Fire Management Today Volume 64 • No

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Fire Management today Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

LEARNING TO LIVE WITH FIRE

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.

Fire Management Today is for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, at: Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: 202-512-1800 Fax: 202-512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001

Fire Management Today is available on the World Wide Web at .

Ann M. Veneman, Secretary April J. Baily U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

Dale Bosworth, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D. Forest Service Managing Editor

Jerry Williams, Director Madelyn Dillon Fire and Aviation Management Editor

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Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today. Fire Management today Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004

On the Cover: CONTENTS Living With Fire Isn’t So Simple ...... 4 Dale Bosworth A Changing Fire Environment: The Task Ahead ...... 7 Jerry Williams Got Clearance?...... 12 Jon P. Agner Testing for Deck Material Flammability...... 13 Jim Wheeler Is Florida’s Prescribed Fire Program Something Llamas graze calmly in a field To Get Choked Up About? ...... 16 as a wildfire draws dangerous- Bruce Harvey and Susan Fitzgerald ly close to a home on the Deer Creek Ranch outside Selma, A Tribute to Engine 805 ...... 19 OR. For a discussion of the Sara Patterson challenges inherent in living “The Air Was Fire”: Fire Behavior at Peshtigo in 1871 . 20 with fire, see the articles by Hutch Brown Dale Bosworth and Jerry Williams beginning on page 4. Wildland Fire Decisionmaking ...... 31 Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Nick Greear Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, Wildland Fires in Botswana ...... 34 OR, 2002. Witness Mojeramane The Fire Below: Suppression Tactics From Above . . . . . 37 Mike Benefield Improving a Wildland Fire Situation Analysis The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the Through GIS ...... 39 cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and throughout the 21st cen- Matthew Galyardt, LLoyd Queen, and Laura Ward tury. Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxy- gen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles The Pocket PC Can Increase Your Productivity ...... 44 represent the basic functions of wildland fire organizations (planning, operations, and aviation Ed Martin management), and the three critical aspects of wildland fire management (prevention, suppression, and prescription). The black interior repre- A New Tool for Mopup and Other Fire sents land affected by fire; the emerging green Management Tasks ...... 46 points symbolize the growth, restoration, and sustainability associated with fire-adapted Bill Gray ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an ever-present force in nature. For more informa- Developing the Fire Service Workforce tion on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and innovative thinking behind it, contact Mike Through Mentoring ...... 48 Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, Joette Borzik 208-387-5460.

SHORT FEATURES

Websites on Fire ...... 45 Guidelines for Contributors...... 50 Firefighter and public safety is our first priority. Annual Photo Contest ...... 51

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 3 LIVING WITH FIRE ISN’T SO SIMPLE*

Dale Bosworth

ould that it were so simple. Some would have us believe A policy of allowing all fires to burn would be just W that if we just stop fighting as flawed as the old policy of putting them all out. fire, everything will be fine (Stahl 2004). Never mind the people who will lose their homes—they suppos- leaf pine in the South (Bonnicksen tems. We stress homeowner fire edly deserve it. Never mind the 2000). safety programs, but we also pro- habitat loss for plants and ani- tect the surrounding landscape. mals—nature supposedly knows At the Forest Service, we learned best. Just look, they say, at how the the lesson long ago and ended the We do that because a home is more American Indians lived with fire. war against fire. Today, we work than just a house. Your home is the with fire to promote resource diver- community you belong to. It’s the Working With Fire sity and restore fire-adapted ecosys- surrounding landscape with every- Indeed, let’s look. Near Seeley Lake, MT, where the spruce–fir forest nat- urally supports fires that are large but rare, researchers found a site where fires historically were far more frequent than nature would explain (Barrett 2004). Indians using the site had burned the surrounding woods for centuries, perhaps to keep big fires from wiping out their camps in a drought. The USDA Forest Service has done something similar at Seeley Lake by thinning to protect the local community.

Apparently, these Indians did not believe that nature knows best. In fact, Indians nationwide used fire and other technologies to shape ecosystems to their liking (Boyd 1999; Pyne 1982; Whitney 1994; Stewart 2002; Williams 2002, 2003). Does that mean they were at war with nature? No. They worked with nature for self-protection and resource diversity. Many ecosystems flourished as a result, such as long-

Dale Bosworth is the Chief of the USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. The Hayman Fire in Colorado burning dangerously close to several homes near Woodland * The article appeared as a guest editorial in Wildland Park on June 18, 2002. Photo: Cindy Nowack, Fremont–Winema National Forest, Firefighter 8:2 (February 2004): 7, 9. Klamath Ranger District, Klamath Falls, OR, 2002.

Fire Management Today 4 thing it gives you, such as scenic would be just as flawed as the old problem. When fire danger indexes beauty and clean water from your policy of putting them all out. are extreme, we usually decide to municipal watershed. If you’ve Three things keep us from using suppress fires that we might other- saved your house in a community fire more: wise use to restore ecosystems. devastated by fire—in a landscape • The forests that need fire the Our fire management plans never blackened by fire—you’ve still lost most, such as ponderosa pine in say, “Use fire no matter what.” your home. • We use fire only within acceptable limits of social, economic, Reconciling such needs in the con- Our policy is to use fire and ecological risk. For example, text of fire-adapted forests and where we can and if a fire would severely damage grasslands is central to our fire suppress fire where we soils or destroy habitat for endan- management today. Sometimes that gered species, we suppress it. Our means using fire in the woods; must. policy is to use fire where we can sometimes it means suppressing it. and suppress fire where we must. Through prescribed and wildland the West, are often in no condi- fire use, the Forest Service actually The risks are compounded by the tion to burn. They are too over- burns more acres on national forest growing wildland/urban interface. crowded with vegetation. Under land than we suppress. Picture an island in a sea of gaso- such conditions, simply letting line. If you touch a match 10 or 20 fires go could have catastrophic miles (16–32 km) out, it might Managing Risks results for communities and seem like a long way away, but the Do we burn enough? Maybe not, ecosystems alike. fire will still burn the island. Many but it’s not as simple as that. A • Prolonged drought in many parts forest communities are like that policy of allowing all fires to burn of the country contributes to the

If you’ve saved your house in a community devastated by fire, you’ve still lost your home. This mobile home park was almost totally destroyed by the Rodeo–Chediski Fire on the Apache–Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. Photo: Thomas Iraci, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 5 today. Surrounded by overgrown That will take some work. Nation- can while creating new fire use forests, they are in a veritable sea of wide, hundreds of millions of acres opportunities through ecological fuels. Remote fires can easily roar are at risk from wildland fires that restoration. It’s the best way to out of the backcountry, like Cerro could compromise human safety keep our firefighters safe, our Grande did in 2002. That same year, and ecosystem integrity (Schmidt ecosystems healthy, and our fellow Hayman made a 16-mile (26-km) and others 2002). Not every acre Americans well served. run in a single day. Fire managers can be treated, nor should it be; must weigh such risks before decid- strategically placed treatments will References ing to use fire in the backcountry. protect and restore most values at Barrett, S.W. 2004. Case study: Indian- risk. Still, the needed treatments influenced fire regimes. Fire Management will be expensive. The question for Today. 64(2): 35. The Right Kind of Fire Bonnicksen, T.M. 2000. America’s ancient Our aim is to restore the right kind Americans is this: Do we as a forests. New York: John Wiley & Sons. of fire to the land. Often, that Nation want to pay sooner for treat- Boyd, R.T., ed. 1999. Indians, fire and the ments, or later—and vastly more— land in the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, means first thinning overgrown OR: Oregon State University Press. forests, then waiting for the right in human lives, suppression costs, Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America. Princeton, weather conditions before igniting and damage to homes, communi- NJ: Princeton University Press. ties, and wildland resources? Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy, C.C.; a burn. If we can restore healthy Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002. landscape conditions, then we can Development of coarse-scale spatial data better control the results of a fire— No Easy Answers for wildland fire and fuel management. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–87. Fort Collins, yes, even in a drought. We’ve There are no easy answers. CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky shown it again and again (see Managing wildland fires is as com- Mountain Research Station. “Success Stories” on the World plex as the ecosystems that Stahl, A. 2004. Our Hundred Years War. Wide Web at ). care as public land managers. Americans and the transient wilderness. Decades ago, we moved beyond Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Our first priority, of course, is fire- simplistic solutions when we Press. Whitney, G.G. 1994. From coastal wilder- fighter and public safety, but letting dropped the old policy of fire exclu- ness to fruited plain. Cambridge, UK: nature take its own course would sion. We cannot afford to go back Cambridge University Press. not enhance human safety. Instead, now: A simple policy of not fighting Williams, G.W. 2002. Aboriginal use of fire. In: Kay, C.E.; Simmons, R.T., eds. it would heighten the lethal risk fires is simply not an option. Wilderness and political ecology. Salt from huge fires like Biscuit in 2002 Lake City, UT: The University of Utah or Cedar in 2003. The best way to For our policy to be sustainable, we Press: 179–214. reduce the risk is to take some of must face today’s fire environment Williams, G.W. 2003. References on the American Indian use of fire in ecosys- the heat out of the ecosystem in all of its social, economic, and tems. Unpublished manuscript and bibli- before these fires get started. ecological complexity. That means ography on file at the USDA Forest continuing to suppress fire where Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC. ■ we must and using fire where we

Fire Management Today 6 A CHANGING FIRE ENVIRONMENT: THE TASK AHEAD*

Jerry Williams

ildland fire management today is a high-stakes busi- W ness. At no time in our history have greater areas been at more risk from wildland fires that could compromise human safety and ecosystem integrity. Some 132 million acres of national forest land alone are classified at high or moderate risk (Schmidt and others 2002) (see the sidebar on page 8). More than 2 billion acres (800 million ha) of State, private, and other Federal lands are similarly classified at risk.

The results are palpable. In the past few years, we’ve witnessed record- setting wildfires, such as the October 2003 fires in southern View of the 2002 Hayman Fire, the largest in Colorado history to date. Photo: Steven California, the worst in California Smith, Colorado Springs Fire Department, Colorado Springs, CO, 2002. history. In a matter of weeks, 14 major fires burned 750,043 acres • Some contended that fire protec- (300,017 ha), cost 24 lives, and We can improve tion just isn’t good enough. They destroyed 3,710 homes (CDF/USDA preparedness and maintained that faster attack, FS 2004). Utilities and other basic suppression, but until more reliance on military assets, better coordination and commu- infrastructure were destroyed, and we better manage fuel damage to private property exceed- nications, and improved pre- ed $2 billion. The disruption to buildups and growth in paredness can keep fires from lives, communities, and economies the wildland/urban getting so big and dangerous. can scarcely be imagined. interface, the gains will • Others, including me, see the problem in broader terms. Yes, be marginal. Afterwards, the Governor of we can improve preparedness, California appointed a commission coordination, command, and cooperation, but until we better to examine the causes and make Two Schools of recommendations to avoid similar manage fuel buildups and growth losses in the future. I was named to Thought in the wildland/urban interface, that commission. Why have wildfires gotten so large, the gains will be marginal at best. destructive, and dangerous? Why, The condition of forests and in an era when fire protection is grasslands, especially across Jerry Williams is the National Director of better than ever, are wildfires set- much of the West, predisposes Fire and Aviation Management for the ting records for suppression costs, many areas to large, damaging USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. natural resource and private prop- wildfires. Unconstrained growth erty losses, and environmental in the wildland/urban interface * The article is based on a presentation by the author at the National Interagency Fuels Workshop on February damages? Two schools of thought only exacerbates the problem. 4, 2004, in Albuquerque, NM. emerged on the commission:

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 7 Of the 10,000 wildfires that the Fire Regimes and Condition Classes USDA Forest Service suppresses each year on average, only about Schmidt and others (2002) pub- respectively, mixed and stand- 100—1 percent—account for more lished national maps reflecting replacement fire severity. than 95 percent of the acres burned coarse-scale data on the condi- • Fire regime V has very long fire and nearly 85 percent of total sup- tion of vegetation and fuels. The return intervals (greater than pression expenditures. The fire purpose was to help land man- 200 years) and stand-replace- siege of 2003 was a prime example, agers answer three basic ques- ment fire severity. and it occurred in a State with the tions: • In condition class 1, fire best fire protection in the Nation. regimes are within their histori- Next to the Forest Service, Calif- 1. How do current vegetation and cal range, and the risk of losing ornia arguably fields the largest fuels differ from those that key ecosystem components is low. wildland fire service in the world. existed historically? • In condition classes 2 and 3, The California Department of 2. Where are fuel accumulations fire regimes have been, respec- Forestry and Fire Protection, the higher than they were histori- tively, moderately and severely Federal agencies, and the county cally? altered from their historical and local authorities collectively 3. On a coarse scale, what areas range, and the risk of losing spend more than $3.5 billion annu- are highest priority for treat- key ecosystem components is, ally on fire protection in southern ment? respectively, moderate and California. Yet even moderate Santa severe. Ana wind conditions in October Mapping was by fire regime and 2003 drove fires that burned more condition class, as defined by the Schmidt and others (2002) found acres and caused more damage USDA Forest Service (2000). that almost 132 million acres (53 than ever before in the region. In brief: million ha) of national forest land across all fire regimes were in When one of the biggest and best • Fire regimes I and II have short condition classes 2 and 3. Of fire services in the world is not big fire return intervals (0–35 these lands, the Forest Service enough, it would appear that get- years) and, respectively, low and has identified fire regimes I and II ting more, bigger, and better fire stand-replacement fire severity. as highest priority for treatment, protection is not the solution. • Fire regimes III and IV have or about 73 million acres (29 mil- Instead, we need to focus on what moderately long fire return lion ha). causes the huge fires we’re getting. intervals (35–100+ years) and, I am convinced that the key is “tak- ing some heat out of the ecosystem” by reducing fuel loadings. We need fire protection programs that are Difficult Fire ecologically appropriate, socially acceptable, and Environment economically feasible. Land stewardship is a core value for the Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management staff. Eighty The same observations were later We work in a difficult environment. years ago, a Forest Service employ- made in other long-needle pine Volatile fuel conditions dominate ee in the Southwest began shaping ecosystems (Carle 2002)—by entire landscapes. Public expecta- a powerful new concept he later Harold Weaver in Oregon, Harold tions for protection have never been called a land ethic. Writing in the Biswell in California, Herbert higher, yet “naturalness” values and Journal of Forestry, Aldo Leopold Stoddard in the Southern States, public concern about forest appear- (1924) observed changes in the M.L. Heinselmann in the Lake ance are equally important. Even forests due to overgrazing and fire States, and, more recently, Stephen though risk is high, political toler- exclusion. His observations were in Arno and others in the Rocky ance for “mistakes” is low. We need ponderosa pine—what today we call Mountains. It’s time for us now, as fire protection programs that are fire regime I (see the sidebar). stewards of the land, to act on these ecologically appropriate, socially observations. acceptable, and economically feasible.

