promising mid-term green growth opportunities; and they posed by desertification, biodiversity loss, poverty, food insecurity deliver vital long-term environmental services, such as clean air and climate change. Up to 20 percent of the world’s drylands are and water, biodiversity, and mitigation of climate change. Building degraded, and people living there are often locked into a vicious circle on data that are more comprehensive and reliable than ever before, of poverty, unsustainable practices and environmental degradation. covering 234 countries and territories, the Global Forest Resources These guidelines call for serious efforts to be made to arrest dryland Assessment 2015 (FRA 2015) shows encouraging signs of improved degradation and restore degraded lands. The first of their kind, the forest management and a global slowdown in deforestation. However guidelines target two main groups – policymakers and other decision- these trends need to be strengthened, especially in countries that makers, and practitioners – because both have the power to bring are lagging behind. about positive change. While they should be tailored to suit regional FRA 2015 draws upon efforts by the Collaborative Forest Resources and local contexts, they present the essential components for the Questionnaire (CFRQ), an initiative developed by FAO together with design, implementation and sustainability of restoration initiatives that regional data collection partners to jointly collect, analyse and report can help build ecological and social resilience and generate benefits forest data. The CFRQ covers 104 countries, representing some for local livelihoods. 88 percent of the world’s forests. It is the successful result of the As illustrated by the case studies provided, the guidelines propose joint commitment of several organizations to simplify and harmonize a vast range of actions, from on-the-ground activities such as habitat forest-related reporting while reducing countries’ reporting burden. protection, assisted natural regeneration, sand-dune stabilization and The six partners working to implement the CFRQ for reporting in planting, to policy improvements, provision of financial incentives, 2015 are the Central African Forest Commission (COMIFAC/OFAC), capacity development, and continuous monitoring and learning. FAO Forestry, FOREST EUROPE, the International Tropical Timber Moreover, they show that restoration needs to be considered across Organization (ITTO), the Montréal Process and the United Nations the entire market value chain, from seed to end-product, as well as Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). at the landscape level, including the mosaic of land uses, needs and Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf expectations of interest groups. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5036e.pdf

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Forests’ role in reducing hunger and malnutrition Tropical forest management 50 years ago

Forests and food: addressing hunger and nutrition across sustainable landscapes. Ecological basis of rainforest management. G. Baur. 1964. Rome, FAO. B. Vira, C. Wildburger & S. Mansourian. 2015. ISBN 978-17-8-374193-9. This book was published over 50 years ago, but remains of interest As population estimates for 2050 reach over 9 billion, issues of today. It was recently digitized so that forest managers, particularly food security and nutrition have been dominating academic and those engaged in forest restoration, can benefit from its exhaustive policy debates. A total of 805 million people are undernourished synthesis of what was known in the early 1960s about rainforest ecol- worldwide and malnutrition affects nearly every country on the ogy and silviculture. Much of the supporting material that it quotes planet. Despite impressive productivity increases, there is grow- is from grey literature that is now difficult to locate. ing evidence that conventional agricultural strategies fall short of In the early 1960s large areas of natural rainforest still existed eliminating global hunger, as well as having long-term ecological across the world’s tropics and there was a strong demand for rain- consequences. Forests can play an important role in complement- forest timbers. Most forestry departments assumed that logging could ing agricultural production to address the Sustainable Development be made sustainable provided appropriate silvicultural techniques Goals on zero hunger. Forests and trees can be managed to provide could be developed and applied. This publication reviews the state better and more nutritionally-balanced diets, greater control over of knowledge at the time and discusses how it was being used to food inputs – particularly during lean seasons and periods of vulner- develop systems to ensure regeneration after logging and boost ability (especially for marginalized groups)—and deliver ecosystem growth in secondary forest stands. In addition to chapters dealing services for crop production. However forests are undergoing a with environmental conditions, floristics and reproduction, there rapid and complex process of degradation, which governments are are chapters concerning some of the more common silvicultural struggling to reverse. systems then in use. It also discusses enrichment planting when This volume provides evidence and insights about the potential natural regeneration is insufficient and deals with methods of stand of forests to reduce global hunger and malnutrition, and the gov- treatment to boost tree growth. ernance approaches that are required. The publication will be of Today, there is less forest and much of what remains has been so interest to researchers, students, NGOs and government depart- badly logged it is now highly degraded. Due to corruption and politi- ments responsible for agriculture, forestry, food security and poverty cal interference, much of the knowledge described by Baur has not alleviation around the globe. been used. There are large areas of secondary or regrowth forests, The book is based on the Global Forest Expert Panel report on as well as degraded lands in which grasses have replaced trees. forests and food security produced by the International Union of Management objectives have also changed; rather than emphasiz- Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO). ing timber production there is now a greater emphasis on watershed protection, carbon storage or biodiversity conservation. Baur’s review of experiences will provide present-day managers and researchers with useful insights. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-ax363e.pdf

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REDD+ and forest ecosystems in Zambia Forests, women and climate change

