Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11843-0 — Australian Vegetation Edited by David A

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-11843-0 — Australian Vegetation Edited by David A. Keith Index More Information

INDEX

abiotic ilters. See environmental ilters bush medicine plants, 91–93, 102, 105 cibaria, 633 Aboriginal burning, 82, 96–98, 113 contemporary uses and manipulation coriacea, 394 arid zone, 97 of vegetation, 99–105 cowleana, 400 as landscape management tool, demography, 89 cretata, 400 114–15 Dreaming beliefs, 90, 94 dealbata, 165, 424, 526 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, ecosystem scale manipulation, 96–99 distribution, northern and southern 394, 398 hunter-gatherer-manager practices, 99 Australia, 159 grasslands, 445, 447 impact on Australian vegetation, diversiication, 51 grassy woodlands, 423 82, 89 elachantha, 400 hummock grasslands, 663 in hummock grasslands, 652–54, 663 eriopoda, 630 impacts on vegetation, 96–98, in Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, estrophiolata, 627, 634, 639, 642 114–15, 126 571, 588–89 excelsa, 634 inclusion in contemporary land in rainforests, 80, 259 ire feedbacks, 121 management practices, 100 land ownership, 90 ire sensitivity, 401 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, manipulation of ecosystems, 94 ire-cued seeding, 400 589 other plant-based economic materials, lower production, 185 protected burn strategies, 98, 115 93–94 lowering and seed development, 232 rainforests, 80 plant based enterprises, 93, 102 georginae, 626, 627, 633, 636, 659 savannas, 97–98, 377 plant harvesting, 95–96, 102 harpophylla, 390, 391, 392, 397, 400, signiicance in creating vegetation plant trade with maritime traders and 525, 643 patterns, 115 explorers, 96 hemiglauca, 640 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 411, population luctuations, 90 homalophylla, 390 424, 427 tribal groups and languages, 89 kempeana, 634, 638, 639 tropical rainforests, 97 uses of plants, 90–94, 100, 102–5, 667 laccata, 400 Aboriginal management Aboriginal plant names, 90, 390, 571, latzii, 642 blending with Western scientiic 575, 588 ligulata, 235, 633, 636, 638, 640, 659 methods, 100 Aboriginal Rangers, 90, 93, 99, 100, loderi, 241, 633, 635, 643 contemporary land management 104, 105 longispicata, 400 initiatives, 99, 100 Aboriginal rights, 99 melanoxylon, 264, 526 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, 591 Abrus precatorius, 94 melleodora, 400 native fruit trees, 95, 102 Abutilon oxycarpum, 392 Microneurae group, 390 of plants and vegetation in Acacia, 51, 122, 290, 317, 351, 419, 421, nitrogen ixation, 165, 170 pre-European times, 94–99 428, 525, 599, 626, 659, 678 obligate seeders, 400 reserves, 691 ammophila, 642, 643 oleifolius, 636 savannas, 369, 381 ampliceps, 526 oswaldii, 241, 627, 633, 636, 638, 640 species dispersal, 96 ancistrocarpa, 630 papyrocarpa, 611, 612, 633, 635, 636, species harvest, 95–96 aneura, 397, 627, 630–32, 636, 637, 637, 638, 640 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 431 638, 639, 640, 641, 642 pendula, 390, 525, 633, 643 vegetation, National Parks and taxonomic status, 630–32 peuce, 241, 626, 627, 636, 640, 642 Indigenous Protected Areas, brachystachya, 633 pickardii, 642, 643 102, 104 bulbosa, 71 pulchella, 165, 351 wetlands, 98–99, 509 calcicola, 626, 633 ramulosa, 633, 635, 640 Aboriginal people, 678, 683 cambagei, 390, 626, 633 resinimarginea, 633 arrival in Australia, 90 carneorum, 627, 633, 636, 638, 640, salicina, 525 bush foods, 90–91, 102, 105 642, 643 savannas, 372

712 Index

Acacia (cont.) aerial roots, 551, 559 origins, 465 sclerosperma, 633 African boxthorn, 209 tourism effects, 482 seed banks, 241 African lovegrass, 427, 451 vegetation dynamics, 478–79 seed dispersal, 235 African olive, 209, 212, 221 alpine lora, 56, 169 seed production, 186 African rubber vine, 216, 222, 393 abiotic and biotic interactions, 476–78 seedling herbivory, 587 Agathis, 70, 80 biomass accumulation, 478 seeds use by Aboriginal people, 91 agricultural introduced plants, 209, 210, germination strategies, 476 sibricia, 633 213, 215 growth habit, 461, 473 stenophylla, 235, 525, 527, 633, 639 agriculture, 299, 331, 359, 411. See also origins, 465–66 stowardii, 633 land clearing; pastoralism recruitment, 475–76 suaveolens, 185 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, relative neighbour effect, 477 tenuissima, 400 401–2 resistance to freezing, 476 tephrina, 390 coastal wetlands, 503 seed dispersal, 238 tumida, 630 fertiliser use, 686 west-to-east dispersal, 466 undoolyana, 642, 643 land clearing for, 683 alpine forests, 192 unguicula, 639, 642 temperate eucalypt woodlands, alpine heathlands, 478 vernicilua, 400 426–27 alpine herbields, 468, 469, 473, 475, woodmaniorum, 642, 643 tropical and subtropical grasslands, 478, 482 xiphophylla, 633 442 Alpine National Park, 482 Acaena magellanica, 480 tussock grasslands, 450, 452 alpine sedgelands, 467, 469 Acetosella vulgaris, 216, 480 Agrostis Alpine Sphagnum Bogs and Associated acid soils, 27 capillaris, 216 Fens ecological community, 505 acid sulfate soils, 504 magellanica, 480 alpine vegetation, 461–83 Acidonia, 506 air pollution, 686 adaptive mechanisms to cold, 475 Aciphylla, 466 Aizoaceae, 26, 395 and drought, 476 glacialis, 476 Alchemilla xanthochlora, 466 climate change effects, 481–82 Acradenia frankliniae, 526 Alectryon, 635 cold environment, 475 Acrostichum, 547 oleifolius, 633 community nomenclature, 466–67 Acrotriche, 185 alien plants. See invasive plants distribution, 462 actinorhizal nitrogen ixation root alliances, 12 of communities, 467 nodules, 173 Allocasuarina, 77, 80, 173, 290, 291, environmental gradients and their Actinostrobus, 349 440 inluence on community actual evapotranspiration (AET), 321 campestris, 147 distributions, 467–75 Adansonia gregorii, 96, 264 torulosa, 73 ire effects, 478–79 adaptations. See also ire adaptations verticillata, 77 Gondwanan origins, 466 alpine vegetation, 475 allopatric speciation, 49 grazing impacts, 479–80, 688 chenopod species, 608–9 Allosyncarpia, 284 growing season, 475 mangroves, 551, 553 ternata, 100, 264 management and conservation, of plants to climate change, 196–97 Alloteropsis, 372 482–83 root, 529 Alloxylon, 49 soil types, 467 roots, 166 alluvial soils taxa, 461 saltmarsh species, 553 arid shrublands, 633 threatening processes and conserva- to drought, 328, 351, 353 alpine ash, 119, 128 tion, 479–83 Triodia species, 655 alpine bogs and fens, 505–6 water and snow effects on community wetland plants, 494 threats, 505–6 distribution, 467–69 adaptive capacity, 697 alpine ecosystems wind and exposure effects, 473–75 adaptive management, 643, 644 intrusives, 17 alpine zone, 462 adhesive cements, 94 alpine environments, 461–62 Alternanthera philoxeroides, 217, 221 adult stage, 231 environmental legislation, 482 Alternate Stable States theory, 329 Aegiceras corniculatum, 555 ire effects, 478–79 alternative stable state model, 119 aerenchymatous roots, 529 invasive plants, 216–17, 216–17 aluminium, 6, 27, 343

Index 713

Amaranthaceae, 17, 26, 392, 442, 501, anthropogenic disturbance fodder harvesting, 641 504, 535, 549, 553, 599, 635 and exotic plant species, 210, 216, 217 future directions, 643–44 Cenozoic history, 52–53 rainforests, 259 grazing impacts, 640–41, 641, 643 pollen assemblages, 68 Antidesma ghaesembilla, 102 human impact, 639–42 ambient factors, 6 ants non-Acacia vegetation types, 626 amino acids, 164 dispersal, 25 nutrient environment, 24 ammonium, 163, 165 role in hummock grasslands, 665 pastoralism, 641, 644 Amphibious group (wetland plants), 494, seed dispersal, 234, 235, 237, 345, physical environment modifying 495–96 357, 425, 638 effects, 636–37 Amphibromus luitans, 504 seed removal, 637 plant-animal interactions, 637–38 Amyema, 638 Apiaceae, 238 rainfall effects, 635–36, 637 Anarthriaceae, 358 Apis mellifera, 638 recruitment, 636 ancestors, 16, 48, 52, 357, 465, 600 Apium prostratum, 549 research, 627 Ancistrachne uncinulata, 392 apple-bush, 93 research centres, 627 Andropogon gayanus, 126, 213, 687 aquatic C4 grasses, 214 shrub encroachment, 627, 641 anemochory, 234, 235 aquatic forbs, 501 soil types, 630, 633, 635 angiosperms aquatic herblands, 504 species endemism, 633, 634, 635 diversiication, 114 aquatic plants, 25, 169 structure and loristics, 635 origins, 43 aquatic weeds, 210, 211, 217, 221, 496, threatended species, 642–43 Angophora, 53, 284, 317 507, 508 threatened communities, 643 pollen assemblages, 68 aquifer systems understorey, 635 animal dispersal, 234, 235, 237, 269, and spring wetlands, 502 understory, 635 425, 638 Araucaria, 70, 81 arid subsucculent shrublands, 17, 24, animal pollination, 233, 355 bidwillii, 91, 97 25, 26 animal pollinators, 355 Araucariaceae, 48, 70, 71 arid tussock grasslands, 442 Annual Evapotranspiration Deicit Quaternary, 74 distribution, 442 (ETD), 321 arboreal folivores, 135 ephemeral forbs, 442 annual herbs and grasses arboreal mammals, 284 grazing effects, 442 as weeds, 210, 211 arbuscular mycorrhizas, 166, 167, 173 soil types, 442 annual plants Archidendron, 51 arid vegetation and grazing, 142 Archidendropsis basaltica, 393 burning impacts, 97 Anodopetalum biglandulosum, 265, arid ecosystems post-glacial warming, 77 290, 294 factors inluencing survival and arid zone, 17, 23, 25, 43, 51, 52 Anopterus glandulosus, 290 growth, 244 burning practices, 97 Antarctic Circumpolar Current, 466 pulse-and-reserve model, 627, 635, Callitris and Actinostrobus, 48 Antarctic Cold Reversal, 77 639 desert loodplain wetlands, 500–501 Antarctic lora, 40, 48 soil seed banks, 188, 241 diversiication, 56 Antarctica Arid Samphire Shrublands, 603 expansion, 55 ice core records arid shrublands, 184, 626–44 high temperatures, 26 late Quaternary, 66 Acacia-dominated plant communities, Indigenous food use, 91 LGM, 76 626–27 invasive plants, 215–16 oceanic and atmospheric changes, 64 climate change, 639, 643 plant conrtaction through climate post glacial warmth, 78 competition and facilitation, 637 change, 194 sea ice, 76 conservation, 642–43 rainfall and seed bank dynamics, 188 Anthosachne, 441 distribution and biogeography, aridiication, 47, 49, 52, 54–55, 64, plurinervis, 442 629–34 677 scabra, 421 diversity, 629–34 and disjunctions, 56 Anthoxanthum odoratum, 217 drought, 636 and the increase in ire, 55 anthropogenic climate change, 183 ecological interactions, 635–39 aridity, 144, 420, 421 anthropogenic dispersal exotic pasture grass effects, 642 last glacial maximum, 77 riparian weeds, 217 ire effects, 638–39, 643 Arillastrum, 53

714 Index

Aristida, 372, 419, 420, 421, 428, 616, dynamics on ine-textured soils, 614–15 Baeckea, 351 635, 663 grazing effects, 614–16, 617–18, Banbai Rangers, 104 contorta, 635 618–19 banded vegetation, 630, 636, 637 holathera, 635 Atriplex vesicaria – Maireana spp. Banksia, 41, 53, 54, 55, 317, 349, Armillaria luteobubalinia, 304 community 678, 686 Arnhem Land dynamics on course-textured soils, attenuata, 125 Indigenous burning management 615–18 bird pollinators, 233 practices, 100 grazing effects, 617–18, 618 candolleana, 351 art materials AusPlots, 659–60 canopy stored seed banks, 240 from plant sources, 94 Australia cluster roots, 170 Arthropodium, 419 historical geology, 45–46 diversiication, 49 artiicial wetlands, 507 Australian Alp Bioregion, 505 ericifolia, 355 characteristics, 507 Australian Alps evolution, 440 hydrological connectivity, 507 bogs and fens, 505–6 ire dependence, 114 Ascomycotina, 167 exotic plant species, 216–17 fossil leaves, 47, 55 asexual reproduction, 232 Australian Alps Bioregion, 505 fossil records, 49 Asparagales, 415 Australian plague locust, 136, 146 germination, 240 Asparagus, 209 Australian vegetation formations, 16 grandis, 162 asparagoides, 222 abiotic ilters, 25–27 hookeriana, 351, 353, 358 Astartea, 506 biotic drivers, 29–30 kingii, 71 Asteraceae, 17, 51, 71, 73, 238, 290, 345, characteristics, 7–12 menziesii, 125 415, 438, 442, 444, 461, 501, differentiation of plant traits, 20–21 ornata, 355 604, 635 disturbance drivers, 28 petiolaris, 353 clades, 56 disturbance regimes, 27–29 phylogeny, 49 diversiication, 52 drought tolerance and moisture prionotes, 162 last glacial maximum, 76, 77 exploitive ability, 22 range contractions through climate pollen assemblages, 68 hydrological niches, 22–23 change, 191, 194 wind dispersal, 234 indicative distributions, 14 resprouting, 125–26, 357 Asterales niche segregation, 19 robur, 355 Cenozoic history, 51–52 nutritional ilters, 23–25 root systems, 162, 353 Astereae, 52 resource ilers, 18–29 serotiny, 122 Astrebla, 215, 372, 441, 442, 449 species pools, 16–18 strahanensis, 71 Atalaya, 635, 659 Australian Weeds Strategy, 220 tricuspis, 358 hemiglauca, 393, 627, 634 Austrodanthonia, 142, 146, 614 Banksia woodlands, 125, 127 Atherosperma moschatum, 265, 290, 294 Austrostipa, 142, 419, 420, 421, 424, Barringtonia acutangula, 94, 520 Atherospermataceae, 48 428, 440, 441, 444, 450, 580, Basidiomycotina, 167 Atherton Tableland, Qld, 78–81 583, 586, 616 basket-making, 93 Athertonia, 49 aristiglumis, 442 bastard mulga, 633 Athrotaxis, 48, 466 lavescens, 444 Batis agrillicola, 549 cupressoides, 481, 685 scabra, 618 bats, 235, 270, 425 Atriplex, 26, 53, 419, 428, 599, 603, 604, stipoides, 444, 549, 555 Bauhinia 607, 611 autochthonous taxa carronii, 393 adaptive traits, 608–9 Gondwanan, 16, 17, 18, 27, 29, 43, gilva, 527 cinerea, 549 48, 600 Baumea, 526 holocarpa, 608 Hooker’s view, 41 bean tree, 93, 94 lindleyi, 611 available water capacity (AWC), 321, 324 Beauprea, 54 nummularia, 421, 603, 609, 610, 611 Avicennia, 551, 555, 557 Bedfordia, 290 paludosa, 555 germinans, 553 belah, 392, 395, 396, 397, 627 spongiosa, 603 marina, 549, 551, 553, 554, 555 bell miner associated dieback Atriplex vesicaria, 421, 603, 607, 609, Azolla, 503 (BMAD), 148 610, 612, 613, 619 Azorella macquariensis, 475, 480 wet sclerophyll forests, 302–3, 303

Index 715

Bellendena, 466 tussock grasslands, 448, 449 Bolboschoenus, 503 Ben Lomond National Park, Tas., 482 wet sclerophyll forests, 297 caldwellii, 553 bettongs, 141 biome assembly, 6, 7, 31 bolster heaths, 479 bilbies, 141 species pools, 16–18 Bombax ceiba, 102 billabongs biome shifts, 370, 655 boneseed, 209 deinition, 504 biomes, 16 boree, 390 Murray-Darling Basin loodplain, 504–5 hummock grasslands, 655 Boronia megastigma, 185 water regimes, 504 vegetation patterns, rainfall and Bossiaea, 290 wetland plant diversity, 504 temperature, 184 prostrata, 187 billy goat plum, 91, 102 Biosecurity Act 2015, 221 Bothriochloa, 372, 421, 428, 440, 441, biodiversity biosecurity measures, 696 442 hotspots, 216 biotic ilters, 7, 29 decipiens, 393 key threatening processes, 210, 213, competition, 29–30 ewartiana, 393, 394 685, 696 predation, 30 pertusa, 405 monitoring, 690–91 biotic interactions, 244, 476–78, 491 bowadga, 633 representation in reserves, 692 birds. See also waterbirds Bowenia, 91 biodiversity conservation. See and ire intervals, mallee eucalypts, box Eucalyptus woodlands, 390, 396, conservation 585 411, 420 biodiversity offsets, 694, 695 and habitat fragmentation, 270 conservation, 402 biogeochemical cycling, 157, 163–64, 423 as pollinators, 233, 355, 425 drought sensitivity, 400 biogeographical regionalisation cleared brigalow forests, 405 land clearing, 402 of bush food plants, 90–91 dispersal of arid shrubland species, 638 regeneration ecology, 400–401 biogeography, 5 dispersal of chenopods, 612 structure and composition, 393 and plate tectonic theory, 43 dispersal of cosmopolitan intrusives, 17 threatened species, 405 arid shrublands, 629–34 dispersal of leshy fruits, 209 understorey, 393 Burbidge’s analysis, 41 dispersal of saltmarsh propagules, 549 weed infestations, 393 chenopod shrublands, 601–3 dispersal of wetland propagules, 492 box-ironbark, 413 dry sclerophyll forests, 314–33 migratory, 466 Brachychiton, 375 elaborations of Hooker’s views, regulation of herbivorous insects, 426 diversifolius, 102 1860–1960, 41–43 seed dispersal, 235, 269, 345, 357, rupestris, 392, 393 evolutionary, Cenozoic Era, 40–57 638 Brachyscome, 52 halophytes, 547–49 seed predators, 233, 637 brackish wetlands, 445 heathlands, 341–43 threatened species, 619 bradyspory, 240 Hooker’s 19th Century insights, 40–41 bitou bush, 209, 215, 687 Brassicaceae, 17, 604 Humboldt’s work, 182 black bean, 91 bridal creeper, 222 hummock grasslands, 656 black box, 411, 525, 531, 532 brigalow, 12, 390, 397, 525 impact of phylogenetic methodology, black oak, 626 taxonomic grouping, 390 43–44 black walnut, 91 brigalow forests, 389 palaeobotanical progress since 1960, 44 blackbutt, 392, 396, 397 Aboriginal burning, 394, 398 recent meta-analyses and syntheses, 44 bloodroots, 94 bioregions, 393 biological control of weeds, 221–22 Blue Mountains, 77, 324 climate, 394–99 biological invasions, 17, 29 bluebushes, 599, 603 conservation, 402, 406 biological soil crusts, 138, 422, 607, 665 boab, 96, 264 distribution, 389 biomass bog soils, 505 drought, 394 alpine and sub-alpine loras, 478 Bogong Eyebright, 505 ecological characteristics, 392 and ire activity, 115, 116, 296 Bogong High Plains, 217, 476, 477, 478, environmental legislation, 404–5 and productivity, 13, 116 479, 481 loristic gradients, 393 brigalow and eucalypt communities, International Tundra Experiment, 481 general progression in, 394 406 bogs, 467, 473, 479, 482 grasslands amongst, 390, 394 mangrove root systems, 551 Australian Alps and Tasmania, 505–6 grazing and ire effects on loristics, 404 savannas, 375 characteristics, 505 invasion by exotic grasses, 405–6