Fire Management Today 8 We need a new set of principles and practices:

1. Establish and use fire danger and stand condition risk thresh- olds to govern the use of fire. Remember, our goal isn’t simply to put fire back into the forest. Our goal is to restore the right kind of fire, consistent with the ecological dynamics of the particular forest type. In many places, we need to mechanically treat before burning in order to mitigate the risks of fire use, even if it costs more money. A difficult fire environment. Telltale snags attest to the dense pine fuels that fed the 2002 Don’t let pressures to reduce Rodeo–Chediski Fire on its run through a trailer park in Overgaard, AZ. Photo: Tom treatment costs put you on a Schafer, Show Low, AZ, 2002. pathway to disaster. Establish limits of prescribed fire use Focus on Our based on established risk thresh- Objective Our goal is to restore olds, and stick to them! In this context, it is important to the right kind of fire, 2. Adopt a national coordination focus on our objective. Our stew- consistent with the system that mobilizes for fire use ardship objective is to restore and ecological dynamics of opportunities like we mobilize maintain resilient, diverse, and the particular forest for wildfire threats. Burning functioning fire-adapted ecosys- windows open and close, and tems. By definition, fire-prone type. opportunities to use fire can forests and grasslands in this condi- quickly fade away. When a unit tion are safer, more sustainable, has the opportunity to burn, it healthier, and more productive. We should not be limited by the prescribe-burn, thin trees, and har- Principles and resources at hand; it should get vest timber as the means to an end: Practices all the resources it needs to capi- healthy, resilient fire-adapted In fiscal year 1995 (FY1995), the talize on the window of opportu- ecosystems. Forest Service treated less than nity. If we do anything less, we 600,000 acres (240,000 ha) for haz- will likely fall short in the job But we must not confuse means ardous fuels (USDA Forest Service ahead. with ends. On principle, we don’t 1999). By FY2001, with the help of 3. Plan for contingencies. If burn- undertake treatment activities just the National Fire Plan, the Forest ing windows are closed in one to get “black acres,” to meet a thin- Service and U.S. Department of the part of the country but open in ning target, or to move logs. We Interior together were treating another, we need to have coordi- undertake these activities, first and more than 2 million acres (800,000 nation and budget systems in foremost, to improve the condition ha) (NFP 2004). Soon, with the place to rapidly move targets and of the forest. We still meet targets help of new authorities in the dollars. With windows of oppor- and furnish wood products, but the Healthy Forests Restoration Act tunity as narrow as they are, we reason that we burn, thin, or har- (see the sidebar), we might be need to be quick on our feet at vest is, first and foremost, to jointly treating some 4 million these treatment scales. restore and maintain resilient, acres (1.6 million ha) per year. 4. Don’t let more trouble pile on. diverse, and functioning fire-adapt- That’s a big jump, and it should Ironically, we manage much of ed forests. We do these things prompt us to revisit the way we do the land that is in condition class because they are the right means to business. 3 (see the sidebar on page 8)— our end.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 9 for example, dense ponderosa pine—precisely for that condition. Especially in dry forest types, look for opportunities to amend land and resource management plans where the risk of losing the desired resource condition exceeds the probability of sustaining it. 5. Do treatments first where we have willing partners and want- ing publics. We need to avoid the high costs that come with “going it alone.” Favorable Conditions You’ve worked hard, and we’ve come a long way. Today, there is broader recognition than ever that the wildfire problem in this country will be won or lost on the fuels front. There is a deeper public understanding of the ecological dynamics of fire-prone ecosystems and a growing public awareness that restoring fire-adapted ecosystems to something more like their historical condition is key to their long-term health and resilience— and to public safety. Congress is with us—our budget for hazardous fuels reduction in FY2005 showed a healthy bump.

Evening ignition on the Blue Sky prescribed burn unit, Hart Mountain National Wildlife Of course, we still have a way to go. Refuge, OR. Through such treatments, Federal agencies must prove their worth as public There are places where we could land stewards. Photo: John Wood, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Klamath Basin National use more people and benefit from Wildlife Refuge Complex, Tulelake, CA, 2002. more money. Sometimes, compet- ing values will confound us and regulatory controls will slow us When a unit has the opportunity to burn, it should down. But despite the challenges get all the resources it needs to capitalize on the ahead, we need to “gut up” and window of opportunity. deliver!

Make no mistake. Now that the careful stewards we say we are. favorable. Broad segments of our Healthy Forests Restoration Act has They are watching to see, given the publics support the task before us. passed, people are watching to see higher funding we have gotten in So do the Administration and whether the Federal agencies can an era of tight budgets and Congress. I don’t know that there move promise into practice. They increased accountability, whether has ever been a better alignment of are watching to see whether we can we can do what we say we will do. policies, budgets, and support for demonstrate, by way of what we the work ahead. leave on the land, that we are the The conditions for success are Let’s get it done!

Fire Management Today 10 Healthy Forests Restoration Act, Title I In August 2002, prompted by reaching legislation affecting – Condition class 3, or record-breaking fires in Arizona, Federal forest management since – Condition class 2, fire Colorado, New Mexico, and the 1970s. regimes I–III;* Oregon, the President announced • Has ecosystems or resources the Healthy Forests Initiative. It Title I limits requirements for envi- threatened by— included a call for legislation “to ronmental analysis and streamlines – Blowdown or other storm further accomplish more timely, procedures for administrative damage, or efficient, and effective implemen- appeals on projects for reducing – An insect or disease infesta- tation of forest health projects” hazardous fuels. However, the proj- tion; or (CEQ 2002). ects must be on Federal land in an • Contains habitat for threatened area that: and endangered species. In December 2003, prompted by record-breaking fires in southern • Is in or near the wildland/urban Priority is given to projects California, a bipartisan majority interface; designed to protect communities in Congress passed the Healthy • Affects a municipal watershed and municipal watersheds. Forests Restoration Act. Title I and is in— contains perhaps the most far- * For brief descriptions, see the sidebar on page 8.

References Now that the Healthy Forests Restoration Act has Carle, D. 2002. Burning questions: passed, people are watching to see whether the America’s fight with nature’s fire. Westport, CT: Praeger. Federal agencies can move promise into practice. CDF/USDA FS (California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection/USDA Forest Service). 2004. California Fire Siege Flader, S.L.; Callicott, J.B, eds. The river Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS–87. Fort Collins, 2003—The story. Website of the mother of God and other essays by CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky . Wisconsin Press: 114–122.] USDA Forest Service. 1999. Report of the CEQ (Council on Environmental Quality). NFP (National Fire Plan). 2004. Website Forest Service: Fiscal year 1998. 2002. Healthy forests: An initiative for . USDA Forest Service. 2000. Protecting peo- nities. August 22. Washington, DC: Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy, C.C.; ple and sustaining resources in fire- Council on Environmental Quality. Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L. 2002. adapted ecosystems: A cohesive strategy. Leopold, A. 1924. Grass, brush, timber, and Development of coarse-scale spatial data October 13. Washington, DC: USDA fire in southern Arizona. Journal of for wildland fire and fuel management. Forestry. 22(6): 1–10. [Reprinted in:

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 11 GOT CLEARANCE?

Jon P. Agner

ess is more. That’s the philosophy behind Got Clearance?, a L dramatic new approach to a billboard campaign on Firewise landscaping.

We came up with the idea in 2002 while leading a Cooperative Wildland Fire Prevention/Education Team in the Pacific Northwest. The following year, extreme fire danger prevailed in the Northern Rockies, where I was working on the Lolo National Forest. I was asked to form another Fire Prevention/ Education Team, this time in the Southwest Montana Zone.

I immediately dug out the old plans for Got Clearance? In accordance Figure 1—An urgent point is driven home with a punch. Photo: Jon Agner, USDA Forest with our philosophy of “less is Service, Lolo National Forest, Missoula, MT, 2003. more,” we thought we could best drive home the point about Firewise landscaping with as few words as possible. We came up with two billboard designs (figs. 1 and 2).

We also developed a 60-second tele- vision public service announcement featuring the University of Montana mascot, Monte the Grizzly Bear. Monte prepares defensible space around a home in the wildland/urban interface using a slapstick routine—comedy under- pinned with a serious message.

In addition, we saw an opportunity to tie our campaign into local advertising for lawn-related tools and equipment. We worked with local hardware stores to get them Figure 2—Surviving a fire with good defensible space—a big message in a few words. to adopt the Got Clearance? theme. Photo: Jon Agner, USDA Forest Service, Lolo National Forest, Missoula, MT, 2003.

Jon Agner is the acting fire prevention offi- For more information, contact Jon Agner, Lolo National Forest, cer for the USDA Forest Service, Lolo 406-677-3935 (tel.), [email protected] (e-mail). ■ National Forest, Missoula, MT.

Fire Management Today 12 TESTING FOR DECK MATERIAL FLAMMABILITY

Jim Wheeler

fforts to reduce fire danger in the wildland/urban interface Most deck material is tested for flame spread E (WUI) are finally getting the rates but not necessarily for ignition potential or attention they deserve. National energy production. and State funding is addressing a century of ecosystem degradation. Local communities are practicing In March 2002, fire marshals from al to construct six decks. The deck preventive maintenance through Flagstaff, Prescott, and Payson, AZ, material included wood products as fuels reduction and ecosystem met to discuss the issue of deck well as four commonly found types stewardship programs. One area, flammability. We believed that if of composite materials. We made however, is still in need of atten- decks ignited during a wildland fire, one deck from all five test materials tion—outdoor deck material. the fire could reach proportions combined, one from wood products that would break windows and alone, and four from the composite Why Worry About doors, igniting structures with oth- materials. Decks? erwise firewise construction. We Flagstaff, AZ, is a national leader in decided to conduct an ad hoc test The decks were 4 feet (1.2 m) firewise construction in the WUI. of different deck materials to gain a square on 2- by 10-inch (5- × 25- Subdivision developers must per- better understanding of how they cm) frames. The frames were set on form forest stewardship (thinning) perform in a wildfire. 8- by 8- by 16-inch (20- × 20- × 40- across the entire site, use class-A cm) cement blocks stacked 2 feet roofs, limit combustible exterior The Decks (0.6 m) high. A fiber-cement siding siding, and install NFPA 13D sprin- Through donations from local lum- product was used at the base on kler systems. Such built-in protec- ber and home improvement busi- two sides to simulate a typical tion systems mitigate the indoor nesses, we acquired enough materi- house stemwall (fig. 1). All deck and outdoor fire threat, but they don’t address the potential combustibility of deck materials.

Although most deck materials are tested for flame spread rates, the Flagstaff fire authorities couldn’t tell from the material safety data sheets whether they are also tested for other effects commonly found in wildland fires, such as ignition potential or energy production. Perhaps manufacturers were not exposing their deck materials to roof tests, such as the burning brand or flying brand tests.

Jim Wheeler is the assistant fire chief and Figure 1—Typical deck test array. Different products were constructed on wooden frames fire marshal with the Flagstaff Fire and placed on cement blocks with a simulated fiber-cement stemwall attached. Photo: Jim Department, AZ. Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 13 materials were untreated, and no If decks ignite during a wildland fire, the fire could stain or other flammable liquids reach proportions that would break windows and were applied. doors, igniting structures with otherwise firewise The Tests construction. Burning Ember Test. One test involved only the deck made from all five materials combined. We placed hot embers on the deck to simulate ember fallout in advance of a fire front. All of the materials charred slightly. Some quickly self- extinguished, whereas others smoldered for more than 30 minutes without ignition. All embers eventually cooled and self-extinguished (fig. 2).

Surface Fire Test. The other test involved the five decks made from different materials. We placed 2 inches (5 cm) of pine needles under the decks to fuel the kind of run- ning surface fire commonly found in Arizona’s WUI. A ventilation fan provided a constant wind of 5 to 8 miles (8–13 km) per hour. We lit Figure 2—Burning ember test. Hot embers failed to ignite any of the various materials the pine needles and waited to see used to build the deck. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002. whether the deck material would ignite and how severe the resulting fire would be.

The surface fire ignited all decks tested, but the materials behaved differently after the surface fire exhausted its pine needle fuels and went out. The wood deck was the slowest to ignite, and it self-extinguished relatively quickly (fig. 3). Most of the composite materials ignited easily and resulted in high to extreme fire severity (fig. 4).

But Trex,* a material made from plastic and wood, performed well. Trex was more difficult to ignite

*The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Figure 3—Wood deck test. The wood deck performed well and resisted ignition from the Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are simulated surface fire. However, no stains or varnishes had been applied to its surface responsible for the technical accuracy of the material before the test. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002. presented in Fire Management Today.

Fire Management Today 14 than the other composites and ulti- (such as pine needles) on the deck provide quick results. It is therefore mately self-extinguished (fig. 5). surface. Our burning ember test difficult to draw firm conclusions Trex’s fire resistance appeared to involved a clear deck surface. Other about any of the materials we tested. result from its density. The com- testing is being done nationally on posites that performed poorly were ember ignition of debris accumula- However, we did gain enough infor- less dense. tion on decks. mation to better understand the combustibility of the various deck Clear the Decks Moreover, our tests weren’t strictly materials tested, which will help us We did not test for deck flammabili- scientific. They were designed to to institute local policy to better ty with an accumulation of debris demonstrate certain conditions and serve the community. Based on the tests, we made three important Figure 4— findings: Composite deck test. The test fire • Manufacturers and testing labs easily ignited the composite materi- should use standard fire tests to als, which burned determine the specific character- with high severity. istics of products and materials Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff used in the WUI. Fire Department, • Although it is impossible to Flagstaff, AZ, achieve 100-percent certainty 2002. when dealing with wildland fire, by reducing fire risks and hazards we can improve the chance of a positive outcome. • Our surface fire tests resulted in more destructive fires than the burning ember test. If homeown- ers keep vegetation and debris from accumulating under their decks, they can considerably reduce the risk of surface fire ignition, especially in a wildland area.

The Flagstaff Fire Department has adopted a new fire prevention regu- lation permitting the use of wood and Trex decks in the WUI. We are also open to testing new and different materials, should someone want to build with a material not analyzed in this test.

For additional information, contact Jim Wheeler or Paul Summerfelt at the Flagstaff Fire Department, 211 W. Aspen Ave., Flagstaff, AZ 86001, 928-779-7688 (tel.). ■

Figure 5—Trex deck test. Trex was difficult to ignite and self-extinguished when the test fire ran out of pine needle surface fuels. Photo: Jim Wheeler, Flagstaff Fire Department, Flagstaff, AZ, 2002.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 15 IS FLORIDA’S PRESCRIBED FIRE PROGRAM SOMETHING TO GET CHOKED UP ABOUT?

Bruce Harvey and Susan Fitzgerald

he National Forests in Florida burn an average of 125,000 Wildfires posed more of a health hazard than T acres (51,000 ha) of national prescribed fires, especially for those with forest land annually in one of the respiratory problems. largest prescribed fire programs in the Nation. During the 1990s, the Florida Department of Environ- 1400A PM10 air monitors to sample Test Results mental Protection, Division of Air the air every hour (fig. 1). We Resource Management, began Results evaluated here are only for placed one air monitor in the the monitor at the Wakulla Work researching the impact of pre- Apalachicola National Forest’s scribed burning on air quality, par- Center, which started providing Wakulla Work Center in Leon valid data in August 1996. We ticularly the amount and type of County and the other on the Ocala particulate matter produced. examined data only for prescribed National Forest in Lake County, fires and wildfires within a 5-mile near Ocala, FL. In 1993, the Division of Air (9-km) radius of the monitor, unless the data showed a significant Resource Management conducted The Forest Service and the Florida two onsite monitoring studies in spike for an incident beyond the Division of Air Resource Manage- 5-mile (9-km) radius. cooperation with the National ment developed a cooperators’ Forests in Florida. Small portable agreement for managing the air The monitor recorded all PM air monitors were placed in the monitors. The agreement allowed 10 immediate area of the burns and up impacts, not just smoke. However, the Division to add the monitors to its rural location helped to ensure to 0.5 mile (0.9 km) downwind to its statewide network to include monitor particulate with a diameter that urban and industrial sources of more of Florida’s airsheds in its particulates did not significantly size of 10 microns or less (PM10) monitoring program. The Division affect the readings. (see the sidebar on page 18). The agreed to maintain the air monitors data were used to determine and to provide the Forest Service whether the USDA Forest Service’s with the data produced. prescribed fire program was affecting neighboring air quality. Prescribed fire on the Apalachicola National Forest, Test Equipment Wakulla District, In 1996, the National Forests in Crawfordville, FL Florida purchased two Teom* 1996.

Bruce Harvey is a fire management officer and prescribed fire specialist for the USDA Forest Service, National Forests in Florida, Tallahassee, FL; and Susan Fitzgerald is a fire ecologist for the USDA Forest Service, Apalachicola National Forest, Bristol, FL.

* The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today.

