EucalyptsEucalypts for for FloricultureFloriculture
A Growers’A Growers’ Guide Guide
Edited by Edited by Christine HorsmanChristine Horsman and and Kate DelaporteKate Delaporte
October 2002October 2002
RIRDC ProjectRIRDC No. UA-60A Project No. UA-60A RIRDC PublicationRIRDC Publication No. 02/132No. 02/132
Eucalypts for Floriculture
A Growers’ Guide Findings from an Industry Workshop on the Production of Eucalypts for Floriculture
Held at the Plant Research Centre Waite Campus of the University of Adelaide 22 – 23 June 2002
Edited by Christine Horsman and Kate Delaporte Desktop Publishing by TCTV Video Productions
October 2002
RIRDC Project No. UA-60A RIRDC Publication No. 02/132
RIRDC Project No. UA-60A RIRDC Publication No. 02/132
2002 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation All rights reserved
ISBN 0 642 58531 8 ISSN 1440-6845
Eucalypts for Floriculture – A Growers’ Guide Publication No. 02/132 RIRDC Project No. UA –60A
The view expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are the results of group discussion, and not necessarily those of the editors. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.
The advice provided is intended as a source of information only. The editors, the University of Adelaide and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind, or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes. We therefore disclaim all liability for any error, loss or other consequence, which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication.
The University of Adelaide acknowledges contributions made by private enterprise. Acceptance of these contributions however does not endorse, or imply endorsement by the University of any product or service offered by the contributors.
This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone (02) 6272 3186.
Editor Contact Details Prof. Margaret Sedgley and Dr. Kate Delaporte Christine Horsman Waite Campus University of Adelaide C/- Post Office Department of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology Kersbrook SA 5231 PMB 1 Glen Osmond SA 5064
Phone: 08 8303 6665 Phone: 08 8389 3057 Fax: 08 8303 7116 Fax: 08 8389 3057 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] [email protected]
RIRDC Contact Details
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected]. Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Electronically published by RIRDC in April 2010 Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra at www.rirdc.gov.au or phone 1300 634 313
Desktop Publishing TCTV Video Productions c/- Post Office Kersbrook SA 5231
Artwork Rye Dunsmuir First published October 2002 First printed by Abbotts Printing, Hindmarsh SA ii
Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
Foreword A RIRDC funded program, investigating the production and postharvest handling of eucalypt bud and flower products, has been under way at the Waite Campus of the University of Adelaide, since 1999. The project aimed to produce novel hybrids, to field trial them, to investigate their clonal propagation and to develop postharvest treatments.
While there is a great deal of interest in eucalypts as a cut flower crop, there is still much to be learned. The industry identified the need for an up-to-date reference manual, describing current best practice methods for the sustainable production of eucalypt cut bud and flower lines, across a range of climatic regions and soil types.
This manual details the findings of a workshop, held in June 2002, and attended by nearly forty industry stakeholders – experienced growers, potential growers, researchers, wholesalers and exporters. While it became apparent that there are few widely used best practices at present, the guide collates current knowledge about selection, cultivation, production, postharvest and marketing of eucalypts, and also identifies areas where further research is needed.
The information is presented in an easily readable, non-technical fashion, to ensure that it is available all those who are interested in growing eucalypts as a commercial crop.
This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds, which are provided by the Federal Government.
This report, a new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 600 research publications, forms part of the Wildflowers and Native Plants R&D program, which aims to improve the profitability, productivity and sustainability of the Australian wildflower and native plant industry.
Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:
. downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm
. purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop
Simon Hearn Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
iii Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
Acknowledgements The editors wish to thank RIRDC and the University of Adelaide, particularly Dr David Evans and Professor Margaret Sedgley, for their support of this workshop, and the consequent production of the growers’ guide.
Thanks also to all the industry members who generously contributed their time and knowledge for the ongoing benefit of eucalypt growers, especially Geoff Sullivan, Denis Tricks and Brian Harris. A list of those people is provided in Appendix 1. We particularly acknowledge AUSBUD for giving us permission to use information from their growers’ notes.
We thank those who provided photographs, and material to be photographed: David and Liz Lange, Greg and TerriAnn Diebens, Brian Freeman, and Geoff and Vicki Sullivan.
Thanks to Davina Gregory and Carol Walker for their assistance during the workshop, and to Rye Dunsmuir for the artwork.
And finally, thanks to Dave and Tony, for their on-going support during the running of the workshop and the production of the manual.
About the Editors Christine Horsman Christine began growing South African proteaceae commercially in 1982, and over the following years has written many informative articles on the production of proteas. She was National President of the Australian Flora and Protea Growers Association from 1997 – 2002, so has an intimate knowledge of the wider industry, and of the challenges and satisfaction that come from growing wildflowers. In that position, she was also Principal Investigator for three wildflower-related RIRDC projects.
Dr Kate Delaporte After working in the cut flower industry for several years, Kate completed a Bachelor of Agricultural Science, Horticulture major, with First Class Honours, at the University of Adelaide (UA) 1992-1995. Her thesis was entitled “Banksia Improvement – Genotype Identification and Postharvest Vase Life”.
In 1999, she was awarded a Churchill Fellowship, to conduct an “Investigation into the Commercial Development of Australian Plants in Countries with a Mediterranean Climate”. This entailed travel to Italy, France and California, in 2000. In that same year, Kate achieved a PhD degree at UA. Supported by the Playford Memorial Trust, she studied the development of ornamental eucalypts, with a thesis entitled “Eucalypts for Ornamental Horticulture: Selection, Interspecific Hybridisation and Postharvest Testing”.
iv Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
With funding from RIRDC and industry, she now works as a postdoctoral fellow at UA, under the guidance of Professor Margaret Sedgley, to further develop ornamental eucalypts (RIRDC Project UA-52A). In addition, she is actively involved in the SA branch of the Australian Flora and Protea Growers Association and the South Australian Flower Growers Association.
v Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
Table of Contents
Foreword ...... iii Acknowledgements ...... iv About the Editors ...... iv Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations ...... viii Introduction ...... x Aims and Objectives ...... x The Eucalypt Industry in Australia ...... x 1. Before You Begin ...... 1 1.1 Why do you want to grow eucalypts? ...... 1 1.2 What do you want the plantation to provide? ...... 1 1.3 Where should the plantation be? ...... 2 2. Choosing What to Grow ...... 4 2.1 Species for cut bud and flower production ...... 4 2.2 Selection of superior forms for floriculture ...... 17 2.3 The Eucalyptus genus “family tree” ...... 18 2.4 The University of Adelaide Eucalyptus breeding program ...... 20 3. Production ...... 22 3.1 Choosing the site ...... 22 3.2 Plantation layout ...... 23 3.3 Site preparation ...... 24 3.4 Irrigation ...... 25 3.5 Planting out ...... 28 3.6 Weed control ...... 30 3.7 Fertiliser application ...... 31 3.8 Pruning ...... 33 3.9 Pest and disease management ...... 34 4. Picking and postharvest handling ...... 38 4.1 Picking ...... 38 4.2 Processing ...... 39 4.3 Value-adding ...... 43 4.4 Packing and distribution ...... 44 5. Marketing ...... 46 5.1 What is popular now? ...... 46 5.2 The main markets ...... 47 5.3 Main competitors ...... 49 5.4 Issues to be addressed ...... 49 5.5 Promotion ...... 50 6. Research Opportunities ...... 52 6.1 Variety selection and improvement ...... 52 6.2 Propagation ...... 52 6.3 Nutrition ...... 52 6.4 Irrigation ...... 52 6.5 Pest and disease management ...... 53 6.6 Pruning ...... 53 6.7 Postharvest Treatments ...... 53 6.8 Packing ...... 53 6.9 Marketing ...... 54 6.10 Quality Assurance ...... 54
vi Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
7. Further Information ...... 55 7.1 Reading for information on wildflower growing and marketing ...... 55 7.2. Reading for eucalypt species selection and general information ...... 55 7.3. Reading for cultivation and care ...... 57 7.4 Useful websites ...... 58 8. Appendices ...... 59 Appendix 1 - List of attendees ...... 59 Appendix 2 – Workshop program ...... 61 Appendix 3 – The role of elements in plant growth ...... 62 Appendix 4 – Plant nutrient availability chart ...... 63 Appendix 5 – Potentially useful insecticides ...... 64 Appendix 6 – Domestic market prices for eucalypts ...... 65
