Methods of Urban Author(s): Zeynep Celik and Diane Favro Source: Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 41, No. 3, Urban History in the 1980s (Spring, 1988), pp. 4-9 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424886 . Accessed: 02/11/2014 18:40

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This content downloaded from 129.128.216.34 on Sun, 2 Nov 2014 18:40:05 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Methods of Urban History

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Zeynep Celik is an assistant professor Introduction ical, and intellectualas well as architec- in the Graduate School of Architecture, The 1980s have been a prolific time for tural history. Paolo Polledri here Planning,and Preservationat Columbia urban history. Not only are many new emphasizes the contribution of eco- University. She is the author of The books published on the topic, but also a nomic and social data to the under- Remaking of Istanbul, Portrait of an great deal of discussion is taking place standing of eighteenth-centuryVenice. Ottoman in the Nineteenth Century on the theoryand methodology of urban George Gorse relies on familial records (Seattle and London, 1986) and is cur- history.1The interestin the latteris shared to illustratethe evolutionof urbanspaces rently working on a book on the archi- by many disciplines. Recently,planners in medieval Genoa. Dora Crouch calls tecturalrepresentation of Islamin world's held sessions on urban history at the for a reappraisal of archaeological fairs. annual meetings of the American Plan- methods to accommodate the questions ning Association and the Association of asked by architectural historians. Wil- Diane Favro is an assistant professor the Collegiate Schools of Planning. In liam MacDonald exploits the traditional in the Graduate School of Architecture 1986, architecturalhistorians discussed sources and methods of art historiansto and Planning at the Universityof Cali- the methodologies of urban history at create a comprehensive interpretation fornia, LosAngeles. Her currentprojects the yearly Society of ArchitecturalHis- of Romanarchitecture and urbanism. includea monographon AugustanRome torians meeting; in 1987 they examined and a book on Julia Morgan. the physicaltexts of . Historianshad The next four essays are by authorswho their own panels on methods of urban were trained in fields other than art or Thecurrent academic and popular inter- analysis at the conference of the Orga- architecturalhistory, yet who draw from est in urban history is accompanied by nizationof AmericanHistorians; they also these disciplines. As a professor of Eng- methodological explorations. Parallel- coordinated seminars dedicated to the lish, William McClung looks at cities in ing the recent trends in , topic. These debates show thatthe ques- literature, seeking a balance between architecturalhistorians working on urban tions of content, theory, and method in the ideal narratedimages and the praxis. topics have broadened the subject mat- urban history are not well-defined and Marc Weiss, urban planner, studies a ter. They now investigate social, eco- established matters, but are in a form- subdivision of urban history,the history nomic, political, and cultural issues to ative and searching stage. of real-estate development. Paul Groth, explain the built forms of cities, thereby urban geographer, is interested in what relyingon interdisciplinaryresearch. The This on-going exploration is what we he calls "culturallandscapes," with an focus is often on urban transformations seek to display here. In order to inves- emphasis on ordinaryenvironments. His with a wide-spread concern to address tigate the multifacetednature of the field, focus is physical and his approach is the issues and problems of today and we asked scholars with different multidisciplinary.Dolores Hayden, his- tomorrowthrough studying history. While approaches to explain their visions of torian of planning, looks at urban his- the recentmethodological search in urban urban history.Our concern lay not only tory with an active political orientation. history is rich and inspirational, it also with methods and goals, but also with She chooses a past for LosAngeles which bears shortcomings. Methodological prioritizationof issues, sources, presen- involves ethnic minorities and women, pluralismcan easily lead to a diminution tation techniques, and targeted audi- thereby taking a step to counterbalance of focus and a general ambiguity, ences. The focus is on methodology. the uniformdisposition of Anglo-Amer- obscuring evaluation standards. The Nevertheless, this is not an abstraction ican . approaches surveyed here display the of methodfrom content.As the following widening perspectives, but also point to essays demonstrate,it is the contentwhich In undertakingthis survey of individual the importanceof furthertheoretical and gives form to methodology. While the approaches to urban history, our goal methodological discussion. essays represent a sampling of current was not to propose methodological trends, they share a common denomi- parameters for urban history,but rather nator reflecting our own bias as archi- to identify trends and future directions. tectural historians:all look at the phys- Above all, these essays demonstrate icality of urban environments. the tremendous range possible in this subject area. Our sampling encom- The first five authors in this series are passes the generalism of Wright, the architectural historians who employ particularismof Crouch,the quantitative techniques, knowledge, and methods analysis of Polledri, the literaryinterest from other disciplines. Gwendolyn of McClung, the experiential investiga- Wright's approach is multidisciplinary. tion of MacDonald, the social concern She draws from social, economic, polit- of Hayden, Gorse's interest in monu-