Fire Management Today 16 Figure 1—Teom

Tables 1 and 2 show, in abbreviated 1400A PM10 air format, the highest hourly PM val- monitor used on 10 the Apalachichola ues for prescribed fires and wild- National Forest, fires from 1996 to 2000. Wakulla Work Center. Photo: Bruce Harvey, Data Analysis USDA Forest The data showed that the amount Service, Crawfordville, FL, of smoke particulates produced can 1996. vary greatly from burn to burn, depending on placement of air monitors, fuel loads, and meteorological conditions. High concentrations of particulates were found in the immediate area of a prescribed burn. Particulate concentrations

Table 1—Hourly readings for particulate matter (PM10 ) associated with wildland fires, Wakulla Work Center, 1996–2000. Number of Acres Highest hourly Fire type incidents burned reading (µg/m3) a Comments 1996 Prescribed 9 11,087 135 Winds toward monitor. Wildfire 1 5 63 Winds toward monitor. 1997 Prescribed 6 5,046 175 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted from a 3,600-acre (1,460-ha) prescribed fire by aerial ignition. Wildfire 1 15 45 Winds away from monitor. 1998 Prescribed 8 9,944 135 Winds toward monitor. Wildfire 2 19,603 1,156 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted from a 19,600-acre (7,930-ha) wildfire 7 miles (11 km) south of the monitor. 1999 Prescribed 8 9,784 92 Reading resulted from a burn adjacent to monitor. Wildfire 5 6,666 503 Reading resulted from a wildland fire within 1.5 miles (2.4 km). 2000 Prescribed 3 3,583 28 Winds away from monitor. Wildfire 5 6,716 311 Winds toward monitor. Reading resulted from a 6,600-acre (2,700-ha) wildfire 22 miles (35 km) southwest of the air monitor.

a. Highest hourly reading, not the 24-hr standard (mean).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 17 diminished rapidly as the distance Table 2—Summary of hourly readings for particulate matter (PM10) from a burn increased due to dis- associated with wildland fires, Wakulla Work Center, 1996–2000. persion and plume rise. Number of Highest hourly Fire type incidents Acres burned reading (µg/m3) Data analysis confirmed what fire managers already knew: Prescribed Prescribed 34 39,444 175 fires are conducted when weather Wildfire 14 33,002 1,156 and fuel conditions allow managers to control both the fire and the smoke, whereas wildfires often Clean Air Standards Neither prescribed fires The standards set by the U.S. • A 24-hour value of 150 micro- Environmental Protection grams per cubic meter, not to or wildfires exceeded Agency (EPA) under the Clean Air be exceeded more than once the 24-hour standard of Act to protect human health are per year over a 3-year period. 150 micrograms per known as National Ambient Air cubic meter. Quality Standards (NAAQSs). The The NAAQSs were revised by EPA PM10 standard is for particulate in July 1997 to include a standard matter with a diameter size of 10 for particulate matter with a burn under severe fire conditions microns or less. The NAAQS for diameter size of 2.5 microns or and poor smoke management con- PM10 is: less (PM2.5). The data evaluated ditions. here are for the PM10 standard • An annual mean value of 50 only. Although the Wakulla Work Center micrograms per cubic meter; air monitor recorded prescribed and fires that might have affected human health, high hourly readings were brief, and the monitor showed 150 micrograms per cubic meter Acknowledgments no high readings the following day. during the 5-year study period from The authors wish to thank Joe By contrast, wildfires had high 1996 to 2000. Ferguson, fire staff officer, National hourly readings for several consecu- Forests in Florida, for his com- tive days, posing more of a health For additional information, contact ments and encouragement; and hazard, especially for those with Bruce Harvey, Florida Interagency Evelyn Libby for her technical respiratory problems. However, nei- Coordination Center, 3250 Capital expertise. ■ ther prescribed fires nor wildfires Circle, SW, Tallahassee, FL 32310, exceeded the 24-hour standard of 850-523-8607 (tel.), [email protected] (e-mail).

Fire Management Today 18 A TRIBUTE TO ENGINE 805

Sara Patterson

e finally said goodbye to old Engine 805. For almost 30 W years, she just kept on going, dousing wind-fanned flames even when they seemed unstop- pable. But Engine 805 will fight no more. Disaster couldn’t stop her, but retirement did. A Firefighter Is Born In 1974, Engine 805 was born in an International Truck Corporation assembly plant in Chicago, IL. She was painted the shade of green favored by the USDA Forest Service, because her first employer was the Lake George Ranger District on the Ocala National Forest in Florida.

Engine 805 worked hard, but her big weighty body was not suited to Florida’s sandy conditions. Engine 805 and Smokey Bear, two warriors in the fight against wildfires. Photo: Tracy Fortunately, Joseph Rice, the fire Bayne, New Castle Record, New Castle, VA, 2002. management officer on the New Castle Ranger District in south- A Star Is Born Night at a ballpark in Salem, VA. western Virginia, appreciated her In 2002, Engine 805 was finally With her large compartments neat- talent. He took Engine 805 to her retired from firefighting assign- ly displaying racked nozzles and new mountain home on the ments, but that didn’t end her hoses, Engine 805 let happy chil- Jefferson National Forest, where career. She hit the entertainment dren climb onto her sideboards and she saved countless fields and farms circuit, making numerous parade imagine being behind her wheel, from flames. appearances with celebrities such peering into her interior for the as Smokey Bear. very last time. Others also called on her services. In 1988, she fought fires that Sometimes her caretaker and Goodbye threatened to engulf the thirsty “manager” Steve Elmore, a recre- Engine 805 is no longer Federal forests of Kentucky. A year later, ation technician on the New Castle property. At an auction in March she tirelessly helped with cleanup Ranger District, would start her 2004, a private individual pur- after Hurricane Hugo ripped mighty pump and shoot a stream of chased her for $3,400. Although in through the Frances Marion water skyward. Squealing school- beautiful condition and quite func- National Forest in South Carolina. children would race through her tional, Engine 805 was no longer In 1998, she battled multiple fires spray and climb behind her big cost-effective to maintain. raging in her own backyard in what steering wheel, pretending to be became the Castle Complex Fire. firefighters. Old Engine 805, we thank you for serving and saving our national Sara Patterson is a fire resource assistant In 2003, on a hot August night, forests and for helping a new gen- for the USDA Forest Service, George eration understand the importance Washington/Jefferson National Forests, Engine 805 made her final gleam- Roanoke, VA. ing appearance. It was Smokey Bear of fire safety. ■

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 19 “THE AIR WAS FIRE”: FIRE BEHAVIOR AT PESHTIGO IN 1871

Hutch Brown

n October 8, 1871, as myth tragedy fire in U.S. history (see the the sidebar below). Of course, eye- would have it, Mrs. O’Leary’s sidebar on page 22). witness accounts such as Pernin’s O cow knocked over a lantern, “are prone to hindsight bias” starting the great Chicago Fire. On Survivors left rich accounts of (Alexander and Thomas 2003)—a the same day, as fate would have it, extreme and unusual fire behavior. bias that probably entered contem- wildland fires swept through parts Franklin B. Hough captured some porary news accounts and investiga- of Michigan and Wisconsin, form- tive reports, including Robinson’s ing “a regional complex that (1872). Still, such accounts are a splashed across 2,400 square miles “It will be a long time useful, colorful point of departure [6,200 km2] and engulfed even before those woods, for examining what happened in Chicago” (Pyne 1999). Though sep- and around the town of Peshtigo on arated by up to hundreds of miles, more relentless than that fateful October night. the fires were connected by the the waters, give up same general conditions— their dead.” “Majestic Wilderness” “drought, human carelessness, and –C.D. Robinson, 1872 Peshtigo (pronounced PESH-ti-go) a change in wind” (Wells 1968). In lies in northeastern Wisconsin particular, the same “conducive about 6 miles (10 km) northwest of synoptic situation” (Haines and of them in his momentous Report Green Bay, an arm of Lake Kuehnast 1970) set off great fires in on Forestry (1882), a summary of Michigan (fig. 1). It straddles the urban and rural landscapes alike. forest conditions chartered by the Peshtigo River, which transported U.S. Congress. Hough reprinted or the area’s rich timber resources The area burned was far greater in summarized reports on the when logging began there in Michigan than in Wisconsin— Peshtigo Fire by Father Peter earnest following the American about 2.5 million acres (1 million Pernin (1874), C.D. Robinson Civil War (1861–65). Initially built ha) compared to 1.28 million acres (1872), and others. Pernin’s eyewit- around a sawmill, the town soon (512,000 ha) (Haines and Sando ness account was reprinted in 1971 acquired an immense woodenware 1969). However, most fatalities and, with a foreword by Stephen J. factory employing some 800 people occurred in and around the town of Pyne, again in 1999. (Peshtigo Historical Museum n.d.). Peshtigo, WI, which gave the fires By 1871, Peshtigo was a thriving their collective name. Estimates of These stories help to illuminate the community of about 1,700 inhabi- the number of dead are generally nature of extreme fire behavior (see tants. more than a thousand (Gess and Lutz 2002; Haines and Kuehnast 1970; Peshtigo Historical Museum n.d.; Pyne 1982; Wells 1968), but What Is Extreme Fire Behavior?* the region had so many new set- tlers and itinerant workers that the “Extreme” implies a level of fire involved: high rate of spread, pro- true number will probably never be behavior characteristics that ordi- lific crowning and/or spotting, known. Initially obscured by the narily precludes methods of presence of fire whirls, strong Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo Fire is direct control action. One or convection column. Predictability now widely regarded as the greatest more of the following is usually is difficult because such fires often exercise some degree of influence on their environment Hutch Brown is the managing editor of * From National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology (PMS 205, and behave erratically, sometimes Fire Management Today for the USDA NFES 1832; Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Forest Service, Washington Office, Center, November 1996). dangerously. Washington, DC.

Fire Management Today 20 Just before the blowup, fire behavior was Peshtigo was not the only settle- deceptively benign. ment in the area. It was connected by rail to a port at the mouth of the Peshtigo River 6 miles (10 km) to the southeast. The woods to the north and west held smaller settlements and scattered farms, collectively known as the Sugar Bushes (for the forest’s sugar maple component). Together with the twin towns of Marinette and Menominee, about 6 miles (10 km) to the northeast, Peshtigo and its outlying farms and settlements formed a booming frontier community. Investments by Chicago magnate William B. Ogden were fueling rapid development, and Peshtigo was soon to be connected by rail to Chicago.

Yet most of the surrounding forest was still virgin timber. Pernin (1999) described Peshtigo’s sur- roundings as “a rude and majestic wilderness—woods, everywhere woods.” The rolling landscape held “the cedar and the spruce” (northern whitecedar and white and black spruce), “evergreens” (red, jack, and eastern white pine), and “all kinds of hard wood, the oak, maple, beech, ash, elm, and birch.” It was a mixture typical of the Great North Woods, broken in places by “prairies and openings” (Robinson 1872).

According to Pernin (1999), cedar and spruces prevailed in wet areas, pines on sandy slopes, and hard- woods wherever the land was “dry and rich.” Historical fire return intervals varied greatly among these forest types. Surface fires were rare in conifer bogs but rela- Figure 1—Peshtigo and some of the other communities affected by the wildland fires of tively frequent in the pine forests of 1871. The fire perimeters shown encompass about 1.28 million acres (512,000 ha) in the Great Lakes (Bonnicksen 2002; Wisconsin and Upper Michigan. Not shown are the far greater areas burned in Lower FEIS n.d.). In both forest types, Michigan. Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society, image number 6783; from Wells (1968). stand replacement fires occurred at

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 21 intervals of 100 to 200 years (50 Forgotten Fire? years in jack pine). By contrast, fire rarely touched the northern hard- The wildland fires of 1871 in the When they were fought at all, it wood forests of the Great Lakes, Upper Midwest burned through was usually only to protect mills, where intervals between surface farms and towns across millions homesteads, and settlements. fires typically “exceeded the lifespan of acres, yet they got little imme- of individual trees [several hundred diate attention. In Wisconsin, The Peshtigo Fire seemed to years]” (FEIS n.d.). Where fire- telegraph lines to the North show the folly of tolerating fire in intolerant trees such as maple and Woods were down, and the news the woods. For weeks, surface beech dominated, thousands of was slow to get out. When the fires smoldered across the land- years might have passed between story finally broke, the Governor scape, until changing weather stand replacement fires of Wisconsin was away, helping conditions blew them up into a (Bonnicksen 2002). In such forests, victims of the great Chicago Fire. tragedy. By highlighting the hor- extreme drought would seem to Initially obscured by Chicago, ror of Peshtigo, Hough suggested have been necessary for a crown Peshtigo is sometimes called “the that backcountry fires must be fire in presettlement times. Forgotten Fire” (Peshtigo controlled before “conditions Historical Museum n.d.). present the greatest danger.”

The drought was mild Franklin B. Hough, head of the Hough thereby helped transform compared to the times USDA Division of Forestry, recog- the Peshtigo Fire into a poster nized Peshtigo’s significance and child for fire control. Today, leading up to other turned it to his advantage. In his despite its reputation as the historically great fires in Report on Forestry (1882), he Forgotten Fire, Peshtigo is “any- the Midwest. made it the centerpiece of his sec- thing but” (Pyne 1999). Cited in tion “The Great Historical Fires in every compendium on great fires, North America.” “Taken in con- the Peshtigo Fire helped set the Extreme Drought? nection with the great calamity at stage for the 20th-century doc- Such a drought occurred in 1871, Chicago,” he declared, “the trine of fire exclusion that still according to contemporary sources autumn of 1871 [the wildland pervades public values. often cited in later accounts (Gess fires in Michigan and Wisconsin] and Lutz 2002; Wells 1968). For may be regarded as altogether the Therein lies the true danger. As months, showers across the Upper most extraordinary [event] in the Pyne (1999) put it, “A misreading Midwest were reportedly few and annals of disaster from fire that of the Peshtigo legacy—that fire brief. By October, many streams has ever happened within the exclusion was the answer to fire and wells had run dry. Even rich period of human history.” abuse—threatens to recreate the organic bottomland soil was so old burn in more modern idiom.” desiccated that it was burnable “to Hough’s report was partly Today, many Americans reject the depth of a foot or more” designed to get Congress to pass prefire Peshtigo’s rural embrace (Robinson 1872). The early October laws against free-ranging fires. In of fire use, smoke, and logging. air was “hot and dry,” suggesting Hough’s day, fires were widely Freedom from such controls low relative humidity. used in rural areas for purposes means that woody fuels today such as clearing land and rejuve- threaten to produce fires and However, such accounts are open to nating forage. Fire escapes and tragedies on a scale rivaling question. Descriptions such as “hot lightning fires were largely Peshtigo. and dry,” for example, are both sub- ignored so long as they remained jective and relative. Later investiga- in the backcountry (Haines and Today, the problem is not too tors used U.S. Army Signal Service* Kuehnast 1970; Pyne 2001). much fire in the woods. The problem is too little.