vii Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics AFPGA Australian Flora and Protea Growers Association agronomic to do with the improvement of crop production amplexicaul base of the leaf clasps around the stem anther tip portion of the stamen containing the pollen grains AQIS Australian Quarantine Service capsule a dry, many seeded fruit, or “gum nut” cations positively charged atomic particle clonal propagation asexual reproduction from a single parent plant connate paired leaves, bases joined at the nodes coppice to cut a tree back to just part of the trunk endemic originating in the area espalier to train a plant along a framework FECA Flower Export Council of Australia foliar applied to the leaves genus group of related plants possessing certain common structural characteristics distinct from those in any other groups; the smallest natural group containing distinct species glaucous surfaces having waxy greyish-blue bloom gumnuts term used in ABS data to describe eucalypt capsules, buds and flowers hybrid an individual produced from genetically different parents; can be intra-specific (within one species) or inter-specific (between two species) hybridise/hybridisation natural or artificial process leading to the formation of a hybrid; involves the removal of anthers (emasculation) and the introduction of foreign pollen to the stigma inorganic not organic, neither animal nor vegetable internode distance between nodes lignotuber tuberous swelling at the base of the tree containing dormant vegetative buds mallee multi-stemmed at ground level, usually less than 10m in height, often with the crown predominantly at the ends of branches; individual plants may join to create either an open or closed formation node a point on the stem from which one or more leaves arise organic produced by animal or plant activities pathogen something capable of producing disease PBR Plant Breeders Rights phytotoxic poisonous to the plant PIRSA Primary Industries and Resources South Australia pistil collective term for the female reproductive organ of the flowering plant; ovary, style and stigma pulsing a short term treatment of postharvest solution RIRDC Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
viii Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide species the basic unit of classification; a population or system of populations that normally interbreed; one breeding group normally permanently separated from other such groups by marked discontinuities; reproductively isolated ssp. sub-species stamen the male reproductive organ of the flowering plant, made up of the anther and filament; produces the floral display of the eucalypt flower stigma the part of the pistil, which receives pollen at pollination and on which the pollen grain germinates sub-genus grouping of very similar species; rank below genus syn. synonym – different name for same plant systemic affecting the plant as a whole transpiration vapour coming from leaves or other parts of plants turgid swollen, distended var. variety variety variants sometimes representing only a colour or habit character; rank below species; also cultivar: any variety or strain produced by horticultural or agricultural techniques and not normally found in natural populations (cultivated variety) vegetative propagation asexual propagation without using seeds; cuttings, grafting
ix Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
Introduction Aims and Objectives The main objective of the workshop, which was held in Adelaide in June 2002, was to provide the Australian cut flower industry with a guide for the commercial production of eucalypts for cut foliage, buds, flowers and capsules. By bringing together a group of experienced people who were currently growing eucalypts for these purposes, it was expected that we would be able to gather and collate much information that was presently only anecdotal. This certainly proved to be the case, with all participants willing to exchange information and to discuss their observations.
While it must be emphasised that there is still much to be learnt about all aspects of production, this guide details current knowledge about methods for the sustainable production of eucalypts, across a range of climatic regions and soil types. It provides information on selection, cultivation, production, postharvest and marketing of eucalypt product, based on the experience of growers, wholesalers and exporters around Australia. The guide also incorporates material available from organisations such as AUSBUD, and gives details about current related research programs.
The Eucalypt Industry in Australia The Australian wildflower industry has shown promise for a long time, with domestic sales estimated to be $96 million (farm gate value), and export sales of about $40 million for 1999 – 2000 (Worrall, R.J. (2000) Proceedings of Flowers 2000 Conference). Exports grew rapidly from $2.9 million in 1980-81 to $29.4 million in 1997-98, but growth plateaued in the late 1990s. Latest predictions, however, indicate that the rate of growth in the industry is once again increasing, with the development of new markets and new products.
The main customers are Japan, USA, Netherlands and Germany. Major flower and foliage crops exported from Australia are Waxflower (Chamelaucium) Kangaroo Paw (Anigozanthus), Thryptomene, Stirlingia, Banksia, Koala Fern (Caustis), Scholtzia, and Eucalyptus. Australia also grows and exports South African wildflowers, with Protea and Leucadendron being most significant.
Research to determine those crops most in demand for export, has consistently included eucalypts in the “Best Bets” lists (Slater, T. (1997 and 1999) Victorian Cut Flower Export Best Bet Analysis). A new study compiled in 2002 by the same researcher, has placed a number of eucalypt species among the top current “best bets”.
The exact value of the eucalypt product market is difficult to determine, as Australian Bureau of Statistics records do not differentiate between foliage and “gumnuts”, however AUSBUD member, Geoff Sullivan estimates that the farm gate value of eucalypt bud lines is in the region of $150,000 - $250,000.
Local price indicators, such as those provided in the cut flower price index in the Australian Horticulture magazine, differentiate eucalypt product into three categories: “gum foliage”, “gumnuts” and “tetragona nuts” (See Appendix 6 – Domestic market prices for eucalypts). Prices are sourced from one wholesaler per state, and while the figures are not indicative of volume or demand, they do offer insights into the local markets. The prices listed are wholesale to the retailer, and the grower can expect
x Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide returns of about two thirds of these amounts. Returns for foliage are generally lower than for buds, flowers and capsules. The supply of “gumnuts” and “tetragona nuts” is inconsistent over time and for each state, with only Victoria and Queensland recording prices for both categories over most months.
Most existing eucalypt plantations are relatively small – the average AUSBUD plantation in Queensland is about 6ha, and most growers also have other sources of income. Sometimes they grow eucalypts as part of the diversification of farm production, but often, they work at other activities totally unrelated to the land. This can have disadvantages, as it limits the time growers have available to focus on wider industry issues, such as research.
There are a number of problems that need to be addressed to ensure the profitability and sustainability of the industry, and growers will need to meet these challenges. Nonetheless, the eucalypt industry is one with good potential – particularly in export markets, where there is a demand for quality product, and for new and different lines, especially buds, flowers and capsules.
xi Eucalypts for Floriculture - A Growers’ Guide
xii SECTION 1 – Before you Begin
1. Before You Begin Many people go into growing wildflowers with unrealistic ideas about what they will achieve. As with every business, preplanning is absolutely essential, if you do not wish to lose a lot of money and waste a lot of energy. There are many aspects that should be investigated and researched before any serious financial commitments are made.
1.1 Why do you want to grow eucalypts?
a) Money b) Quality of life c) Which will take priority?
With any horticultural crop, there are risks involved – you can do all the “right” things, and still not get a good return. The weather may be unkind – drought, too much rain, hail, frost, wind, heat. There may be unpredictable external forces that affect the markets, such as the World Trade Centre disaster on September 11, 2001, trade barriers raised by other countries, or major pest and disease outbreaks. Can you handle such disasters with reasonable equanimity?
The risks are multiplied with a relatively new crop like eucalypts (especially those grown for buds and flowers), because there is still much work to be done to identify the best methods of propagation, production and postharvest. Working on the land can be physically demanding too, so you need to take a realistic look at all your resources – financial, emotional and physical.
On the positive side however, it is a fact that those who are first on the market with a new and popular product, will be those who make the best return, in the short term at least. So when the weather is right, and you bring in a top quality crop, for which you receive a good return, there are few things more satisfying.
1.2 What do you want the plantation to provide?
a) fulltime income b) retirement income c) part-time income d) How much money do you have to invest immediately, or at what rate can you put money in? e) How hard do you want to work and for how many years?
The money questions are undoubtedly the most important of all, because for a start, different people have different lifestyle expectations, and therefore what one considers sufficient for a fulltime income may only be suitable for the part-time income requirements of another. The Agrilink publication “Should I Grow Wildflowers” (See Section 7.1 - Reading for general information on wildflower growing and marketing) has sample cashflow budgets for Queensland plantations. These should only be used as a very rough guide, because general soil and climatic conditions, as well as seasonal variations from year to year, will all affect the quality
1 SECTION 1 – Before You Begin and quantity of the crop. Market supply and demand will be the final determining factor in the farm gate price achieved.
New taxation regulations also need to be considered, because they seem to have been specifically designed to discourage those who want to set up a small hobby farm for the purpose of offsetting the losses against other income. Unfortunately, because of these same rules, it is now also harder to set up a viable commercial plantation over a period of time, while working elsewhere, as many people have done in the past. You will probably need to get a Private Ruling from the Commissioner of Taxation, which will require, among other things, a complete business plan and cashflow projections. This may seem like a lot of work, but it will be an advantage. For a start, it may cause you to remove your “rose-coloured glasses”, and to see that if you are not business- like right from the beginning, you may as well gamble your money away at the casino.