716 Index

brigalow forests (cont.) and climate change, 382, 449 Capparis lasiantha, 392 land clearing, 401–2, 402 aquatic, 214 carbon dynamics mining, 406 distribution, 441 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, 406 opportunities for recovery, 406–7 dry sclerophyll forests, 315 savannas, 376, 382 patchy plain environments, 395 enhanced CO2 effects, 191 wet schlerophyll forests, 296–99, 304 regeneration ecology, 401 evolution, 52, 440–41, 655 carbon farming, 643 remnant vegetation, 402–4, 405, 406 exotic carbon pools structure and composition, 390–93 in temperate eucalypts woodlands, mangrove and saltmarsh soils, 557, threatened species, 404–5 427 560 weed infestation, 393 in tropical ecosystems, 213 carbon sequestration whip-stick form, 393, 400 impact of ire on evolution, 114 savannas, 376, 382 Brigalow-Gidgee woodland/shrubland, savannas, 369, 372, 382 Carex, 466 643 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 421 appressa, 467, 503 Bruguiera, 551, 555, 556 C4 photosynthesis, 23, 26, 52, 53, 382 breviculmis, 477 Brunoniella australis, 392 chenopods, 609 echinata, 466 bryophytes, 231, 258, 343, 422 C4 species, 26 gaudichaudiana, 467, 505 Buchanania, 372, 375 C4 tussock grasses, 438 Caring for Country programs, 99, 100 obovata, 91, 98, 102 distribution, 439 Carissa ovata, 392 buffalo, 100 cable roots, 551 carnivorous plants, 169, 170 buffel grass, 126, 210, 215, 216, 391, Cabomba caroliniana, 507 carnivory, 355 401, 406, 429, 452, 687 Cadellia pentastylis, 392 Carrichtera annua, 608 abundance, 405 Caladenia, 351 Cassinia, 421, 424 control through grazing, 406 calcareous soils Cassytha, 355 impact of invasion, 215 arid shrublands, 633, 635 Castanospermum australe, 91 invasiveness, arid ecosystems, 642, 666 calcium, 25, 27, 341, 353, 359 Casuarina, 80, 173, 184, 233, 599, 611 reasons for spread, 215 Callistemon cristata, 392, 395, 397, 633 Bulbine, 419 sieberi, 527 cunninghamiana, 525, 529 bunya pine, 91, 97 teretifolius, 194 glauca, 503, 547, 553 Burbidge, Nancy, 41 Callitriche antarctica, 473 obesa, 526 Bursaria, 372 Callitris, 71, 74, 126, 233 pauper, 627, 633, 636, 638, 639, 640 spinosa, 424 columellaris, 424 Casuarinaceae, 41, 53, 355, 358 bush food plants, 90–91, 102, 105, 684 lammability, 124, 586 last glacial maximum, 77 bush medicine plants, 91–93, 102, 105 glaucophylla, 424 nitrogen ixation, 170, 173 bush onion, 91, 95 intratropica, 100 pollen assemblages, 68 bush potato, 91 oblonga, 104, 526 Quaternary, 70, 71 bushwalking impacts, 482 strahanensis, 71 Stony Creek Basin, Vicoria, 73 Butjiringanging, 92 verrucosa, 585, 586, 587 catenary sequences, 159 buttress roots, 551 Calothamnus lateralis, 506 Celastraceae, 258 Byblis, 355 Caltha introloba Herbland Community, Celmisia pugioniformis, 477 482 Cenchrus C3 grasses, 142, 382, 421, 436 Calyceraceae, 51 ciliaris, 127, 210, 215, 391, 401, 405, and climate change, 449 camels, 138, 666 429, 452, 642, 666, 687 distribution, 441 Camphorosmeae, 53 polystachios, 213 enhanced CO2 effects, 191 canopy dieback, 146, 332 Cenozoic Era, 81, 582 C3 species, 26, 421 canopy ires, 122 evolutionary history, 40–57, 64 C3 trees, 369 canopy height, 23 Centaurium erythraea, 549 C3 tussock grasses, 438 canopy seed storage, 122, 240, 527 central NSW distribution, 439 canopy shredding, 268 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 C3 woody taxa Cape York Centrolepidaceae, 358, 506 response to CO2 increases, 196 tropical rainforests, 260 Cephalotus, 355, 506 C4 grasses, 17, 142, 525 Capparaceae, 258 Cerastium glomeratum, 216

Index 717

Ceratopetalum apetalum, 264 chenopod shrubs, 17, 26, 392, 424 arid shrublands, 635–36 Ceratophyllum demersum, 503, 520 adaptive traits, 608–9 brigalow vegetation and eucalypt Ceriops, 551, 555 herbivory, 612 woodlands, 394–99 tagal, 553, 556 leaves, 608 chenopod shrublands, 600 Channel Country legacy effect on the soil after removal, dry sclerophyll forests, 315, 320, 322, desert loodplains, 500 607 329–31 loods, 518 susceptible to grazing, 608 heathlands, 340, 341 Chara, 496 Chenopodiaceae, 52, 73, 395, 421 hummock grasslands, 661, 663 charophytes, 234, 496, 501 last glacial maximum, 76 inluence over vegetation patterns and chemical control of weeds, 221 Chenopodium, 599, 603 processes, 182–98 chenopod mallee, 577, 580, 584 auricomum, 501, 526 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, sheep grazing effects, 587 nitrariaceum, 610 577 chenopod shrublands, 184, 504, 599–620 Chilean needle grass, 210, 427, 452 rainfall and ire activity, 116 and salinity, 619 Chionochloa frigida, 467 savannas, 370–71 climate, 600 Chloridoid grasses, 441, 442, 444 sub-Antarctic islands, 461 components, 599 Chloris temperate eucalypt woodlands, 411, conservation, 619 gayana, 405 421 current status and threats, 620 truncata, 428, 444, 618 climate change, 689 distribution, 603–4 Christmas Island affect on population processes and Australia, 600–601 rainforest threats, 271 distribution, 183 worldwide, 600 chromium, 27 alpine bogs and fens, 506 distribution and longevity, 610 Chromolaena odorata, 270 alpine ecosystems, 481–82 ecological processes, 611–13 Chrysanthemoides monilifera, 209, and C4 grasses, 382 evolutionary biogrography, 601–3 215, 687 and conservation of vegetation, 696 ire effects, 619 Chrysopogon, 372, 374 and ire regimes, 127–28, 304, 685, grazing effects, 600, 608, 613, 614–16, fallax, 393, 394, 442 689 617–18, 618–19, 619 Cinnamomum camphora, 209, 270 interval squeeze conceptual model, groundstorey species, 606, 607, 612, Citrus glauca, 392 127, 190, 191 618, 620 clades, 16 landscape trap conceptual model, herbivore effects, 613–19 alpine lora, 56 127–28, 305 important genera, 599 Amaranthaceae, 53 and lowering, 186 individual plant scale patterns, 610–11 Asteraceae, 52, 56 and invasive exotic species, 217, 222, iniltration, 611 Callitris and Actinostrobus, 48 689 land clearance, 619 Ericaceae, 54 and seed dispersal, 236–38 landscape-scale plant distribution, 610 eucalypts, 51 arid shrublands, 639, 643 microtopography effects, 610–11 Eucalyptus, 53, 55 assessing ability of plants to adapt to, non-vascular plant community Fabaceae, 51 196–97 composition, 607–8 monsoom biome, 56 C3 and C4 grasses, 449 pastoralism, 600 Myrtaceae, 51 dry sclerophyll forests, 332–33 plant community composition drivers, Nothofagus, 48 Eocene, 47, 55 613–19 Poaceae, 52 evolutionary responses, 196 plant community structure, 603–4 Proteaceae, 49 halophytic communities, 561, 562 plant-plant interactions, 611–13, cladistics, 48 heathlands, 360 612–13 clear-felling, 301 human impacts and stress on species salt levels, 611 clearing and fragmentation threats and communities, 191 soil moisture effects, 610, 612 rainforests, 269–70 hummock grasslands, 667 soil nutrients, 611, 612 Clematis microphylla, 93 impact on dormancy and soil types, 600, 603, 607 climate, 16 germination, 188 threatened species, 619 and elevated CO2, 186 impact on plant population dynamics, vascular plant community composition, and ire frequency, 116, 117 184–85 604–7 and ire intensity, 116 indirect effects on vegetation, 190–91

718 Index

climate change (cont.) coastal loodplains, 500, 527, 534, 557, temperate eucalypt woodlands, Late Quaternary, 74–78, 80 561, 562 429–31 modelling responses to, 192–95 coastal grasslands, 444–45 tussock grasslands, 451–52 Oligocene, 47 coastal halophytic vegetation, 544–62 under climate change, 696 Paleocene, 47 cobalt, 27 wet schlerophyll forests, 299–300 plants adaptation to, 196–97 Cochlospermum, 375 continental drift, 43 Pleistocene, 272, 678 cold environments continental ice sheets, 67 predicting impacts and vegetation abiotic and biotic interactions, 476–78 contraction, 49, 55, 67, 73, 74, 97, 191, distribution, 192–97 experienced by plants, 475 192, 196, 222, 258, 272, 322, Quaternary, 65, 67, 71 plant recruitment, 475–76 370, 380, 394, 429, 561 rainforest impacts, 272 vegetation dynamics, 478–79 Cookson, Isabel, 41 savannas, 381–82 cold stratiication, 187, 239, 476 cool temperate rainforests, 265 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 428–29 cold temperatures, 26 cool temperate Tasmania tussock grasslands, 449–50 colonisation, 230 wet sclerophyll forests, 292 wet sclerophyll forests, 304–5 common carp, 491, 505 cool temperate Victoria and southeast wetland hydrology, 508 Commonwealth Plant Introduction NSW climate disruption, 303, 304–5 Scheme, 209 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 climate variability community assembly theory, 5–7, 32 coolatai grass, 427, 452 Early Pleistocene, 74 community-level species distribution coolibah, 411, 525, 531, 532, 533 climatic climax, 13, 16 models, 192 cooling, 47, 76 climatic oscillations competitive ability, 19 late Cenozoic, 64 Pleistocene, 17 competitive interactions, 7, 29–30, 477 late Quaternary, 66 Quaternary, 65–67 arid shrublands, 637 copperburrs, 604, 618 clonal propagation, 476 coniferous (boreal) forests, 5, 16 Coprosma quadriida, 526 closed forests, 73 conifers, 41, 47, 56 Coral Sea, 519 closed-canopy rainforests, 80 Cenozoic history, 47–48 coralloid roots, 173 cloud cover, 25 Quaternary, 71 correlative species distribution models, cloud forests, 189, 192, 238, 240, 246 Conospermum, 54, 357 192, 195, 196 cloud-stripping, 266 conservation, 104. See also protected Corymbia, 53, 55, 56, 283, 284, 317, 659 cluster rooted plants, 169, 170 areas bella, 520 CO2 levels alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, calophylla, 292, 413 affect on dormancy, 188 482–83 climate change effects, 194 fertilisation effect, 191, 195 arid shrublands, 642–43 greeniana, 630 impacts on grassland communities, Australian vegetation, 677–702 maculata, 291 191, 450 brigalow forests and eucalypt pollen assemblages, 68 impacts on halophytic communities, woodlands, 402, 406 porrecta, 379 560 chenopod shrublands, 619 savannas, 372 impacts on savannas, 382 exemptions, 695 Corystosperms, 54 plant water use and growth, 190 loodplain and riverine woody Cosmelia, 506 temperature and seed production, 186 environments, 533–36 cosmopolitan intrusives, 16, 17, 29 vegetation response, 191–92 halophytic communities, 562 Cotula coronopifolia, 549 coal mining, 406 heathlands, 359 coupe size, 301 coal seam gas, 406 hummock grasslands, 666 covenants, 694 coarse woody debris, 296 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, Craspedia lamicola, 481 coastal ecosystems 590–91 Cretaceous, 17, 28, 43, 114, 440, 461 substrate salinity, 26 management, 695–97 chenopods, 600 coastal loodplain wetlands, 503–4 policies and regulatory instruments, Gondwanan landmasses, 45–46 drainage and control structures, 503 692–95 Proteaceae ire adaptation, 53 environmental protection, 561 rainforests, 269–72 Crotalaria, 659 importance of, 503 regulatory burden and costs of cunninghamii, 93 plant communities, 503 compliance, 695 novae-hollandiae, 93

Index 719

crown ires, 122 density dependant mortality and environmental change, Cryptostegia grandilora, 216, 222, 393 woodlands, 531 236–38 culturally signiicant plants, 104 derived grasslands, 445–46 and immigration, 54 cumbungi, 91, 98 Deschampsia cespitosa, 466 anemochory (wind), 234, 235 Cunoniaceae, 27, 78, 258, 290 desert, 12, 677 hydrochory (water), 234, 235, 492, Cupressaceae, 48, 71, 349, 358 desert complex environments, 652 494, 527 Cuscuta, 355 desert loodplain wetlands, 500–501 key mechanisms, 234 cushion heaths, 479 families represented, 501 long distance, 41, 43, 49, 52, 54, 235, cushion plants, 461, 467, 473, 475 seed dispersal, 491 237 dieback, 480 threats to, 501 variation within genera and species, cut lowers, 684 desertiication, 627, 639 235–36 cyanobacteria, 170, 173, 547, 553, 557, Desmodium, 51, 421 wetland biota, 491–94 607, 665 detritivores, 136, 147–48, 637, 665 zoochory (animals), 234, 235, 237, cycads, 91, 173 Dharawal, NSW 357 Cycas, 91 heathlands, 345–46 dispersal capability media, 97 Dichanthium, 372, 421, 440, 441, 442, vegetation classes, NSW, 237–38 cyclical succession, 478 448, 450, 520 Dissocarpus cyclones sericeum, 390, 393 bilorus, 549 and fragmentation of tropical dieback. See also forest dieback paradoxus, 618 rainforests, 270 Atriplex vesicaria, 613 Distichium, 535 and rainforest distribution, 267, 268 Macquarie Island, 480 Distichlis distichophylla, 555 savannas, 380 rainforests, 271 disturbance ecology Cymbopogon, 421 Snowy Mountains, 481 alpine and sub-alpine environments, Cyperaceae, 56, 170, 345, 355, 358, 438, Diels’ vegetation maps, 30, 183 478–79 461, 501, 502, 504, 553 Digitaria, 441, 450 and reproduction cues, 232 Cyperus, 501 divaricatissima, 442 tussock grasslands, 449 bulbosus, 91, 95 Dilleniaceae, 238, 290, 317, 421 wet schlerophyll forests, 292–96 gymnocaulos, 93 dingoes, 138 disturbance regimes, 6, 27–28, 685 Cytisus scoparius, 217, 480, 687 Dioscorea, 95 ires, 28, 292–96 bulbifera, 91, 97 loods, 28–29 Dacrycarpus, 47, 70 sativa, 95 diversiication, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, carpenterii, 71 transversa, 91 114, 581, 678 Dacrydium, 47, 70, 284 direct effects diversity, 3. See also species diversity Dactyloctenium radulans, 146, 636 herbivores, 136, 148 and mycorhhizas, 173 Danthonioideae, 52 invertebrate herbivores, 146–47 and soil age and heterogeneity, 158 Danthonioids, 56, 441 vertebrate herbivores, 139–41 decline, sclerophyll lora, SCB, 74 Darwin, Charles, 41 direct harvesting, 684 promoted through ires, 28 dauciform roots, 170 discharge springs, 492, 502 rainforests, late glacial transition, 80 Daviesia, 317 disease impacts southwestern Australia, 74, 158 trilora, 234 dry sclerophyll forests, 331 djutpi, 102 dead leaf retention, 359 in rainforests, 271–72 Dodonaea, 419, 588 deciduous forests, 5 myrtle rust, 219–20, 271, 304, 688 viscosa, 400, 429, 627, 634, 637, 639, deciduous trees myrtle wilt, 271 641 and leaf fall, savannas, 375 Phytophthora cinnamomi, 218–19, domiculture practices, 95, 96 decomposition, 163, 164, 611, 686 331, 360, 688 dormancy. See seed dormancy deer, 138 wet sclerophyll forests, 304 Doryanthes, 240 defoliation, 143, 147 Diselma, 48 Doryphora sassafras, 264 deforestation archeri, 475 drainage wet sclerophyll forests, 297, 300 disjunctions, 55–56 coastal freshwater wetlands, 504 degradation. See land degradation dispersal, 234–38. See also seed mangroves and saltmarshes, Dendrobium afine, 94 dispersal; species dispersal 559, 560