* Originally, the Signal Service was the Federal entity responsible for collecting weather data. In 1891, it was superseded by the U.S. Weather Bureau, predecessor of today’s National Weather Service in the U.S. Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Fire Management Today 22 data from the 1870s to test the the- Surface fires scorched tree crowns and helped sis that extreme drought con- dry out the overstory, making canopy fuels tributed to the Peshtigo Fire (Haines and Kuehnast 1970; Haines available for burning. and Sando 1969; Haines and others 1976). Woods on Fire areas that had already been blackened. Before the blowup on October “Drought was prevalent over much But something else was going on. Under the drought conditions, fires 8, smoke on Green Bay was report- of the Midwest in the summer of edly so dense that foghorns blew 1871,” Haines and Kuehnast (1970) had broken out across the Upper Midwest in the summer and early steadily and daylight navigation was confirmed, but the drought was done by compass (Hipke 2002). mild compared to droughts before autumn of 1871. For weeks, persistent low- to moderate-intensity sur- Trains on the expanding Chicago other historically great fires in the and Northwestern Railway ran Upper Midwest (Haines and Sando face fires had been “sweeping through the timbered country, and through 50 miles (80 km) of active 1969). In Wisconsin, although the fire (Robinson 1872). winter preceding the fire was in some instances the prairies and abnormally dry, the following openings of all that part of Wisconsin lying northward of Lake The “undermining burns” threatened spring was wet. Summer precipita- to carry into the homesteads and set- tion again fell below normal, but Horicon, or Winnebago Marsh, which was itself on fire” (Robinson tlements burgeoning in the North summer temperatures were not Woods. “The outstanding haystacks, extreme. Haines and others (1976) 1872). By scorching tree crowns, the fires helped to dry out the over- the heavy log fences, the piles of also found mixed signs of drought cord-wood, hemlock-bark, fence- severity. For Madison, WI, they cal- story, making canopy fuels more readily available for burning. posts, and other products of the culated a Keetch–Byram Drought forests … were prompt conductors to Index of 300, well below the level carry the fire across these cleared associated with severe drought. But Fire came from various sources. Loggers were piling and burning plains,” observed Robinson (1872). they also calculated a Palmer The fire hazards were perhaps some- Drought Index of –3.79, suggesting slash; farmers were burning to open new land to the plow; and what like those in today’s rural con- a drought that was severe but not dition of the wildland/ urban inter- extreme. workers were using fire to clear the new railroad from Chicago. face,* where fuels on or near homes According to Pernin (1999), aut- surrounded by fire-prone forests can Ambient air conditions just before pose lethal dangers. the Peshtigo Fire do not suggest umn underburns were common in the region; hunters and farmers extreme fire danger. The relative “Presage of a humidity was about 24 percent in routinely left campfires burning, Madison, WI (Haines and others and the embers spread into dry Tempest” 1976), generally low for the region autumn leaves, “so that in autumn When wells went dry, residents but hardly record breaking these woods are everywhere filled responded to the danger “mainly by (Alexander 2003). Warm air from with fires that have been kindled by circumvallating the property with the central Great Plains eventually the hand of man.” ditches” (Robinson 1872). The rudi- raised nighttime temperatures into mentary firelines generally held the 80s (27+ ºC), but at least one Surface fires were probably little around homesteads and communi- location—Sturgeon Bay, WI— noticed in years with more rain, ties “so long as the fire preserved recorded a temperature of 63 ºF (17 but the drought was making them the ordinary character of previous ºC) at the time fire broke out worse than usual. Some were going fires” and stayed on the ground (Haines and others 1976). Neither underground, particularly in dried- (Robinson 1872). But when the drought nor ambient air conditions out bogs, where they burned down to the mineral soil. Others, to the * In the rural condition, “scattered small clusters of alone would seem to explain the structures … are exposed to wildland fuels.” See Brian severity of the Peshtigo Fire. amazement of local observers (Gess F. Weatherford, “Study Supports Cooperative Fire Protection in the West” (Fire Management Today 62[1] and Lutz 2002), were reburning [Winter 2002]: 11).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 23 wind sprang up, fires sometimes A large amount of fuel was usu- tops and filling the air with a whirl- spread into the canopy in terrifying ally available before the fire; this wind of flame.” events that destroyed homes and would be analogous to a rifle mills (Gess and Lutz 2002). shell. A unique series of climatic “Last Judgment” events prevailed during much of A “hot southerly gale” (Robinson Residents generally took such the fire season—the shell is 1872) drove fire into towns and events in stride, grumbling about loaded into the rifle chamber. showered embers “upon the decks the drought and dreading the occa- Smaller fires were burning in of vessels seven miles [11 km] dis- sional crown fires yet continuing to the forests and bogs—the ham- tant on the bay.” As “the flames use fire in the woods. For people in mer is pulled back. A favorable came through the air, above the the North Woods, fires were a way synoptic weather pattern devel- tops of the trees, and descended of life. The stifling smoke that blan- oped over the region—the trig- upon them,” people thought that keted the landscape was widely seen ger is pulled and the bullet is on the Last Judgment had arrived. as a sign of progress. It meant that its way. They fled in droves (fig. 2), perish- people were working, farms were ing by the dozens. “Some were growing, and the railroad was com- The “bullet” was about to strike. At burned near the buildings,” noted ing. For weeks, residents staved off dusk, Pernin saw a red glow over Robinson (1872); “some were the worst of the fires while hoping the smoke pall in the darkening caught in the fields and woods by for rain. western sky. People soon heard “an the descending fires; others fled to unusual and strangely ominous the woods and were caught there.” By October 8, the worst seemed to sound, a gradual roaring and rum- be over in the minds of many bling” (Robinson 1872). The rum- The survivors told awesome tales of (Wells 1968). “Everything com- ble became like “a battle, with fire in the air. Fireballs reportedly bustible on the ground had burned artillery, going on at a distance.” descended from the sky and explod- out,” declared Robinson (1872). Another wave of fire was clearly on ed (Pernin 1999). Structures and Fires still smoldered, but few were its way, and people prepared to face farm implements, though far from actively burning. In Peshtigo, “the it. But it came “not along the the fire front, unaccountably burst streets were full of people passing ground as they had been accus- into flame (Gess and Lutz 2002; to and fro, having no idea but to tomed … but consuming the tree- Wells 1968). Some people reported amuse themselves with songs and laughter” (Pernin 1999). However, Pernin himself felt uneasy, noticing “a stifling and heavy atmosphere, a mysterious silence in the air—the common presage of a tempest.”

A storm was indeed brewing. A reconstructed weather map for October 8 shows an intense cyclonic storm centered on Colorado and Nebraska (Pernin 1999). Based on reports by the Signal Service and the Smithsonian Institution, Haines and Kuehnast (1970) concluded that a cold front was on its way. Under the circum- stances, the change in weather would prove disastrous. Haines and Sando (1969) compared the situation to loading and firing a weapon: Figure 2—Panicked flight from the fires of 1871. Many survivors escaped to rivers and lakes (note the water in the foreground). Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society, image number 3728; drawing in Harpers Weekly (1871), p. 1037; created by G.J. Tisdale, 1871.

Fire Management Today 24 lightning and other electrical One lesson is that large Radiation can produce similar effects. “The fire was transformed fires produce volatile effects through area ignition. High- into an electric current of fervid intensity flame fronts on two or heat, and the heavens seemed to be gases that are both more sides can make areas in rolled, as it were, in a scroll,” lethal and unpredictable. between erupt in flame when radi- declared Robinson (1872). ant heat drives gases from fuels and the gases are ignited by embers. Just before fleeing his home, with wet material, but radiant heat from Area ignition might account for the the flames thundering outside the onshore blazes dried it out so “tales of cabins suddenly bursting town, Pernin (1999) saw “a flashing fast that it began to smoke and had into flame in the middle of a large that shone suddenly like grains of to be repeatedly doused. clearing, a considerable distance powder touched by fire, and that from the burning woods” (Wells flew from room to room.” He sur- Phases of Combustion 1968). mised that “the atmosphere was From the “grains of powder saturated with some gas; and if this touched by fire” to the flames run- Many sought safety in such clear- gas … takes fire when nothing ning from shoreline over the water, ings (fig. 3), often in vain. In one comes in contact with it but a Pernin’s account (1999) alludes to case, stumps remaining in a newly breath of warm air, what will it do what Byram (1957) called the first cleared field caught fire and burned when the advancing flames shall two phases of combustion: “First “like torches” (Wells 1968), driving strike these inflammable objects?” comes the preheating phase, in out those seeking refuge there. which fuels ahead of the fire are Even an old clearing several miles Pernin would soon find out. heated, dried, partially distilled, and long and half a mile (0.8 km) wide Together with hundreds of others, ignited. In the second phase, the offered little protection from a fire he saved himself by jumping into distillation of gaseous substances that, according to Pernin (1999), the Peshtigo River, from where he continues but is now accompanied seemed to travel through the air. saw everything on fire in every by their burning or ‘oxidation.’” direction—“the houses, the trees, Heat drives gases from fuels and Reports of atmospheric fire effects led and the atmosphere itself” (Pernin the gases burn. to now discounted theories that the 1999). Standing in the river, Pernin looked up and saw “nothing but flames, immense billows of flame that covered the whole sky, rolling one upon another.” Filled with combustible gases, the air itself was ablaze.

Burning gases even reached the river’s surface. “The flames ran upon the water as upon the ground,” wrote Pernin (1999); “the air was filled with them, or rather the air was fire.” Though up to their ears in water, the survivors were threatened by flames that “seized our heads, and we were obliged to throw water continually with our hands upon our hair and the parts necessarily exposed for breathing.” People grabbed the clothing and bedding that floated Figure 3—Families huddled in a field to escape the Peshtigo Fire. Such openings, even when large, often failed to provide safety. Illustration: Courtesy of the Wisconsin by and covered their heads with the Historical Society, image number 1881; created by Mel Kishner, 1968.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 25 “The flames ran upon the water as upon the low-level jet is a surge in windspeed ground; the air was filled with them, or rather the at a height of about 1,600 to 2,300 feet (500–700 m) (fig. 4). Long air was fire.” associated with large fires, low-level –Father Peter Pernin jets can help small fires get big by overcoming the “wind-field barrier” (Byram 1959) formed by stable lay- fire was caused by buildups of marsh with a towering smoke column and ering in the lower atmosphere. gas from the region’s dried-out peat strong indrafts at the base. bogs (Gess and Lutz 2002; Pernin Low-level jets are common at night 1999). Robinson (1872) reported that Although Wells (1968) might be over relatively flat terrain weeks of underburns and hot, dry partly correct, rising surface winds (Schroeder and Buck 1970). weather might have produced a “for- do not seem to have triggered the Formed by differences in atmos- mation of gas from the long-heated blowup. In the weeks before pheric pressure, the jets glide along pine forests of that region.” Hough October 8, winds had repeatedly the nighttime inversion layer like a (1882) even speculated that the fire’s whipped up the surface fires with- stream over its bed. They are usual- severity was due to “an exceptionally out generating a firestorm (Gess ly broken up by the same daytime strong tendency for the spread of and Lutz 2002). Conversely, sur- temperature changes that lift the flames in the atmosphere itself, per- vivors made little or no mention of inversion. Under overcast condi- haps due to electrical conditions or windy conditions on October 8 tions, however, low-level jets can other causes.” until the firestorm was visibly form without an inversion and even approaching or already at hand. persist during the day. Haines and Weather Change Instead, most remarked on the Kuehnast (1970) suggested that the Wells (1968) offered a more plausi- “still” and “heavy” atmosphere in ble explanation. For weeks, smoke the moments before the fire. had hung in the air, reducing visi- HT-1,000 FEET 17 KNOTS bility and affecting lungs (Gess and Nor do Signal Service observations 25 Lutz 2002; Peshtigo Historical bear out the notion of a wind-driv- Museum n.d.). A warm layer of air en crown fire. At 9 p.m., well after apparently separated the surface fire had already broken out, inland 20 fires from the cooler air above, surface winds in Wisconsin were no trapping heat and smoke relatively more than 14 miles per hour (22 close to the ground. According to km/h) (Haines and Kuehnast 1970). 15 Wells (1968), the pattern persisted “Even with major fire runs under- due to a precarious balance among way, evening surface winds were fuel, weather, topography, and fire relatively light in most of southern activity. Michigan and certainly did not 10 appear to be excessive in northeast The balance tipped on October 8 Wisconsin,” concluded Haines and Kuehnast (1970). The gale-force when weather conditions changed. 5 Wells (1968) suggested that arriv- winds later reported by survivors ing southwesterly winds whipped were undoubtedly generated by the firestorm itself. up the many small fires, driving WINDSPEED them together through area ignition. The energy unleashed by the Low-Level Jet Figure 4—Wind profile showing a low-level jet. Low-level jets usually occur over rela- uniting smoke columns then If surface winds did not trigger the tively flat terrain just above the nighttime punched through the warm, blowup, what did? Haines and inversion layer, but they can also occur smoke-filled layer of overlying air Kuehnast (1970) found that the under other conditions. Haines and into the colder air above. The cold front advancing through the Kuehnast (1970) attributed the blowup fires of 1871 to wind shear and turbulence resulting updraft of whirling air Upper Midwest on October 8 was caused by low-level jets associated with an created a plume-dominated fire, preceded by a low-level jet or jets. A approaching cold front.

Fire Management Today 26 smoke pall shrouding much of the front (Byram 1959). Witnesses ing to a prodigious height in the Upper Midwest functioned like apparently mistook such phenome- air, and of course far above the cloud cover to support daytime na for true tornadoes (see the side- reach of all inflammable materials.” low-level jets associated with the bar below). approaching cold front. For many, the superheated gases Firestorm turbulence also helps to proved lethal. Survivors were According to Haines and Kuehnast explain other unusual fire behavior. amazed to find so many of the dead (1970), the low-level jets had a Embers caught in the turbulent unburned. “Men, women, and chil- “strong anticyclonic shear.” winds would have set volatile gases dren were suffocated and found fall- Resulting turbulence would have on fire, sending flames dancing en on the ground with no marks of mixed the lower atmosphere, jolt- across the water. The erratic cross- fire upon their persons,” observed ing the region’s smoldering fires to currents would have fed the Robinson (1872). Pernin (1999) life and driving them together. The “immense waves of flame” that found it “passing strange” that energy released by the uniting con- Pernin (1999) saw from the river, “some dead bodies showed no vection columns would have “rolling one upon another, mount- marks of burning.” pierced the weakening layer of smoke-filled overlying air and reached the cooler air above. “The Was There a Tornado? flame, as it arose, drew in the surrounding atmosphere, already Contemporaries theorized that a much as a thunderstorm. They parched and heated in extreme “hurricane” (great windstorm) or can create “firewhirls of tornadic degree, until it became a tornado of even a tornado caused the violence” (Graham 1952) that can fire, sweeping everything before it,” Peshtigo Fire (Robinson 1872; encompass entire fires a thou- reported the Detroit Tribune Wells 1968). Gess and Lutz sand yards (almost a kilometer) (Hough 1882). A firestorm (2002) embraced the theory, across (Cramer 1954). Firewhirls ensued—a “violent convection maintaining that “the strongest- are capable of snapping mature caused by a large, continuous area force tornado, an F5, struck trees, picking up large logs, and of intense fire” (Cramer 1954). Peshtigo at the time of the fire.” lofting enormous firebrands for As evidence, they pointed to great distances (Graham 1957). Firestorm Turbulence “descriptions of cloud forma- Wells (1968) concluded that eye- tions,” documentation of a witnesses almost certainly did Firestorm indrafts cause powerful cyclonic storm, and “accounts of observe tornadoes—but “fire tor- colliding winds, producing extreme survivors who witnessed houses nadoes” created by the fire itself. turbulence. The erratic cross-cur- and loaded train cars hurled hun- rents make burning gases roll and dreds of feet through the air.” Moreover, large fires typically spin, forming fiery funnels of enor- The best evidence, they said, is leave areas within the fire mous energy. Pernin (1999) told of the fact that the fire spared perimeter intact. The enormous a “horrid whirlwind” and “vortices Peshtigo Harbor on Green Bay, 1871 fire perimeter containing of wind.” “The pine-tree tops were 6 miles (10 km) to the southeast. Peshtigo was formed by multiple twisted off and set on fire,” They apparently reasoned that fires that spared entire areas Robinson (1872) reported, “and the destruction on the order that within the perimeter, such as the burning debris of the ground was befell Peshtigo followed a narrow town of Oconto to the south caught up and whirled through the course across the landscape, sug- (Wells 1968). The fire that burned air in a literal column of fire.” gesting a tornado. through Peshtigo split north of town due to changes in fuel and Large firewhirls are capable of However, Gess and Lutz (2002) topography, resulting in far less throwing firebrands far ahead of also admitted that evidence for a damage to the towns of Marinette the main fire, probably accounting tornado is inconclusive. As Byram and Menominee (Wells 1968). for the descending “fireballs” (1957) observed, “three-dimen- The fact that Peshtigo Harbor did described by some. Fire tornadoes sional” fires can release an enor- not burn therefore would seem to are also capable of separating from mous amount of energy—as mean little. their fuel bases and traveling up to 3 miles (4.8 km) ahead of a flaming

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 27 The dead were “generally lying face Energy from low-level jets can contribute to rapid down” (Wells 1968), as if their last fire growth moments were spent trying in vain to find breathable air. The farmer Thomas Williamson remembered area ignition across large openings. though uncharacteristically severe, successfully “rooting” with his face In some cases, people using such still left a typical mosaic of burned in the ground for air (Wells 1968). openings as safety zones might and unburned areas (USDA Forest His brother John was not so lucky. have died simply from the shock of Service 2002). As Gess and Lutz Thomas found him lying in a exposure to intense radiation. (2002) noted, the haphazard pat- plowed potato patch, looking Greenlee and Greenlee (2003) dis- tern of destruction left by the fire “natural” but quite dead. cussed the difficulty for firefighters runs of 1871 was analogous to that of finding adequate safety zones in of a tornado. Lessons Reinforced forests where flame fronts can be Studies of recent tragedy fires shed expected to reach 200 feet (60 m) A related lesson is that previous light on accounts of the great in height. The difficulty would be underburning is no guarantee of Peshtigo Fire. One lesson is that compounded if flame fronts are security (Butler and others 2001). large fires produce volatile gases possible on multiple sides. One sce- On the Peshtigo Fire, low-severity that are both lethal and unpre- nario drafted by Butler and others fires burned for weeks before the dictable. On the South Canyon Fire (2001) for the failed escape route blowup, consuming surface fuels. in 1994, 12 firefighters died while on the South Canyon Fire was area Crown fires are normally supported trying to outrun the fire. Butler ignition due to high-intensity flame by convection from burning surface and others (2001), based on evi- fronts on three sides. fuels (Byram 1957). Without dence collected during a painstak- enough surface fuels to support ing postfire study, drafted scenarios Another lesson is that large fire them, crown fires will often drop of the firefighters’ final moments. behavior can be capricious and from the canopy to the ground. In In one scenario, the firefighters unaccountable. Gess and Lutz one place, people escaped the were enveloped by an unexpected (2002) claimed that the fire Peshtigo Fire into “the adjacent blast of hot air before they could “stripped the land of all trees,” but timber, where the ground had been reach safety. postfire photos of forested areas previously burned over, and were near Peshtigo show many snags saved” (Robinson 1872). On the Thirtymile Fire in 2001, and possibly even stands of surviv- volatile gases from a high-intensity ing trees. In fact, large areas within However, their survival might have flame front again proved fatal. the fire perimeter were entirely had more to do with erratic winds Fourteen entrapped firefighters spared (see the sidebar), and from firestorm turbulence than with could not see the fire approaching burned areas showed evidence of a lack of surface fuels. Surface fires with its flattened convection col- mixed fire severity. According to typically leave partially consumed umn aimed at their position Robinson (1872), “Houses were fuels, which can later fuel another (Brown 2002; USDA Forest Service burned while adjoining barns were fire. Similarly, surface fires usually 2001). The ensuing blast of hot air saved. Fences, pumps, and outhous- consume the upper fuel layers in the apparently caught them offguard. es were burned, while dwelling soil, exposing duff and other buried Four firefighters perished because houses within a few yards escaped.” materials that were initially too wet they could not get a good seal “The fire might spare one cowering to burn. Such materials can dry out against the ground with their fire group of refugees,” observed Wells and become available for later burn- shelters. Like many victims of the (1968), “while every member of ing. Both the surface reburns that Peshtigo Fire, they died from the another group a short distance amazed local observers and the effects of inhaling superheated away was burned to death.” crown fires that ultimately followed gases. evidently found enough surface fuels Similarly, the 1991 firestorm in to support them. A related lesson pertains to safety Oakland and Berkeley, CA, zones and escape routes. On the destroyed some houses while leav- Another lesson from Peshtigo is Peshtigo Fire, radiant heat from ing others intact. The 2002 that extreme fire behavior can multiple sides apparently caused Rodeo–Chediski Fire in Arizona, occur abruptly. Just before the