The other important consideration is just how much effort you want – or are able – to personally expend, and for how long. Obviously, if you do everything yourself it is “cheaper”, and for smaller plantations this may be the only viable option. However, setting up a plantation is one thing, the maintenance and harvesting are quite another. If you have chosen species such that the whole crop needs to be harvested and processed within a very short timeframe – so short that it is physically impossible to do it all yourself – you will be faced with the choice of either hiring labour (if it is available) or leaving part of the crop behind. This has obvious financial implications. Larger properties with regular access to sufficient labour will have far more flexibility in the choice of species to be planted.
Your age when you enter the industry must also be a factor in your planning. Someone in their 30’s will have far more time to wait for slower maturing species to reach full production, than growers in their 60’s. Energy levels will also be a significant factor, depending on the personal input you are expecting to make. While many tasks (e.g. bunching and packing) are not in themselves difficult, the constant repetition can cause problems in the long term.
1.3 Where should the plantation be?
a) Do you already own land? b) Are you prepared to move if land is not suitable? c) If you are you going to buy suitable land, you need: • water and soil analyses • good drainage • access to markets and transport. • adequate rainfall and/or irrigation (does rain fall at the right time for the product you want to grow?) • wind – assess if it is friend or foe on your site • sufficient area – need room for re-planting
Industry experience has demonstrated time and time again that you should grow what grows well in your area if you are serious about making money – the proviso being that it must also be in demand! There is no point growing the most wonderful product in Australia if no-one wants to buy it.
2 SECTION 1 – Before You Begin
If you already own land, and you have decided that it is generally suitable for growing eucalypts, you would then be wise to trial some species that have been successfully grown in similar climatic conditions. It is probably also worth trialling a few plants that are in good demand, but which have not previously been grown in your area – if they do grow well, then you may find that you have a seasonal advantage over the main growing areas (either earlier or later). This helps to extend the available season, which is a particular benefit for export markets.
If you intend to buy land, then it would be sensible to decide just what species you believe will give you the best return, and then find a suitable property, bearing in mind the above-mentioned requirements. There is more detail on each of these aspects in the Production and Marketing sections of this guide.
3 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
2. Choosing What to Grow The question most frequently asked by people entering the wildflower industry is “What should I grow?” If you have at least narrowed that down a bit to “What eucalypts should I grow?”, the next section should help to make that most difficult and crucial decision just a little easier. Based on the information collected at the industry workshop, we have produced a list of the fifteen most popular species currently being sold, together with a back-up list of a further ten. Known information about growing conditions is incorporated in Table 1. We also note some species that it is felt have future market potential.
Eucalypts can be promiscuous, so it is more than possible that one day something unique will appear in your plantation. Desirable characteristics (from a market perspective) are noted, so that you can assess the potential of your hybrid. If you want to be more scientific about it, and deliberately set out to create new hybrids, we also give information to help you determine which species are likely to hybridise with each other.
2.1 Species for cut bud and flower production Eucalypt product can be divided into three main categories: filler bud, feature bud and focal flowers. Fillers have small, brightly coloured buds or flowers, which are used as a background to accentuate the focal flowers. Generally, production is high per tree, but the product has low value. Example species include E. leptophylla, E. fraseri and E. hypochlamydea.
Feature bud species have medium-sized, coloured buds and flowers that are not dramatic or overbearing, and are used as a focus of an arrangement. They produce a reasonable number of stems per tree, and can be sold in a bunch or as single stems, with a value somewhere between that of filler buds and focal flowers. The species E. pachyphylla, E. forrestiana and the fruit of E. tetragona are some examples.
Eucalypts used as feature flowers are large and dramatic, and are the central focus of the arrangement, in much the same way as a gerbera features in a bouquet. The number of stems produced per tree is low, but each stem fetches a high price, making the production of focal flowers quite lucrative. E. youngiana, E. pyriformis, and E. macrocarpa are some of those species currently grown for this purpose.
Many florists like the natural, weeping forms of some eucalypt species, and so while terminal flowers are desirable, it is not always an essential characteristic. Marketers at the workshop said that seasonality is important too – while a 12 week season is best, particularly for export markets, florists like to have different things at different times of the year. They look forward to new species coming onto the market and others finishing. Silver coloured foliage is always popular with florists, and it was suggested that more glaucous species be investigated.
The most popular eucalypt presently grown is E. tetragona. The product can be sold as foliage or capsules (nuts), and possibly as bud with more marketing. Prices remain consistent throughout the season, an indication of a good balance of supply and demand. Anecdotal evidence suggests that different areas produce at different times,
4 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow which is beneficial for extending the season on export markets, and also reduces the potential for product gluts.
The top 15 species for cut bud, flower and capsule production are:
E. tetragona E. hypochlamydea E. caesia both subspecies E. pterocarpa ‘Golden Swirl’ E. crucis E. torquata E. erythrocorys E. transcontinentalis E. forrestiana both subspecies. E. uncinata E. fraseri/E. lesouefii ‘Silver Swirl’ E. yalatensis E. georgei E. youngiana E. gillii
The next 10 species that are also rated highly amongst wholesalers are:
E. anceps E. miniata E. conveniens E. pachyphylla E. ficifolia E. phoenicea E. globulus E. preissiana E. macrandra E. pyriformis
There are many species with buds and flowers that may be suitable for floriculture. Over 100 species are listed and described in Table 1, including both well-known species and some that are less familiar. Information is included that may indicate whether they will grow in your area. This has been sourced from reference books and is based on conditions where the species grow naturally. Many species perform well in other climates, particularly where rainfall is higher.
Figures 1 and 2 show the rainfall zones across Australia and the climate zones to which reference is made in Table 1.
Figures 3 to 20 are examples of some of the top 25 species.
5 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Table 1: Eucalyptus species suitable for cultivation for cut buds (bu), flowers (fl), fruit (fr) or foliage (fo): general information. Species are divided into subgeneric groups according to classification of Brooker (2000), based on shared morphological features. M = Mallee T = Tree Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Eudesmia E. conveniens M 4m 4 200-400 10-3; creamy white; terminal glaucous buds very like E. tetragona but bu, similar to E.. tetragona different flowering season fo, fr E. erythrocorys T 8m 4 200-400 3-5; yellow; red caps Illyarrie tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl and coastal conditions E. ceracea T 3m 1 800-1200 6-11; orange; glaucous buds glaucous bu, fl similar to E. phoenicea E. ebbanoensis M T 9m 4,5 200-400 9-11; white; small coloured buds Sandplain Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl frost conditions E. eudesmioides M 6m 3,4 200-400 1-5; creamy-white; sometimes glaucous Mallalie tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl small coloured buds coastal and dry conditions E. gamophylla M 8m 1,3,4 200-600 10-3; creamy white; terminal buds and Twin Leaf Mallee bu, fl,
6 flowers, connate leaves, glaucous fr, fo E. gittinsii M 6m 1,3,4 200-400 12-3; white; small coloured buds Northern Sandplain bu Mallee E. jucunda M T 8m 1,3,4 200-400 1-3; pale yellow; small coloured buds Yuna Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu and dry conditions E. miniata T 30m 1,3 600-1600 3-7; orange; bright flowers Darwin Woollybutt fl E. phoenicea T 12m 1 800-1200 4-8; orange-red to scarlet; bright flowers Scarlet Gum fl E. roycei M 4m 3,4 200-400 1-3; pale yellow; glaucous buds Shark Bay Mallee bu E. tetragona syn M 3m 4,5 200-600 11-1; white; buds highly glaucous Tallerack tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl, pleurocarpa and coastal conditions fr, fo