Benefits of forest ecosystems in Zambia and the role of REDD+ in a green economy Mainstreaming gender into forest policies in Asia and the Pacific. 2015. Bangkok, transformation. J. Turpie, B. Warr & J. Carter-Ingram. 2015. Nairobi, UNEP. FAO and Center for People and Forests (RECOFTC). ISBN 978-92-807-3452-2. This publication highlights the role of women in national strategies to Zambia has one of the highest per capita deforestation rates in improve forest management, confirming the key part that they play Africa, despite the key role that forests have to play in sustaining in managing and protecting forests in the Asian region. the country’s economy and enhancing human well-being. This pub- It looks into the way that gender perspectives are integrated into the lication examines the potential of REDD+ to reverse the trend and forest policies of Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, transition towards a green economy. Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam, providing a comprehensive over- It looks into the economic rationale for prioritizing REDD+ imple- view of each. Nepal and the Philippines provide particularly inter- mentation by demonstrating the economic benefits of doing so. It esting examples of the integration of gender perspectives into their assesses the values of forests in the form of wood production (for policies and strategies, despite the challenges they are facing in timber, fuelwood and charcoal) and non-wood forest products, such implementation. as wild foods and medicines. It also looks at regulatory and cultural The analysis suggests that having gender-integrated forest poli- services, such as nature-related tourism, climate regulation through cies alone is not enough to reduce pervasive inequalities. Policies carbon sequestration, retention of sediment for erosion control, must be supported by technical expertise for facilitating implemen- r e g u l at i o n of wate r fl ow a n d wate r q ua l i t y, a n d s u p p o r t f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l tation and practice. Moreover, clear targets, guidelines, strategies production through pest control and pollination. and action plans, supported by adequate budgets and institutional The study is expected to elevate the importance of sustainable mechanisms in forestry departments and agencies, must be in place forest management and conservation in national policy, notably so that gender mainstreaming becomes an achievable milestone. through the national REDD+ strategy. The report provides practical recommendations, such as convening Available online: http://www.unredd.net/index.php?view=download national dialogues and consultation meetings to discuss gender gaps &alias=14059-benefits-of-forest-ecosystems-in-zambia-and- in forest policies and practices and to promote learning networks; the-role-of-redd-in-a-green-economy-transformation&category_ conducting gender-sensitive research and developing the capacity slug=forest-ecosystem-valuation-and-economics&option=com_ of relevant stakeholders; establishing gender working groups; and docman&Itemid=134 reviewing and re-working existing management structures to create more gender-balanced forestry institutions and increase women’s representation in decision-making. It also recommends the set- ting up of gender-sensitive monitoring and evaluation systems with gender-responsive budgeting. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/rap/files/ meetings/2015/150212_final_report.pdf

Unasylva 245, Vol. 66, 2015/3 Enter the Electronic subscription to Global Forest Unasylva Would you like to continue receiving a hard copy of Resources Unasylva or would you rather receive it electronically – Assessment or perhaps both? If you wish to substitute your hard-copy subscription for 2015 app electronic-only, please write to [email protected] with “Electronic subscription only” in the subject line. competition! If you wish to receive both a hard copy and an electronic copy, please write to [email protected] with “Electronic and hard-copy subscription” in the subject line. Please provide the relevant contact details in the email. Unasylva will continue to be a free-subscription journal available in English, French and Spanish. Following the release of FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2015, FAO is launching the “25 years of forest change: Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 aappp competition”. Participants are inviteedd Call for events at to come up with mobile applicationsns that can help better manage our Asia-Pacific Forestry Week 2016 forest resources and improve understanding of forests worldwide. Submissions will be accepted until FAF O and its partners invite people The app should be based on the 24:00:00 CET on 21 January 2016. iinterested in, and committed to, sustainable FRA 2015 dataset, available via the First prize is a US$2 000 paid forestf management in Asia and the Pacific Forest Land Use Data Explorer (FLUDE) assignment with FAO’s Forestry tot come together for Asia-Pacific Forestry online portal: http://www.fao.org/ Department to work on dissemination WeW ek (APFW) in Clark Freeport Zone, forest-resources-assessment/ and outreach for the app. A tablet will tht e Philippines, 22–26 February 2016. explore-data/flude/en/. be awarded to up to three runners-up. HeldH in conjunction with the 26th Session Target users include the scientific The award ceremony will take place on ofo the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, community, experts, policymakers 21 March 2016, the UN International APA FW 2016 will be one of the most and/or the general public. Day of Forests. imi portant forestry gatherings in the region ini 2016. Organizations with an interest in forestf ry in the region are invited to run theit r own partner events during the Week. For more information on how to enter, EvE ent applications close 15 December. go to http://www.fao.org/ FoF r more information, go to forest-resources-assessment/ hth tp://www.fao.org/about/ app-contest/en/ meetingsm /asia-pacific-forestry-week/en/ [email protected] www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva I5212E/1/12.15