Fire Management Today 28 blowup, fire behavior was decep- It is also easy to suppose that rarely and severe, Peshtigo showed typical tively benign, and people thought burned forest types will support a characteristics of large fire behav- the worst was over. The sudden crown fire only under conditions of ior, such as concentrations of transition to extreme fire behavior extreme drought and high wind. volatile gases, variable severity, and was repeated on the South Canyon Peshtigo showed the opposite. A relatively sudden changes. Fire (Butler and others 2001) and relatively mild drought, together the Thirtymile Fire during the with persistent surface fires, set the However, Peshtigo also serves to entrapment (Brown 2002; USDA stage for a blowup apparently illustrate what Byram (1954) called Forest Service 2001). brought on not by surface winds, “the contradictions in the facts of but by low-level jets. Charney and extreme fire behavior.” Most Peshtigo reinforces yet another others (2003) found something blowup fires occur in mountainous important lesson from South similar for the 1980 Mack Lake Fire terrain in the afternoon, whereas Canyon: The longer and farther a in Michigan (Simard 1981): Peshtigo occurred in relatively flat fire burns, the more likely it is to Atmospheric mixing from low-level terrain at night, when atmospheric change behavior (Butler and others jets caused a prescribed fire to conditions seemed stable (Wells 2001). On the Peshtigo Fire, under- escape, ultimately costing a fire- 1968). As Haines and Kuehnast story fires smoldered for weeks, fighter’s life. Clearly, energy from (1970) showed, the synoptic events drying out canopy fuels and linger- low-level jets can contribute to that triggered Peshtigo under these ing long enough for the weather to rapid fire growth (Byram 1959). conditions are extremely complex change. When a cold front ap- and difficult to fathom. proached on October 8, a blowup Unforgettable Fire resulted. Initially obscured by the great For firefighters today, the lessons Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo Fire has from Peshtigo might not be new, Cautionary Tale never been forgotten. Today, it is but they still bear remembering. Finally, Peshtigo holds a cautionary widely considered one of the great- One of them is humility—to tale. It is easy to forget that north- est tragedy fires in history, over- remember “the possible futility in ern hardwood forests burn, because shadowing even larger or equally attempting to explain each fact” fire return intervals are normally so tragic fires (Pyne 1999), such as the (Byram 1954). long. But if a hardwood forest has a Miramachi Fire in New Brunswick coniferous understory together with (1825), the Matheson Fire in Acknowledgments large amounts of slash or other Ontario (1916), or the Cloquet Fire The author thanks Dr. Gerald W. dead and down material—as was in Minnesota (1918). Williams, the national historian for probably widely the case near the Forest Service, Washington Peshtigo in 1871—it can readily The accounts reprinted by Hough Office, Washington, DC, for fur- fuel a large, high-severity fire. (1882) might be a good part of the nishing the section of Hough Survivors noted no difference in fire reason. The powerful tales told by (1882) on which this article is effects between the Sugar Bushes, Pernin, Robinson, and others have largely based; and Dr. Martin E. where the farm-dotted forest was inspired a series of artistic rendi- Alexander, a senior fire behavior probably dominated or codominated tions of the horrors faced that research officer for the Canadian by sugar maple, and areas with night (Gess and Lutz 2002; Hipke Forest Service, Edmonton, Alberta, more fire-prone coniferous forest 2002). They have lent themselves to for reviewing the manuscript and types. Something similar happened dramatization (Gess and Lutz 2002; providing invaluable insights and in Maine in October 1947 (Wilkins Wells 1968) and even to inspiration materials based on his own 1948), when a series of firestorms for firefighters (Leschak 2002). research and professional expertise. covering 200,000 acres (80,000 ha) indiscriminately burned across the To Pernin, the entire firmament References same forest types as in Wisconsin. had seemed ablaze, in apparent Alexander, M.E. 2003. Personal communi- Even a maple forest with large defiance of reason and faith. Today, cation. Senior Fire Behavior Research openings can fuel a firestorm under after more than a century of experi- Officer, Canadian Forest Service, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. the right combination of climatic ence and scientific study, the Alexander, M.E.; Thomas, D. 2003. Wildland and synoptic conditions. Peshtigo Fire no longer seems so fire behavior case studies and analyses: baffling. Though exceptionally large Other examples, methods, reporting standards, and some practical advice. Fire

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 29 Management Today. 63(4) [Fall 2003]: Gess, D.; Lutz, W. 2002. Firestorm at Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: A cultural 4–12. Peshtigo: A town, its people, and the history of wildland and rural fire. Seattle Bonnicksen, T.M. 2000. America’s ancient deadliest fire in American history. New and London: University of Washington forests: From the Ice Age to the Age of York, NY: Henry Holt and Company. Press. Discovery. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Graham, H.E. 1952. A firewhirl of tornadic Pyne, S.J. 1999. Foreword: The Peshtigo Brown, H. 2002. Thirtymile Fire: Fire violence. Fire Control Notes. 13(2): paradigm. In: Pernin, P. 1999. The Great behavior and management response. Fire 22–24. [Reprinted in Fire Management Peshtigo Fire: An eyewitness account. Management Today. 62(3): 23–30. Today. 63(3) [Summer 2003]: 54–55.] Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Butler, B.W.; Bartlette, R.A.; Bradshaw, L.S.; Graham, H.E. 1957. Fire-whirlwind forma- Wisconsin. Cohen, J.D.; Andrews, P.L.; Putnam, T.; tion as favored by topography and upper Pyne, S.J. 2001. Year of the fires: The story Mangan, R.J.; Brown, H. 2001. The South winds. Fire Control Notes. 18(1): 20–24. of the Great Fires of 1910. New York: Canyon Fire revisited: Lessons in fire [Reprinted in Fire Management Today. Viking. behavior. Fire Management Today. 61(1): 63(3) [Summer 2003]: 59–62.] Robinson, C.D. 1872. Report in the 14–26. [Reprinted in Fire Management Haines, D.A.; Kuehnast, E.L. 1970. When Legislative Manual of Wisconsin. In: Today. 63(4) [Fall 2003]: 75–82.] the Midwest burned. Weatherwise. 23(3) Hough, F.B., comp. 1882. Report on Byram, G.M. 1954. Atmospheric conditions [June]: 113–119. forestry. Washington, DC: Government related to blowup fires. Stat. Pap. 35. Haines, D.A.; Sando, R.W. 1969. Climatic Printing Office: 231–236. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, conditions preceding historically great Schroeder, M.J.; Buck, C.C. 1970. Fire Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. fires in the North Central Region. Res. weather: A guide for application of mete- Byram, G.M. 1957. Some principles of com- Pap. NC–34. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest orological information to forest fire con- bustion and their significance in forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment trol operations. Ag. Handb. 360. fire behavior. Fire Control Notes. 18(2): Station. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 47–57. [Reprinted in Fire Management Haines, D.A.; Johnson, V.J.; Main, W.A. Simard, A.J. 1981. The Mack Lake Fire. Fire Today. 64(1) [Winter 2004]: 37–44.] 1976. An assessment of three measures of Management Notes 42(2): 5–6. [Reprinted Byram, G.M. 1959. Forest fire behavior. In: long-term moisture deficiency before in Fire Management Today. 63(4): (in Davis, K.P. Forest fire control and use. critical fire periods. Res. Pap. NC–131. St. press).] Ch. 4. New York: McGraw-Hill: 90–123. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service, North USDA Forest Service. 2001. Thirtymile Fire Charney, J.J.; Bian, X.; Potter, B.E.; Central Forest Experiment Station. investigation report: Accident investiga- Heilman, W.E. 2003. Low level jet Hipke, D.C. 2002. The great Peshtigo Fire tion factual report and management eval- impacts on fire evolution in the Mack of 1871. Website uation report. September 26, 2001, as Lake and other severe wildfires. . amended October 16. Winthrop, WA: Presentation at conference: Fifth Hough, F.B. 1882. Report on forestry. USDA Forest Service. Symposium on Fire and Forest Washington, DC: Government Printing USDA Forest Service. 2002. Rodeo–Chediski Meteorology; 16–20 November; Orlando, Office. fire effects summary report. August. FL. [Abstract at Leschak, P.M. 2002. Ghosts of the fire- Springerville, AZ: USDA Forest Service, .] and the calling of a wildland firefighter. Wells, R.W. 1968. Fire at Peshtigo. Cramer, O.P. 1954. Recognizing weather San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. conditions that affect forest fire behavior. NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). Whitney, G.G. 1994. From coastal wilder- Fire Control Notes. 15(2): 1–6. [Reprinted 2002. Historically significant wildland ness to fruited plain: A history of environ- in Fire Management Today. 64(1) [Winter fires. Website mental change in temperate North 2004]: 29–33.] . Cambridge, England: Cambridge points and the rules of disengagement. Pernin, P. 1874. The judgment of God is University Press. Fire Management Today. 63(1): 10–13. here! In: Hough, F.B., comp. 1882. Report Wilkins, A.H. 1948. The story of the Maine FEIS (Fire Effects Information System). on forestry. Washington, DC: forest fire disaster. Journal of Forestry. N.d. Kuechler potential natural vegeta- Government Printing Office: 236–240. 46: 568–573. ■ tion types. Website Pernin, P. 1999. The great Peshtigo Fire: An . eyewitness account. Madison, WI: State Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, Historical Society of Wisconsin. Intermountain Research Station, Fire Peshtigo Historical Museum. N.d. The great Sciences Laboratory. Peshtigo Fire (brochure). Peshtigo, WI.

Fire Management Today 30 WILDLAND FIRE DECISIONMAKING

Nick Greear

ildland firefighters have been assessing fires and When wildland firefighters size up a fire, they W addressing the need to develop and select containment strategies develop and select containment considering firefighter and public safety, costs, strategies for decades. In the 1970s, the USDA Forest Service, as a result and available resources. of the change from the 10 a.m. Policy to the Least-Cost-Plus-Loss Policy, formalized the assessment WFSA when a wildland fire escapes and rehabilitation costs. process for fires escaping initial or is expected to escape initial Alternatives must focus on fire- attack. Soon other Federal agencies attack or if it escapes planned pre- fighter and public safety; be imple- followed, and now many States use scription parameters. A WFSA mented with available suppression a similar form of analysis before must: resources; and show how they will selecting suppression strategies. succeed, considering an estimate of The process, initially called an • Identify criteria for evaluating final fire size, containment and Escaped Fire Situation Analysis suppression alternatives; control times, suppression costs, (EFSA), is now known as a • Develop and analyze suppression and anticipated resource damages. Wildland Fire Situation Analysis alternatives; (WFSA). • Receive approval and provide Making an Effective notification; and WFSA The Process • Monitor, evaluate, and document A WFSA requires the following key the assessment process. The Forest Service requires fire preparation steps: management officers to complete a Important evaluation criteria • Begin with an appropriately scaled include firefighter and public safety, map to adequately display alterna- Nick Greear is a retired regional fire opera- actions that are consistent with tives, including a worst-case alter- tions specialist for the USDA Forest applicable land and resource man- Service, Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI. native. Show the existing fire agement plans, and suppression perimeter and its projected

During (left) and after (right) the 2000 Bitterroot Fires near Sula, MT. Multiple fires burned hundreds of thousands of acres of State and Federal land, much of it in the wildland/urban interface. Almost a quarter of everyone in the Bitterroot Valley was either evacu- ated or prepared to evacuate. The situation was so complex and resources were so strained that even the best wildland fire situation analyses proved ineffective. Photos: USDA Forest Service, 2000.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 31 growth without suppression actions during the analysis period. • Develop alternatives, including a least-cost alternative, that are safe and feasible. • Determine the significant criteria that will likely affect the alternatives, separating them out from the neutral criteria that have less bearing on decisionmaking. • Conduct the analysis and select the alternative that best meets the criteria. • Develop an initial WFSA that meets the timeframes and provides reasonable direction to incident commanders during their first operational periods. If needed—and as time and resources permit—develop and analyze sub- sequent WFSAs. Plume from a blowup in the upper Lawson Creek Drainage on the Biscuit Fire, August 16, Tools Used 2002. The fire was far too vast—almost 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) across four administrative units—for any single person or team to analyze. Wildland fire situation analysis In the late 1970s, an EFSA was a on large fires like this does little to help decisionmakers develop alternatives and select simple two-page form that guided effective strategies. Photo: Gary Percy, USDA Forest Service, Siskiyou National Forest, the assessment process and docu- Grants Pass, OR, 2002. mented the results for a fire escaping initial action. As analyses became more sophisticated in the Using software for a wildland fire situation 1980s, the form grew to more than analysis can lead to focusing on the numbers six pages. In the early 1990s, rather than on effective alternative development, demand for an automated process analysis, and selection. resulted in development of a software application. Refinements to application releases continued until the type of organization needed to • Many agency administrators and the birth of the current version, manage a fire most effectively. The fire managers are not sufficiently WFSA Plus99.* entire analysis, including a page for trained to conduct effective daily review and monitoring, can be analysis. Using WFSA Plus99, fire managers printed for review. • During development of a WFSA, can upload fire-planning data, there is often not enough time to including average suppression costs Limitations and use the application’s full capabili- and resource losses, and input cri- Weaknesses ties. “Default” values chosen in teria from a land management unit Fire managers and agency adminis- haste can lead to erroneous out- or fire zone before a fire occurs. trators admit that WFSA Plus99 has comes. The program creates decision trees some problems: • Making the application “work” and provides a complexity analysis sometimes overshadows the goal format to help managers determine • Full and correct use of the appli- of using it to make better deci- cation requires a trained techni- sions. * Information about WFSA and WFSA Plus99 software is • WFSA Plus99 does not facilitate available on the World Wide Web at cian, which is often difficult for . A Line Officer’s Guide development of a least-cost alter- to Wildland Fire Decision Making is available at units with limited fire programs. . native.