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mental urban plazas, Groth's in decid- major transformations.Within this con- social, political,and economic forces that edly unmonumental residential hotels, text, social historiansstudy many aspects gave shape to urban environmentsand and Weiss' in pragmatic real-estate of social life in cities, such as neighbor- try to present a more complete picture. dealings. hood institutions,career patterns, lei- Monumental urban constructs are cur- sure, crime and violence, the housing rently being reexamined by architec- Current Approaches market, poverty, education, family life, tural historians anxious to understand Among the disciplines involved in urban and religion.5 the "why"and "how" behind the stylistic history today, social historians have "what."8Unlike their colleagues in other perhaps been the most systematicin their Architecturalhistorians today are also disciplines, they have been involved in analyses of theoryand methodology.This exploring a wide range of topics in rela- debates of contents,theory, and method.9 is related to the development of and tion to the city, but always with a focus Yet, their work demonstrates a wide experimentationsin the "new social his- on physicalform. Inthe early 1960s, John range of exploration. tory,"which originated in the 1960s. This Summersonargued for the study of the movementwas paralleled in the field of cityas an artifactand called for an urban In the past decade architecturalhistori- urbanstudies by the call for a "new urban historywhich was "the historyof the fab- ans have begun to study non-pedigreed history."Though not uniformlydefined, rics of cities." Paralleling the discourse urban components. Today, urban ver- proponents of this front agreed that a on social history, he emphasized the nacular is a well-accepted subject of primarycharacteristic of the "new urban importanceof social, psychological, and study as represented here in the work of history"was a concernwith social issues.2 economic forces in the generation of Paul Groth and Dolores Hayden. In this urban form and the importance of their category, urbanhousing is a particularly In 1972, E.J.Hobsbawm classified urban study,but postulated a historywhich had popular topic. Research in urban hous- historyas a subdivision of social history. the "tangible substance, the stuff of the ing often incorporates an appreciation He argued that as a "geographically city," thus its form, as the main issue. of non-monumentalphysical form with limited and coherent unit,"the city pro- Summersonalso made a differentiation a strong interest in social issues.10This vides a convenient scale for research between an urban historywhich concen- broadening of subject interest has also and its analysis sheds light on technical, trated on architectureat the expense of led to the investigation of process, that social, and political problems depen- the total building output and the history is, in how "anonymous" architectureis dent on the interactionsof people living of the city in its entirety.He claimed that created. Works such as Marc Weiss' The in the same place. Moreover,cities reflect "all buildings [were] buildings of archi- Rise of the CommunityBuilders (1987) great social transformationsbetter than tectural and historical interest,"but the explore the evolution of non-monumen- any institutions.Hobsbawm observed that urban historian had to go even beyond tal urban environments and the major the tendency among the historians was the study of all buildings and look into proponents of the process. to see urban history as a paradigm of social changes and, because of this, "the whole physical mass of marble, The interestin social issues parallels that urban historyshould remain a principal bricks, steel and concrete, tarmac and in economic topics, providing another concern for social historians.3 rubble, metal conduits and rails-the obvious point of departurefor the archi- whole artifact."6 tectural historian's expanded under- Currently, the focus on major social standingof urbanform. As Paolo Polledri transformations is still pursued among The architectural historian's urban his- shows here, patternsof daily life-so cru- historians. Oliver Zunz in his introduc- tory has existed for about a centurynow, cial to the formation and functioningof tion to Relivingthe Past (1985), discusses but, as Spiro Kostof points out, this has the urbanforms-can be furtherclarified the state of social history and points to been primarilythe historyof "pedigreed by the help of quantitative analyses. the social