720 Index

Drosera, 351, 355, 419 landscape characteristics, 318–19 ecological typology, 5, 7–12 whittakeri, 94 moisture availability effects, 320 historical context and relationships to Droseraceae, 506 nutrient-drought ire nexus, 329–31 other classiications, 12–16 drought, 5, 19 Phytophthora cinnamomi in, 331 ecologically sustainable management alpine vegetation, 476 rainfall limitations, 315, 317 forests, 301 and climate change, 304 representation in conservation ecophysiological models, 192 and distribution of dry sclerophyll reserves, 331 ecosystem engineering forests, 320, 321, 322, 328 soil fertility and water availability positive and negative effects of and El Nino, 80 gradients, 324, 326–27, 328–29 herbivores, 137–38, 139–41, and ires, 113, 118, 267 soil nutrient effects, 319–20, 324–26, 149 and sclerophylly, 328, 352–53 326 termites role, 665 and seedling mortality, 190 soil types, 317, 326, 327 ecotone forests, 296 arid shrublands, 636 species endemism, 317 ectomycorrhizal associations, 166, 167 brigalow, 394 structure, 284 ectomycorrhizal plants, 170, 173 dry rainforests, 260 Sydney Basin and Southern edaphic boundaries, 158 eucalypt woodland, 400 Tablelands, 324, 326–27 edaphic factors impact on tropical rainforests, 266, understorey scrub species, 317 and dry sclerophyll forest 267 water balance models, 321–28 distribution, 320 impact on vegetation structure, 190 strengths and limitations, 328–29 and rainforest distribution, 266–67 Murray-Darling Basin loodplain, 505 water gradient availability effects, 324 edible nuts savannas, 380 weed invasions, 331 in Aboriginal diet, 91 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 421 dry sclerophyll woodlands eelgrass, 547 tussock grasslands, 447, 448, 449 Lake Euramoo, Qld, 78 Egeria densa, 507 drought climates, 23 dryland salinity, 502, 534–35 Ehrharta calycina, 127 drought persistents, 241 Dryopoa dives, 284 Eichhornia crassipes, 496 dry rainforests, 263 Duboisia hopwoodii, 93, 95 Eidothea., 49 drought resistance, 22, 23 dugout canoe construction, 93 Einadia nutans, 392, 612 heathlands, 353, 358 Duma lorulenta, 501, 504, 511, 525, 526 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), drought-nutrient-ire nexus, 329–31 dung beetles, 136 78, 80 dry rainforests, 261–64 dynamic global vegetation models Elaeocarpaceae, 48, 78, 258 distribution, 260 (DGVMs), 192, 194–95 Elaeocarpus dry sclerophyll forests, 17, 283, 684 at the continental scale, 196 grandis, 270 and drought, 320, 321, 322, 328, 332 Dysphania, 599 holopetalus, 265 and edaphic factors, 320 williamsianus, 270 and high soil silica concentrations, 324 early Kosciuszko glaciation, 76 Elatinaceae, 504 biogeography, 314–33 Earth history, 44–47 Eleocharis, 500 characteristics, 314, 315–19 Ebenaceae, 70, 258 dulcis, 91 climate effects, 315, 320, 322, 329–31, echidnas, 141 sphacelata, 496 332–33 Echinochloa polystachya, 503 Embothrium, 49 continental scale distribution pattern, ecological restoration, 697–702 emus, 141, 234, 238, 345, 357, 638 321–23 evaluating success, 698 Enchylaena tomentosa, 392, 612, 638 description and distribution, 315–19, hummock grasslands, 667 endemism. See species endemism 324, 331 keys to improving outcomes, 702 Endiandra palmerstonii, 91 dormancy types, 238 rangelands, 643 endozoochory, 25, 235, 269 eucalypts, 315, 317, 330 studies in different vegetation types, Eneabba sandplain, WA ire management, 332 699–701 heathlands, 343, 344–46, 356, 357 ire regimes, 329–31 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 429–30 hydrological gradients, 351 fuel accumulation, 331 wetland vegetation, 696 species diversity, and coexistence land clearance, 331 ecological signiicance of ire, 114 mechanisms, 349–51 landscape and local scale distribution ecological synthesis in historical Enteropogon, 420 patterns, 324–28 context, 30–32 acicularis, 392, 444, 618

Index 721

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Epiblema, 506 ire history, 400 Conservation Act 1999, 100, 213, epicormic buds, 125, 240, 294 grazing and ire effects on loristics, 219, 299, 404–5, 444, 446, 451, epiphytes, 169 404 505, 509, 694 epiphytic algae, 500 invasion by exotic grasses, 405–6 environmental ilters, 6–7, 18–22. See episodic recruitment, 525, 531 land clearing, 402 also biotic ilters episodic regeneration, 531 opportunity for recovery, 406–7 disturbance regimes, 27–29 episodic wetlands, 498 regeneration ecology, 400–401 light and oxygen, 25 epizoochory, 235 remnant vegetation, 402–4 metal toxins, 27 Eragrostis, 372, 441, 635 structure and composition, 393–94 nutrients, 17, 19, 23–25, 31 curvula, 427, 451 temperate. See temperate eucalypt salinity, 26–27 eriopoda, 91, 95 woodlands thermal niche, 25–26 Eremaean Botanical Province, 657 threatened species, 404–5 water, 17, 19, 22–23, 31 Eremaean taxa, 43 understorey drought sensitivity, 400 environmental lows, 509 diversiication, 55 vegetation thickening, 394 environmental legislation and regulation, Eremophila, 419, 421, 588, 627, 633, eucalypts, 17 100, 210, 213, 220, 270, 360, 561, 635, 638, 641, 659 clades, 51 641, 642, 643, 695–97 bignoniilora, 527 climate change effects, 194, 304 alpine and sub-alpine environments, 482 deserti, 392, 400 decline in the absence of ire, 165–66 bogs and fens, 505 forrestii, 634, 636 diversity, Mallee Woodlands and brigalow forests, 402, 404–5 freelingii, 93 Shrublands, 580–81 saltmarshes, 562 latrobei, 634 dry sclerophyll forests, 315, 317, 330 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 430 maitlandii, 636, 640 ire adaptation, 53 temperate grasslands, 444 margarethae, 634 ire resistance, 294 threatened species, 690 mitchellii, 392, 393, 400 forest carbon, 297 tussock grasslands, 451 scoparia, 634 maalok, 570 wetlands, 508, 509, 561 Eriachne, 372 mallee taxa composition, 572 environmental water delivery Ericaceae, 74, 238, 317, 332, 345, 349, resprouting, 294, 400, 423–24 wetlands, 510–11 360, 415, 421, 461, 578 root systems, 162 Eocene, 357 dispersal, 54 savannas, 374, 375, 379, 380 aridiication, 55 mycorrhizas, 167, 168 temperature tolerance, 26 Asteraceae, 52 Eriocaulon carsonii, 502 wet sclerophyll forests, 284–85, climate changes, 47, 55 Eriocereus martinii, 393 290–92 conifers, 47 Eriochloa crebra, 442 Eucalyptus, 41, 53, 265, 284, 349, 599, Eucalyptus, 53 erosion, 158 611, 659, 678 Fabaceae, 51 Erythrina vespertilio, 93, 94 Aboriginal use, 93 geological changes, 46 Erythrophleum, 372 accedens, 413 Goodeniaceae, 51 chlorostachys, 93, 375, 379 acmenoides, 148 grass pollen, 440 establishment, 243–44 adaptation to climate change, 196 Myrtaceae, 51 estuaries albens, 413, 420, 424 Nypa pollen, 547 mangrove evolution, Holocene, 556 amygdalina, 415, 419 Proteaceae, 49 mangrove zonation, 555 astringens, 580 rainforests, 54 mangroves and saltmarshes, 557 blakelyi, 413 Eocene-Oligocene boundary, 51 eucalypt forests, 31, 122 brevistylis, 299 Epacris eucalypt woodlands, 31, 389, 390. brookeriana, 292, 299 glacialis, 476, 505 See also box Eucalyptus brownii, 393, 397 microphylla, 475, 477 woodlands; ironbark Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 411, 504, 520, 525, ephemeral wetlands, 23, 29 woodlands 526, 527, 529, 531, 534, 535 ephemerals Aboriginal burning, 394 cambageana, 392, 393, 397 maintenance, arid zone, 241 and soil types, 397 campanulata, 291 soil seed banks, 241 climate, 394–99 canopy dieback, 332 survival and growth, 244 ecological characteristics, 392 cernua, 578

722 Index

Eucalyptus (cont.) moluccana, 413 tetrodonta, 92, 374, 375, 379 chlorophylla, 393, 520 nitens, 291 thozetiana, 392, 393, 396, 397 clade disjunctions, 55–56 nitida, 292 transcontinentalis, 424 climate change effects, 194 nova-anglica, 415 utilis, 578 conferruminata, 578 obliqua, 291, 292, 294, 304 victrix, 526, 529 conica, 393, 413 occidentalis, 415, 424 viminalis, 291, 292, 294, 299, 413, coolabah, 411, 525, 526, 529, 531, 534 odorata, 413 415 crebra, 394, 397 oleosa, 588 wandoo, 196, 317, 413, 415 cypellocarpa, 291 ovata, 292, 413, 525, 526 wet sclerophyll forests, 281, 284, dalrympleana, 292 paniculata, 148 290–92, 294 defoliation by folivores, 143 paucilora, 413, 415, 462, 526 whitei, 397 deglupta, 290 pilularis, 291, 304 woollsiana, 413 delegatensis, 119, 128, 165, 291, 294, platypus, 577, 578 xanthoclada, 394, 397 303, 304, 462, 526 pleurocarpa, 580, 589 Euchilopsis, 506 dispersal mechanisms, 235 pollen assemblages, 68 Eucryphia, 466 diversicolor, 292, 294, 304 populnea, 391, 393, 397, 411, 413 lucida, 294 diversiication, 51 porosa, 413 moorei, 265 dry sclerophyll forests, 331 precessional cycles, Late Eulalia aurea, 442 dunnii, 148, 299 Pleistocene, 75 Euphorbiaceae, 258, 290, 317, 345, 501 ectomycorrhozal associations, 167 psyllids, bell miners and forest Euphrasia, 466 evolution, 440 dieback, 148 eichleri, 505 fasciculosa, 413 punctata, 148 Eupomatiaceae, 258 fastigata, 291 Quaternary, 71 European hares, 480 ire dependence, 113, 114 radiata, 291, 525 Europeans ire feedbacks, 119 recruitment, loodplains, 527–29 and myth of terra nullius, 94 ire sensitivity, 294 regnans, 119, 127, 165, 194, 284, 291, and the Australian environment, fraxinoides, 291, 294, 304 292, 294, 298, 303, 304 678 gamophylla, 659 resinifera, 291 campaign to remove Aboriginal gardneri, 578 resprouting, 351 people from their lands, 99 globulus, 292 robusta, 525 impact of farming practices on gomphocephala, 413 rudis, 413, 415, 506, 526 vegetation, 135 grandis, 148, 291 saligna, 148, 291, 304 impact on Australian vegetation, 678, guilfoylei, 292 salmonophloia, 415, 420, 423, 424, 683 gunnii, 481 428 impact on ire regimes and frequency, history, 53 salubris, 415, 420, 424, 425 126 jacksonii, 284, 292, 294, 299 savannas, 372, 374 eutrophication, 686 johnstonii, 292 secondary defence mechanisms, 143 evergreen rainforests, 264 largilorens, 411, 525, 529, 535 sect. Adnataria, 413 evolution leucoxylon, 413 sect. Bisectae, 415 and ire regimes, 32, 114–15 longicornis, 415 sect. Dumaria, 415 dominant and diverse taxa, 47–53, loxophleba, 415, 420 sect. Exsertaria, 413 677–78 macrofossils, 51 sect. Glandulosae, 415 evolutionary history, 30–32 mallee, 570 sect. Maidenaria, 284 Cenozoic Era, 40–57, 64 marginata, 162, 292, 317, 413 sect. Transversaria, 284 chenopod shrublands, 601–3 melanophloia, 391, 393, 397 siderophloia, 148 lowering plants, 28 melliodora, 413, 424 subcrenulata, 292 grasses, 52, 440–41, 655, 656 microcarpa, 393, 413 subgen. Eucalyptus, 55 heathlands, 346–49, 352, 357, 358, microcorys, 291 subgen. Eudesmia, 55, 56 359 microneura, 393 tectiica, 393 mangroves, 547 microtheca, 520 tenuiramis, 419 savannas, 370, 380 miniata, 374, 375, 379, 630 tereticornis, 164, 413, 520, 525 evolutionary phytogeography, 44

Index 723

evolutionary responses fauna ire intervals to climate change, 196 savannas, 374 and plant functional type, 124, 585 Excoecaria parvifolia, 520 feedbacks between ire and vegetation, and soil nutrient availability, 165–66 exotic grasses 119–21 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, and ire regimes, 126–27, 214 feeder roots, 529 583, 585 and mining, 406 feldmarks, 467, 468, 473, 475, 477, 478, ire management, 696 invasion 482 dry sclerophyll forests, 332 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, fens, 467, 468, 473 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, 405–6 Australian Alps and Tasmania, 505–6 590 hummock grasslands, 666 characteristics, 505 savannas, 381, 382 rangelands, 642 feral animals, 138, 271, 427, 480, 586, wet sclerophyll forests, 299 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 427 640, 666 ire refuges, 639 tropical ecosystems, 213 control, wetlands, 100 ire regimes, 28, 685 tussock grasslands, 451 ferns, 258, 290 Aboriginal people use, 82, 96–98, salt tolerance, 535 fertile island effect, 637 114–15, 126, 377, 394, 398, exotic invasive plants, 207–8 fertilisation effect, 191, 195 445, 447 and climate change, 222 fertilisers, 686 alpine and sub-alpine communities, economic impacts, 208 Festuca, 466 478–79 functional types, 210–11 ibrous roots, 355 and Bell Miner associated dieback, 302 in major Australian regions, 211–18 Ficus, 93, 520 and biodiversity loss, 685 sources and pathways of introduction, Fimbristylis, 549 and climate change, 127–28, 196, 304, 209 ferruginea, 549 685, 689 species traits and environmental polytrichoides, 549 interval squeeze conceptual context, 209–10 ire activity model, 191 expansion, 67, 73, 74, 222, 258, 370, 380 and biomass, 115, 116, 296 and evolution, 32, 114–15 extinct plant taxa and rainfall, 116 and herbivory, 7 heaths, SW Victoria, 349 ire adaptations, 28, 53 and introduction of exotic grasses, Quaternary, 73, 81 and aridiication, 55 126–27, 214 Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 73 Proteaceae, 53 and invasive plants, 216 Tasmania, 71 ire avoiders, 424 and landscape fragmentation, 126 extinction ire ecology and plant functional type sensitivity, and climate extremes, 74 wet sclerophyll forests, 284, 292–96 122–24 extinction debt, 681 ire ephemerals, 351 and rainforest distribution, 267–68 extreme ire-weather conditions, 113 ire experiments and species persistence, 245 extreme tides, 191 savannas, 377, 378, 379 and vegetation patterns, 116–18 extreme weather events, 191 ire frequency arid shrublands, 638–39, 643 and climate, 116, 117 brigalow, 399–400, 404 Fabaceae, 71, 258, 290, 317, 332, 345, and interspeciic competition, chenopod shrublands, 619 355, 360, 415, 421, 438, 442, 501, heathlands, 359 climatic drivers, 116–18 578, 604 and rainfall, savannas, 377 dry sclerophyll forests, 329–31 Cenozoic history, 51 European impacts, 126 eucalypt woodlands, 400, 404 dormancy, 240 Holocene, 80 European impacts on frequency of, mycorrhizal roots, 166, 167 latitudinal gradient, 116, 118 126 nitrogen ixation, 170 remnant vegetation, 126 feedbacks with vegetation, 119–21 pre-dispersal seed predation, 233 ire impacts loodplain and riparian woodlands, facilitation, 588, 612, 637 on soil nutrients, 121, 164–66 536 facilitative interactions, 477 ire intensity heathlands, 351–52, 357–59, 359–60 facultative nonmycorrhizal and climate, 116 hummock grasslands, 662, 663, 666 plants, 168 and nitrogen volatilisation, 164 interactions with plant traits, 121–26 facultative resprouters, 424, 584 exotic gamba grass, 214 link to nutritional poverty, 31 false start rains, 190 savannas, 378 local-scale drivers, 118–19

724 Index

ire regimes (cont.) fjaeldmarks, 467, 468 vegetation dynamics, 527–33 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, lammability, 124, 586 weeds, 535–36 582–84, 590–91 and sclerophylly, 315 loodplains, 516, 517. See also tropical patterns and drivers, 115–21 hummock grasses, 663 loodplains pyrogeographic models, 115–16 mallee eucalypts, 582 formation, 518 savannas, 377–78, 379, 377–78, sclerophyllous vegetation, 329, 330 loods, 28–29, 518 382 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 425 lood-tide deltas, 557 temperate eucalypt woodlands, lattened roots, 551 loristics, 12 423–25, 427 leshy-fruit bird dispersed species, 209 arid shrublands, 635 transition from prehistoric to modern, Flindersia, 635 brigalow forests and woodlands, 404 126 loating vegetation, 503 wet sclerophyll forests, 283, 284–90, tussock grasslands, 448 lood regimes, 191, 509 290–92 wet sclerophyll forests, 284, 292–96, lood runners, 519 low dynamics, 491 302 looding low regulation ire resistance and lowering, 233 wetlands, 509, 510 eucalypts, 294 and recruitment, 527–29 lower colour change, 355 ire season and seed dispersal, 234 lower production, 185–86 savannas, 377 and seed dormancy, 494 lowering, 232–33 ire sensitivity and tree death, 531 disturbance-related cues, 232 rainforests, 296 wetlands, 498, 509 environmental conditions and ire spread, 115 loodplain and riverine environments, location, 232 ire susceptibility 517–19 ire-stimulated, 121, 345, 357 rainforests, 124, 268, 296 conservation issues, 533–36 seasonal cues, 232 ire trap, 125, 380 dryland salinity, 534–35 lowering phenology, 185 ire triangle, 115 future research, 536–37 and rainfall, 185 ire-prone ecosystems geomorphology and soils, 519–20 and temperature, 185–86 soil seed banks, 241–43 river regulation and water extraction, heathland plants, 355–56 ires, 28 534 savanna trees, 375 and Australian vegetation, 113–28 loodplain lakes, 504 luvial deltas, 557 and drought, 118, 267 loodplain tree life cycle, 527 fodder harvesting, 641 effects on plants and environments, loodplain vegetation folivores, 135, 143 121–22 composition, structure and food groups evolutionary and ecological history in distribution, 520–27 used by Aboriginal people, 90–91 Australia, 114–15 water deprivation effects, 686 foraging pits, 141 Lake Euramoo, Qld, 80 zones, 517 foraminifera, 65 Miocene, 440 loodplain wetlands, 28 forbs, 17, 144, 241, 290, 345, 379, 415, plants responses to, 122–24 of the wet-dry tropics, 498–500 421, 438, 444, 659. See also Quaternary, 74, 80 loodplain woodlands and forests, 28, perennial forbs rainforests, 294–96 411, 516–37, 684. See also forest dieback, 148, 302–3, 303, 332, ire-stick farming, 445 riparian vegetation 426, 429 ire-stimulated lowering/germination, altered ire regimes, 536 loodplain and riparian trees, 529–33, 121, 122, 187, 233, 240, 242, clearing, thinning and logging, 534 534 345, 357, 358, 400, 584, 664 episodic regeneration, 531 Tasmania, 481 ire-vegetation feedbacks, 119–21 grazing effects, 535 through salinity, 535 and plant traits, 124–26 herbaceous plant community Forest Fire Danger Index (FFDI), 377 ire-vegetation interactions dynamics, 533 forest growth Aboriginal impacts, 97–98 invasives, 17 and climate, 304 contemporary anthropogenic change management, 536 forest practices codes, 301 and consequences, 126–28 phenology and dispersal, 527 forests, 3, 5 ish poisons, 94 tree death, 529–33 of Australia’s rivers and loodplains, ish traps, 98 tree recruitment, 527–29 516–37