Fire Management Today 32 Using WFSA for Large Fires Meeting the need for Developing a WFSA for large the 2002 fire season, four effective alternative fires, especially for large fire com- administrative units burned development and plexes such as Bitterroot in 2000 and others were threatened. analysis will increase in or for megafires such as Biscuit The area was too extensive— complexity as issues in 2002, is difficult. The charac- the fire perimeter reached surrounding wildland fire teristics of such fires, with almost 500,000 acres (200,000 extreme burning conditions, mul- ha)—for any single person or suppression mount. tiple jurisdictions, and several team to analyze, and separate incident management teams, can analysis on each administrative form might be appropriate, espe- challenge alternative develop- unit would not have resulted in cially for WFSAs prepared immedi- ment and analysis. Consider: an overall, effective strategy. ately after the first burning period when time is critical. The form • In Montana’s Bitterroot Valley During these fires, agency admin- simplifies the process, clearly dis- during the 2000 fire season, istrators directed the area com- plays the alternatives, and provides two highly skilled fire manage- mand team to prepare a WFSA to easy-to-discern evaluation criteria ment officers developed WFSAs meet their management criteria to make decisions. However, the for the many individual and and provide overall strategy to form does not create a decision complex fires. After exhaustive the incident management teams. tree, and training and proficiency analysis and use of WFSA However, developing, analyzing, are still needed to adequately devel- Plus99, the results did not alter and selecting effective contain- op an effective WFSA. the fire strategies used. ment strategies using a WFSA did Evaluation revealed that the not occur during either incident. Updating WFSA Plus99 to allow analysis was ineffective because users to replicate the paper version too many fires existed, they Decisions concerning large fires for use during initial WFSA devel- were growing at unanticipated are based on current funding, the opment could address some process rates and were growing togeth- availability of suppression limitations. Users could save the er, and the increasing shortage resources, and other social and data entered into the new module of resources prevented reason- political factors. Therefore, allow- to use in later analysis. A version able alternative development. ing second- and third-level update might also include develop- agency administrators to make ment of a least-cost alternative. • During the Biscuit Fire in decisions on very large fires southwestern Oregon during might be appropriate. The goal of a WFSA is to provide a format for developing sound alternatives and making rational deci- • During large conflagrations, the Service spent more than $1 billion sions during wildland firefighting. ability of WFSA Plus99 to help on wildland fire suppression activi- While documentation is important, decisionmakers develop alterna- ties in 2002—highlight the impor- it is imperative is to use a process tives and quickly analyze and tance of sound decisionmaking by and tools that foster informed, select effective strategies is com- agency administrators. Land man- strategic fire suppression promised (see sidebar). agement agencies involved in fire- decisions. ■ fighting must have effective WFSA The Future of WFSA tools. Wildland fire fatalities and escalat- ing suppression costs—the Forest Some units are again using a hard- copy version of a WFSA. Using the

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 33 WILDLAND FIRES IN BOTSWANA

Witness Mojeremane

orldwide, wildland fire has Wildfire cause and frequency By U.S. standards, many fires in long been part of the natu- depend largely on location and the Botswana are enormous. As table 1 W ral environment of people size of the local population. Most shows, average fire size in 2001 was (DeBano and others 1998). Since fires in Botswana originate in popu- more than 18,000 acres (7,000 ha), the mid-Pleistocene, people have lated areas and spread to more compared to 42 acres (17 ha) in the become increasingly adept at using remote areas. Most acres burn in United States (NIFC 2003). If the fire to manipulate ecosystems to relatively remote areas, partly area burned in the United States in obtain desired benefits (Pyne and because fire control there is more 2001 had been proportionally simi- others 1996). In many places, peo- difficult. lar to the area burned in Botswana, ple have altered the frequency and more than 72 million acres (29 mil- severity of wildland fire on a land- lion ha) would have burned—about scape level. Although fire is an By U.S. standards, 17 times more than the 10-year important tool, uncontrolled or many fires in Botswana average for the United States. misused fires can adversely affect are enormous. both the environment and society. Wildfires in Botswana are worst following a wet summer, when grasses Many tropical and subtropical Fire Extent and become highly dense. The most countries such as Botswana (see severe wildland fires occur in areas the sidebar) experience relatively Severity where annual rainfall exceeds 24 large annual fires. These fires are Botswana has all types of wildland inches (600 mm). The dense vege- having an increasing regional and fires, from ground fires, to surface tation here yields fuel loads in global impact on the environment. fires, to crown fires. During the excess of 357 pounds per acre per Impacts on flora and fauna can be long, dry winter season (see the year (400 kg ha-1 yr-1). Where rain- profound, because fire transforms sidebar), leaves, grasses, and other fall is less, fuel loads range from the countryside. Moreover, the fine fuels become highly flamma- 134 to 178 pounds per acre per year smoke from tropical fires carries ble. Enormous areas often burn (150–200 kg ha-1 yr-1), resulting in vast amounts of atmospheric pollu- (table 1). fewer severe fires. tants (Heikkilä and others 1993). Table 1—Wildland fires and area burned, Botswana, 1991–2001 Fire Causes (Agricultural Resources Board 2002). Most wildfires in Botswana are human caused; lightning fires are Acres burned few (Central Statistics Office 2000). Year Number of fires Acres Hectares However, the exact cause is often 1991 125 2,843,155 1,151,075 unknown. Known and suspected 1992 70 1,815,218 734,906 causes involve hunters, safari expe- 1993 87 3,271,925 1,324,666 ditions, smokers, campfires, wildlife poachers, motorized vehicles, fires 1994 144 4,983,437 2,017,586 spreading across the border (from 1995 56 1,211,289 490,380 Namibia and Zimbabwe), and farm- 1996 223 3,156,658 1,277,999 ers or villagers setting fire. In 1997 199 179,826 72,804 Botswana, as in many other devel- 1998 113 n.a.a n.a.a oping countries, fire has long been 1999 165 35,583 14,406 an agricultural tool. 2000 n.a.a n.a.a n.a.a Witness Mojeremane works for the 2001 249 4,633,424 1,875,880 Botswana College of Agriculture, Gaborone, Botswana. a. Fires occurred but data are not available.

Fire Management Today 34 Botswana: Physical Conditions Botswana is a landlocked country generally dry (Mojeremane 1999). The country is moderately forest- of 225,000 square miles (582,000 Annual temperatures in summer ed. About 25 percent of the land km2). It borders the Republic of can exceed 95 °F (35 °C), and win- area is classified as forest and an South Africa on the south, ter temperatures can drop below additional 20 percent as wood- Zimbabwe on the northeast, 32 °F (0 °C), with occasional night- land. Closed forests are rare and Zambia on the north, and time frost from June to August. occur only in riparian zones, par- Namibia on the west. Elevations ticularly in the Okavango swamps range from 1,200 to 4,300 feet About 80 percent of Botswana is and along the lower reaches of (600–1,300 m) above sea level. covered by Kalahari sands, predom- the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers. inant in the western and northern The most significant forest area is Botswana has a semiarid and arid parts of the country (Otsyina and in and around Chobe District in climate marked by pronounced Walker 1990). The sandy soils are the north, where large areas of cycles of dry and wet years well drained. Derived from acidic Baikiaea woodland occur, sus- (Bhalotra 1987; Otsyina and igneous rocks, they are generally tained by relatively high rainfall. Walker 1990). The mean annual infertile. The sands vary in depth More than half of the country has rainfall ranges from 10 to 26 from 10 feet (3 m) to occasionally savanna vegetation, which occurs inches (250–650 mm) (Bhalotra more than 330 feet (100 m) mainly where rainfall ranges from 1987; Ntogwa 1995). More than (Ntogwa 1995). Highly populated 8 to 14 inches (200–350 mm) 90 percent of the rains fall in eastern Botswana has moderately (Ministry of Finance and summer (October to April), with fertile soils ranging from sandy Development Planning 1997). the winter (May to September) loams to clay loams (Otsyina and Walker 1990).

Fire season in Botswana normally 17 percent, with an additional 22 starts between April and June. Wildfires have had a percent in wildlife management Early-season fires are rarely severe, high impact on areas (Government of Botswana because the scant fuels are not yet Botswana’s 1986). Prescribed burning occurs dry and fires are easy to contain. when fuel volume is small and Late-season fires from August to environment, destroying moisture content not too low. October are more extensive and both forest and destructive. They occur when the rangeland resources. Firebreaks of up to 30 feet (10 m) vegetation is dry and fire control is have been constructed in all State difficult due to high heat and wind. forest reserves, national parks, and • Loss of homes and personal game reserves. They are cleared of Fire Effects property, and flammable vegetation by cultivation Wildfires have had a high impact • Loss of tourism revenue. every year before the fire season on Botswana’s environment, starts. destroying both forest and range- Fire Prevention and land resources. However, the dam- Control Fire prevention methods include age caused by wildfires in Botswana Early (prescribed) burning is prac- educating people about the danger varies from year to year (table 1). ticed in State forest reserves, of wildfires through the media and Impacts have included: national parks, and game reserves public gatherings. Fire prevention to reduce highly flammable fine signs are also used to inform the • Soil erosion, fuels on the forest floor. These public of regulations, restrictions, • High water runoff, areas make up much of the coun- and procedures to reduce acciden- • Loss of wild and domestic animals, try; State forest reserves cover 1 tal and escaped fires. Signs are • Loss of timber resources, percent of Botswana’s land area erected along roadsides, at camp- • High cost of fire suppression, (Ntogwa 1995), and national parks grounds, and anywhere people • Loss of human life, and game reserves cover more than congregate.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 35 The Ministry of Environment, Prescribed burning is practiced in State forest Wildlife and Tourism has “herbage reserves, national parks, and game reserves conservation committees” in all six agricultural regions of Botswana. to reduce highly flammable fine fuels on the The committees hold public meet- forest floor. ings on wildfires and other conservation issues. Various laws govern Persistent Problem Governmant of Botswana. 1986. Wildlife fire control and prevention, includ- conservation policy. Gov. Pap. 1. ing the Forest Act of 1968, Agri- The wildfire problem in Botswana Gaborone, Botswana: Government cultural Resources Conservation is severe and likely to persist. Fire Printer. Heikkilä, T.V.; Grönqvist R.; Jurvelius, M. Act of 1974, and Prevention of Fires prevention will never eliminate all 1993. Handbook on forest fire control: A Act of 1977. wildfires, although it can reduce guide for trainers. FTP Pub. 21. Helsinki, them dramatically. There is a Finland. But fire control in Botswana faces strong need for all stakeholders Mojeremane, W. 1999. Azanza garckeana: A review and field evaluation in a village severe constraints. In rural areas, (government agencies, nongovern- context in Botswana. B.S. diss. University the only way for someone to report mental organizations, local people, of Wales, Bangor, Wales. a fire is to go to the police or near- and others) to work together to Ministry of Finance and Development Planning. 1997. National Development est local authority. Many local peo- fight the problem of wildfires in Plan 8. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of ple hesitate to do so for fear that Botswana. Finance and Development Planning. they will be suspected of having NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center [U.S.]). 2003. “Wildland fire season 2001 started the fire. References at a glance.” Website Agricultural Resources Board. 2002. . little incentive to join in fighting a Botswana: Ministry of Environment, Ntogwa, C.V. 1995. Critical review of Wildlife and Tourism. Botswana forest policy. B.S. diss. fire. Unlike government workers, Bhalotra, Y.P.R. 1987. Climate of Botswana, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, they are not paid for firefighting part 1: Rainfall. Gaborone, Botswana: Scotland. and receive no personal protective Department of Meteorological Services, Otsyina, R.; Walker, K.P. 1990. Agroforestry Ministry of Works and Communications. development in Botswana. Final report. equipment. Government vehicles Central Statistics Office. 2000. Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of are also usually in short supply to Environment statistics. Gaborone, Agriculture. take firefighters to the fire. Botswana: Central Statistics Office. Pyne, S.J.; Andrews, P.L.; Laven, R.D. 1996. DeBano, L.F.; Neary, D.G.; Ffolliott, P.F. Introduction to wildland fire. New York, 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New NY: John Wiley & Son Inc. ■ York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Fire Management Today 36 THE FIRE BELOW: SUPPRESSION TACTICS FROM ABOVE

Mike Benefield

obert W. Mutch’s essay “Why Don’t We Just Leave the We need to recognize several basic tactical R Fireline?” (Mutch 2002) factors for making sound decisions regarding addresses a basic approach to tacti- above-fire firefighting on steep slopes. cal situations involving firefighting on slopes. The concept, however, needs further exploration. In some especially through chimneys and slope. Safety also requires viable situations, perhaps it is better to other narrow topographic features. escape routes and safety zones ask, “Why even approach a wildland along a well-scouted approach fire on a steep slope from above?” Why don’t we leave the fireline path—in other words, good LCES Some important tactical aspects above the fire on a slope? Why (lookouts, communications, escape that build upon Mutch’s observa- don’t we approach it from the bot- routes, and safety zones). tions should be noted. tom on our own terms? What factors lead to a safer tactical opera- The initial approach should reduce Tactical Above-Fire tion on a slope? risk to acceptable levels for all per- Aspects sonnel. If it is impossible to safely We need to recognize several basic The Initial Approach. First, we approach a wildland fire from tactical factors for making sound need to safely reach our anchor below, wait to engage the fire until decisions regarding above-fire fire- point. Whenever burning condi- after it has burned to a location for fighting on steep slopes, where the tions are extreme, approach the fire successful anchoring. area becomes a death trap as the from below and avoid above-fire heat rises. Many firefighting fatali- tactics. It might be necessary to Manage the fire from the bottom ties, such as on the 1994 South walk a considerable distance to the up: Fire the line as you advance Canyon Fire, share two important fire from downcanyon or down- with as direct an attack as possible elements:

• The initial approach was from above the fire, and • Firefighters were traveling uphill to escape blowup conditions from below.

Although strong downslope winds can push a wildland fire downhill with amazing speed, burnovers on fires driven by downslope winds are rare. The convective heat column above a fire tends to be most efficient at driving the fire uphill,

Mike Benefield is the fire management officer for the USDI Bureau of Land Midafternoon on the Old Fire on the San Bernardino National Forest, CA. Risk to fire- Management, Central Oregon Fire fighters engaged in above-fire operations increases as the burning period progresses. Management Service, Rivers Division, Photo: Mike Benefield, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Central Oregon Fire Prineville, OR. Management Service, Rivers Division, Prineville, OR, 2003.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 37 while defending your anchor point. Rolling material will become the greatest threat to your anchor point. Expect it and plan your tactical response before you initiate your anchor point.

Advance no farther than the amount of fireline that you can successfully defend. While this might seem a little less than “can do,” it represents a time-tested and safe way to control wildland fires.

Timing. An important question to ask whenever approaching a fire in mountainous terrain is, “Will the timing of above-fire tactics place Lookout posted in brush 12 feet (4 m) high on the Old Fire, San Bernardino National firefighters above the fire between Forest, CA. Experienced lookouts with reliable communications gear are critical for any the hours of 10 a.m. and 10 p.m.— above-fire tactical operation. Photo: Mike Benefield, USDI Bureau of Land Management, the driest, hottest part of the day— Central Oregon Fire Management Service, Rivers Division, Prineville, OR, 2003. at the peak of the local fire season?” The window of increased risk is Guidelines in The Fireline between the beginning of the fire Whenever burning Handbook (NWCG 1998) provide season and a season-ending event. conditions are extreme, the foundation for assessing and The timing of this window might approach the fire from mitigating the risks involved in constructing downhill fireline. vary with drought conditions. below and avoid above- Location. A planned fireline should fire tactics. However, it is important to mitigate have a well-established anchor the hazards of above-fire tactics by point and not place firefighters in a practicing avoidance when condi- fuel below. Fuel that appears burned confined space (such as narrow tions are extreme and by adjusting might merely be primed for repeat canyons or chimneys) above the the amount of time that firefighters ignition. Some fuels produce rolling fire. Avoid midslope tactics in are exposed to the increased risk. material. Preparation is crucial. chutes and narrow canyons with Even with good LCES in place, fire- the fire below. fighters should never challenge a Weather. Avoid above-fire tactics wildland fire to a foot race on a whenever cold fronts are forecasted. Additionally, a planned fireline slope. The fire almost always wins. Slope and wind-driven fire make for should not place firefighters within an explosive mix. Cold fronts and thermal belts with the fire below. In References nighttime diurnal winds also pose such situations, avoid midslope tac- Mutch, R.W. 2002. Why don’t we just leave problems for firefighters below the tics. Instead, locate the thermal the fireline? Fire Management Today. fire. 62(4): 22–24. belt and observe the fire’s behavior NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating between 10 p.m. and midnight. The Group). 1998. The fireline handbook. thermal belt is usually the most Let’s Not Race NWCG Handbook 3. PMS 410–1. NFES Should we abandon the practice of 0065. Boise, ID: National Interagency active area higher on the slope. Fire Center. ■ downhill line construction? No. We Fuels. Avoid above-fire tactics with can, however, reduce risk to accept- continuous and partially burned able levels with proper preparation.