historians' emphasis during urban design-grand plazas and ave- Therefore,beyond the tangible compo- the past two decades on nues, city plans, ideal city schemes done nentsof cities,architectural historians today by architects."7The kindof urbanhistory are extending their inquiry to archival "major transformations-ideological, that Summersoncalled for is a relatively materialssuch as tax records, censuses, political, economic, and social-and the new phenomenon. The broadening of guild rolls, economic forecasts, and gov- form and character of lives shaped in the subject matter during the past two ernmentrecords. Thistype of data lends different environments."4 decades, the willingnessto look intoother itselfwell to quantification,and thus pro- disciplines and methodological explo- motesthe adaptationof economic models The social historians' urban history rations all parallel the developments in to research on historicalenvironments."1 focuses, for example, on industrializa- social history. Today, architecturalhis- tion and as catalysts of torians studying cities investigate the The expansion of the field has allowed specialists from other disciplines to

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This content downloaded from 129.128.216.34 on Sun, 2 Nov 2014 18:40:05 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions U become involved increasingly in urban environments as exemplars for social, ics, and culturalissues. Theirsources now history.In part, this has been sparked by as well as formal, aspects of planning. range from the actual physical data literaryworks. Italo Calvino's influential For instance, two collections of essays (existingbuilt forms and archaeological book, InvisibleCities (1972), stimulated on cities published by the Cooper-Hew- research) to literary documents from interest in cities as image makers and ittMuseum at the beginningof the decade demographicand otherquantitative data containers of multilayered historical freely employ references to past urban to oral history, as well as to pictorial meanings. William McClung,for exam- environmentsin the exploration of such documentation. ple, has added to the understandingof topics as the psychology of city spaces, cities in past times by examining urban preservation,urban solar consid- In spite of the wide spectrum of meth- descriptions in literature.12Despite the erations, urban open space, social pro- odologies and approaches evident in overt emphasis on imagery and sym- gramming, urban legislation, urban contemporaryurban histories, they share bolism, the physical form of cities is the revitalization,and urban identities.15 a geographic and temporal focus. The most obvious point of tangency in such largest number of works explore West- investigations. The present decade has also witnessed ern topics of the nineteenth and twen- a mass appeal to urban history. Popu- tieth centuries. Second in frequency are Furtherstimulus is coming fromthe social larizing books, for example, Mark examinationsof ItalianRenaissance and sciences. Both geography and anthro- Girouard's Cities and People, A Social Baroque urban environments. Third, pology have a side interestin cities. Cul- ArchitecturalHistory (1985), bring the perhaps influenced by the architectural tural and urban geographers are subjectto a wide audience. Insuch works, profession's renewed interest in classi- extendingurban inquiries into such areas historical cities become colorful actors cal architecture,the ancientcity has come as perception, mapping, urban mor- in the broad scope of culturalevolution; under increased scrutiny in the past phology, regionalism and distribution. urban life is described as having a vital- decade. As a result,several early works Geographers, in particular,expand the ity of its own.16Indeed, richly illustrated on ancient cities have been republished physical territoryof cities; they look at popular urban histories form a great in updated form.20Ancient cities are urban environments as regional ele- market and over one hundred of them studied also in new ways. William L. ments, as elements of systems. Anthro- have been publishedin the last decade.17 MacDonald in his second volume, The pologists are investigatingurban rituals A large number of these are written by Architectureof the Roman Empire,An and the everyday life in cities.13 The professional historianswishing to reach Urban Appraisal (1986), explores the influenceof these topical foci is evident a broader audience.18 Interestingly, architectural elements of ancient cities in a number of recent works, for exam- photographs and other visual materials as urban components. Thus, along with ple EdwardMuir's Civic Ritual in Renais- are used differentlyby social historians chapters on public buildings and clas- sance Venice (1981). than by architectural historians. While sicism, he includes ones on armatures, the social historians appeal to visual connectiveand passage architecture,and Culturaland economic investigationsof materials to address questions on symbolism. With research expanding cities have, in turn, inspired traditional beyond individual monuments to the historians.Contemporary "why their towns got started, how and entire