Index 725

fossil pollen. See pollen fossils geomorphological settings Gnaphalieae, 52 fossil record, 48, 49, 51, 52, 55, 547 mangroves, 557–58 goannas, 97 fossils, 44. See also macrofossils; geomorphology, 156, 491 goats, 138, 586, 591, 666 microfossils loodplains, 519 golden sun moth, 146 fossorial mammals, 141, 422, 638 geophytes, 345, 351, 353, 355, 357, 424, Gondwana, 43 fragmentation 448 landmasses, Cretaceous, 45–46 dry sclerophyll forests, 331 Georgina gidgee woodlands, 643, 659 vicariance, 41, 43, 48, 49, 258 ecological impacts, 681 germination Gondwana Rainforests of Australia, 257 heathlands, 359 and long-lived seed banks, 188 Gondwanan plant taxa, 17, 16–18, 27, impact on mammals and birds, 270 and plant hormones, 239 29, 43, 53, 600 impact on population genetic and seed dormancy, 187–88, 238–39 alpine vegetation, 466 structure, 270 cold stratiication, 239, 476 ire dependence, 114 rainforests, 269–70, 272, 273 ire-cued, 121, 122, 187, 240, 242, grasses, 440 Frankenia ambita, 551 357, 358, 400, 584, 664 mixed forests, 290 Fraser Island, 257 following snowmelt, 476 Nothofagus, 48 Free Air CO2 (FACE), 186, 191 mangroves, 553 tropical and temperate rainforests, 258 freshwater wetlands, 191 temperature effects, 239, 240 Goodenia, 51 coastal loodplains of southeastern temperature, light or smoke effects, Goodeniaceae, 51, 501 Australia, 503–4 240 granivory, 30 intrusives, 17 wetland plants, 29, 494 grass pollen, 440 frost, 267, 461, 475, 476, 478 Geum urbanum, 466 grasses. See also C3 grasses; C4 grasses; fruits/fruit trees Gibber Chenopod Shrublands, 603, 604, exotic grasses; hummock grasses; Aboriginal use/management, 91, 95, 619 perennial grasses; tussock grasses 98, 102 landscape-level plant distribution, 610 arid regions, 324 fuel availability, 115, 116 gidgee, 194, 390, 626, 633, 635 arid zone, recruitment, 241 gidgee-gidgee, 94 Cretaceous, 440 Gadayka, 92 gilgai microrelief, 393, 610 ecotypic differentiation and genetic Gahnia ilum, 555 gilgai structures, 520 variability under climate change, gallery forests, 258 Gippsland Basin, 70, 71, 73, 74 450 gamba grass, 126, 212, 213, 687 glacial-interglacial cycles, 65–67, 76. evolutionary history, 52, 440–41, 655, gametophytes, 231 See also last glacial maximum 656 gap colonisers, 244 biome shifts, 370 ire regime effects, savannas, 379 gap dynamics, 245 eccentricity periodicities, 75 growth form and grazing, 142 gap-phase succession, 246 glaciation, 47, 64 phenology, savannas, 374 Gardenia, 372 and extinction, 349 polyploidy, 450 gas exchange Heard Islands, 462 savannas, 372, 379, 382 mangroves, 551 Snowy Mountains, 76 under brigalow, 392 Gastrolobium, 143 glai, 102 grass–ire cycles, 126 Geijera, 635 gliders, 143 grasshoppers, 638 parvilora, 392, 400 Global Observational Research Initiative grasslands, 3, 97, 504. See also gene low, 96, 270 in Alpine Environments hummock grasslands; tussock genetic diversity, 697 (GLORIA), 481 grasslands genetic variability global vegetation typologies, 13–16 Aboriginal burning impacts, 115, 445, grass genera, 450 global warming 447 genotypes, 232 and lowering, 186 amongst brigalow, 390, 394 geological time scale, 45 Glomeromycete (Zygomycete) fungi, 166 conservation, 451 geology, 156 glossy ibis, 510 deinition, 651 and rainforest distribution, 267 Glycine, 51, 421 enhanced CO2 effects, 191, 450 historical, 45–46 max, 187 ire frequency and seasonality, 118 geomorphic evolution glycophytes, 26, 544, 545, 687 ire impacts, 445, 447, 448 mangroves and saltmarshes, 556–57 gnammas, 588 ire management, 113

726 Index

grasslands (cont.) plant habit and architecture, 142 Haemodorum coccineum, 94 Late Quatenary, 76 plant responses, 141–43 Hakea, 49, 240, 317, 328, 351, 352, 659 Macquarie Island, 478 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 411, divariacata, 642 soil and topographic patterns, 446 427–28 lorea, 186, 394 susceptibility to herbivore activity, 146 temperate grasslands, 688 halophytes, 26, 169, 395, 544–63, 687 woody encroachment through tropical and semitropical grasslands, current status and trends in extent, grazing, 145 442, 688 560 world, 651 Great Artesian Basin deinition, 544 grassy balds groundwater-dependent springs, distribution and biogeography, Bunya Mountains, 445, 447 502–3, 686 547–49 grassy subformations, 285, 291 Great Dividing Range, 46 ecology, physiology and adaptations, grassy understoreys water lows from, 518 549–54 temperate woodlands, 415–18, 421 Great Western Woodlands, 421, 423, geomorphic evolution and grassy woodlands, 331, 415, 427 426, 428, 429 geomorphological settings, 556–58 Aboriginal burning, 98 Greater Blue Mountains, 281 number of plant species in Australia, ires in, 423–24, 423–24 green panic, 405 545 grazing effects, 428 green plum, 91, 102 sedimentation and morphodynamic grassy-heathy woodlands, 415, 526 greenhouse gas emissions, 332, 382, 560 feedbacks, 558–59 grazing, 136 Grevillea, 49, 56, 351, 659 zonation, 554–56 affect on species composition and australis, 505 halophytic communities abundance, 427–28 bird pollinators, 233 climate change effects, 561, 562 alpine and sub-alpine environments, dispersal mechanisms, 235 conversion to grazing lands, 560 479–80 eriostachya, 98 governance and management, 562–63 and ability to resprout, 142 macleayana, 233 threats, 560 and development of post-European pre-dispersal seed predators, 233 tidal relationships, 545–47 grasslands, 445 scortechinii, 104 Haloragaceae, 504 and encroachement of woody striata, 393, 520 Halosarcia, 501 plants, 145 grey willow, 217 hard seededness, 608 and growth form, 142 Grime’s C-S-R model, 20–21 Hardenbergia violacea, 185 and life history, 142 groundwater, 23, 26, 157, 162, 332, 491, Hartig net, 167 and plant community composition, 508, 666, 668 Heard Island, 461, 467, 482 chenopod shrublands, 618–19 Swan Coastal Plain, 506 glaciation, 462, 481 and plant height, 142 groundwater-dependent ecosystems, herbields, 473 and plant palatability, 143, 640 162, 685 origins, 465 arid grasslands, 442 groundwater-dependent springs, 498 sub-Antarctic vegetation, 462, 466, arid shrublands, 640–41, 641, 643 Great Artesian Basin, 502–3, 686 468–69 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, groundwater-dependent wetlands of the heat shock, 26 394, 401–2, 404, 406 southwest, 506–7 heat stress, 26, 190 chenopod shrublands, 600, 608, 613, genera and families, 506 heat waves, 187 614–16, 617–18, 614–16, 619 growth. See plant growth heath species continental-scale effects on Gulf of Carpentaria basin, 518, 519 extinction, SW Victoria, 349 vegetation, 143–45 tropical loodplain wetlands, 498 heathland evolution, 346–49, 352, 357, loodplain and riparian woodlands, 535 woody loodplain vegetation, 520 358, 359 for buffel grass control in reserves, 406 Gunniopsis, 501 heathland shrubs, 343–44 halophytic communities, 560 Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus., 462 heathlands, 17, 122, 315, 339–60, 467, impact on grasses, 448 gymnosperms, 28, 80, 231 473 impacts, 136–37, 138, 141, 427–28, Gynatrix pulchella, 526 climate, 340 427–28 Gyrostemonaceae, 351 climate change effects, 360 in protected areas, 691 conservation and management, 359–60 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, habitat fragmentation. See fragmentation dispersal mechanisms, 357 586–88 Haemodoraceae, 349 distribution and biogeography, 341–43

Index 727

disturbance effects, 478 herbields, 467 horizontal scrub, 265 drought tolerance, 352, 353, 358 herbivore activity horses ire responses, 345, 351–52, 357–59, deinition, 136 wild, 100, 480 359–60 herbivore activity model (effect on horticultural introduced plants, 209, 210 loristic diversity, 344–46, 360 vegetation and soils), 136–38 success as invaders, 209 interspeciic competition and ires, 359 engineering (non-trophic effects), human dispersal of plants, 96 leaves, 344, 345, 352–53 137–38 human impact, 7. See also Aboriginal life history, 351–52 herbivory (trophic effects), 136–37 people mycorrhizal species, 345 herbivores, 135 Quaternary vegetation, 80, 81, 82 nutrient poverty, 343, 352, 353 direct effects, 136, 139–41, 148 under climate change, 191 oligotrophic soils, 327, 341 engineering effects, 137–38, 139–41, Humboldt, Alexander von, 182 Phytophthora cinnamomi effects, 360 149 humid temperate zone plant families, 345 impact on Australian vegetation, invasive plants, 214–15 plant functional types and ire 135–49 hummock grasses, 158, 372, 577, 582. interval, 124 impact on vegetation structure, See also Triodia plant traits, 351–56 136–38 distribution, 652 provinces, 342–43 indirect effects, 136, 137, 139–41, 148 ire ecology, 652 pyrogenic lowering, 345, 359 invertebrate, 135, 137, 145–47 lammability, 663 resprouting, 345, 351 case studies, 147–48 growth form, 652 retention of dead material on the marsupial, 425, 447 response to ire, 663–64 plant, 358 vertebrate, 138–41, 143–45, 479–80, hummock grasslands, 5, 16, 25, 158, root systems, 25, 353–54 586–88, 613–19, 688 184, 340, 440, 626, 651–68 sclerophylly, 341, 343, 352–53 herbivory, 7, 30, 136–37 Aboriginal knowledge and uses, seed dispersal, 237, 345 chenopods, 613–18 652–54, 663 serotiny, 345 plant responses to, 141–43 and climate change, 667 sexual reproduction, 355–56 Heritiera littoralis, 551, 555 and mining, 666, 667 specialised modes of nutrition, 354–55 Heteropogon, 372 ants and other invertebrates in, 665 species diversity, 344–45 contortus, 394 associated species of forbs and coexistence mechanisms, 349–51 triticeus, 379 grasses, 659 species endemism, 344, 348 Hibbertia, 317 AusPlots, case study, 659–60 structure and physiognomy, 343–44 hirsuta, 187 biogeography, 656 heathy mallee, 577, 583, 589 Hieracium, 480 biological soil crusts and soil beta diversity, 580 high temperatures, 26 micro-organisms, 665 distribution, 579–80 HIMI Territory, 482 biomes, 655, 656 ire effects, 582 historical geology, 45–46 climate, 661, 663 plant communities and diversity, 578, hollows. See tree hollows conservation, 666 579–80 Holocene, 49, 67, 80, 445 distribution, 655 plant functional type, 584 Aboriginal occupation during, 90, ecological interactions, 664–66 post-ire dynamics, 584 95, 102 ecological processes, 662–64 recruitment, 583 climate variability, 80 environmental factors, 661–62 understorey, 580 climatic variability, 78 ire effects, 662, 663, 666 heavy metals, 6, 27 impact of Aboriginal burning on future research, 667–68 Hedyscepe canterburyana, 240 rainforest, 97 hydrological niche, 23 Helicia, 49 sea levels, 557 nutrient environment, 24 Hemarthria uncinata, 445 Homalospermum, 506 pastoralism, 666 hemicryptophytes, 448 honey-bees, 233 pollinator network of associated hemiparasites, 169 honeyeaters, 233 species, 665 herbaceous plant community dynamics Hooker, Joseph, 30 pulse-reserve productivity, 662–63 loodplain woodlands, 533 19th Century insights, 40–41 restoration, 667 herbaceous plants, 392, 438, 452, 520, Hordeum, 535, 614 shrubland-grassland boundaries, 630, 527, 618, 659 leporinum, 618 639, 664

728 Index

hummock grasslands (cont.) Indo-Malayan element, 41, 43 saltmarshes, 560 soil nutrients, 662 iniltration, 611, 612, 637 species traits and environmental soil types, 661–62 inland mangroves, 556 context, 209–10 structural variability, 659–60 inland rivers, 516 spring wetlands, 503 termites as ecosystem engineers, 665 inland saline lakes, 501–2 temperate Australia, 214–15 threats, 666–67 insect pollinators, 233, 355, 425, 638, 665 traits, riparian environments, 217–18 Western Australia, 657–58 insect seed predators, 233 tropical Australia, 213–14 woody associations, 659–60 interglacials, 48, 67, 66–67. See also tropical wetlands, 500 humus, 164 glacial-interglacial cycles wetlands, 210, 211, 217–18, 496, 508 hunter-gatherer-manager practices, 99 interspeciic competition in heathlands invertebrate granivory, 30 Huon pine, 526 and ires, 359 invertebrate herbivores, 135, 137, 145–46 Hydatellaceae, 506 interstadials, 67 case studies hydraulics, 491 intertidal zone, 545, 547, 554, 557 psyllids, bell miners and forest Hydrilla verticillata, 503 plant communities, 558 dieback, 148 Hydrocharis dubia, 503 interval squeeze termites, 147–48 hydrochory, 234, 235, 492, 494 and changes in ire seasons, 127, 190, direct and indirect effects, 146–47 hydrological connectivity, 159, 492, 507 191 distribution, habitat preference, diet, hydrological niches, 22–23 introduced plants, 191. See also invasive taxa and ecosystem impacts, 146 hydrology plants threatened species, 145 tropical loodplains, 500 risk assessment and regulation, 221 invertebrate herbivory, 30, 146 wetlands, 491 sources and pathways of, 209 Ipomoea costata, 91 hydrophytes, 169 introduction-invasion continuum, 208 iron, 27, 343, 353 Hymenachne intrusive elements, 16, 18 ironbark Eucalyptus woodlands, 390, acutigluma, 500 inundation, 28–29, 162, 218, 498, 503, 506, 399–400 amplexicaulis, 214, 217, 500, 503 534, 536. See also tidal inundation conservation, 402 Hyparrhenia hirta, 427, 452 invasion drought sensitivity, 400 hyperaccumulators, 27 process of, 208–10 land clearing, 402 Hypericum perforatum, 427 invasion theory, 41, 43 regeneration ecology, 400–401 hypersalinity, 553, 557 invasion-continuum, 208 structure and composition, 393–94 Hypocalymma angustifolium, 506 invasive invertebrates, 271 threatened species, 404–5 Hypochaeris radicata, 216, 480 invasive plants, 207–8, 687–88, 696. understory, 394 Hyptis suaveolens, 271 See also exotic invasive grasses; ironwood, 93, 627 exotic invasive plants; weeds Isolepis, 466 Ilex, 71 alpine zone, 216–17, 480 Isophysis, 466 immigration, 56 and climate change, 222, 689 Isopogon, 54 and dispersal, 54 and ire regimes, 216 impact assessment, 689–91 arid and semi-arid Australia, 215–16 jarrah forests, 119, 161, 162, 165 Imperata cylindrica, 284 deliberate introductions, 209, 217 Jatropha gossypifolia, 216 Indian couch, 405 loodplains and riparian woodlands, Juncaceae, 504 Indigenous knowledge, 93, 99, 104, 654 535–36 Juncaginaceae, 504, 506 Tropical Indigenous Ethnobotany functional types, 210–11 Juncus, 466, 526 Centre, Cairns, role, 102 future research, 222 acutus, 560 Indigenous Land Use Agreements, 102 grasslands, 451 ingens, 509 Indigenous Protected Areas (IPAs) horticultaral species, 209 kraussii, 526, 547, 553, 555, 560 program, 90, 99, 105, 652 in Australia, 208 Jurassic, 465 Wattleridge, NSW, 104 in major regions of Australia, 211–18 Indigofera, 51, 424 management, 216, 220–22, 691 Kakadu National Park, 257 indirect effects Murray-Darling Basin loodplain, 505 loodplain burning, 100 herbivores, 136, 137, 148 rainforests, 270–71 tropical loodplain wetlands, 500 invertebrate herbivores, 146–47 reasons for success of, 209 Urochloa mutica impact, 214 vertebrate herbivores, 139–41 riparian and wetland systems, 217–18 weed invasion, 214