Fire Management Today 38 IMPROVING A WILDLAND FIRE SITUATION ANALYSIS THROUGH GIS

Matthew Galyardt, LLoyd Queen, and Laura Ward

he wildland fire situation analysis (WFSA) is a great way to What Is a Wildland Fire T assess wildland fires that escape Situation Analysis? initial attack (see the sidebar). It documents the situation, sets forth When a fire escapes initial attack, The WFSA process documents objectives, and facilitates communi- local fire managers must com- actions and decisions, helping cation on the ground. Yet it has a plete a wildland fire situation other fire managers and the gen- basic drawback: The WFSA relies analysis (WFSA). The WFSA is a eral public see the logic behind entirely on text to describe a decisionmaking and communica- suppression strategies and tactics. changing situation on the ground. tion tool that allows fire man- Level of detail and depth of analy- Without a spatial or mapping com- agers to make effective and time- sis depend on the complexity of ponent, it’s hard to visualize what ly decisions while at the same the wildland fire situation. A the fire is actually doing time directing and clarifying dis- large fire staffed by a type 1 or (MacGregor n.d.). cussion. A WFSA: type 2 incident management team generally requires a full- Now there’s a way of visualizing the • Details the current wildland length WFSA, whereas an inci- changing situation on the ground fire situation, dent that will be contained and by integrating a geographic infor- • Outlines objectives of, and con- controlled in 3 to 7 days usually mation system (GIS) into the straints to, suppression efforts, requires a short WFSA with at WFSA. A GIS can graphically show • Describes and compares alter- most two suppression alterna- how fire location, direction of native suppression strategies, tives. spread, and topography relate to and sensitive resources and the wild- • Chooses a strategy. land/urban interface (WUI). Fire managers can then better anticipate concerns, make decisions, and maps, review and validate WFSA communicate with incident man- A GIS can graphically objectives, and pass better direction agement teams (IMTs). show how fire location, and information to incoming direction of spread, and resources and IMTs. The Project topography relate to In spring 2002, the Ninemile Through ArcGIS,* we developed an Ranger District on the Lolo sensitive resources and application for using maps and spa- National Forest in Huson, MT, and the WUI. tial analysis to more accurately The National Center for Landscape depict the process described by a Fire Analysis at the University of WFSA. We picked ArcGIS due to its Montana in Missoula, MT, began to support a WFSA. The Ninemile functionality and built-in Incident discussing the idea of using a GIS Ranger District can count on an Command System symbology. We extended-attack fire every fire sea- also anticipated that the wildland Matthew Galyardt is a research assistant at son. It consistently receives fire community will eventually The National Center for Landscape Fire resources from other units and has Analysis, University of Montana, Missoula, to manage large fires and numer- MT; LLoyd Queen is the Director of the ous resources for extended time- * The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this Center and a professor of remote sensing at publication is for the information and convenience of the University of Montana; and Laura Ward frames. The district wondered the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. is a fire management officer for the USDA whether GIS technology could be Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are Forest Service, Lolo National Forest, used to update incident-related responsible for the technical accuracy of the material Ninemile Ranger District, Huson, MT. presented in Fire Management Today.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 39 switch to ArcGIS. ArcGIS is a scala- The GIS application easily incorporates data ble framework of products that collected through global positioning systems into form a complete GIS, from data storage, to editing, to display, to the WFSA. mapping. Within the ArcGIS framework, our application uses ArcInfo fighting resources, their loca- We stitched together 1:100,000 and 8.x for continued development and tions, and fire perimeters. 1:24,000 digital raster graphics administrative tasks and ArcView from the USDI U.S. Geological 8.x for everyday user tasks. Although the data took time to Survey to create a seamless base organize and compile, they were map for the Ninemile Ranger Transitioning to the newer versions readily available. Most data came District. For a seamless overhead of ArcInfo and ArcView will take from the Lolo National Forest photo of the entire district, we plan time. Many ranger districts and supervisor’s office and the rest from to supplement the base map by wildland fire personnel are con- the Federal Aviation Administration, adding digital orthophoto quarter cerned about the cost and time the Frenchtown Rural Fire quadrangles when they become associated with learning the new Department, and the Natural available. software. The Ninemile Ranger Resource Information System of the District viewed this project as an Montana State Library (on the Figure 1 shows where the GIS is excellent opportunity to begin the World Wide Web at ). There is no physical link—each software did not prove overly difficult for district personnel. Especially with a working knowl- edge of ArcView 3.x, the user can quickly master the basics. Data Collection Based on the types of maps the district wanted to produce for the WFSA, we collected the following types of data:

• Low-level flight hazards, such as powerlines and communication towers; • Sensitive resources, such as endangered species habitat or recreational and archeological sites; • Wildland/urban interface data, such as roads, homes, and the defensibility of private property; • Environmental features, such as cover type, hydrology, and digital elevation models; • Administrative boundaries, such as national forest boundaries, private inholdings, and fire protection jurisdictions; and • Data that can be created on-the- Figure 1—The geographic information system (GIS) is integrated into the fire situation fly, such as different types of fire- stage of a wildland fire situation analysis.

Fire Management Today 40 desktop application remains sepa- The GIS application also taps useful Line officers can use rate. The link is through process nonspatial data. For example, it the GIS application for and information. While fire person- gives information associated with nel complete the fire situation private homes (fig. 2), such as con- spatial analysis to component of the WFSA, they uti- tact names, phone numbers, street support decisionmaking. lize the GIS for map production addresses, digital photos, and and spatial analysis. In addition, defensibility information. Such some of the information required information can be vital for con- district’s jurisdictional boundaries, to complete a WFSA is now stored tacting residents in the event of an including non-Federal inholdings. and organized within the GIS. emergency, such as an approaching By clipping data to these bound- wildland fire. aries, we created a data catalog spe- General Advantages cific to the district, eliminating the Mapping Flexibility large data files that commonly Map production is a key advantage cover an entire national forest. of integrating GIS into a WFSA. For the Ninemile Ranger District, Maps are vital for achieving situa- we created a map template to give Two of the five maps—the vicinity tional awareness, especially on all WFSA maps a common appear- and flight hazard maps—are static. complex incidents, and certain ance. The district asked us to pre- They do not require regular updat- types of maps have become stan- define and design five maps: ing or tailoring. The most common dard on all large fires (Albright and addition to these maps is fire others 2002). By linking a GIS to a • A vicinity map (fig. 3), perimeter data. WFSA document, such maps can be • A low-level flight hazard map, predefined and produced before a • A map of sensitive natural The other three maps are dynamic. wildland fire occurs. Fire perimeter resources (fig. 4), They can be tailored to different data and desired symbology can • A WUI map (fig. 2), and purposes. For example, they might quickly be added, and the maps are • An incident action map (figure 5). support a generalized briefing, a ready for distribution to firefighters detailed incident action plan, or upon arrival. With the exception of the vicinity postfire rehabilitation; or they map, the maps are limited to the The GIS mapping feature is particularly helpful for short WFSAs, where only one or two alternatives are required. During extended attack, there is no need for data acquisition and map design. Incoming resources get accurate maps, and harried local fire managers can quickly bring a developing incident into focus.

The GIS application easily incorporates data collected through global positioning systems into the WFSA. Fire perimeter updates can be added to maps as soon as data are collected by air and ground resources. Situational awareness improves, and managers can better plan their strategies and tactics. Moreover, the spatial analysis capabilities of the GIS greatly aid managers in modifying WFSA objectives Figure 2—Firewise data collected by the Frenchtown Rural Fire Department are spatially as the fire perimeter changes. represented within the GIS application.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 41 The user can generate virtually any kind of map needed by simply turning on and off data layers. might show fire progression, endangered wildlife habitat, or threatened residences and their defensibility. The district can generate virtually any kind of map needed by simply turning on and off data layers.

The Ninemile Ranger District also wanted to increase its data-sharing capabilities. We prepared the data and map templates so that they can Figure 3—Vicinity map for the Ninemile Ranger District (dark green) on the Lolo National Forest in Montana. be burned to just two CD’s totaling about 800 megabytes. Fire management personnel from the district can simply pass the CDs along with the rest of a WFSA to incoming IMTs. Having the data readily at hand saves time for the IMT, letting it quickly get maps into the hands of firefighters. Spatial Analysis The GIS application also helps with spatial analysis. For example, it can show which houses are closest to the fire and where the access routes are located (fig. 6). In a matter of minutes, fire managers can find nearby water sources, see any water quality or other restrictions on their use, and decide how best to reach them. Line officers can use the GIS application for spatial analysis to support the decision- Figure 4—Managers can view how sensitive resources such as bull trout watersheds, 303d water quality streams, proposed wilderness areas, and hiking trails spatially relate to making process associated with future wildland fires. the WFSA.

Fire Management Today 42 Figure 5—Map However, the usefulness of the GIS of a hypothetical application goes beyond situations fire perimeter on the Ninemile associated with a WFSA. The Ranger District Ninemile Ranger District uses the of the sort that application for any situation during the district or an incident man- fire season and even for offseason agement team planning work. The GIS application might use for an can help managers improve plan- incident action plan. ning and situational awareness during a mid-August lightning bust and an overwinter prescribed burn alike.

For more information, contact Matthew Galyardt, National Center for Landscape Fire Analysis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59801, 406-243-2000 (tel.), 406- 243-2011 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail). References Albright, D.; Del Sordo, D.; Kehrlein, D.; Frost, J. 2002. Geospatial technology for incident support. Unpublished paper. Website . National Wildfire Coordinating Group. MacGregor, D.G. N.d. Accounting for wildland fire costs in wildland fire situation analysis (WFSA): Prospects and problems. Unpublished paper. Website . National Academy of Public Administration, Washington, DC. ■

Figure 6—Quarter-mile (400-m) buffer rings surrounding a hypothetical ignition in the wildland/urban interface. The GIS application’s spatial analysis capabilities can help fire managers and law enforcement officers anticipate evacuation plans and egress routes.

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 43 THE POCKET PC CAN INCREASE YOUR PRODUCTIVITY

Ed Martin

relatively new technology exists that can help local, The Pocket PC comes with the same standard A State, and Federal wildland fire built-in applications that we use on our desktop and aviation management pro- computers and interfaces nicely with them. grams reduce paperwork and improve productivity. It’s called the Pocket PC. Several makes and mod- some and error prone, as was our Other applications are also available els are commercially available. existing computer application. We (see the sidebar). wasted a great deal of time correct- Growing Workload ing errors. By updating or replacing We chose a model with built-in The Air Operations Section in the our forms and procedures as well as wireless capabilities, allowing us to Montana Department of Natural our antiquated computer system, print to a printer without cables, to Resources and Conservation oper- we could improve productivity. access a network, and to utilize spe- ates a fleet of five helicopters and cialty applications. The system has three single-engine aircraft Low-Cost Solution fewer printing features than does a obtained mainly through the We looked for a low-cost solution desktop application, but it still Federal Excess Personal Property that we could develop and imple- works quite well. program. We have a small staff, a ment inhouse. We chose a Personal growing workload, and little hope Data Assistant, or Pocket PC, for its Key to making the system work is of hiring additional personnel. portability and versatility. The data synchronization between the Pocket PC comes with the same Pocket PC and the desktop comput- To find ways to reduce our work- standard built-in applications that er. When you connect your Pocket load, we reviewed our entire avia- we use on our desktop computers, PC to your desktop computer, a tion management program, from and the interface works nicely. program automatically checks for the simplest tasks all the way up to our management style. We found that aircraft maintenance involved an enormous volume of repetitive The Pocket PC Has Many paperwork. Whether moving Applications around the hangar or traveling In addition to interfacing with phone—slow in our area, but across the State, we are rarely at the standard programs on a desk- still useful. our computers, so we usually make top computer, the Pocket PC sup- • Order parts or check bulletins paper notations and later type them ports hundreds of more special- from the Federal Aviation into a computer. ized programs, ranging from Administration. flight-planning calculators to • Create a purchase order and One of our most time-consuming wildland fire behavior calcula- possibly fax it by cell phone tasks is managing our inventory of tions and hydraulics. For exam- (we’re still working on that). aircraft parts. The duplicated effort ple, the Pocket PC lets us: • Connect to a global positioning of typing data into the computer system unit and use it as a from paper notations was cumber- • Create aircraft weight and bal- moving map. ance forms for our helicopters. • Use coordinates from an air Ed Martin is the aircraft maintenance • Access the Internet by cell crew to navigate directly to an supervisor for the Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation, Fire aircraft in the field. and Aviation Management, Aviation Section, Helena, MT.

Fire Management Today 44 changes made to either system and keeping tasks directly on the download PDF versions of manuals, then updates both. Multiple Pocket Pocket PC. As we scan the part, the such as the Army Maintenance Test PCs can thereby be synchronized to barcode system will automatically Flight Manual. Although the charts the same database. log parts onto the work order, are unreadable, the instructions are fully legible. The PDF manufacturer We selected a database program predicts that the manuals will soon that lets us implement a barcode The Pocket PC has be printable from the Pocket PC. tracking system for our parts already reduced our When that happens, we will no inventory, from requisition to con- workload and improved longer need to carry large sets of sumption. Upon receipt of a part, manuals with us. we can print the barcode tag direct- productivity, but we ly from the Pocket PC to a printer; believe that we have The Pocket PC has already reduced no desktop or network connection only scratched the our workload and improved pro- is required. In short, the whole surface of what is ductivity, but we believe that we process of requisitioning, ordering, have only scratched the surface of tracking, and using the parts is possible. what is possible with this kind of handled right on the Pocket PC. technology. For more information, The system works so well that we please contact the author at adjust the inventory, prompt to use the desktop computer only for Montana Department of Natural reorder, and update the timelife- data synchronization and backup. Resources and Conservation, Fire tracking application. Right there in and Aviation Management, Aviation our hand we will have everything Section, 2800 Airport Road, Helena, Future Improvements we need to initiate, complete, and MT 59620-1601, 406-444-0789 Our next project is to implement a print a work order in the field. work order system integrated with (tel.), 406-444-0790 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail). ■ the new parts system. The system We also expect other improve- will allow us to perform all record- ments. Already, the Pocket PC can

WEBSITES ON FIRE* Fire Risk Research and promoting the effective use of transfer. Online shopping with On average every year, wildfires wildland fire as a management tool free delivery provides users with burn 17,300 acres (7,000 ha) in are the goals of New Zealand’s the opportunity to purchase pub- New Zealand. Reducing the num- Forest and Rural Fire Research pro- lications, images, videos, and ber and consequences of wildfires gram. Visitors to the Website can other products. Also included are enjoy current and archived project many links to various fire * Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly news and fire-related information research publications worldwide. describes Websites brought to our attention by the wildland fire community. Readers should not con- from around the world. Links are strue the description of these sites as in any way exhaustive or as an official endorsement by the provided to the latest research pub- Found at SW, Washington, DC 20024, 202-205-0878 (tel.), 202-205-1765 (fax), [email protected] (e-mail). sock fire ecology, and technology

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 45 A NEW TOOL FOR MOPUP AND OTHER FIRE MANAGEMENT TASKS

Bill Gray

ver dream of a mopup tool that to tailor flow rate, nozzle pressure, could blast both above- and Ever dream of a single and throw distance to a given situa- E below-ground fires, without the mopup tool that could tion. Table 1 shows flow rates at need for high pressure? Well, dream blast both above- and four different nozzle pressures. no more. The mopup nozzle* (fig. Table 2 shows that horizontal 1) can spray either water or wet air- below-ground fires? throw distances are good, consider- aspirated class A fire foam on Well, dream no more. ing the relatively low pressures above-ground fires and inject either used. Vertical throw distances, substance into the ground to extin- by eyeball estimate, are about guish fires burning up to 3 feet (1 be removed with a shovel. The two-thirds of horizontal throw m) deep—all without requiring the same washing action can inject distances. use of high pressure. class A foam solution and flood underground areas of burning and The key advantage of using low- Injection Device smoldering leaves and other duff. pressure nozzles for mopup is their This is the first firefighting tool ability to connect to the end of very that injects water into underground Mopup Flexibility long hoselines that are, in turn, areas of burning material. The old The mopup nozzle comes in seven connected to low-pressure pumps method of extinguishing ground different sizes, allowing firefighters that draft water from small water fires requires two firefighters: a tanks containing from 50 to 200 hose operator to spray the ground gallons (189–757 L). Long hose- and a second firefighter to remove lines have advantages for mopup the top 2 to 3 inches (5–8 cm) of work. They can be followed from smoldering material with a shovel. truck to mopup crew, allowing the The two-step process is repeated crew to follow the hoseline back to until a depth of about 2 feet (60 the truck. This is particularly help- cm) is reached. ful at night or when smoke has reduced ground-level visibility. With a mopup nozzle, one firefight- Long hoses also offer weight and er can do the job alone. Connected cost advantages. The 5/8-inch (16- to a hose, the mopup nozzle can mm) and 3/4-inch (19-mm) fire- inject water deep into hard clay soil hoses are particularly lightweight around tree roots (fig. 1), flooding and inexpensive. and extinguishing any burning material. If the tree roots must be Long hoselines do allow pressure exposed, the nozzle’s underground loss, which varies with each manu- washing action liquifies the clay, facturer. The pressure losses shown turning it into mud that can easily in table 3 are average values that can be used with reasonable accuracy to estimate pressure losses in Bill Gray is a retired civil engineer and the Figure 1—The new mopup nozzle. The noz- owner of Bill Gray, San Antonio, TX. zle connected to the hose has washed its long hoselines. The values in table way 15 inches (38 cm) deep into the hard 1 and 3 suggest the usefulness of * The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this clay soil around the tree roots. The clay the mopup nozzle for operations publication is for the information and convenience of has turned to mud, which can easily be the reader. Such use does not constitute an official removed with a shovel. The nozzle can also with long hoselines. endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are inject class A foam solution into under- responsible for the technical accuracy of the material ground areas. Photographer: Bill Gray, San presented in Fire Management Today. Antonio, TX, 2004.