Subgenus Monocalyptus E. coronata M 2m 5 400-600 7-8; yellow cream; ornate buds Crowned Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl and coastal conditions E. preissiana M 3m 4,5 200-800 7-10; yellow; green buds Bell-fruited Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl and coastal conditions
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Symphyomyrtus E. anceps/E. phenax M T 6m 4,5 200-600 2-4; cream; slightly ridged small coloured Kangaroo Island tolerant of drought, frost bu buds Mallee and coastal conditions E. angulosa M 5m 4,5 200-600 10-3; cream; ornate small coloured buds Ridge-fruited tolerant of drought, frost bu similar to E. incrassata Mallee and coastal conditions; E. annulata M T 8m 4,5 200-600 11-3; creamy white or creamy yellow; small Open-fruited tolerant of drought, frost bu coloured buds Mallee and dry conditions E. bakeri M T 6m 4,5,6 400-1200 8-10; creamy white; small coloured buds Baker’s Mallee bu E. bigalerita T 15m 1 800-1600 7-9; white; small coloured buds Northern Salmon bu Gum E. burracoppinensis M 6m 4 200-400 8-12; cream, pale yellow; green buds Burracoppin Mallee tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl and dry conditions E. caesia ssp. caesia M 10m 4 200-600 6-9; pink; medium coloured buds, some Gungurru tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl, glaucousness and clay conditions fr E. caesia ssp. magna M 10m 4 200-400 5-8; red; deep red buds with glaucous Silver Princess tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl,
7 covering and clay conditions fr E. calycogona M T 9m 4,5 200-400 8-11; creamy to pale yellow, rarely pink; Gooseberry Mallee tolerant of drought and bu small coloured buds frost conditions E. campaspe T M 4 200-400 10-11; cream, white; glaucous and Silver Gimlet tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl, 11m burgundy buds saline and dry conditions fo E. ceratocorys M 8m 4,5 200-400 7-12; creamy-white; ornate small coloured bu buds E. cinerea T 15m 4,5,6 400-1200 10-12; white; glaucous foliage fo E. clelandii T 12 m 4 200-400 9-1; cream, pale yellow; ornate buds Cleland’s Blackbutt tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl and dry conditions E. concinna M T 9m 3,4 200-400 11-4; white, cream; small orange buds Kangaroo Island tolerant of drought, frost, bu Mallee saline and dry conditions E. conglobata M T (m 4,5 200-600 11-5; white; yellow-orange buds bu E. cordata T 12m 6 600-1600 4-11; white; glaucous amplexicaul, opposite Heart-leaved Silver fo Gum E. corrugta M 6m 4,5 200-600 2-4; cream; ornate small coloured buds Rib-fruited Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu and coastal conditions
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Symphyomyrtus E. crucis 2 ssp. M T 6m 4 200-400 11-3; cream; glaucous buds and foliage Southern Cross tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl, Mallee and dry conditions fo E. erythronema M T 6m 4 200-400 9-11; red; red buds Red flowered tolerant of drought and bu, fl var. erythronema Mallee frost conditions E. erythronema M T 6m 4 200-400 10-1; red or yellow; red buds White Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl var. marginata frost conditions E. forrestiana T 5m 4 200-400 12-3; yellow; red buds Fuchsia Gum tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl ssp. forrestiana and saline conditions E. forrestiana T 5m 4 200-400 12-3; yellow; red buds Fuchsia Gum tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl ssp. dolichorhyncha saline conditions E. fraseri T 12m 4 200-400 1-3; white; ornate buds Balladonia Gum bu, fl
E. georgei T 6m 4 200-400 1-4; white; slightly glaucous reddish buds bu, fl E. gillii M T 4 200-400 5-10; creamy; glaucous/grey buds and Curly Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl, 7.5m foliage frost conditions fo 8 E. griffithsii T M 6m 4 200-400 8-12; white; ornate small coloured buds s tolerant of drought, frost, bu saline and dry conditions E. horistes M to 4,5 200-600 ; creamy white; small coloured buds bu similar to E. kochii 10m E. hypochlamydea M to 9m 4 200-400 11-1; creamy white; small coloured buds bu E. incrassata M T 4,5 200-400 10-11; cream; ornate small coloured buds Ridge-fruited tolerant of drought, frost, bu 4.5m Mallee coastal and dry conditions E. kingsmillii 2 ssp. M 6m 3,4 200-600 4-9; creamy white to yellow or red; buds Kingsmill’s Mallee bu, fl highly ornate, some glaucous E. koolponensis T 15m 1 800-1600 5-6; white; small coloured terminal buds Koolpin Box bu E. kruseana M 3m 4 200-400 4-7; yellow-green; glaucous/grey buds and Bookleaf Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl, foliage frost conditions fo E. lansdowneana 2 ssp. M to 8m 5 400-600 8-3; white, pink, purple, red; small coloured Red-flowered bu, fl buds Mallee Box E. leptopoda M 6m 3,4 200-400 12-3; white; small coloured buds bu
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Symphyomyrtus E. leptophylla M 5m 4,5 200-800 3-8; creamy; small coloured buds Narrow-leaved Red tolerant of drought, frost bu T 8m Mallee and saline conditions E. lesouefii T 18m 4 200-400 10-2; cream; ornate glaucous buds Goldfields tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl Blackbutt saline conditions E. macrandra M T 6m 5 400-600 1-3; yellow green; small colourful buds Long-flowered tolerant of drought, frost bu Marlock and saline conditions E. macrocarpa 2 ssp. M 5m 3,4 200-400 9-12; red; highly glaucous, huge flowers Mottlecah tolerant of drought and bu, fl, frost conditions fo E. merrickae M 3m 4,5 200-400 7-11; creamy white Goblet Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu and saline conditions E. nutans T M 9m 5 400-600 9-11; red; red buds Red-flowered tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl Moort and coastal conditions E. oldfieldii M T 6m 3,4 200-400 7-9; cream Oldfield’s Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl frost wind conditions E. orbifolia M T 6m 3,4 200-600 5-8; cream Round leaved tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl,
9 Mallee and shallow soil conditions fo E. oxymitra M 4m 3,4 200-600 ; white Sharp-capped bu, fl Mallee E. pachyphylla M 4m 1,3,4 200-800 4-7; pale yellow; red to green buds, Red-bud Mallee bu, fl similar to E. kingsmillii E. peeneri M T to 4 200-400 1-4; white; small coloured buds Peeneri bu 6m E. perrinana M t 6m 5,6 600-1200 1-3; white; glaucous juvenile connate leaves Spinning Gum high mountains fo E. pileata M 6m 4,5 200-600 12-4, white, cream Capped Mallee tolerant of drought, frost, bu coastal and dry conditions E. pimpiniana M 4m 4 200-600 5-10; white; Pimpin Mallee bu, fl E. playtcorys M T 5m 4,5 200-400 7-10; creamy; yellowish buds Boorabbin Mallee tolerant of drought and bu frost conditions E. pluricaulis 2 ssp. M to 6m 4,5 200-600 7-12 or 3-9; pale yellow; small coloured Purple-leaved bu buds Mallee E. polyanthemos T 25m 4,5,6 200-2400 9-12; white; glaucous foliage, terminal buds Red Box bu, fo
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Symphyomyrtus E. pruinosa T 10m 1,3 200-2400 4-6; cream yellow; terminal flowers Silver Box bu E. pterocarpa T 10 m 4 200-400 9-10; white; ornate buds bu E. pulverulenta M T 6m 5,6 400-1200 9-11; white; glaucous amplexicaul juvenile Silver-leaved mountains fo foliage Mountain Gum E. pyriformis M 5m 3,4 200-400 7-10; red, yellow, peach; large pendulous Pear-fruited Mallee tolerant of drought and bu. fl coloured buds frost conditions E. rhodantha M 3m 3,4 200-400 10-3; red, yellow; whole plant highly Rose Mallee tolerant of drought and bu, fl, glaucous, pendulous flowers frost conditions fo E. rugosa M 8m 4,5 200-600 1-2; white; ornate buds Kingscote Mallee tolerant of coastal bu conditions E. sheathiana T 8m 4 200-400 4-6; cream, pale yellow; small coloured Ribbon bark Mallee tolerant of drought, frost bu buds and dry conditions E. socialis M T 3,4,5,6 200-1600 7-10; creamy white; small coloured buds Red Mallee tolerant of drought and bu
10 12m frost conditions E. steedmanii T 12m 4 200-400 12-1; yellow; coloured buds Steedman’s Gum tolerant of drought, frost bu and coastal conditions E. straiticalyx M T 8m 3,4 200-400 various; white; ornate glaucous buds Kopi Mallee bu E. stoatei T 6m 4,5 200-600 10-3; yellow; red pendulous buds, yellow Scarlet Pear Gum tolerant of drought, frost bu, fl flowers and coastal conditions E. stricklandii T 11m 4 200-400 11-1; yellow-green; yellow/gold buds Strickland’s Gum tolerant of drought, frost, bu,fl saline conditions E. synandra M 6m 4 200-400 12-3; creamy maturing to pink; buds cream bu, fl or red E. tectifica T 15m 1 800-1600 8-12; cream; terminal small coloured buds Darwin Box bu E. tetraptera M 6m 4,5 200-600 7-12; pink; large red buds Square-fruited bu, fl Mallee E. transcontinentalis T 25m 4 200-400 8-11; cream; small coloured buds tolerant of drought, frost bu conditions E. torquata T 11m 4 200-400 8-1; pink, orange, red; ornate orange, red or Coral Gum tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl pink buds saline and dry conditions