Index 729

kangaroos, 97, 136, 138, 141, 143, 425, 666 for urban expansion, 683 leaf phenology, 23 karri, 115 heathlands, 359 leaf type and size traits, 23, 25 Kennedia, 351 historical spatio-temporal signature, heathlands, 343, 345, 352–53 Key Threatening Processes, 210, 213, 683 Leersia hexandra, 503 685, 696 hummock grasslands, 667 Lemna, 496, 503 knee roots, 551 legislation and regulations, 402, 694 lenticels, 551 koalas, 143, 425 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, Lepidorrhachis mooreana, 240 Koeleria macrantha, 466 589–90 Lepidosperma effusum, 284 Koo Wee Rup Swamp, 503 rates of, 679 Lepidozamia, 91 Kosciuszko National Park, 217, 482 savannas, 369, 370 Lepilaena, 501, 547 alien species, 480 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 411, Leptospermum, 317, 525 bog vegetation, 479 426, 428 Aboriginal use, 93 Kosciuszko region, 462, 481, 689 wet schlerophyll forests, 299 lanigerum, 526 Kunzea, 506 land degradation, 271, 684, 688. See also Leucaena leucocephala, 215 pomifera, 91 desertiication Leucanthemum vulgare, 480 kwongkan, 580 rangelands, 627, 639, 640–41 Leucopogon, 317, 351 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 426, setiger, 195 Lactoridaceae, 54 429 lichens, 343, 422, 607, 608, 665 lady apple, 96 wetlands, 508 life cycles. See plant life cycles Lagarostrobos, 47 land rights, 99, 105 life histories. See plant life histories franklinii, 526 land use change, 126, 297, 380, 451, light Lake Euramoo, Queensland 504, 508 as resource ilter, 25 ires, 80 landform classes light conditions pollen record after LGM, 77 savannas, 371 and competition, 29 pollen records after LGM, 78–81 landscape age, 158, 159 ligniication signiicant vegetation zones, 78 landscape fragmentation and sclerophylly, 315 Lake Eyre Basin, 518, 519 and ire regimes, 126 lignotubers, 125, 294, 345, 353, 357, chenopods, 603 landscape trap conceptual model, 400, 570, 572, 581 riparian vegetation, 526, 529 127–28, 305 lignum, 504, 511, 525, 526 Lake George, NSW landscapes Ligustrum, 209, 221 Quaternary pollen records, 70–71 weathering and erosion, 158 Liliales, 415 lakes Lantana camara, 209, 221, 271, 302 Limestone Saltbush and Bluebush Murray-Darling Basin loodplain, 504 last glacial maximum (LGM), 69 Shrublands, 619 Lamiaceae, 635 environmental conditions, 76–77 Limonium solanderi, 549 Lamprothamnium, 501 pollen record after, Lake Euramoo, linear infrastructure, 429 land clearing, 679–84 Qld, 77 lithology, 491 and development of post-European vegetation during, 76–77, 76–77, 420 Litsea glutinosa, 92 grasslands, 445 vegetation following, 77 litter, 163, 164, 296, 331 and fragmentation, 681 late Kosciuszko glaciation, 76 littoral rainforests, 191, 258 arid shrublands, 641 Late Pleistocene climate, 77–78 liverworts, 607 brigalow forests, 401–2 Late Quaternary livestock, 135, 138, 688. See also by vegetation type, 679 climate and vegetation, 74–81 grazing; herbivory causes of, 679 lateral roots, 162, 167, 170, 357 as preferential consumers, 136 chenopod shrublands, 619 latitudinal light gradients, 25 continental-scale effects on dry sclerophyll forests, 331 Lauraceae, 53, 71, 258, 290 vegetation, 143–45 eucalypt woodlands, 402 Laurophyllum australum, 71 grazing, grassland decline and woody loodplain and riverine woodlands, 534 leaching, 157, 159 encroachment, 145 loodplain woodlands and forests, 533 leaf beetles, 147 impact on alpine communities, for mining, 683 leaf fall, 375 479–80 for pastoralism, agriculture and leaf lush, 375 impact on arid shrublands, 640–41 timber, 683 leaf longevity, 340 impact on plant communities, 136

730 Index

livestock (cont.) ire effects, 582, 584 eucalypt taxa composition, 572 negative engineering effects, 137–38, obligate seeders, 581 Eucalyptus spp., 570 141 plant communities and diversity, 578 ire environment, 583 nutrient return from, 141 Macquarie Island, 462, 467, 482 ire hazards, 583 positive engineering effects, 141 cushion species dieback, 480 ire planning and management, state-and-transition models of impacts grassland productivity, 478 590–91 on chenopod communities, origins, 465 loristic and structural variability, 613–18 rabbit eradication, 480, 689 577–80 Livistona sub-Antarctic vegetation, 462, pastoralism and agricultural gene low, 96 468–69, 481 development, 589–90 humilis, 93 macrofossils, 42, 47, 69–70, 349 plant species functional traits and ire mariae, 96 Regatta Point, western Tasmania, 71 responses, 583–84 rigida, 96 Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 71–74 post-ire dynamics, 584–86 lizards, 235 macronutrients, 121 recruitment, 583–84 logging macrophytes, 494, 496, 504, 507, 509, resilience to periodic burning, 583 and Bell Miner associated dieback, 511 resprouting, 581, 583 302 threats, 505 soil types, 578, 580 and introduced weeds, 302 macropods. See also marsupials southeastern Australia, 577, 580 loodplain and riverine woodlands, 534 herbivory, 136 southwestern Australia, 570, 577, mixed forests, 297 impact on vegetation, 138, 425, 586, 579–80 threats posed by, 302, 684 638, 640 species richness and endemism, 581 wet sclerophyll forests, 297, 301–3, Macrozamia, 91 vegetation dynamics, 582–86 684 magnesium, 25, 27 vegetation structure, nature of fuels Lomandra, 444 Maireana, 53, 142, 428, 599, 603, 607, and ire behaviour, 582–83 longifolia, 526 610, 611, 612, 614, 619, 635 verterbrate herbivory effects, 586–88, multilora, 94 adaptive traits, 608–9 591 Lomatia, 49 aphylla, 610, 618 mallees, 12, 90, 122, 343, 354 long distance dispersal, 41, 43, 49, 52, astrotricha, 603, 616 Aboriginal names, 571, 575, 588 54, 237 georgei, 618 deinition, 572 Lophopyrum ponticum, 560 grazing effects, 616 obligate seeders, 581 Lophostemon, 265, 283, 284 oppositifolia, 549 resprouter growth habit, 581 grandilorus, 520 pyramidata, 603, 607, 609, 610, 613, mallet woodlands, 415, 580 Loranthaceae, 53 616 Malvaceae, 421, 442, 501, 604 Lord Howe Island sedifolia, 421, 603, 608, 610, 612, 613, dormancy, 240 rainforest weeds, 271 616, 619 mammalian herbivores, 135, Lord Howe Island Group, 257 turbinata, 618 479–80 lowland rainforests, 260, 268 Major Vegetation Groups and mammals lowland tussock grasslands Subgroups, 13 and habitat fragmentation, 270 threatened ecological communities, 446 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, as pollinators, 233, 355 lowland vine forests, 264 570–91, 659 fossorial, 422 Ludwigia peploides, 503 Aboriginal people occupation of, 571, seed dispersal, 235 Luzula, 466 588–89 manganese, 343 Lycium ferocissimum, 209, 615 biogeography and spatial variation, mangrove forests Lygodiaceae, 70 572 size, 547 Lygodium, 70 bioregions, 571 mangrove sediments, 558–59 Lysiana, 638 climatic characteristics, 577 mangroves, 190, 545 conservation, 590–91 climate change effects, 561, 562 maalok eucalypts, 570, 572, 577 distribution and evolution of eucalypt decline in extent, 560 Aboriginal names, 572, 575 diversity, 580–81 deinition, 547 distribution, 578 environmental history role, 581–82 distribution and biogeography, diversiication, 581 ecological correlates, 579 545–47, 547

Index 731

ecology, physiology and adaptations, megaherbs, 462, 473 mining, 359, 683, 686 549–53 Megathyrsus maximus, 405 brigalow forests, 406 estuarine localities, 557 Melaleuca, 503, 525, 526, 529, 533, 536, hummock grasslands, 666, 667 estuary zonation, 555 547, 560 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 428 evolution, 547, 559 Aboriginal use, 93 Miocene, 41, 43, 47, 49, 357 expansion into saltmarshes, 555 argentea, 520, 526 Amaranthaceae, 53 geomorphic evolution, 556–57 cajuputi, 520 aridiication, 17, 47, 677 geomorphological settings, 557 dealbata, 92, 520 Atriplex, 53 Holocene, 557 ericifolia, 503, 526 chenopods, 603 inland, 556 luviatilis, 520 diversiication, 51, 53 land inilling and drainage, 560 hamulosa, 526 Eucalyptus, 51 landward expansion, 555 leucadendra, 520 ires, 440 latitude and diversity, 549 linariifolia, 527 fossil record, 48 non-tidally-inluenced, 556 nervosa, 394 grasses, 440–41, 655, 656 on rocky platforms, 557 quinquenervia, 520 savannas, 370, 380 propagule dispersal, 553 resprouting, 351 Triodia, 52 reproduction, 551 rhaphiophylla, 526 Mirbelieae-Bossiaeeae clade, 51 root morphologies, 551 savannas, 372 mires, 194, 340, 467, 473 salt tolerance, 551 squarrosa, 526 mission grass, 213 sea level effects, 556, 559, 561 teretifolia, 506 mistletoebirds, 426, 638 sediment deposition, 559 viminea, 506 mistletoes, 424, 638 species diversity, 549 viridilora, 520 Mitchell grass grasslands, 442, 451, 452 successional hypotheses, 554 Meliaceae, 258 invsion of, 215 temperature effects, 553–54 melon-holes, 393 mixed canopy shrublands trans-speciic zonation patterns, 555 meristematic buds, 53, 242 arid Australia, 634 water use, 551 Merremia peltata, 268 mixed forest, 283, 284, 296 zonation, 545, 554–55 mesic savannas, 372, 374, 375, 377, 379 carbon legacy, 296, 298 marine pollen records mesic taxa, 47 logging, 297 advantages of, 69 disjunctions, 54, 56 understory, 290 disadvantages of, 69 ire sensitivity, 127 mobile stages, 231 marine sediments wet sclerophyll forests, 284 molecular dating, 28, 48, 49, 53 oxygen isotopes, 46, 65 mesic vegetation, 47, 64, 119 Monachather paradoxus, 640 pollen records, 68–69, 75–76 mesic woodlands, 415 Monimiaceae, 48, 258 marshes. See saltmarshes; wetlands mesic zone, 55, 216 monsoon biome, 54, 56 Marsilea metal toxins, 27 monsoon rainforests, 100, 258, 264, 267 drummondii, 91 Miconia distribution, 264 mutica, 503 calvescens, 209, 214, 270 invasive woody shrubs, 271 marsupials, 233, 425. See also nervosa, 270 monsoons, 370 macropods microbiotic crusts, 607, 665 northern Australia and ire frequency, herbivory, 138, 425, 447 Microcachrys, 47 116 mass extinction, 51 microfossils, 44 southern Hemisphere, 76, 78 Mbabaram botanical knowledge, 103 Microlaena, 450 montane rainforests, 78, 80, 265 Mbabaram Medicinal Project, 103 micronutrients, 27 moorts, 589 McDonald Islands, 482 Microseris, 95 Aboriginal names, 575, 577 mechanistic models, 192, 195 lanceolata, 91, 411, 424, 445 morabine grasshopper, 145 Medicago, 618 migrations, 678 Moraceae, 78, 258 medicinal knowledge, 91–93 migratory birds, 17, 466 mosaic burning, 97, 98 Mediterranean-type climate, 118, 187, Mikania micrantha, 214, 270 mosses, 467, 607, 665 215, 240, 322, 340 Milankovitch-Croll hypothesis, 65 mound springs, 502, 685 megafaunal extinctions, 81, 82, 114 Mimosa pigra, 214, 500 mountain ash, 113, 115, 119, 127, 165 megafaunal herbivores, 135 mineralisation, 163, 164 mountain biking impacts, 482

732 Index

mountains, 461, 465 artesium, 502 levels following ire, 165 Muellerolimon salicorniaceum, 526 porcatum, 504 soil, 24, 27, 162, 164, 165–66, 173, muert, 572 myrmecochory, 25 341, 353, 422, 430, 612, 662 mulga, 390, 397, 627, 630–32, Myrtaceae, 258, 283, 317, 345, 349, 358, total nitrogen concentrations, 163 635 415, 504, 578 volatilisation during burning, 164 banded vegetation, 630, 636 Cenozoic history, 43, 49–51 nitrogen enrichment, 686 clearing for pasture, 641 mycorrhizal roots, 166, 167 nitrogen ixation, 121, 156, 165, 345, distribution, 630 pollen record, Quaternary, 70 355, 553 ire effects, 639 vulnerability to myrtle rust, 220 nitrogen ixing associations, 170–73 soil types, 630 wind dispersal, 234 noisy miners, 405, 406, 426 Mulga Chenopod Shrublands, 603 myrtle rust, 191, 219–20, 271, 304, 688 non-dormant seeds, 240, 241 mulga shrublands, 158 myrtle wilt, 271 nonmycorrhizal plants, 168–70, 170 mulga-Triodia grassland boundaries, nonsprouters, 351, 357 630, 665 Najas tenuifolia, 520 northeast coast ire effects, 639 Namadgi National Park, ACT, 462, 482 loodplain and riverine vegetation, multi-age stand structure, 294 Nambarra, 92 520 Mungo National Park, 591 narcotics, 93, 95 northeast NSW muntry, 91 nardoo, 91 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 Murray-Darling Basin, 48, 70, 73, 77, narrow-leaved bottle-tree, 392, 393 northeast Queensland 162, 518 narrow-leaved ironbarks, 393–94, 397, 402 wet sclerophyll forests, 290–91 billabongs and lakes, 504–5 Nassella northern Australia chenopods, 603 neesiana, 210, 427, 452 marine pollen records, 69 complex loodplain wetland systems, trichotoma, 210 savannas, 368–82 519 National Reserve System, 99, 511, 589, woody loodplain and riverine desert loodplain wetlands, 500 590, 643, 652, 663, 691–92 vegetation, 520 environmental lows into wetlands, National Vegetation Information System northwest Australia 510–11 (NVIS), 259 maximum luvial run-off, 78 families and species, 504 National Wetlands Policy, 508 northwest Indian Ocean loodplain and riverine vegetation, native title, 102, 105, 431, 509, 591, 652 loodplain and riverine vegetation, 522–25 native woolly butt, 91, 95 526, 529 land clearing, 534 Nauclea orientalis, 520 Nothofagaceae, 70 river regulation, 504, 534, 686 Nelumbo nucifera, 99 Cenozoic history, 48 threats, 504–5 Nematolepis ovatifolia, 481 Nothofagus, 41, 48, 81, 119, 284, 466 tree deaths, 531–33 neoaustral intrusives, 16, 17 cunninghamii, 48, 73, 265, 271, 290, weed invasions, 536 Neobassia astrocarpa, 551 296, 298 muruk (moorook), 572, 577, 578 Neogene, 44, 46, 49, 51 ectomycorrhizal associations, 167 Musgraveinae, 49, 70 rainforest contraction, 55 fossil record, 48 mutualism, 271 Neurachne, 420 gunnii, 481 myall, 390, 525 alopecuroidea, 421 moorei, 265 Myall Lakes New England tableland, 77 pachyphylla, 71 Eurinderee sand mass, 159 Newcastelia, 635 subgen. Brassospora, 48, 54, 70, 73, 81 mycorrhizal plants niche theory, 195 subgen. Fuscospora, 70 and root types, 171 nickel, 27 subgen. Lophozonia, 48, 73 global diversity, 168 Nicotiana, 93 novel ecosystems, 509 heathlands, 345 Nitella, 496, 501 noxious weeds declarations nutritional strategies and diversity, 173 Nitraria billardierei, 615 enforcement, 221 mycorrhizal roots, 166–67 nitrate, 163 Nullarbor Chenopod Shrublands, 603 mycorrhizal types, 166, 167, 168 nitrogen, 25, 163 Nullarbor Plain, 41, 47, 55, 56 mycorrhizas, 27, 166, 355 foliar, 328 nutrient availability, 7 Myoporum insulare, 549 forms taken up by plants, 164 and Australian vegetation, 166, 173 Myriophyllum, 503 from recycling organic matter, 163 determinants, 23

Index 733

nutrient cycling, 157, 163–64, 174 open woodland communities, Panicoid grasses, 441, 442, nutrient deprivation, 19, 25, 31 517 444 heathlands, 343, 352, 353 Opuntia, 222 Panicum, 441, 442 links to ire regimes, 31, 121 aurantiaca, 393 decompositum, 91, 618 sclerophyll vegetation, 24, 328, 329 stricta, 393 Papuacedrus, 48 nutrient enrichment, 210, 422, 423, 426, tomentosa, 393 para grass, 500 686–87 opuntoid cacti Paracryphiaceae, 71 nutrient gradients, 25 as weeds, 211 Parapholis incurva, 549 nutrient return from livestock, 141 orange hawkweed, 217 Paraserianthes lophantha, 51 nutrient-drought-ire nexus, 329–31 Orchidaceae, 345 parasitic plants, 169, 170 nutrients. See also soil nutrients mycorrhizas, 167, 168 parasitism, 355 as resource ilter, 17, 19, 23–25, 31 orchids Parkinsonia aculeata, 216 Nuytsia, 355 illegal collection, 684 parrots, 233 Nyctaginaceae, 501 organic matter, 163, 558, 559 Paspalidium Nymphaea, 100, 500, 520 Orites, 49 caespitosum, 392 mexicana, 505, 507 truncata, 71 constrictum, 392, 393 Nymphoides, 500 orthophosphates, 164 globoideum, 442 indica, 503, 520 Oryza, 500 Paspalum distichum, 503 Nypa, 547 Ottelia ovalifolia, 503 Passilora foetida, 271 Nyssanthes erecta, 392 outcrop springs, 502 pastoralism, 331, 411, 683 overgrazing, 137, 141, 147, arid shrublands, 641, 644 obligate resprouting, 584 640–41, 688–89. See also brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, obligate seeders, 124, 245, 359, 584 grazing 394, 401–2 Acacia, 400 Owenia, 659 chenopod shrublands, 600 maalok eucalypts, 581 oxygen hummock grasslands, 666 mallee eucalypts, 584, 585 as resource ilter, 25 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, temperate eucalypt woodlands, 425 oxygen deprivation, 25, 29, 341 589–90 vulnerability to ire regimes, 127–28 oxygen isotopes in deep sea sediments, pathogens. See plant pathogens obligate seeding, 119 46, 65 peat soils, 505 OCBIL theory, 31–32 Oxylobium pungens, 71 peatlands, 343, 505 oceanic crust, 465 peats, 554, 556 off-reserve conservation, 429, 430, 562 pademelons, 425 peaty vegetation, 25 offset policies, 694, 695 palaeobotany, 41–43, 44 perennial forbs, 419, 422, 448 Olax, 355 progress since 1960, 44 perennial grasses old man beard, 93 palaeoclimate as weeds, 210, 211, 215 old-growth forests, 284, 290, 301, 305 late Pleistocene, 77–78 regenerating buds, 143 Olea, 76 palaeoclimatology, 46–47 savannas, 372 europaea, 209, 221 palatability perennial plants Olearia, 52, 290 and grazing, 143, 640 and grazing, 142 Oligocene and sclerophylly, 353 Pericalymma, 506 chenopods, 603 Paleocene ellipticum, 506 climate changes, 47 climate changes, 47 Permian, 114 conifers, 47 taxa, 49, 52, 53 Permian-Triassic sediments, Eucalyptus, 51 Paleogene, 44, 49 465 Poaceae, 52 Amaranthaceae, 52 persistence. See species persistence Oligocene-Miocene boundary, 55 Nothofagus, 48 Persoonia, 290 oligotrophic soils, 291, 327, 329, 330, palynology, 67–68 Persoonieae, 54 340, 341 Quaternary, dificulties and Petalostigma pubescens, omnivores, 135 limitations, 68–70 394 ooline, 392 Pandanus spiralis, 93, 520 Phalaris aquatica, 427 open forests, 5, 73, 213, 317 Paniceae, 382 Phebalium daviesii, 526