urbanenvironment, historians are by historians are generally of two why they grew, what problems they have considering broad topics in relation to types, biographies of individual cities faced, what kinds of people they have the ancient city. For example, Dora and broad explorations centering on attracted, where the cities are going in Crouch examines pervasive, though particular issues over time.14 In both our own time, and how their past has unglamorous, urban hydraulic systems. approaches, historians today are con- shaped the present and will continue to Other authors are concentrating on centrating more and more on the phys- shape their future," ancient cities at particular moments in ical form; this emphasis is evident in time, thus emphasizing urban vitality historians' expanded use of on-site they do not elaborate much (if at all) on and imagery rather than layering and investigations and visual material (e.g., urbanforms.19 evolution.21In contrast, cities from other paintings, drawings, maps, diagrams) eras (e.g., medieval, eighteenth-cen- both in research and in presentation. Overall, the broadening of approaches tury)and from other regions (Africa,the has also resulted in the examination of Middle East, South America, Northern In addition, urban histories in the 1980s an extended range of source materials. Europe) appear infrequentlyin current are also affected by the interestsof con- While architectural historians working publications. temporary designers and planners. on urban constructs can do primary Professional journals and other works research on site, they must extend their Regardless of the differences in focus for this audience reflect practitioners' explorations to locate information on and methodology, one theme emerges increased concern with historical urban contemporary usage, politics, econom- as the common denominator among

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This content downloaded from 129.128.216.34 on Sun, 2 Nov 2014 18:40:05 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions U urban historians: the study of urban Nevertheless, this healthy search also tions ranges from syntheticapproaches change.22 Nevertheless, as Gwendolyn bears potentialshortcomings, which once which embrace social, political, eco- Wrightstates, describing urban change more parallel those in social history. nomic, cultural,and architecturalhisto- throughmajor figures is no longerenough Social historyhas an ambiguous content ries (G. Wright), to those which unilat- and historians'task today is to explain because of its multifaceted nature and erally rely on a single other discipline the meaning of this change. Urban tends to be on whatever the historian (P. Polledriand D. Crouch). transformationsshould not necessarily chooses to write. Zunz has noted that in be understood as radical and over- social history, The nature of sources is of critical sweeping, but as Paolo Polledri shows, importance. In this formative stage, smaller changes can lead to a major "the absence of a clear program, except sources seem to determine the methods impact and illustratea dynamic urban- that of enlarging the scope of history, and the contents to a large degree. ism not apparent at firstsight. led to fragmentation and a diminished Therefore, what is available, what the focus," researcher runs into "by chance," and Anotherconcern which many urban his- what is intentionally"selected" directly torians share is how to study urban his- and social historians, in their search for affect the historicalanalysis and the nar- tory in a manner which addresses the new methodologies, used approaches rative. The reconstruction inevitably issues and problems of today, as well as from other disciplines uncritically.23The reflects some arbitrariness. Moreover, the future. Periods of transformation problems diagnosed so clearly by social as sources cannot be abstracted from therefore gain additional importanceas historians manifest themselves in our their creators or recorders, they are not they shed light on the culturalcomplex- surveyof urbanhistory as well, and warn value-free in themselves. ities of cities at critical times. The most us about some of the liabilities of our concrete and activist agenda in this own experiments. Such pluralism has its drawbacks. The framework comes from Dolores Hay- breadth of possible topical and meth- den, who sees in urban history greater Likesocial history,urban history is what- odological options can be too heady. possibilities than in architecturalhistory. ever the authormakes it.The field's scope Researcherstoday over and over express Inher work on LosAngeles, she explores and the degree to which it incorporates excitement at the "newness" of their ways in which the new social historycan or borrows from other disciplines varies viewpoints and approaches. Too easily, be incorporatedinto contemporary urban widely. On one end of the scale, we have novelty can breed superficialityand, in design and urban preservation.This is a the comprehensive and generalist particular,a diminutionof focus. Urban unique way of studying urban historyas approach (G. Wright),and on the other investigatorswith a specialization in one social critique. very specific