Fire Management Today 46 For example, suppose you have a Table 1—Flow rates (gallons per minute) for seven nozzles at pickup truck with a 100-gallon four nozzle pressures. (379-L) water tank, a pumping Nozzle pressure (pounds per square inch) capacity of 100 pounds per square inch (psi) (7 kg/cm2), 1,000 feet Nozzle size 40 100 200 300 (305 m) of 3/4-inch (19-mm) hose, 6 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 and another 1,000 feet (305 m) of 7 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.2 5/8-inch (16-mm) hose. Also sup- 8 1.0 1.6 2.2 2.7 pose that you want to limit the flow 9 1.5 2.4 3.4 4.1 rate to 2 gallons (7.6 L) per minute. At that rate, the friction loss in the 10 2.0 3.2 4.5 5.5 3/4-inch (19-mm) hose is 7 psi (0.5 11 2.5 4.0 5.6 6.9 kg/cm2) and the loss in the 5/8-inch 12 3.0 4.7 6.7 8.2 (16-mm) hose is 14 psi (1 kg/cm2), for a combined friction loss of 21 Table 2—Horizontal throw distances (feet) for seven nozzles 2 psi (1.5 kg/cm ). With a 100-psi (7- at four nozzle pressures.* kg/cm2) pump, you still have a nozzle pressure of 79 psi (5.6 kg/cm2). Nozzle pressure (pounds per square inch) The size 9 nozzle would probably Nozzle size 40 100 200 300 meet your requirements. 627343941 730384345 More Than Mopup 831404648 In addition to mopup work, the 933424851 nozzles are useful for controlling pasture burning and other small 10 34 44 50 53 prescribed fires. Foresters, ranch- 11 36 46 53 56 ers, farmers, and park rangers who 12 38 49 56 59 drive pickup trucks with a small * Horizontal throw distances are obtained when the solid-stream nozzle is pointed upward water tank capacity will find the at an angle of 30 degrees above horizontal. nozzles particularly useful. When foam concentrate is added to the Table 3—Pressure loss (pounds per square inch) per hundred tank water, the air-aspirated foam feet of hose at varying flow rates for three hose sizes. produced is 10 times more effective Hose diameter than water alone. Flow rate (gal/min) 5/8 in 3/4 in 1 in All mopup nozzles include a brass 1 0.4 0.2 0.1 nozzle tip that produces a solid 2 1.4 0.7 0.1 stream of wet air-aspirated fire 3 3.2 1.5 0.3 foam, a 3-foot (0.9-m) nozzle rod, a 4 5.8 2.5 0.6 nozzle handle, a 90-degree ball valve, a high-pressure stainless 5 9.0 3.8 0.9 steel swivel, and an upstream con- 6 13.0 5.3 1.3 nection with a 3/4-inch (19-mm) 7 17.6 7.1 1.7 female firehose thread. The materi- 8 23.0 9.2 2.2 als are brass, stainless steel, galvanized steel, and galvanized mal- cm). The nozzles weigh only 3.2 contact Bill Gray, Oakdell Way leable iron. pounds (1.5 kg), making them easy Apartments, 6020 Danny Kaye to use for long periods of time. The #2302, San Antonio, TX 78240, These nonplastic materials provide nozzles are designed for a maxi- 210-614-4020 (tel.), years of useful service and make mum working pressure of 300 psi 210-610-4080 (fax), the nozzles indestructible. The (21 kg/cm2). For more information, [email protected] (e-mail). ■ overall length is 46 inches (117

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 47 DEVELOPING THE FIRE SERVICE WORKFORCE THROUGH MENTORING

Joette Borzik

he fire management workforce appears to be shrinking. Many A mentor can foster insight, identify experience T experienced employees will needed, and expand career horizons. soon retire, and the pool of quali- fied replacements is small. Job- related demands on employees, creates some formal accountability. An orientation-and-training session family responsibilities, and low Additionally, an individual develop- is mandatory for all program par- overtime pay have decreased the ment plan is prepared to document ticipants. The 3-day session is often willingness of many employees to the steps needed to accomplish the first meeting for a mentor and take part in incident response identified goals and to track accom- mentee. Team-building exercises (Hyde 1999). Additionally, the plishments. The mentoring part- and icebreakers help foster an envi- length of time required to recruit ners set the scope and content of ronment of learning and comfort. and train an employee for an upper their relationship. management position in incident Evaluating Results response—17 to 22 years (GAO The program identifies potential The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1999)—makes it difficult to ensure mentors and mentees through an set up a process for evaluating the that the next generation of fire application process. The program’s Fire Management Mentoring leaders will be ready when needed. steering committee, six representa- Program. The evaluation is based tives from different levels in the fire on an online form that program In 1999, the USDI Fish and Wildlife workforce and a mentoring expert, participants fill out biannually, a Service developed a Fire Manage- compares applications to selection cost-effective method of data collec- ment Mentoring Program to help criteria and makes prospective tion. Steering committee members train and develop potential fire matches. also make informal telephone calls incident responders and future fire to participants to assess program leaders. The program taps knowl- After a draft list of selections is effectiveness, but this method can edge and experience within the made, regional fire managers com- be tedious, costly, and not as effec- agency in a personal, interactive ment on the prospective pairing. A tive. manner. final list is approved, and individuals are notified of the selections. Many factors must be considered Fire Management when drawing conclusions about Mentoring Program Selected participants are asked to the success or failure of a mentor- Enrollment in the Fire Management take a personality-type indicator ing program. The success of any Mentoring Program is a 2-year vol- test. The personality-type testing is mentoring program is a combina- untary commitment. The relation- a communication tool—there is no tion of desired outcomes. The val- ship can end whenever one of the right or wrong type, and there are ues measured, the assessment partners believes it is no longer no better or worse combinations of instruments, and the approach all productive. types in work or relationships influence the findings (Murray and (Myers 1998). The results of the Owen 1991). The program uses a partnership test are shared with the partici- agreement that, while not binding, pants at the orientation and train- The first online program evaluation ing session and are available for for the Fire Management participants to share with their Joette Borzik is a national fire training and Mentoring Program was in 2001, qualifications specialist for the USDI U.S. assigned mentor or mentee. with a followup in 2002. Results Fish and Wildlife Service, National Conservation Training Center, Shepherdstown, WV.

Fire Management Today 48 indicate that nearly 90 percent of Strategic planning is based on the References the individuals who responded had recognition that we must make the GAO (Government Accounting Office). an excellent or good mentoring commitment and invest in our 1999. Federal wildfire activities: Current relationship. employees if a wildland fire organi- strategy and issues needing attention. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee zation is to succeed. on Forests and Forest Health, Committee New Workforce on Resources, House of Representatives. GAO/RCED–99–233. Generation Hyde, A.C. 1999. Where have all the fire- The value of the Fire Management The desire for fighters gone? A proposal to project the Mentoring Program is the extent to mentoring comes from impacts of current workforce demograph- ics, training cycles, and worker availabili- which it contributes to the overall all levels of the fire ty for wildland firefighting across Federal success of the U.S. Fish and management workforce, agencies and the wildland fire communi- Wildlife Service’s wildland fire ty. Preliminary proposal to the National and employees at all Wildfire Coordinating Group via USDA organization. The mentoring pro- Forest Service, Fire and Aviation gram is helping to address some of levels can participate. Management, and USDI National Park the issues that the agency faces as Service. Washington, DC: The Brookings new generations move into the fire Institution. For additional information about Murray, M.; Owen, M. A. 1991. Beyond the management workforce and more myths and magic of mentoring: How to experienced employees retire. the value and challenges of a men- facilitate an effective mentoring program. Although the mentoring program is toring relationship, contact Joette San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Borzik, National Conservation Myers, I.B. 1998. Introduction to type: A not a career placement program, it guide to understanding your results on is likely to enhance an employee’s Training Center, 698 Conservation the Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo professional development. Way, Shepherdstown, WV 25443, Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 304-876-7749 (tel.), 304-876-7751 Inc. ■ The desire for mentoring comes (fax), [email protected] from all levels of the fire workforce. (e-mail).

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 49 GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS Editorial Policy Paper Copy. Type or word-process the manu- essential to the understanding of articles. Clearly Fire Management Today (FMT) is an internation- script on white paper (double-spaced) on one label all photos and illustrations (figure 1, 2, 3, al quarterly magazine for the wildland fire com- side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), affili- etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end of the munity. FMT welcomes unsolicited manuscripts ation(s), and address(es) of the author(s), as well manuscript, include clear, thorough figure and from readers on any subject related to fire man- as telephone and fax numbers and e-mail infor- photo captions labeled in the same way as the agement. Because space is a consideration, long mation. If the same or a similar manuscript is corresponding material (figure 1, 2, 3; photo- manuscripts might be abridged by the editor, being submitted elsewhere, include that informa- graph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should make pho- subject to approval by the author; FMT does tion also. Authors who are affiliated should sub- tos and illustrations understandable without print short pieces of interest to readers. mit a camera-ready logo for their agency, institu- reading the text. For photos, indicate the name tion, or organization. and affiliation of the photographer and the year Submission Guidelines the photo was taken. Submit manuscripts to either the general man- Style. Authors are responsible for using wildland ager or the managing editor at: fire terminology that conforms to the latest stan- Electronic Files. See special mailing instruc- dards set by the National Wildfire Coordinating tions above. Please label all disks carefully with USDA Forest Service Group under the National Interagency Incident name(s) of file(s) and system(s) used. If the man- Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff Management System. FMT uses the spelling, cap- uscript is word-processed, please submit a 3-1/2 Mail Stop 1107 italization, hyphenation, and other styles recom- inch, IBM-compatible disk together with the 1400 Independence Avenue, SW mended in the United States Government paper copy (see above) as an electronic file in one Washington, DC 20250-1107 Printing Office Style Manual, as required by the of these formats: WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS; tel. 202-205-0891, fax 202-205-1272 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Authors should WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95; e-mail: [email protected] use the U.S. system of weight and measure, with Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95; equivalent values in the metric system. Try to Rich Text format; or ASCII. Digital photos may USDA Forest Service keep titles concise and descriptive; subheadings be submitted but must be at least 300 dpi and Attn: Hutch Brown, Office of Communication and bulleted material are useful and help read- accompanied by a high-resolution (preferably Mail Stop 1111 ability. As a general rule of clear writing, use the laser) printout for editorial review and quality 1400 Independence Avenue, SW active voice (e.g., write, “Fire managers know…” control during the printing process. Do not Washington, DC 20250-1111 and not, “It is known…”). Provide spellouts for embed illustrations (such as maps, charts, and tel. 202-205-0878, fax 202-205-0885 all abbreviations. Consult recent issues (on the graphs) in the electronic file for the manuscript. e-mail: [email protected] World Wide Web at Instead, submit each illustration at 1,200 dpi in a ) for placement of the author’s such as EPS, TIFF, or JPEG, accompanied by a files to the above addresses, because mail will be name, title, agency affiliation, and location, as high-resolution (preferably laser) printout. For irradiated and the disks could be rendered inop- well as for style of paragraph headings and refer- charts and graphs, include the data needed to erable. Send electronic files by e-mail or by ences. reconstruct them. courier service to: Tables. Tables should be logical and understand- Release Authorization. Non-Federal USDA Forest Service able without reading the text. Include tables at Government authors must sign a release to allow Attn: Hutch Brown, 2CEN Yates the end of the manuscript. their work to be in the public domain and on the 201 14th Street, SW World Wide Web. In addition, all photos and Washington, DC 20024 Photos and Illustrations. Figures, illustrations, illustrations require a written release by the pho- overhead transparencies (originals are prefer- tographer or illustrator. The author, photo, and If you have questions about a submission, please able), and clear photographs (color slides or illustration release forms are available from contact the managing editor, Hutch Brown. glossy color prints are preferable) are often General Manager April Baily.

Contributors Wanted We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today include: Aviation Firefighting experiences Communication Incident management Cooperation Information management (including systems) Ecosystem management Personnel Equipment/Technology Planning (including budgeting) Fire behavior Preparedness Fire ecology Prevention/Education Fire effects Safety Fire history Suppression Fire science Training Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather Fuels management Wildland–urban interface To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.

Fire Management Today 50 PHOTO CONTEST ANNOUNCEMENT

Fire Management Today (FMT) time. No photos judged in previous • A panel of experienced judges invites you to submit your best fire- FMT contests may be entered. determines the winners. Its deci- related photos to be judged in our • You must have the right to grant sion is final. annual competition. Judging begins the Forest Service unlimited use of • We will eliminate photos from after the first Friday in March of each the image, and you must agree that competition if they are obtained by year. the image will become public illegal or unauthorized access to domain. Moreover, the image must restricted areas; lack detailed cap- Awards not have been previously pub- tions; have date stamps; show All contestants will receive a CD with lished. unsafe firefighting practices the images remaining after technical • We prefer original slides or nega- (unless that is their express pur- review. The CD will identify the win- tives; however, we will accept pose); or are of low technical quali- ners by category. Winning photos duplicate slides or high-quality ty (for example, have soft focus or will appear in a future issue of FMT. prints (for example, those with show camera movement). In addition, winners in each category good focus, contrast level, and • You must complete and sign the will receive: depth of field). Note: We will not release statement granting the return your slides, negatives, or USDA Forest Service rights to use • 1st place—Camera equipment prints. your image(s). Mail your completed worth $300 and a 16- by 20-inch • We will also accept digital images if release with your entry or fax it framed copy of your photo. the image was shot at the highest (970-295-5815) at the same time • 2nd place—An 11- by 14-inch resolution using a camera with at you e-mail digital images. framed copy of your photo. least 2.5 megapixels or if the image • 3rd place—An 8- by 10-inch was scanned at 300 lines per inch Mail entries to: framed copy of your photo. or equivalent with a minimum out- USDA Forest Service put size of 5 x 7. Digital image files Fire Management Today Photo Categories should be TIFFs or highest quality Contest JPGs. Madelyn Dillon • Wildland fire • You must indicate only one compe- • Prescribed fire 2150 Centre Avenue tition category per image. To Building A, Suite 361 • Wildland-urban interface fire ensure fair evaluation, we reserve • Aerial resources Fort Collins, CO 80526 the right to change the competi- or • Ground resources tion category for your image. • Miscellaneous (fire effects; fire e-mail images and captions to: • You must provide a detailed cap- [email protected] and weather; fire-dependent communi- tion for each image. For example: ties or species; etc.) fax signed release form to A Sikorsky S–64 Skycrane delivers 970-295-5815 (attn: Madelyn Dillon) retardant on the 1996 Clark Peak Rules Fire, Coronado National Forest, Postmark Deadline • The contest is open to everyone. AZ. Photo: name, professional affil- You may submit an unlimited iation, town, state, year image First Friday in March number of entries taken at any captured.

Sample Photo Release Statement Enclosed is/are (number) image(s) for publication by the USDA Forest Service. For each image submitted, the contest category is indicated and a detailed caption is enclosed. I have the authority to give per- mission to the Forest Service to publish the enclosed image(s) and am aware that, if used, it/they will be in the public domain and appear on the World Wide Web.

Contact information: Name Institutional affiliation, if any Home or business address

Telephone number E-mail address

Volume 64 • No. 4 • Fall 2004 51