734 Index

phenology, 374. See also lowering Pilosella, 480 plant invasions. See invasive plants phenology aurantiacum, 217 plant life cycles grasses, 374 Pilostyles, 355 above and below ground, 230–46 trees, 375 Pimelea axilora, 476 and population processes, climate Philydrum lanuginosum, 503 Pindan shrubland, 630, 639 inluence, 184–91 phosphorus, 25, 163 pioneer species, 554 mobile stages and storage organs in, and mycorrhizal species, 173 piosphere concept, 613, 640 230–31 foliar, 328 Pittosporaceae, 258, 421 seed plants (gymnosperms and forms taken up by plants, 164 Pittosporum undulatum, 127, 264 angiosperms), 231 levels following ire, 165 pituri, 93, 95 wetland biota, 491 retention by plants, 170 Planchonia, 372, 375 plant life histories, 231–44 soil, 24, 25, 27, 31, 121, 159, 162, plant composition and climate variables, 185 164, 165–66, 173, 317, 321, 324, changes caused by herbivores, 138 and grazing, 142 326, 327, 328, 341, 353, 396, changes with grazing, chenopod diversity, 230 397, 422, 612, 662 shrublands, 618–19 heathlands, 351–52 soil phosphorus gradients, 324 drivers, chenopod shrublands, variety, 231 phosphorus depletion, 121 613–19 plant macrofossils species adapted to, 170 inluence of herbivore activity, advantages over fossil pollen, 69–70 phosphorus toxicity chenopod shrublands, 613 Regatta Point, Tasmania, 71 sclerophll plant taxa, 687 models of community response to Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 71–74 photoinhibition, 26 livestock and climate, chenopod plant pathogens, 7, 29, 191, 218–20, photoperiod, 185, 186 shrublands, 613–18 688, 696 Photosynthetically Active Radiation non-vascular chenopods, 607–8 alpine, sub-alpine and sub-Antarctic (PAR), 25, 26 vascular chenopods, 604–7 environments, 480–81 Phragmites australis, 98, 504, 553, 554 plant dispersal mode, 27 future research, 222 Phyla canescens, 536 plant ibre plant predation interactions, 30 Phyllocladus, 70, 81, 284 Aboriginal use, 93–94 plant scale effects aspleniifolius, 48 plant functional types (PFT) chenopod shrublands, 610–11 phylogenetics, 16, 43–44, 44 and ire interval, 124, 585 plant toxins, 143 phylogeny, 17 mallee eucalypts, 585 plant traits, 20–21, 23 physical dormancy, 238 sensitivity to ire regimes, and ire feedbacks, 124–26 physical removal of weeds, 221 122–24 and ire regimes, 121–26 physiognomy, 12, 13 plant growth and invasion success, 209–10 heathlands, 343–44 and climate, 304 and nutritional selection ilters, 24–25 physiological dormancy, 238, 476, 664 and seedling recruitment, 190 and responses to grazing, 141–43 overcoming, 187 and soil phosphorus, 164 distribution of species and ire phytogeographic regions, 184 and survival, 244 regimes, 122 phytogeography and survival of established high temperature tolerance, 26 evolutionary, 44 plants, 190 Plantago major, 217 Phytophthora and temperature, 184 plant-animal interactions American variety, 481 savannas, 376 arid shrublands, 637–38 cambivora, 481 temperature and moisture hummock grasslands, 665 cinnamomi, 218–19, 271, 688 effects, 190 plant-plant interactions impacts on vegetation types, 218, 219 plant growth form chenopod shrubs as nurse plants, 612–13 in dry sclerophyll forests, 331 and grazing, 142 chenopod shrubs protégé species of in heathlands, 360 plant habit and architecture taller shrubs, 611–12 management, 219, 332 and grazing, 142 plastic responses plant susceptibility, 218 plant harvesting, 95–96, 102 understorey plants, 29 spread, 218 plant height, 25 plasticity, 196 pigs, 100, 480 and grazing, 142 plate tectonics Pilbara and Mid-West (Gascoyne/ plant hormones and biogeography, 43 Murchison) shrublands, 633 and germination, 239 and origins of alpine environments, 462

Index 735

Plectrachne, 652 Holocene, 556 prickly pear, 222, 393 Pleistocene, 43, 48, 52, 67 Lake Euramoo, after the LGM, 78–81 primary productivity, 13, 368, 635, 641 climate change, 272, 678 marine sediments, Timor Sea, 75–76 Pringlea antiscorbutica, 466 climatic oscillations, 17 Oligocene, 603 private reserves, 692 hummock grasslands, 656 Quaternary, 63–64, 68–69, 70–74, privet, 221 mallee eucalypts, 581–82 78–81, 603 process explicit (mechanistic) models, 195 megafauna extinctions, 82 Regatta Point, Tasmania, 71 process implicit models, 192, 195 palaeoclimate, 77–78 Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 71–74 Prosopis, 215 savannas, 370 Yallalie, WA, 70 protandry, 355 taxa, 71, 76, 349 pollination, 186, 233, 638 Proteaceae, 27, 53, 70, 164, 258, 317, Pleurophyllum hookeri, 478 pollinators 328, 332, 349, 415, 506, 578 Pliocene, 47, 48, 52, 74, 349, 370, 380, and climate change, 186 alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, 440, 603 birds as, 233, 355, 425 461, 466 pneumatophores, 551 insects as, 233, 425, 638, 665 alpine lora, 56 Poa, 52, 56, 420, 421, 423, 441, 466, mammals as, 233, 355 Cenozoic history, 43, 48–49 473, 480 pollinator-speciicity, 355 ire adaptations, 53 annua, 216 pollution of water and soils, 686–87 heathlands, 345, 353, 355, 358, 360 billardierei, 444 Polygonaceae, 501, 504 macrofossils, 71, 349 ensiformis, 284 Polygonum aviculare, 217 molecular chronogram, 50 evolution, 440 polyploidy in grasses, 450 pollen record, Quaternary, 70 ire effects, 424 Pomaderris, 290 soil seed banks, 238 foliosa, 478 apetala, 526 wind dispersal, 234 grazing effects, 428 Pooid grasses, 441, 442 protected areas, 691–92. See also reserve hiemata, 476, 481 poplar box, 393, 397, 400, 402 system hothamensis, 476 population genetic structure representation of vegetation in, 692 labillardierei, 444 fragmentation effects, 270 Pseudoraphis spinescens, 500, 503 poiformis, 444 Portulaca bicolor, 549 Psoralea, 421 Poa grasslands, 194 Portulacaceae, 604 psyllids, 147, 148 Poaceae, 17, 345, 438, 461, 501, possums, 143 bell miners and forest dieback, 148, 502, 504 post-European grasslands, 445–46 302–3, 303 Cenozoic history, 52 post-ire dynamics, 122 pteridophytes, 231, 355 last glacial maximum, 76 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, Pterocaulon serrulatum, 93 Miocene, 440–41 584–86 Ptilotus, 428, 635 pollen assemblages, 68 temperate eucalypt woodlands, Puccinia psidii, 219–20, 271, 304, 688 podocarp forests 423–25 plant vulnerability, 220 ire sensitivity, 74 wet sclerophyll forests, 294 spread, 219 Podocarpaceae, 47, 70, 71 post-ire seed dispersal, 27, 121, 294, pulse-and-reserve model, 627, 635, 639, Cenozoic, 73 358, 425, 583 662–63 phylogenetic diversity, 47 Potamogeton, 503 Pultenaea, 317 progressive decline, Late Quaternary, 81 crispus, 504 pyrogenic lowerers, 240, 345, 359 Quaternary, 70, 74 potassium, 25, 27, 341, 353 pyrogeography, 115–16 Podocarpus, 47, 80 potential evapotranspiration (PET), 321 quarantine, 221 drouynianus, 294 Precambrian rocks, 158 Podocarpaceae, 71 pollen, 231 precipitation. See rainfall pollen fossils predation, 30 Quaternary Period, 63, 64–70. See also Cenozoic, 41, 44, 47, 52, 53 on seeds, 233–34 Late Quaternary Eocene, 440 pre-dispersal seed predation, 233–34 alpine conditions, 465 taxonomic resolution, 68, 69 pre-European grasslands, 445 climatic changes/oscillations, 64–67, uncertainties, 69 prescribed burning 75, 76–77, 81 pollen records, 67. See also palynology savannas, 381 Epochs, 67 bias is data, 68 wet sclerophyll forests, 299 ires, 74 from marine sediments, 68–69 prickly acacia, 452 last glacial maximum (LGM), 69, 76–77

736 Index

Quaternary Period (cont.) rainforest understorey, 258, 264, 265, species richness, 258 non-tidally inluenced mangroves, 556 267, 283, 290 stand replacement, 267 oxygen isotopes in marine sediments, carbon content, 298 structural and loristic variability, 46, 65 plastic responses, 29 259–65 Quaternary vegetation rainforests, 12, 17, 23, 43, 64, 257–73. subgroup attributes, 260–61 climate and environmental effects, 67, See also speciic types, e.g. tropical intrusives, 17 74–78 tropical rainforests Western Australia, 264 conclusions about, 81–82 Aboriginal people in, 80, 259 western Tasmania, 71 extinct plant taxa, 71, 73, 81 ancestors, 43 World Heritage List, 257 ire impacts, 74 and drought, 266, 267 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of human impact, 80, 81, 82 and last glacial maximum, 77 International Importance, 507, in Australia, 63–82 anthropogenic modiication, 259 509, 525 macrofossils, 71–74 basal lowering plant families, 258 rangelands pollen records, 63–64, 68–69, 71–74, clearing effects, 269–70 degradation, 627, 639 78–81, 603 climate change effects, 272 exotic pasture grasses, 642 rainforest/sclerophyll mosaic, 81 composition, Stony Creek Basin, exotic perennial grasses, 210 southeastern Australia, 70–74 Victoria, 73–74 overgrazing, 640–41 Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 71–74 conservation issues and threatening restoration of degraded land, 643 Quintinia tasmanensis, 71 processes, 269–72 shrub encroachment, 641 quondong, 98 contraction Ranunculaceae, 504 Neogene, 55 Ranunculus, 466 rabbits, 138, 427, 480, 586, 591, 618, Quaternary, 74 rattle pods, 93 640, 688, 689 cyclone effects, 268 recreational overuse, 560, 684, 696 radiation, 678 disease impacts, 271–72 recruitment rainfall, 157 distribution, 259, 265–69 alpine lora, 475–76 and arid shrublands, 635–36, 637 diversity, 80, 258, 678 arid shrublands, 636, 639 and dry sclerophyll forest distribution, edaphic factors effects, 266–67 episodic, 525, 531 315, 317, 319–20 extinct taxa, 71, 73 loodplain and riverine woodlands and ire activity \r, 116 extinction and climate variability, 74 and forests, 527–29 and lowering phenology, 185 ire effects, 267–68, 294–96 grasses, arid zone, 241 and halophytic communities, 561 ire susceptibility, 124, 268, 296 hummock grasses, 663–64 and heathland distribution, 341 forest types, 258 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, and seed bank dynamics, 188 fragmentation, 269–70, 272, 273 583–84 and seed production, 186, 232 future research directions, 272–73 post-ire, 122 and seedling recruitment, 190 gap dynamics, 246 savanna trees, 379 and species persistence, 245 history, 53–54, 55, 53–54 seedlings and rainfall, 190 and vegetation patterns, 184 hydrological niche, 23 tropical loodplain trees, 529 palaeoclimates, 47 invasive species, 17, 270–71 wetland plants, 494 savannas, 370–71, 372 Lake Euramoo, Qld, 78, 80–81 red gum species, 413 seed dormancy and germination, 187 legislative protection, 270 Red listing, 689 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 421 location factors, 258 Reedia, 506 variability, 23, 157, 421 nutrient environment, 24 refugia, 29, 77, 194, 258, 292, 685, 692 rainfall seasonality, 23, 47, 116, 184, 341 Podocarpaceae, 47 Regatta Point, Tasmania affect on rainforests, 265–66 pollen assemblages, 68 extant and extinct taxa, 71 gradient, southern Australia, 118 precipitation effects, 265–66 regeneration tropical loodplain wetlands, 500 Quaternary, 71, 73–74, 80–81, 81 episodic, 531 tropics, 370 seed banks, 240 ire-prone vegetation, 27 rainfall-productivity relationship, 627 seed dispersal, 235, 268–69 Regional Forest Agreements, 695 rainforest boundaries, 267, 268 southern Australia, 81 rehabilitation, 231 rainforest lora species coexistence, 272 mining sites, 406 Australia, 272 species diversity, 260 reid-river box, 393 resprouting, 294 species endemism, 258, 259, 260 relict elements, 17, 27

Index 737

remnant vegetation restoration. See ecological restoration robustness, 231, 237 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, revegetation rock fuchsia-bush, 93 402–4, 406 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 430 rocky substrates impact of reduced ire frequency, 126 Rhagodia, 599, 603, 608 dry rainforests, 260 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, acicularis, 619 mangroves, 557 589 spinescens, 392, 612 rodents, 637 temperate eucalypt woodlands, Rhamnaceae, 240, 290, 317, 635 root adaptations 411, 429 rhizoids, 355 plant communities, 166 remote sensing, 690 rhizomes, 125, 143, 357 root architecture, 23, 30, 162 reproduction, 234 Rhizophora, 551, 554, 555, 556 root clusters, 345, 353, 355 reptiles, 638 stylosa, 555, 556 root depth, 162 reserve estate Rhodes grass, 405 root suckers, 125, 142, 400 management, 691 Rhodomyrtus psidioides, 304 root systems reserve system, 691–92. See also Richea, 505 and plant types, 162, 170 National Reserve System; ridged noon-lower, 619 and vegetation patterns, 161, 162 off-reserve conservation riparian forests, 191 heathland plants, 25, 353–54 brigalow forests and eucalypt riparian plants mangroves, 551 woodlands, 402 release of propagules, 494 roots, 230 dry sclerophyll forests, 331 riparian vegetation Aboriginal food use, 95 heathlands, 359 composition, structure and distribu- competitive interactions, 30 tussock grasslands, 451 tion, 520–27 mycorrhizal, 166–67 reserves conservation issues, 533–36 nitrogen ixing associations, 170–73 grazing for buffel grass control in, ire regimes, 536 nonmycorrhizal, 168–70 406 grazing effects, 535 oxygen deprivation, 25 Indigenous management, 691 water deprivation effects, 686 used by Aboriginal people, 91 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, 589 weed invasions, 535–36 Rosaceae, 71 private, 692 woody, 517, 520–33 rosettes, 461 representation of vegetation in, 692 zones, 517 Rostellularia adscendens, 392 resilience, 231, 237, 242 riparian zones, 516–37 Rubiaceae, 258, 290, 345 resistance, 231, 237 invasive plant management, 218 Rubus nebuloides, 71 resource ilters, 18–29 invasive weeds in, 216, 217–18 Ruppia, 501, 547 resprouters, 351, 357, 359, 379 river red gum woodlands, 98 Rutaceae, 238, 258, 290, 578, 635 facultative, 424 river red gums, 411, 504, 520, 533, 536, Rytidosperma, 52, 419, 420, 421, 424, suppression, 642 684 428, 441, 444, 449, 580 resprouting, 27, 53, 114, 122, 124, 196, mechanical thinning, 533 bipartitum, 442 240, 241, 244 persistence, 529 caespitosa, 191, 618 ability, and grazing, 142 tree deaths, 531 semiannulare, 445 arid shrubland species, 639 river regulation, 534 eucalypt woodlands, 400 Murray-Darling Basin, 504, 534, 686 sabka, 547 heathland species, 345, 351, 357, 359 river she oak, 525 safe sites, 244 hummock grasses, 663 river systems, 517–19 Sagittaria platyphylla, 496, 505 in Banksia, 125–26, 357 Riverine Chenopod Shrublands, 603, saline lakes, 501–2 in eucalypts, 294, 400, 423–24 604, 607 submerged vegetation, 501 mallee eucalypts, 581, 583, 584 overgrazing by livestock, 618 threats to, 501 manipulated by Aboriginal burning, 98 state-and-transition model of response vegetation composition, 501 rainforest species, 268, 294 to livestock and climate, 613–15 saline mudlats, 545 savannas, 379 riverine environment. See loodplain and saline wetlands, 26, 28, 498 temperate eucalypt woodlands, riverine environment intrusives, 17 423–24 riverine storages, 507 salinisation, 426, 430, 526, 687 wet schlerophyll forest species, 294 rivers salinity, 6, 26–27, 157, 531 Restionaceae, 43, 345, 349, 358, low events, 29 and estuarine mangrove zonation, 555 466, 506 low rates, 517 and forest dieback, 535