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Symphyomyrtus E. uncinata M 4m 4 200-600 2-4; cream; small coloured buds Hook-leaved tolerant of drought, frost, bu Mallee coastal conditions E. websteriana M 6m 4 200-400 4-9; cream; small coloured buds, grey round Webster’s Mallee tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl, foliage shallow soil conditions fo E. woodwardii T 15m 4 200-400 7-11; lemon yellow; glaucous leaves and Lemon-flowered tolerant of drought, frost, bu, fl, buds Mallee saline and dry conditions fo E. yalatensis M T 6m 4,5 200-400 12-2; creamy; small coloured buds tolerant of coastal bu conditions E. youngiana M T 4,5 200-600 8-1; red, yellow, peach; large coloured buds Large-fruited tolerant of drought and bu, fl 11m and flowers Mallee frost conditions E. yumbarrana M T 9m 4,5 200-600 7-11; pale yellow; yellow buds Yumbarra Mallee bu
Subgenus Corymbia
11 E. abbreviata T 6m 1 800-1200 ; yellowish white; dark red cluster of Scraggy bu terminal buds, similar to E. setosa Bloodwood E. bleeseri T 15m 1 800-1200 3-6; creamy white; terminal buds and Smooth-stemmed well-drained bu flowers Bloodwood E. calophylla M T 4,5 200-600 12-4; white to cream, rarely pink Marrii bu 40m E. citriodora T 40m 1,3,4 600-2000 6-11; creamy white; strongly lemon Lemon-scented bu scented, stunning bark Gum E. deserticola T M 6m 1,3,4 200-600 ; greenish terminal buds, similar to E. well drained bu setosa E. ferruginea T 12m 1,3 200-1600 12-3; white; terminal buds and flowers Rusty Bloodwood bu E. ficifolia T 10m 5 200-600 12-4; red to orange, SA forms white to red, Red-flowering Gum bu, fl terminal coloured buds E. foelschena T 10m 1 400-1600 4-10; creamy white; terminal buds and Broad-leaved bu flowers Bloodwood E. maculata T 45m 1,3,4,5 600-2000 5-9; white to cream; Spotted Gum cutting propagation bu E. nesophila T 30m 1 600-1600 6-8; creamy white; terminal buds Melville Island bu Bloodwood
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Species Habit Climate Rainfall Months of flowering; flower colour; Common name Special comments Use zone (mm) ornamental features Subgenus Corymbia E. polycarpa T 15m 1,3 200-1600 2-6; cream; terminal buds Long-fruited bu Bloodwood E. porrecta T 5m 1 800-1600 10-3; creamy white; terminal buds Grey Bloodwood bu
E. ptycocarpa T 20m 1,3 200-800 9-3; red, pink, apricot, rarely white; Swamp Bloodwood moist sites bu, fl terminal buds and flowers E. setosa T 6m 1,3,4 200-1600 11-12; white; white terminal buds Rough-leaved well drained bu Bloodwood E. watsoniana ssp. T 24m 4 200-400 6-9; creamy white; terminal ornate buds Large-fruited bu watsoniana Yellowjacket Information in this table is taken from Brooker and Kleinig (1990; 1994; 1996; 1999) and Chippendale (1973).
Climate Zones: 12 Zone 1 = hot humid summer Zone 2 = warm humid summer Zone 3 = hot dry summer, mild winter Zone 4 = hot dry summer, cold winter Zone 5 = warm summer, cool winter Zone 6 = mild/warm summer, cold winter
SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Figure1: Climate zones across Australia.
Figure 2: Rainfall zones across Australia
13 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Some of the Top 25 Eucalyptus species highly rated by exporters and growers:
Figure 3: E. tetragona capsules Figure 4: E. tetragona buds and flower
Figure 5: E. caesia ssp. caesia buds and flowers Figure 6: E. caesia ssp. magna buds and flowers
Figure 7: E. crucis buds and foliage Figure 8: E. conveniens capsules
14 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Some of the Top 25 Eucalyptus species highly rated by exporters and growers:
Figure 9: E. erythrocorys buds Figure 10: E. ficifolia flower
Figure 11: E. forrestiana ssp. dolichorhyncha immature Figure 12: E. fraseri/E. lesouefii “Silver Swirl” buds buds
Figure 13: E. lesouefii “pink” buds and flowers Figure 14: E. gillii buds
15 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Some of the Top 25 Eucalyptus species highly rated by exporters and growers:
Figure 16: E. preissiana buds and flower Figure 15: E. pachyphylla buds and flowers
Figure 17: E. pyriformis buds Figure 18: E. yalatensis bud
Figure 19: E. youngiana buds Figure 20: E. youngiana buds and flower
16 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
2.2 Selection of superior forms for floriculture To date, selection has been restricted to species level and most plants are seed propagated. Eucalypts are preferentially outcrossing, that is, pollen from another tree is preferred to pollen from the same tree. In the wild, this ensures that each tree produces offspring more adaptable to changing conditions, and thus more likely to survive. However, it creates problems with the selection of superior forms for floriculture, because it is difficult to know whether the offspring of a superior tree will be as good as the seed parent.
Depending on your level of enthusiasm (or available time!) you can source plants in a number of ways – collect the seed or buy seed from a reputable supplier and propagate the plants yourself, or alternatively, buy seedlings. Younger plants are best, as larger ones can tend to become pot-bound. Some grafted plants are available, though they are much more expensive than seedlings.
Growers at the workshop raised some questions about potential problems with coppicing grafted plants. If the plant is being grown for foliage, the graft should be low on the tree, but it is not such an issue if growing for buds and flowers, where the tree will not be pruned so heavily.
Another concern with grafted plants was the possibility of introducing viruses from seedling rootstock. It was emphasised that the root stock also needs to be clonally propagated, to avoid both this problem, and the potential for introducing variability into the final plant.
When collecting seed from a tree that you believe is superior, take care to observe the eucalypts around it. If the tree is isolated from other trees, the seed may produce poor seedlings due to “selfing” (when the only pollen available to the tree is its own). If the tree is near other eucalypt species, hybrid seed may result, and so seedlings may not have the characters of the desirable seed parent. In some situations, the only plants near to the superior tree are from the same species. The seed from this tree will be most true-to-type, but still may not be exactly the same as the parent.
Another difficulty arises with variation between seedlings: no two seedlings from the same seedlot will be identical. This may lead to a group of trees of the same species having huge differences. For example, E. pyriformis can have buds ranging in colour from orange to burgundy. With other species, such as E. tetragona, the difference may be minimal, with slight variation in bud size and shape. Some selection can be done at the seedling stage, by disposing of any seedlings that are obviously not true to type.
It is still very difficult to reliably propagate from cuttings, as results are extremely variable. It is advisable to keep accurate records of when and how batches of cuttings are obtained, and the success rates. Ambient temperatures, and amount of water applied may also be factors that affect strike rates, so these are useful records too.
Salt-resistant species for reafforestation are being successfully grown from cuttings (in Queensland) and by tissue culture (in Tasmania). While these species are not generally suitable for floriculture, this work all adds to the body of information about propagating eucalypts.
17 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Selection and plant uniformity will remain a problem until clonal or vegetative methods of propagation are determined, which suit a range of eucalypt species.
2.3 The Eucalyptus genus “family tree” There are over 700 named species of eucalypts. The genus is divided into subgenera, then sections, series and species, based on their form and structure (morphology). As these divisions reflect morphological similarities, they should also reflect genetic relationships between species. On the whole, understanding the complexity of the genus is difficult, because different researchers present different views all the time. Over the last ten years many species have been re-named and reclassified.
As a grower it may not be necessary to have an intimate knowledge of the complexities of the genus, and so what knowledge is required can be obtained from excellent references such as Chippendale (1988), and Brooker and Kleinig (1990, 1994, 1999). However, knowledge of genetic relationships is important for breeders, as it enables identification of species that are more likely to cross successfully. Studies have shown that eucalypts hybridise naturally where compatible species come into close proximity, either in their endemic location or in a cultivated situation. This tendency to hybridise can be used in controlled breeding programs.