and strictlydefined themes area lack familiaritywith basic source in urban history (D. Crouch and materialand methodsin secondary fields; M. Weiss). The "multifaceted nature" they are easily misled. Further,the inter- Conclusion leading to an "ambiguous content" mingling of methodologies blurs defi- There is no one dominant approach to reflects also on the goals of urban his- nitions and obscures standards of eval- urban history, nor should there be. As torians. A politically activist approach uation. With few standards, method- complex constructs,cities meritcomplex which consciously "selects" the topic ological rigorcan suffer.All authorsseem methods of analysis. After generations (D. Hayden) falls as much within the to be makingdisciplines as theygo along, of research, we now have sufficientdata realm of urban history as "passive" because no a priori method exists. on past urban environments to allow analysis based on quantitative data examination from many angles: socio- (P. Polledri).The relevance of the social While demonstrating great enthusiasm logical, political, formal, aesthetic, eco- historians'concern for the ways in which to develop and employ new methods, nomic, and so on. Faced with such methodologies are borrowed from other urban historians have not yet made a options, contemporary scholars are disciplines is expressed explicitly by genuine effort to test the validity of their challenging the traditional methods of P. Groth who tells us that in his struggle approaches and they have not ques- their respective fields and experiment- to collect and organize data, he "bor- tioned the potential problems of impor- ing with those of other disciplines. The rowed techniques from social history." tation from other disciplines or creation sampling of approaches evident in the Other authors implicitly assume the on the spot. Indeed, one of the major essays presented here, in recent urban incorporationof social factors into their questions rising from this survey is the histories, and in current periodicals work (G. Gorse). Indeed, the architec- state of communication between disci- affirmsthe desire for a reevaluation of tural historians and planners interested plines. The animated exchange of meth- existingfield-specific methodologies and in the historyof builtform seem to exper- ods from one subject field promotes an for the formulation of an interdisciplin- imentwith techniques from virtually every interdisciplinaryapproach to the subject ary process. discipline. The scope of their investiga- of urbanhistory, but the individualessays

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This content downloaded from 129.128.216.34 on Sun, 2 Nov 2014 18:40:05 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions only tentativelyreflect such an emphasis. quantifyeconomic data and collate data Notes Without further discussion of methods bases, little experimentation has been 1 Fora reviewof recent literature,see Kostof,Spiro "Cities and the establishment of guidelines for done with visual analyses, such as the and Turfs,"Design BookReview Vol. 10 (Fall1986) pp. 35- evaluation, the so-called interdisciplin- modelling of historical urban spaces. In 39 ary approach may serve merely as a thisrespect, architectural history has been 2 In 1971, urban historiansat a conference at Madison, free-for-all justificationfor loose schol- more experimentalin incorporatingnew Wisconsin,tried unsuccessfullyto develop a comprehen- Itis this in the than urban sive definitionfor "the new urban history."A few years arship. perhaps ambiguity techniques history. later,Stephan Thernstrom, a leadingproponent of the neo- state of the art that resulted in the overall logism,announced that he had "given up on the term,"in methodological agreement among the Inthe 1980s, the debate over urban his- "A Conversationwith Stephan Thernstrom," by Stave, M. essays here, alarming in an otherwise tory still rages. No one discipline has in the Journalof Urban HistoryVol. 1, No. 2 (February oriented field. ended the search for a clear self defi- 1975) p. 198. For a recent critiqueof new social history, critically see Himmelfarb,Gertrude The New Historyand the Old nition,or for acceptable methodsto deal HarvardUniversity Press (Cambridge,MA) 1987. Among Further,the experimental nature of the withother academic approaches. Inspite Himmelfarb'smany quarrels with the new social historyis exchange between different academic of intense searching and experimenta- the fragmentationof the field intoinnumerable specializa- disciplines often results in a fragmented tion, a trulyintegrated exchange has yet tions-among themurban history. vision. Proponents of interdisciplinary not happened. Nevertheless, the quest 3 Hobsbawm,E.J. "From Social Historyto the Historyof the seem to borrow from has had positive repercussions in sev- Society,"in HistoricalStudies Today (F.Gilbert and S.R. exchange closely Graubard,eds.) W.W.Norton (New York)1972, pp. 14-16 complementary areas. For example, a eral areas. Interdisciplinaryexperimen- feels comfortable tation has stimulated the call for new 4 Zunz,Oliver "Introduction," Reliving the PastUniversity of historian more using NorthCarolina Press (ChapelHill and 1985, 3 the