738 Index

salinity (cont.) sandalwood, 619 ire seasonality, 377, 378 and halophytes, 545 sandhill wattle, 633 ire weather, 377 dryland, 502, 534–35 Sandplain Bluebush Shrublands, 603, fuel load, 377 experiments, 496 604, 607, 619 futures, 380–82 impact on chenopod shrublands, 619 state-and-transition models of grasses, 369, 372, 379 wetland plants, 496 response to livestock and climate, hydrological niche, 23 Salix 613, 615–18 land clearance, 369, 370 cinerea, 217 Sandplain Saltbush Bluebush, 619 landforms, 371 nigra, 217 sandstones persistence, 380 salt accumulators, 607 evergreen rainforests and vine phenology, 375 salt crusts, 501 forests, 264 potential for annual ires, 331 salt excreters, 607, 611 sandy soils rainfall gradients, 371 salt lat plants arid shrublands, 633 soil nutrients, 371 lammability, 124 Santalaceae, 41, 415 soil types, 372 salt levels Santalum, 428 species diversity, 374 chenopod shrublands, 611 acuminatum, 98, 638, 640 structural and compositional salt spray, 549, 556 lanceolatum, 392, 527, 634 variation, 372–75 Saltbush-Bluebush Shrublands, 610 spicatum, 141, 619 top-down/bottom-up controls, 376, saltbushes, 599, 603, 604 Sapindaceae, 258, 635 379 saltmarsh species Sapotaceae, 70, 258 tree stratum, 372, 379, 380 biogeography, 549 Sarcostemma, 124 tropical intrusives, 17 distribution, 545–47, 549, 551 Sarcozona bicarinata, 619 vegetation dynamics, 376–80 diversity, 551 savanna biome vegetation structure, 369 ecology, physiology and adaptations, Australia, 372 vegetation, ire and rain interactions, 553–54 global, 369–70 378–80 geomorphic evolution, 556–57 savanna woodlands, 158, 213, 372, 402 world distribution, 368 salt tolerance, 553 Aboriginal burn regimes, 98 saw-lies, 147 taxa, 549 exotic weeds in, 213 Scaevola, 51 temperature effects, 553 savanna–rainforest boundaries, 114 scarab beetles, 147 zonation, 545, 556 savannas, 3, 12, 23, 27 Schizachyrium, 372 saltmarshes, 190, 545 Aboriginal burning impacts, 97–98, Schoenolaena, 506 and closure of estuarine barriers, 556, 377 Schoenoplectus, 503 557 Aboriginal management, 369 pungens, 553 climate change effects, 561 and climate change, 381–82 Scleroblitum, 53 decline in extent, 560 Australia, 368–69, 370 Sclerolaena, 53, 428, 526, 599, 604, 608, estuarine localities, 557 biomass, water use and growth, 376 614, 618 geomorphological settings, 557–58 carbon dynamics, 376, 382 tetracuspis, 392 invasive plants, 560 climate, 370–71 scleromorphy, 25, 315, 476 land inilling and drainage, 560 coexistence with other vegetation sclerophyll lora management, 562 formations, 369 diversity, 74 protection, 562 cyclones interaction with ires, 380 expansion, Quaternary, 74 replacement by mangroves, 555 deinition, 369 geographic splits, 55–56 sea level effects, 556, 559, 561 drought, 380 impoverishment, southestern sediment accumulation, 559 enhanced CO2 effects, 191 Australia, 81 threats, 560 evolutionary history, 370, 380 phosphorus toxicity, 687 salt-tolerant species, 545, 551, 553. factors inluencing survival and Stony Creek Basin, Victoria, 71, 73, 74 See also halophytes growth, 244 sclerophyll forests, 12, 16. See also loodplains, 526, 535 fetches, 374 dry sclerophyll forests; wet Salvinia molesta, 496 ire experiments, 378, 379 schlerophyll forests Samolus repens, 549, 555 ire management, 381, 382 hydrological niche, 23 samphires, 501, 526, 600 ire regimes, 377–78, 379, 378–80, 382 last glacial maximum, 77

Index 739

sclerophyll shrublands, 23, 24, 25, sedgelands, 284, 504, 506 effects of pre-dispersal predators on, 314, 415 Aboriginal burning impacts, 98 233–34 ire frequency and seasonality, 118 alpine, 467 environmental factors affecting, ire intervals and plant functional sedges, 94, 170 232–33 type, 123–24 sediment accumulation loodplain and riparian tree species, 527 WA, 70 saltmarshes, 559 Triodia, 664 sclerophyll vegetation, 64 sedimentation seed retention, 122 and nutrient deiciency, 24, 328 intertidal zone, 558 seed storage on the plant, 358 barrier to disperal across Nullabor sediments seeders Plain, 41 mangrove and saltmarsh, 558–59 heathlands, 351 lammability, 329, 330 seed banks, 239–43. See also soil seed seedling recruitment, 190 heathlands, 343, 352–53 banks Triodia, 664 history, 53–54, 55–56 desert loodplain wetlands, 501 seeds, 231 invasives, 17 dynamics, 188 Sehima nervosum, 404 pollen assemblages, 68 longevity, climatic condition effects, semi-arid savannas, 372 salinity effects, 26 188–90 semi-arid tussock grasslands, 442 sclerophyll woodlands persistence, 122, 240–43 disturbance effects, 449 Lake Euramoo, Qld, 78, 80 types, 239 drought effects, 449 seed dispersal, 237 wetland plants, 496 semi-arid vegetation, 77 sclerophyllous heaths and shrublands, seed dispersal, 209 semi-arid woodlands, 16 580 across vegetation types, 236 semi-arid zone sclerophylly, 5, 19, 25, 31, 314, 678 and environmental change, desert loodplain wetlands, 500–501 alpine plants, 475 236–38 invasive plants, 215–16 and drought adaptation, 328, 353 by animals, 141, 234, 235, 237, 269, Senna, 51, 588, 627, 635, 641 and drought tolerance, 329 425, 638 artemisioides, 400, 634, 636 and lammability, 315 by water, 29, 234, 235 occidentalis, 271 and leaf longevity, 340 by wind, 234, 235, 269 serotiny, 27, 28, 114, 122 and nutrient deiciency, 328 desert wetlands 1198, 491 loodplain trees, 527 and nutrient poverty, 352 loodplain and riparian tree species, heathland plants, 345, 355, 357–58 and overproduction of ligniied 527 serrated tussock, 210 tissues, 315 heathlands, 345, 358 Sesuvium portulacastrum, 549 and soil nutrients, 315, 317, 353 post-ires, 27, 121, 294, 358, 425, sexual mimicry, 233 heathland plants, 339–40, 343, 583, 584 sexual reproduction, 232 352–53 rainforests, 235, 268–69 sheep scotch broom, 687 savanna trees, 375 impact on mallee vegetation, 587 Scrophulariaceae, 415, 421, 502, 635 seed dispersal curves shrub density, 607, 615 sea level rise, 190, 500, 555, 556 shape of, 235 shrub encroachment, 588, 627, 641 sea levels seed dormancy, 358, 664 shrubby mallee, 577, 580, 583, 589 and intertidal plant communities, 558 and ires, 121, 187, 240, 242 ire effects, 582 during the LGM, 76 and looding, 494 grazing cessation and woody shrub Holocene, 557 and germination, 187–88, 238–39 encroachment, 588 inluence on mangroves and classes, 238 post-ire dynamics, 584 saltmarshes, 556, 559, 561 seed harvesting, 684 recruitment, 583 paleo-indicators, 556 by Aboriginal groups, 91 shrubby subformations, 284, 291 Pleistocene, 67 seed plants families and chatacterstics, 290 sea salt aerosols, 26 life cycle, 231 shrubby understoreys seagrasses, 547 seed predation, 233–34, 426, 637 temperate woodlands, 415, 419 seasonal wetlands, 498 seed production, 186–87, 232 shrubby woodlands secondary defences, 143 and rainfall, 186, 232 grazing effects, 428 secondary metabolites, 143 and seed mass, 233 shrubland-grassland boundaries, 627, sedgeland–rainforest boundaries, 114 and temperature, 187, 232 630, 639, 664

740 Index

shrublands, 3, 16, 124, 339, 506. See soil depth, 159 and species persistence, 242–43 also speciic types, e.g. chenopod soil fertility arid ecosystems, 188, 241 shrublands and water availability gradients, dry families with, 238 distribution, 340 sclerophyll forests, 324, 326–27, ire-prone ecosystems, 241–43 hydrological niche, 23 328–29 mallee ecosystems, 588 Sida soil micro-organisms, 665 Triodia grasslands, 664 cordifolia, 271 soil mineralogy soil silica concentrations, 324 ibulifera, 392 texture and depth soil structure trichopoda, 392 as determinants of vegetation type, changes by vertebrate engineers, 137–38 silicon, 343 159 soil types silver-leaved ironbarks, 393–94, 397, soil moisture, 161 alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, 467 402 chenopod shrublands, 610, 612 arid shrublands, 630, 633–34, 635 silvicultural practices dry sclerophyll forests, 320 as a major inluence on vegetation wet sclerophyll forests, 301–2 soil moisture deicits patterns, 157–60 Simpson Strezlecki Desert bioregion, dry sclerophyll forests, 320 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, 659, 660 soil nitrogen. See nitrogen, soil 394–99, 394–99 Singapore daisy, 214 soil nutrient availability, 157, 163 chenopod shrublands, 600, 603, 607 sinker roots, 353, 529 and ire interval, 165–66 dry sclerophyll forests, 317, 326, 327 Sisymbrium irio, 612 soil nutrient concentrations, 163 loodplains, 519–20 skeletal soils soil nutrients, 24, 31, 156, 160. See also heathlands, 341 and ires, 119 nitrogen; phosphorus hummock grasslands, 661–62 ski tourism impacts, 482 and growth of native plant species, Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, smoke, 121, 187, 240, 242, 294, 357, 358 164 578, 580 snow, 26, 461, 462 and mycorrhizal plants, 173 savannas, 371, 372 and environment experienced by and nutrient cycling processes, temperate eucalypt woodlands, 411, plants, 475 163–64 415, 420 impact on community distributions, and sclerophylly, 317 temperate grasslands, 444 475 brigalow and eucalypt woodlands, tropical and subtropical grasslands, 442 Tasmania, 461, 473, 475 396, 397 tussock grasslands, 439, 442, 446, 447 snowmelt, 473, 475 chenopod shrublands, 611, 612 warm temperate rainforests, 264 and seed germination, 476 dry sclerophyll forests, 319–20, 324, wet sclerophyll forests, 291, 292 and timing of life cycle events, 476 326, 327, 328 soils, 46 snowpatches, 475, 481 ire impacts, 121, 164–66 Solanum, 91, 98 Snowy Mountains heathlands, 341, 353 parvifolium, 392 alpine vegetation, 462, 481 hummock grasslands, 662 soldier settlement, 683 climate change effects, 481–82 savannas, 371 solonized soils dieback, 481 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 422, arid shrublands, 633, 635 glaciation, 76 430 somatic mutations, 351, 357 GLORIA study, 481 soil pH, 27, 157, 164 Sonneratia, 551, 553, 555, 557 origins, 462 soil phosphorus. See phosphorus, soil alba, 555, 556 soaks, 588 soil pits, 638 Sorghum, 372 sodicity, 157 soil processes intrans, 374, 379 sodium, 25 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 422–23 South Australia sodium chloride levels soil properties, 157 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 413 Atriplex, 607, 611 and rainforest distribution, 266–67 southeast coast soft spinifex, 652 and species dominance, 159 loodplain and riverine vegetation, soil age – nutrient relationship, 159 and vegetation composition and 525–26 soil compaction, 137, 141 structure, 161, 173–74 southeast NSW soil complexity and vegetation patterns, 160 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 and landscape age, 158 soil seed banks, 27, 122, 239, 240–41, southeast Queensland soil degradation. See land degradation 294, 296, 357, 358, 359, 476 wet sclerophyll foretss, 291

Index 741

southeastern Australia rainforests, 258, 260 sporophytes, 231 coastal freshwater wetlands, 503–4 saltmarsh species, 551 spring wetlands, 502 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, savannas, 374 Great Artesian Basin, 502–3 577, 580 subtropical rainforests, 260 invasive species, 503 Quaternary vegetation, 70–74 species endemism, 3, 56, 678 threats, 502–3 temperate eucalypt woodlands, 413 alpine and sub-alpine zones, stadials, 67 southern NSW Tasmania, 466 stand-replacing ires, 113, 267 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 arid shrublands, 633, 634, 635 state-and-transition models Southern Tablelands chenopods, 603 Riverine Chenopod community, soil fertility and water availability dry sclerophyll forests, 317 613–15 gradients, 324, 326–27 heathlands, 344, 348 Sandplain Bluebush community, 613, Southwest Australian Floristic Region Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, 581 615–18 soil chemistry and loristic turnover, rainforests, 258, 259, 260 Stellaria media, 217 159 southwest wetlands, 506 Sterculiaceae, 258 Southwest Coast spring wetlands, Great Artesian Basin, Stilbocarpa polaris, 473, 478 loodplain and riverine vegetation, 502 stilt roots, 551 526 temperate eucalypt woodlands, stimulants, 93 Southwest Native Title Settlement, 591 Tasmania, 420 Stirlingia, 54 southwestern Australia species persistence, 242–43, 244, 357, Stockwellia, 284 diversity, 74 411, 421, 491, 696 stomatal regulation, 23 dryland salinity, 535 arid shrublands, 639 Stony Creek Basin, Victoria groundwater-dependent wetlands, dry sclerophyll forests, 332 Quaternary macrofossil and pollen 506–7 ecological processes driving, 245–46 records, 71–74 maalok eucalypts, 570, 572, 578, 581 ire effects, 245 sclerophyll and rainforest lora, 71, Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, savannas, 380 73–74 577 seed banks, 122, 240–43 storage organs, 231 muruk, 578, 580 storm-driven processes, 245 storm surges, 191, 559 shrubby mallee, 580 water effects, 245 storm-driven processes, 245 species richness and diversity, 158 species pools, 6, 16–18, 30 Strasburgeriaceae, 54 temperate eucalypt woodlands, species richness, 158 stress tolerance, 19 413–15, 420 and soil nutrient availability, 163 string making, 93 vegetation map, 161 and soil nutrient levels, 159 Stylidiaceae, 345 wet sclerophyll forests, 292 ectomycorrhizal plants, 170 Stylidium, 351 Spartina, 554 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, Styphelioideae, 74 anglica, 560 580 sub-alpine environments x townsendii, 560 nonmycorrhizal plants, 170 environmental legislation, 482 spatial heterogeneity, 7 rainforest taxa, 258 grazing impacts, 479–80 speciation, 258, 656 Sphagneticola trilobata, 214 vegetation dynamics, 478–79 species coexistence Sphagnum, 467, 479, 482 sub-alpine lora heathlands, 349–51 cristatum, 479, 505 abiotic and biotic interactions, 476–78 species dispersal novozelandicum, 505 biomass accumulation, 478 by Aboriginal people, 96 sphagnum mosses, 505 growth habit, 461 key modes of, 234 spinifex, 52, 121, 440, 652 recruitment, 475–76 species distribution models (SDMs), Spinifex, 652 sub-alpine vegetation, 461–83 192–94, 195, 196 spinifex materials cold environment, 475 disadvantages, 194 Indigenous use, 94, 654 community nomenclature, 466–67 species diversity, 158 Spirodela, 496 distribution, 462 heathlands, 344–45, 349–51, 360 Sporobolus, 441, 442 of communities, 467 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, caroli, 392, 444, 618 environmental gradients and their 580–82 pamelae, 502 inluence on community mangroves, 549 virginicus, 551, 555 distributions, 467–75

742 Index

sub-alpine vegetation (cont.) soil fertility and water availability temperate eucalypt woodlands, growing season, 475 gradients, 324, 326–27 410–31 management and conservation, Symplocaceae, 71 Aboriginal land management, 431 482–83 Symplocos, 71 Aboriginal use and burning, 410, 424, soil types, 467 Syncarpia, 283, 284, 290 427 taxa, 461 hillii, 291 altered ecosystem processes threatening processes and conservation, Syzygium impacts on plant species composition, 479–83 smithii, 264 427–28 water and snow effects on community suborbiculare, 96 in agricultural landscapes, 426–27 distribution, 467–69 climate, 411, 420, 421 sub-alpine woodlands, 411, 466 tall eucalypt forests, 115, 116, 119 climate change, 428–29 sub-Antarctic islands, 461 tall open-forest, 283, 290 climate variability, 422 climate, 461 tall woodland, 283 conservation challenges, 425–29 origins, 465 Tamarindus indica, 96 conservation opportunities, 429–31 soil types, 467 tannins, 353 deinition, 411 water and snow effects on community taproots, 162, 353 dominant eucalypt species, 413–15 distribution, 467–69 Taraxacum oficinale, 216 drought, 421 wind and exposure effects, 473–75 Tasmania ecological restoration, 429–30 sub-Antarctic vegetation, 462, 461–83 alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, 461, fauna associations, 425 biomass accumulation, 478 462, 466, 467, 468–69, 482 ire regimes, 423 distribution, 462, 466, 467 alpine areas, 461 obligate-seeding eucalypts, recruitment, 476 alpine bogs and fens, 505–6 424–25 Submerged group (wetland plants), 494, alpine lora, 56 resprouting eucalypts (grassy 495, 496 climate change effects, 481 woodlands), 423–24 sub-montane rainforests, 78 cool temperate rainforests, 265 lammability, 425 subshrubs, 392 cool wet sclerophyll forests, 292 fossorial mammals effects, 422 substrate salinity, 26–27 endemicity, dry country wooldands, 420 grazing impacts, 411, 427–28 subsucculent shrublands, 23 forest dieback, 481 land clearing, 411, 426, 428 subtropical grasslands, 442–44 glaciers, 47 linear infrastructure and mining, subtropical rainforests, 260 grassy-heathy woodlands, 415 428 exotic vines in, 270 mires, 473 marsupial herbivory, 425 subtropical vine thickets mixed forest, 290 overstorey, 413–15 clearing, 270 mountain formation, 465 policy and incentive structures to subtropics Podocarpaceae, 47 boost conservation, 430–31 impact of Aboriginal burning, 97 riverine vegetation, 526 rainfall, 421 succulence, 5 snow, 461, 473, 475 remnant vegetation, 411, 429 succulents, 395, 501 species endemism, 466 resprouting, 423–24 sugar gliders, 233 treeline species, 462 revegetation, 430 sundews, 94 Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage scope and distribution, 411 supercontinent, 43, 51 Area, 257, 281, 482 soil processes, 422–23 surface lows, 686 Taxandria, 506 soil types, 411, 415, 420 survival Tecticornia, 26, 124, 501, 526, 607 South Australia, 413 and growth, 244 arbuscula, 555 southeastern Australia, 413 and long distance dispersal, 237 auriculata, 551 southwestern Australia, 413–15, 420 swamps, 501, 503 australasica, 549 structure and composition, 413–20 Swan Coastal Plain halocnemoides, 553, 555, 603 structuring ecological processes, grroundwater levels, 506 pergranulata, 553, 555 421–25 wetlands, 506 Telopea, 49, 240 understoreys, 415–19, 423 Sydney Basin, 77, 119 speciosissima, 90, 196 environmental gradients, 419–20 sandstone soils, 327 strahanensis, 71 temperate grasslands, 444 soil age – nutrient relationship, temperate Australia distribution, 444 159 invasive plants, 214–15 fuel accumulation, 331