A “family tree” has been included to show a simplified version of the latest classification, that of Brooker, 2000. Figure 3 shows the 13 subgenera, with the four subgenera, involved in the University of Adelaide eucalypt breeding program, broken up into sections, then series then species, with examples of selected species following through from subgenera to species. The further apart on the “tree” two species are, the less related they are, and the less likely they are to hybridise.
18 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
Figure 3 is a simplified tree showing different subgenera (and the number of species within each in parentheses) within genus Eucalyptus (From Brooker, 2000). The branches indicate examples of the sections, series and species involved in the University of Adelaide eucalypt breeding program.
SUBGENUS SECTION SERIES SPECIES Angophora (7 sp)
Notiales Cymbiformes E. ficifolia Corymbia (68 sp) Sepetrionales Dorsiventrales E. ptychocarpa
Blakella (15 sp)
Limbatae Heteropterae E. tetragona Eudesmia (34 sp) Reticulatae Miniatae E. miniata
Aerosae (1 sp) Subulatae E. socialis
Bisectae Curviptera E. macrocarpa Cruciformes (1sp) Porantherae E. leptophylla
Symphyomyrtus (460+ sp) Tetrapterae E. forrestiana Dumaria Rufispermae E. pterocarpa Minutifructus (4 sp)
Maidenaria Agrophyllae E. cinerea Alveolata (1 sp)
Cuboidea (1sp) Adnataria Terminales E. polyanthemos
Idiogenes (1sp)
Primitiva (1 sp)
Eucalyptus (104 sp) Longistylis Preissianae E. preissiana
19 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
2.4 The University of Adelaide Eucalyptus breeding program The eucalypt breeding program at the University of Adelaide is concentrating on controlled hybridisation between species, as a way of developing new and exciting forms of eucalypts with superior characters for commercial cut bud and flower production. As there are so many species to work with, they have been divided into groups of related species, of which there are six under investigation: Eudesmia, Symphyomyrtus Dumaria, Symphyomyrtus Adnataria, Symphyomyrtus Bisectae, Eucalyptus and Corymbia. A few species from each have been selected as the female parents, and the remainder selected as the male parents.
Table 2: Eucalyptus species in the University of Adelaide breeding program. Groupings from Brooker (2000). Eudesmia Symphyomyrtus Symphyomyrtus Corymbia E. conveniens Dumaria Bisectae E. abbreviata E. erythrocorys E. angulosa E. burracoppinensis E. bleeseri E. eudesmioides E. ceratocorys E. caesia 2 ssp E. calophylla E. gamophylla E. clelandii E. caesia E. citriodora E. gittinsii E. concinna E. campaspe E. deserticola E. jucunda E. corrugta E. crucis 2 ssp. E. ferruginea E. miniata E. forrestiana 2 ssp. E. erythronema 2 ssp. E. ficifolia E. phoenicea E. griffithsii E. kingsmillii 2 ssp. E. foelschena E. roycei E. incrassata E. leptopoda E. maculata E. tetragona E. lesouefii E. macrocarpa 2 ssp. E. nesophila E. pileata E. oldfieldii E. polycarpa Symphyomyrtus E. pimpiniata E. orbifolia E. porrecta Adnataria E. rugosa E. oxymitra E. ptycocarpa E. bigalerita E. sheathiana E. pachyphylla E. setosa E. koolponensis E. straiticalyx E. pyriformis E. watsoniana E. polyanthemos E. stoatei E. rhodantha E. pruinosa E. synandra E. sessilis Eucalyptus E. tectifica E. tetraptera E. stricklandii E. coronata E. torquata E. synandra E. preissiana E. woodwardii E. websteriana E. youngiana
In the breeding program, hybrids are grown from seed and assessed at reproductive maturity for characters such as flower size, the quantity of flowers (floriferousness) per stem (the more the better), bud position (should be terminal or near-terminal), bud colour contrast and intensity, leaf colour and contrast (grey, green or blue are preferred), and contrast between bud, stem and leaf. Other characters, such as tree height and habit, growth rate, bud size and shape are important too, and are also considered, but these may be affected by the location of the specimen and the amount of cultivation it receives. Growers at the workshop felt that dwarfing was also a good character to investigate and introduce into the program.
Susceptibility to disease and insect attack is also noted, though this too may vary with location and climate. There was discussion at the workshop about the theory that wax on the leaves may deter predators. Wax types vary, and some may inhibit attack, but this has not been scientifically proven. A grower suggested trying to introduce some component into the leaves, which pests don’t like – with the aim of reducing the amount of spraying required.
20 SECTION 2 – Choosing What to Grow
The selected hybrid is exposed to more specific and rigorous selection criteria, including response to clonal propagation (i.e. can more identical plants be grown reasonably easily from cuttings or by tissue culture), postharvest treatments (cooling, pulsing etc.) and production regimes (pruning, fertilising and irrigating for example). The division of the selection criteria into two parts, with one focused on morphology and the other on performance, allows for rapid screening of hundreds of hybrids in an economical and time effective manner.
21 SECTION 3 - Production
3. Production This section discusses a range of issues that are crucial to the success of your enterprise, from selecting an appropriate site, through the set-up and planting, to general maintenance and on-going care of your trees. Decisions made at this stage, which are based on careful research, will save you a lot of heartache, (to say nothing of money!) as your plantation matures.
3.1 Choosing the site The major influences on your choice of site should be the species you want to grow (as this dictates the desirable climate and soil conditions), availability of sufficient good quality water, and reasonable access to markets. The previous section will hopefully have helped you with choosing the species, so we will now discuss the other factors in more detail.
3.1.1 Climate Many of the Eucalyptus species currently in cultivation, originate from Western Australia and South Australia. They have generally adapted to climatic zones ranging from subtropical to temperate. The suitability of an area for growing a particular species can best be assessed by seeing which species are native to the area, and finding out what is being grown successfully by other producers in the same area. The various state Departments of Natural Resources, Agriculture and Primary Industries may also be able to provide some assistance. Among the attendees at the workshop, growing conditions varied from a Mediterranean climate (cool wet winter, warm dry summer) with up to 1000mm rainfall per year, to semi-arid, with less than 400mm rainfall. However, not all marketable species can be grown in all areas, and this was emphasised frequently.
In many areas, frost is a major factor affecting the design of tree planting programs. Although there are some ways to reduce the effects of frost on planted trees, selecting species that tolerate frost is of major importance in reducing losses. Local knowledge should indicate what types of frost occur in the area and tree plots should be located where cold air does not accumulate. Sloping land or hilltops are often the best places to plant, as frosts frequently occur in lower lying areas.
If the site is exposed to high winds, a shelterbelt of original vegetation should be planted for protection of the plantation. Strong winds, either in winter or summer (very cold or very hot and dry) are most destructive. Humidity can cause disease problems for species that originated in drier areas, so again, local knowledge will be a valuable source of information.
3.1.2 Site characteristics A suitable site should have a slight slope to allow water to drain freely. Water logging frequently occurs on flat ground, while steep sites will require erosion control such as contour banks. A northerly aspect makes best use of the winter sun. One grower commented that on his property, where some areas face north and others south, the trees on the darker, cooler side produce later, thus extending the picking season. Trees can be planted across the contour of a hill to make access and watering easier. However, if the slope is fairly steep, safety issues (e.g. avoiding tractor rollover) may dictate that the rows run down the hill.
22 SECTION 3 - Production
Land that has ample tree cover will grow good bud and foliage trees after clearing. Cultivated land is easy to line and work into hills for planting, and trees will benefit from previous crop fertilizers. Grazing land may be compacted and require ripping if the soil is tightly packed.
The sites owned by workshop delegates ranged from virgin land to exhausted cultivated land, with just about every variation in between. It was not possible in the time available to assess just how much difference in yield was achieved by the various properties, but all agreed that the above specifications were preferable.
3.1.3 Soil type As previously mentioned, many of the Eucalyptus species originate from Western Australia and South Australia, and so are generally suited to lighter soil types such as sandy loams or clay loams. It is important to start with the right information, so a soil analysis and interpretation that identifies the soil’s limitations is recommended. Reputable rural merchandise firms or soil testing companies can provide this service.
A well-structured, well-drained soil is best, such as deep sandy loam over clay subsoil. Heavy cracking clays that do not drain freely, are generally unsuitable, however, treating the soil with a conditioner such as gypsum can reduce the problem. Alternatively, there are a number of Eucalyptus species that will tolerate poor drainage. These can be identified from the species selection guide. The trees can also be planted on mounds to stop water logging. For heavier soils, again select species that are able to tolerate these particular conditions. In any case, trial plantings of a number of species are a good idea, before committing to extensive planting and irrigation programs.