data and methods of another social methods withineach discipline. Inaddi- London) p. scientist. on tion, researchers in fields not tradition- 5 Zunz,op. cit., "TheSynthesis of Social Change:Reflections By focusing particular on AmericanSocial History,"pp. 67-68 approaches, researcherscontinue to limit ally related to urban history, such as consider. In have been attracted the ani- 6 One shouldadd to thislist, landscaping. Summerson, John the types of material they English, by "UrbanForms," in TheHistorian and TheCity (O. Handlin general, we find that social historiansdo mated discussion on urban history and and J. Burchard,eds.) MITPress (Cambridge,MA and not refer to urban form, which thus themselves entered the fray. The inter- London)1963, pp. 165-169 remains in the realm of architectural and intradisciplinarytrends evident here 7 Kostof,op. cit., p. 37 and interested in toward a further of historians planners point broadening 8 Thisbroadening is in accordance with FernandBraudel's history. perspectives in future work. Discussion earlierdiscussions on "historyat the crossroads."Braudel of the issues of content, theory, and argued thatthere should be a strong dialog between his- The process of cooperation between methodology is crucial, especially in this tory and different social sciences, namely, geography, if still formative of our demography,sociology, economics, and statistics.Only different fields seems to be smoother stage discipline. throughsuch a commitment,he believed, could historybe not encumbered by a well-established We believe that this updated examina- of "anysubstantial use in understandingthe worldtoday." tradition of . For exam- tion from the architectural historian's See Braudel,Fernand On History(Sarah Matthews, trans.) ple, the urban historian working on the angle will stimulatefurther dialog, help Universityof Chicago Press (Chicago)1980, pp. 200-207 physicalform of Renaissancecities builds focus the debate, and hasten the for- 9 See, for example, The Pursuitof Urban History(Derek upon the accumulated scholarship of mulation of a true interdisciplinary Fraserand AnthonySutcliffe, eds.) E.Arnold (London) 1983. Thisgroup discussion explores the social, anthropological, several centuriesand can break through exchange. and economic aspects of urbanhistory. the set norms only with difficulty. The 10 Amongthe many recentworks dealing withurban hous- problem of territoriality,as pointed out ing are: Wright,Gwendolyn Moralismand the Model by D. Crouchand W. MacDonald in ref- Home:Cultural Conflict and DomesticArchitecture in Chi- erence to the general practice of cago, 1873-1913 Universityof Chicago Press (Chicago) can further obstruct 1980 and Rybczynski,Witold Home Penguin(New York) , 1986. research. In contrast, the historianana- a relatively"newer" and "uncon- 11 The works of Jan de Vries provide a model for this lyzing approach;see EuropeanUrbanization, 1500-1800 Har- ventional"topic, such as a West African vard UniversityPress (Cambridge,MA) 1984. urban settlement, can more readily 12 McClung,William A. The Architectureof Paradise Uni- incorporatea varietyof disciplines, such versityof CaliforniaPress (-Berkeley)1983 as and ethnography. anthropology 13 Amongthe best sourcesfor recentresearch in these areas are specialized journalssuch as Geographical Review Several other approaches and tech- and UrbanAnthropology. niques have yet to be explored by urban historians. For example, although com- puters are now being employed to help

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This content downloaded from 129.128.216.34 on Sun, 2 Nov 2014 18:40:05 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 14 In the firstcategory can be placed Hibbert,Christopher Rome,The Biography of a CityW.W. Norton (New York) 1985, and the in-progresscultural history of LosAngeles by ThomasS. Hines.In the second categoryfalls Konvitz, Josef The UrbanMillennium, The City-BuildingProcess fromthe EarlyMiddle Ages to the PresentSouthern Illinois UniversityPress (Carbondale)1985. 15 UrbanOpen Spaces (LisaTaylor, ed.) Rizzoli(New York) 1981 and Cities,The Forces ThatShape Them (Lisa Taylor, ed.) Rizzoli(New York)1982 16 A similartrend in popularizingurban history is observed in films.For example, in Americaby Design (1987),Spiro Kostofinterweaves social and architecturalissues in dis- cussions about the street, the workplace, the home, and the shape of land. 17 Crimmins,T. "Is a PictureWorth a ThousandWords? IllustratedUrban Histories,"Journal of Urban History Vol. 13, No. 1 (November1986) p. 83 18 Hoffecker,C.E. "The Emergence of a Genre:The Pictorial Urban History,"The PublicHistorian Vol. 5, No. 4 (Fall 1983) pp. 37-48, passim 19 ibid., p. 48 20 See, for example, Woloch,G. MichaelRoman Cities Uni- versityof WisconsinPress (Madison)1983, a translation and editedtext of Grimal,Pierre Les villes romaines (Paris) 1954. 21 Boatwright,Mary T. Hadrianand the Cityof RomePrince- ton UniversityPress (Princeton) 1987; Diane Favrois cur- rentlycompleting a book on AugustanRome. 22 This parallels Hobsbawm'sview of urban historyas a paradigmof social changes, mentionedabove. 23 Zunz,op. cit., "Introduction,"p. 4

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