Index 743

grazing, 688 triandra, 191, 284, 393, 394, 420, 444, Thunbergia, 214 invasives, 17 450, 451, 640 Thyridolepis mitchelliana, 640 soil types, 444 Themeda grasslands, 118 Thysanotus, 419 species composition, 444 contraction, 192 mycorrhizas, 167, 168 temperate rainforests, 30, 115, 258 ire and plant diversity, 448 tidal inundation cool, 265 thermal niches, 25–26 and salinity, 26 warm, 264–65 thick-billed grasswren, 619 and zonation, 556 temperate woodlands thorn scrubs, 16 Holocene, 557 hydrological niche, 23 threat abatement, 695–97 mangroves and saltmarshes, 551, 553, temperature, 6, 25–26 through protected areas, 691–92 554 and CO2 levels, 186 threatened ecological communities, 695 salinity levels, 556 and eucalypt suitability, 194 alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, tidal relationships and lowering phenology, 185–86 479–83 halophytic communities, 545–47, and germination, 239, 240 arid shrublands, 643 557 and heathland distribution, 341 hummock grasslands, 666–67 tidal wetlands, 29 and seed production, 187, 232 tussock grasslands, 451 timber for tool making, 93 and vegetation patterns, 184 wet sclerophyll forests, 299–300 timber industry, 102, 281, 305 hummock grasslands, 661 threatened species timber plantations, 300 mangroves and saltmarsh, 553–54 arid shrublands, 642–43 Timor Sea, 519 moisture availability and plant box and ironbark Eucalyptus top-down/bottom-up controls, growth, 190 woodlands, 405 376, 379 savannas, 370 brigalow forests, 404–5 tussock grasslands, 446–48 seed dormancy and germination, current listings, 690 topography 187–88 environmental assessments, 695 vegetation and ire, 118–19 temporal variability, 7 environmental legislation, 694 tourism impacts, 684, 696 Terminalia, 372, 375 Red listing, 689, 690 alpine environments, 217, 482 aridicola, 394 wet sclerophyll forests, 299 toxic elements, 157 ferdinandiana, 91, 102, 379 Threatened Species Conservation Act toxic minerals, 343 oblongata, 392, 393 1995 (NSW), 210, 213, 220, 302, toxic nuts, 91 platyphylla, 520 482, 560 toxicity, 27 termites, 137 threatening processes, 124. See also trace elements, 341 as herbivores and detritivores, key threatening processes to trampling, 137, 141, 641 147–48, 637, 665 biodiversity; speciic threats, transcontinental arid shrublands, 630 consumption, 147 e.g. land clearing on calcareous and solonized diversity, 147 alpine and sub-alpine vegetation, soils, 633 impacts of, 147–48 479–83 on sand or allluvial soils, 633–34 Terrestrial group (wetland plants), alpine bogs and fens, 505–6 transformations, 234, 243 494, 495 Australian vegetation, 679–89 transformer species, 212, 215 terrestrial plants chenopod shrublands, 619–20 tree death characteristics, 230 coastal loodplain wetlands, 503–4 loodplain and riparian trees, 529–33 Tersonia, 351 desert loodplain wetlands, 501 tree hollows, 284, 584, 684 Tertiary, 159, 324, 371, 465, 466 from logging, 302 tree phenology Thellungia advena, 442 halophytic communities, 560, 561 savannas, 375 Themeda, 142, 372, 421, 422, 423, 439, heathlands, 359–60 tree recruitment 440, 441, 442, 444 hummock grasslands, 666–67 loodplain and riverine trees, biomass recovery after ire, 448 macrophytes, 505 527–29 enhanced CO2 effects, 191 Murray-Darling Basin, 504–5 tree stem survival ire effects, 424 rainforests, 267, 269–72 savanna trees, 379 genetic variability, 450 saline lakes, 501 tree stratum grazing effects, 428 spring wetlands, 502–3 savannas, 372 marsupial herbivory, 425 wet sclerophyll forests, 300–305 ire regime effects, 379, 380 re-establishment, 430 wetlands, 508, 509, 511, 686 treeless grasslands, 446–47

744 Index

treeless vegetation Tristaniopsis anthropogenic ire impacts, 447 alpine and sub-alpine areas, 462 exililora, 520 biomass recovery after perturbation, 448 Trianthema triquetra, 392 laurina, 525 bottom-up and top-down processes Triassic rocks and soils, 158, 324, 326, Trochocarpa, 290 impacts on distribution, 446–48 327 tropical Australia climate change effects, 441–42 Tribonanthes, 506 invasive plants, 213–14 climatic domains, 441–42 Tricoryne elatior, 424 rainfall seasonality, 370 conservation challenges and Trifolium repens, 216 tropical bogs and fens, 16 opportunities, 451–52 Triglochin procera, 99 tropical loodplain trees contemporary, 441–46 Triodia, 52, 121, 158, 184, 216, 372, recruitment, 529 current status, 450–51 440, 577, 584, 626, 630, 639, tropical loodplain wetlands, 498–500 depletion by agriculture and urban 651, 678. See also hummock tropical loodplains development, 450–51 grasslands hydrology, 500 distribution, 438–40, 438–40, 442 Aboriginal use, 94, 654, 667 invasive plants, 500 disturbance effects on ecosystem adaptations to arid conditions and species 1212, 500 function and diversity, 448–49 biome shifts, 655 tropical grasslands, 442–44, 688 drought, 447, 448, 449 basedowii, 652, 653, 655, 656, 657, Tropical Indigenous Ethnobotany Centre environmental legislation, 451 659, 664, 665 (TIEC), Cairns, 102 ire effects, 447, 448 bynoei, 655, 664 tropical intrusives, 17 intrusive elements, 17 ire dynamics, 663 tropical Malesian taxa, 16, 17 invasive exotic grasses, 451 lammability, 663 tropical montane grasslands, 16 marsupial herbivore impacts, 447 growth form, 652 tropical northeastern Queensland passive restoration, 452 harvesting for biomaterials, 667 wet sclerophyll forest, 290–91 plant families, 438 intermedia, 664 tropical rainforest communities principle types, 441 irritans, 655, 656 response to climate change, 194 reserve system, 451 Kranz anatomy, 655 tropical rainforests, 30, 213, 260 soil types, 439, 442, 447 leaf types, 655 Cape York, 260 threatened environments, 451 marginata, 664 cyclone effects, 267, 268, 270 vegetation dynamics, 448–49 melvillei, 664 distribution, 260 Typha, 503, 508, 509 molesta, 664 drought effects, 266 domingensis, 91, 98, 496 names for, 652 exotic weeds in, 214 orientalis, 98 pungens, 394, 655, 656 impact of Aboriginal burning, 97 Typhaceae, 504 regeneration, 663–64 plant families, 258 scariosa, 664 research direction, 272–73 ultramaic soils, 27 schinzii, 655, 656, 657, 664 tropical savannas. See savannas urban expansion, 683 seed production, 186 tropical wetlands, 213, 214 Urochloa mutica, 214, 500, 503, 536 speciation, 656 Trymalium, 290 Urticaceae, 78 species distributions and loristic tubers Utricularia, 355, 520 variability, 656–57 Aboriginal food use, 91, 95 Vachellia nilotica, 215, 452 Western Australia, 657–58 tundra, 16 Vallisneria, 496 spicata, 664 Turbina corymbosa, 214 australis, 505 xeromorphic leaf characteristics, 655 turpentine mulga, 633 Triodia mallee, 577, 580, 583, 589, 655 tussock grasses, 158, 372, 415, 420, 580, vegetation ire effects, 582, 586 583, 587, 635, 642 response to CO2 levels, 191–92 post-ire dynamics, 584, 585 deinition, 438 vegetation assembly recruitment, 583 sub-Antarctic islands, 462 conceptual model, 5–7, 32 vertebrate herbivore effects, 586, 587, tussock grasslands, 24, 25, 397, 438–52, vegetation classiication, 12–13, 13–16, 184 586–88 468, 473. See also arid tussock vegetation clearing. See land clearing Triodia-dominated grasslands, grasslands; semi-arid tussock vegetation composition 651–68 grasslands and soil features, 161 Trisetum spicatum, 466 and CO2 levels, 450 edaphic boundaries, 158

Index 745

vegetation distribution net effects on plant communities, landscape and local scales, 324–28 and predicted climate change impacts, 143–45 strengths and limitations, 328–29 192–97 vertebrate herbivory, 30 wet schlerophyll forests, 292 vegetation dynamics vicariance, 41, 43, 48, 53 water deicit, 19 after LGM, Lake Euramoo, and long distance dispersal, 54 and plant productivity responses to Queensland, 78–81 Victoria CO2, 192 alpine, sub-alpine and sub-Antarctic wet sclerophyll forests, 291 under climate change, 304 environments, 478–79 Viminaria juncea, 355 water dispersal, 29, 234, 235, 492, 494, loodplains, 527–33 vine forests, 264 527 Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands, vine thickets, 23, 258 water extraction, 7, 506, 508, 534, 666, 582–86 distribution, 259 686 savannas, 376–80 dry rainforests, 260 water hyacinth, 496 tussock grasslands, 448–49 plant families, 258 water infrastructure, 686 vegetation formations. See Australian subrgoup attributes, 261 water persistence vegetation formations vines, 17, 268 wetlands, 508 vegetation maps, 12–13, 30, 183 as weeds, 210, 211, 214, 215 water quality, 491, 503 savannas, 372 exotic, 270 water regimes, 685–86 Western Australia, 161, 172, 173 Vitaceae, 70 and species persistence, 245 vegetation mosaics, 73, 81, 97, 105, 630, Vochysiaceae, 49 loodplain wetlands, 504 652, 657–58 volcanism, 46 impacts of alteration of, 686 vegetation patterns management, 696 and ire regimes, 116–18 waddy wood woodlands, 626 wetland plants, 496, 509, 510 and rainfall, 184 Wahlenbergia, 421 waterbirds, 490, 492, 507, 509, 510 and root systems, 162 wallabies, 138, 143, 425 waterlilies, 496, 500 and soil properties, 160 Walwhalleya proluta, 442, 444 waterlogging, 28, 507, 535 and temperature, 184 waratah, 90 Wattleridge Indigenous Protected Area, climatic inluences, 182–98 warm stratiication, 187 NSW continental scale projections, 194 warm temperate central and southern vegetation management, 104 determinants and classiication, 183–84 NSW weather, 183 soil as major inluence, 157–60 wet sclerophyll forests, 291 weathering, 158, 159 vegetation structure warm temperate rainforests, weed control edaphic boundaries, 158 264–65 traditional burning for, 100 herbivore impacts, 136–38 warm temperate southwestern Australia weed invasions, 209, 211, 535–36 mapping, 13 wet sclerophyll forests, 292 Weed Risk Assessment (WRA), 221 maps, 4 wasps, 233 weeds. See also exotic grasses; invasive vegetation-climate relationships, 13 wastewater treatment in wetlands, plants Late Quaternary, 74–78 496 alpine zone, 216–17, 482 vegetation-ire dynamics, 119–21 water and ire regimes, 126–27 savannas, 378–80 as resource ilter, 17, 19, 22–23, 31 aquatic, 210, 211, 217, 496, 507, 508 veldt grass, 126 water availability, 7, 157, 162, 163, 174, arid and semi-arid zones, 215–16 Ventilago, 635 184 biological control, 221–22 Verbenaceae, 258 dry sclerophyll forests, 320 chemical control, 221 vernalisation, 185 water availability gradients, 22, 23 dry sclerophyll forests, 331 vertebrate herbivores, 138–41, 688 and soil fertility halophytic communities, 560 direct and indirect effects, 139–41 Sydney Basin and Southern humid temperate zone, 214–15 distribution, habitat preference, Tablelands, 324, 326–27 in brigalow and box woodlands, 393 density and diet, 139 dry sclerophyll forests, 324, 326–27, introduced by logging, 302 impact on chenopod shrublands, 328–29 management, 216, 220–22 613–19 water balance model physical removal, 221 impact on mallee vegetation, 591 dry sclerophyll forests rainforests, Lord Howe Island, 271 impact on wetland vegetation, 498 continental scale, 321–23 riparian and wetland systems, 217–18

746 Index

weeds (cont.) logging, 297, 301–3, 684 interactions with other trophic levels, temperate eucalypt woodlands, 426 multi-age stand structure, 294 494 tropical ecosystems, 213–14 non-scleromorphic taxa in, 290 management approaches, 509–11 tropical loodplains, 500 post-ire recovery, 294 management responsibility, 508–9 tropical rainforests, 214 role in reducing atmospheric carbon, modelling to aid management, 511 Weeds of National Signiicance, 209, 211 299 national policy, 508 humid temperate zone, 215 soil types, 291, 292 restoration, 696 riparian and aquatic systems, 217 structural features, 281–83, 284 threats, 509 tropical ecosystems, 213 subtropical southeast Queensland and wetland vegetation science Weeping Myall woodlands, 643 northeast NSW, 291 number of publications, 497 weevils, 233 threatened ecological communities, trends, 496–98 Western Australia 299–300 wetlands, 3, 28–29, 490–511 hummock grasslands, 657–58 threatening processes, 300–305 Aboriginal management, 98–99, 509 rainforests, 264 tropical northeastern Queensland, and rainfall, 498 river systems and climate, 519 290–91 artiicial, 507 temperate woodland understorey, 415 understorey loristics, 283, 285–90, degradation, 508, 511 vegetation map, 173 292 environmental lows, 510–11 vegetation maps, 172 understorey plastic responses, 29 importance, 511 western Tasmania warm temperate central and southern invasive weeds, 17, 29, 210, 217–18, 496 Pleistocene taxa, 71 NSW, 291 protection from feral ungulates, 100 wet heath, 468 water balance, 292 Ramsar Convention, 509, 525 wet sclerophyll forests, 17, 281–305, Wet Tropics, 213, 519 threats, 508, 511, 686 324, 328 marine pollen records, 69 types, case studies, 498–507 area estimates, 290 rainforests, 80, 258, 260, 266 whitewood, 627 bell miner associated dieback, 302–3, rainforest-sclerophyll boundaries, wild millet, 91 303 267 wild tobaccos, 93 biomass, 297 World Heritage Area, 257 Willandra Lakes, NSW, 77 canopy, 281–83 yellow crazy ants, 271 Wilsonia backhousei, 555, 560 carbon dynamics, 296–99, 304 wet-dry tropics, 519 wind, 268, 583 characteristics of vascular plant loodplain wetlands, 498–500 wind dispersal, 234, 235, 269, 345 species, 284–85 wetland hydrology, 491, 498 wind exposure effects climate change effects, 304–5 climate change effects, 508 alpine and sub-Antarctic ecosystems, composition, 281 wetland plants 473–75, 478 conservation status, 300 adaptations, 494 wind pollination, 233, 638 conservative management, 298 and salinity, 496 Winteraceae, 48, 258 cool temperate Tasmania, 293 classiication, 494–96 Wolfia, 496 cool temperate Victoria and southeast dispersal mechanisms, 491–94 Wollemia nobilis, 232, 240 NSW, 291 ecology and loristics, 494–96 wombats, 138, 141 diseases, 304 germination and recruitment, 29, 494 wood cricket, 146 distribution, 281, 283, 290–92 herbivore effects, 498 woodlands, 3, 5. See also speciic types, disturbance ecology, 292–96 life cycles, 491 e.g. eucalypt woodlands ecosystem processes, 292–99 seed banks, 496 density dependent mortality, 531 eucalypts, 284–85, 290–92 species, 491 enhanced CO2 effects, 191 taxonomic subgroups, 284 species characterisation, 498 of Australia’s rivers and loodplains, ire ecology, 284, 292–96, 302 water regimes, 496 516–37 forest type and carbon content, 299 wetland vegetation woody encroachment fuel accumulation, 331 abiotic, biotic and human factors through grazing, 145 gigantism in species, 284 impact on, 491 woody riparian and loodplain vegetation, habitat, 284 distribution, 23 517, 520–22 invasives, 17 drivers of, 491–94 by location, 522–27 land clearance, 299 importance, 511 dynamics, 527–33

Index 747

woody trees and shrubs xerophytes, 169 Zamiaceae as weeds, 210, 211, 214, 215, 216, 221, xylem structure, 23 nitrogen ixation, 170 271 Xylomelum angustifolium, 355 Zealandia, 45, 48 Working on Country programs, Ziziphus mauritiana, 215, 216 99, 100 Yallalie, WA zonation World Heritage, 80, 257, 269, Quaternary pollen record, 70, 74 and inundation, 556 281, 482 yam daisies, 91, 95, 411 mangroves, 545, 554–55 woylie, 141 yams, 91, 95 saltmarsh species, 545, 556 Wurmbea dioica, 424 yapunyah, 392, 396, 397 tidal plant communities, 545–47 yarlbun, 100 zonobiome concept, 13 Xanthorrhoea, 240, 317, 360 yarran, 390 zoochory, 234, 235, 237, 269, 357, 425, Xanthorrhoeaceae, 332, 358, 415 yellow crazy ants, 271 638 Xanthostemon, 264 yellow-throated miners, 405 Zostera, 547 chrysanthus, 520 yellow-wood, 392, 393 Zygochloa paradoxa, 652, 656 Xerochloa imberbis, 549 Yirralka Miyalk (women) Rangers, 92 Zygophyllaceae, 395 xeromorphs, 324, 328, 655, 678 bush products, 93 Zygophyllum, 612 xeromorphy, 31, 551 YODFELs, 31–32 apiculatum, 392