Before planting, the soil pH should be tested by obtaining a pH test kit from any rural merchandise store. This testing should also be done at regular intervals after planting, to monitor any changes in the soil pH levels. pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of substances such as soil or water. This scale ranges from 0 (extremely acidic) to 7 (neutral) to 14 (extremely alkaline). Because the scale is logarithmic, a pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6, so what seems like a small change can have a major effect. The soil pH level influences the uptake of nutrients in plants, with optimum nutrient uptake when the soil pH is in the range of 6.5 to 7. If the pH is higher or lower than is suitable for efficient nutrient uptake, a soil conditioner such as lime or dolomite should be applied to modify the pH level. (See Appendix 4 – Plant nutrient availability chart).
3.2 Plantation layout It is worth drawing up a site plan, showing access roads, irrigation waterlines including mains and laterals, gates, fences, buildings and drains. Don't make the rows much more than 200 metres long, as significant amounts of time can be wasted if you can’t turn around for hundreds of metres. Incorporate harvesting and access roads through, and around the perimeter of the paddock, taking into account the mature size of the trees, and required turning space for tractors and equipment.
Row spacing will therefore depend on several things – the size of the mature trees, the size of any existing farm equipment, and the area available for planting. Distance
23 SECTION 3 - Production between the trees in the rows will vary according to species, growing habit and cultivation practices. Obviously, it is tempting to plant as many trees as possible in the selected area, to maximise returns per hectare, and it is hard to imagine just how much room the mature trees will take up, when you are looking at tiny plants 30cm tall! However, lack of foresight will come back to haunt you, when harvesting and tractor access become difficult later.
Climate can also dictate planting density. In very humid areas, plants need to be further apart, to allow for good air movement. If you are in a frost-prone area, rows may need to laid out in a way which prevents the development of pockets of still air, and allows for free air movement down any slope. Rows running north-south will take maximum advantage of sunshine.
The general consensus among growers at the workshop was that row spacing of 10 metres, with 5 metres between plants, was workable for most species. This means that there will be 400 – 700 trees per hectare for bud and flower species. Foliage trees are planted more closely, and may average 1500 trees per hectare. One grower had seen E. pulverulenta grown at 30cm spacing, so that hedgerows were formed. With heavy watering, the trees grew 2 metres in a season. They were then harvested by being cut back down to ground level. This produced good returns for several years, but in the fourth year, the trees became rootbound and died. While this is perhaps a reasonable practice for some foliage species, it is doubtful that it would be economic for those species grown for their buds or flowers (which can take several years to begin producing, and only flower on mature wood).
3.3 Site preparation To establish themselves and continue to grow well, young trees require adequate levels of soil moisture, good soil structure, nutrients, and minimal competition from weeds. Preparation of the planting site, providing suitable growing conditions, will improve growth rates of the trees, and can also reduce the amount of maintenance needed after planting.
3.3.1 Soil preparation A number of growers spray a herbicide such as glyphosate, as a first step in the site preparation, followed by cultivation with a disc plough, or deep ripping along the intended tree lines to a depth of about 60cm. This assists in the creation of a low mound into which the trees can be planted. It also breaks up any hard soil pan, which would have reduced root and water penetration, and makes planting easier. Mounding is preferable for yet another reason – it increases the depth of soil available to the plant. If you do not mound, cultivation and digging a deep planting hole will help to encourage better tree rooting. A residual herbicide may also be applied to the bare soil to reduce new weed emergence.
Frequently used soil conditioners are lime, dolomite, and gypsum. They can be applied in bulk, before new trees are planted, or applied around each individual tree. Lime (calcium carbonate) and dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) are used when a soil test indicates that the soil pH needs to be changed. They reduce the soil acidity, by raising the pH to a level where nutrients are more freely available to the trees. (See Appendix 4 - Plant nutrient availability chart). Calcium is an essential plant nutrient, which is obtainable from both lime and dolomite. Magnesium, another
24 SECTION 3 - Production important plant nutrient, is available from dolomite, which should be used in preference to lime, if a magnesium deficiency is indicated on a soil test.
Gypsum changes and improves the soil structure by combining fine particles of soil into crumbs. It helps to improve water infiltration and aeration, thus reducing water logging and associated diseases. Gypsum is applied at a general rate of approximately 2 tonnes per hectare.
Rod Karger, a soil scientist working with the Department of Primary Industries and Resources in South Australia (PIRSA), has experimented with the effect of adjusting the relative ratios of the major elements in the soil (calcium, magnesium etc – known as cations) using a number of crops, including some wildflowers. He has found that when these cations are in the correct ratio for optimum nutrient uptake by the plant, the growth pattern of the plant is significantly accelerated. At the same time, the soil pH is balanced for maximum benefit to the plant. A harvestable crop is produced sooner, the quality (colour and stem length) is noticeably better, and because the plants are healthier, they are more resistant to disease. This treatment is based on soil tests taken from the specific areas to be planted out, and an individual recommendation is given for each site and crop on the property. Any fertiliser required is applied before planting, during the cultivation stage of soil preparation. The procedure is mainly effective on acid rather than alkaline soils.
Once the soil is prepared, the irrigation system and mulch can be laid down, (if they are to be used) and you are ready to plant the trees.
3.3.2 Mulching Mulching around the young trees helps to retain moisture, control weeds and can contribute organic matter to the soil. There are a number of different mulches available, including fabricated mulch such as weedmat, inorganic types like scoria, and organic mulches such as straw and sawdust. Any type is effective in a plantation. A grower at the workshop suggested purchasing cheap green garden waste mulch from the local council, keeping it for a while, until it was no longer green, then placing it around the plants. Mulch can be laid down over the entire rows of trees, as with weedmat, or just around the individual trees, always keeping it away from the stem of the plant to avoid collar rot. The edges of fabricated mulch should be covered with soil to stop it from lifting up.
3.4 Irrigation Workshop attendees agreed that adequate water is particularly important when trees are being established. There was mixed opinion about the cost-effectiveness of irrigation when trees were older, but in general, to achieve high growth rates and marketable product, most growers will need to apply some irrigation to their plantations, especially in areas with low annual rainfall. It is preferable to install the irrigation system before planting the trees, because then the ground can easily be well watered both before and immediately after planting.
3.4.1 Water supply Water sources may include town water, dam, bore, and creek water. Samples should be taken to check its suitability for irrigation, particularly with bore water. Correct interpretation of the test results (preferably by a professional) is extremely important.
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Underground water from a bore is the most likely to contain high calcium and magnesium levels, which may limit plant growth. Because it will need to be pumped from depth, may also be the most expensive source of water.
An important factor with water quality is its salinity. Eucalypts are moderately salt tolerant, but if there are high salt levels in the irrigation water, the plantation will have to be managed to allow for this. Consult the irrigation authority in your area for more detailed information.
3.4.2 Importance of water pH All irrigation water should be regularly monitored for its pH level, which should ideally be near neutral. Handheld testing equipment is available and is a worthwhile investment. (See Section 3.1.3 Soil type for an explanation about the concept of pH).
The level of pH is important because it determines the availability of most nutrients. For example, if water has a pH of below 5, then the trace elements boron, zinc manganese, copper and aluminum can be available at toxic levels, significantly reducing plant growth. Conversely, a pH greater than 7 can cause iron or manganese deficiency, which can also limit plant growth. The ideal pH provides a balance of availability of essential organic nutrients, and will vary for different crops. . The pH of water also determines the effectiveness and persistence of some pesticides. Malathion, (registered for use on Eucalyptus species) for example, has a shorter life at higher pH. As pH rises above 7, the disinfecting properties of chlorine and hypochlorous acid (which are believed to work against plant pathogens) rapidly diminish. In some circumstances, high water pH can cause a rise in the in the pH of the soil, with attendant growth problems.
To overcome high pH and alkalinity, acidification may be necessary. Dangerous acids such as nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric and phosphoric acid are normally used, but most have drawbacks. Hydrochloric will increase salinity, phosphoric may create phosphorus levels that are too high, and nitric acid is very corrosive and may add too much nitrogen. Therefore, acidification should only be done by a skilled operator using properly designed injection equipment. Some adjustment of pH can be achieved with gypsum or dolomite.
3.4.3 The delivery system There are a number of different irrigation systems in use with tree crops. The basic types include sprinkler, drip, and flood irrigation. There are different types of these basic systems. The choice of a suitable irrigation system depends on the topography, soil type, rainfall incidence and amount, evaporation rate, and source, volume and quality of water. Assistance should be sought from an irrigation specialist or an agronomist, in relation to the design and layout of the irrigation system, and any pumping and fertigation requirements.
The pump should be powerful enough to serve the various sections with something left in reserve. If the pump is operating at maximum capacity when the system is new, you may find that water is not reaching all the plants once the system starts to clog up a little, or it springs a few minor leaks. Your system will usually include a suitable water filter, and it is well worth investing in the best quality item you can afford – it
26 SECTION 3 - Production will save you a lot of time fixing blockages in the long term. There are some very sophisticated automated systems available now, so it is a good idea to take time to fully assess your needs. Is there power available to the site to enable you to run a computer-controlled system? If not, are you prepared to always be around to start a diesel or petrol pump, and to change valves by hand, or is it worth the expense of bringing power to the site?
Sprinkler and flood irrigation generally waste too much water, and are more costly to install than trickle or drip irrigation. With increasing environmental concerns, (less water available due to climate change or overuse of water resources; pesticide runoff and pollution) these inefficient watering methods should be avoided. The systems best suited to eucalyptus plantations are trickle or drip irrigation. These are the systems that use the least amount of water, delivering it directly to the root zone of the trees, and thus eliminating wastage and evaporation. The amount of water applied by these systems can easily be measured and monitored. The most common practice is to use drip irrigation with drippers placed to deliver water to each individual tree, or trickle tape along each line of trees. This will also allow for liquid fertilizer to be applied with the irrigation.
The optimum rate and frequency of water application will vary, depending on climate (rainfall or lack of it), soil type and the age of the trees. Delegates tended to use emitters in the range of 4 – 8 litres per hour. On heavier soils, slower emitters may be better. The aim should be to maintain a moisture balance in the soil. If the soil dries out too much, nutrient uptake is inhibited. If it is too wet, the fine roots that transport nutrients may rot. There are soil moisture monitoring devices available that allow precise irrigation scheduling. Irrigation specialists will be able to advise you on the most suitable equipment for your plantation.
Eucalyptus species can vary their maximum and minimum transpiration rates, according to the climatic conditions. This means they are drought-tolerant, and will survive on very little water, but if you expect good production, availability of plentiful water is necessary. Plant growth can in fact be regulated by the amount of water applied. Total water supplied to the trees must exceed transpiration by enough to cover losses from evaporation, runoff and percolation below the root zone. Mulches can significantly reduce evaporation, and hence the amount of water that needs to be applied.
Growers at the workshop discussed the problem of movement of dripper line due to expansion and contraction. One said that he has had success using the same method as in vineyards – where the dripper line is supported off the ground by a wire, to which it is firmly clipped. This solves the problem of movement, and has an added advantage – it is very easy to see if the dripper is working. Burying the pipe solves the movement problem too, but it is a lot harder to check for blockages.
The growers who used trickle tape felt that it gave better water distribution than drippers, by producing a wetted strip, rather than a more limited area just around the plant. They also found a significant increase in the number of roots produced by the plant, and were troubled by fewer blockages Another grower used drippers to establish the plants, then changed to trickle tape as the root system became more developed.
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Always check the irrigation system thoroughly at the start of each season, flushing out lines, repairing leaks and replacing damaged or missing drippers. Thereafter, take a walk around weekly, checking for leaks, or thirsty looking plants (indicating blocked drippers). Water filters too should be checked frequently (actual time depends on the water quality – experience will tell you how often it is necessary) so they do not become clogged. Systems with automatic regular backflush are desirable.
Any irrigation system that involves the use of small outlets will suffer from blockages. The main causes of blockages are: • sand, clay or organic particles - these can be removed by filters. • growth of micro-organisms within the system which occurs despite filtration - these micro-organisms pass through the filtration system then grow in the lines to form larger particles and precipitates. • the presence of dissolved iron and calcium in both surface and ground water supplies, which precipitates out inside pipes • ants building nests in the pipes
The system needs to be flushed regularly to minimise problems. When dissolved, chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent, which destroys organic matter and micro- organisms. Chlorination is an economical and effective solution to the problem of clogging of emitters and pipes by micro-organisms, and is applied through injection into the irrigation system.
Acidification is required if there is a buildup of iron and calcium salts, and this is again applied by injection through the irrigation system. Not all pump systems are acid resistant, so check first! As mentioned earlier, these are all hazardous chemicals and should be handled with extreme caution. Remember: Always add acid to water, never water to acid. If water is added to acid, the chemical heat energy generated can cause an explosion. Details on these procedures should be available from the company that supplies your irrigation system.
3.5 Planting out Growers at the workshop were divided about when was the optimum time to plant out young trees. Many felt that spring (after the last expected frosts) was best, because the seedlings benefit from warming soil, rain and moderate temperatures. However, in some areas, autumn planting was preferred, particularly if the plantation was not going to be irrigated. This gives the seedlings a chance to become well established before the onset of summer. All agreed that summer planting should be avoided. In any case, planting time should be coordinated with the plant supplier, so that neither of you has hundreds of plants sitting around in pots for so long that they become root- bound. Buy plants from certified nurseries so that the risk of bringing in disease is minimised. Alternatively, seed can be purchased from a seed company (such as Nindethana Seed Services, WA), or you can collect it yourself and grow seedlings on site, if time and facilities are available. It is a good idea to use a well-drained potting mix for eucalypts (especially the mallee types) to reduce fungal infections and to protect the root systems from damping off. However because the mix is quite lumpy, extra care is required when planting out, as the roots can easily be torn.
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Until you are ready to plant out the seedlings, leave them in a polystyrene carton, above the ground and free draining, allowing them to harden in full sun, unless it is extremely hot. The trees can generally be left for 2 - 3 weeks without the roots growing out of the pots. Do not let the pots sit on the ground or in water. Water the seedlings when the potting mix looks dry, or if the plants wilt.
3.5.1 Planting day It is a good idea to get in to the habit of using disinfectant footbaths when entering the plantation area, to minimise the risk of bringing in any unwanted pathogens. If there are any areas of the property affected by soilborne diseases such as phytophthora, clean your shoes and equipment before entering other parts of the plantation.
Plant out during the coolest part of the day if possible, into ground that has been pre- wet by irrigation, hand watering or rainfall. If you are using weedmat, cut crosses into it at appropriate intervals, and peel back to expose the soil. Holes for the plants should be dug double the width and depth of the pot, using a spade. Posthole borers are not recommended, as they tend to create smooth, hard sides to the hole, which restricts root development. Where the ground has been well cultivated, some growers have used a tree-planter attached to the back of a tractor.
Water the pots prior to planting. This ensures that the plant is well watered and that the potting mix adheres to itself and the plant. The water can have a mild solution of fish emulsion added if desired. Remove the plant from the pot by turning it upside down, supporting the plant and surrounding soil with one hand, and tapping the base of the pot with the other. Hopefully the plant and the mix will come out in one mass. Carefully lay the plant and mix along your hand to support the root systems. If the roots are twisted and compacted on the bottom, gently tease them out. If the plant is in a plastic bag, cut the bag open and peel it off – never try to shake the plant out, as this will destroy the roots.
Backfill the hole with enough loose soil to bring the top of the potting mix slightly below ground level. Fill in around the plant, and gently but firmly tamp down the soil. Water the plant well with a bucket or two of water, or turn on the irrigation. If you have decided to use a mulch other than weedmat, now is the time to apply it, making sure that is does not come right up to the stem of the plant. Most growers at the workshop said they did not mulch their trees, and preferred to use a herbicide, such as glyphosate.
Tree guards erected at this stage may prove useful. A small tree guard can easily be made by cutting a one litre milk carton in half, placing it over the seedling and securing with a U of plain wire (30cm long). This will provide a microclimate for the young seedling to establish, but will not protect it from hares and wallabies, which should be controlled by netting fences. Alternatively, grow tubes can be placed around each tree. Growers have found that a sprinkling of “Blood and Bone” over the leaves and around the base of the plant will discourage hares from nibbling on newly planted seedlings.
3.5.2 The first weeks Watch your seedlings carefully for the first fortnight. If a plant wilts immediately it is planted out, the roots have probably been damaged - often beyond repair. Those that
29 SECTION 3 - Production don't wilt immediately should survive if you water them adequately, unless a tree is just not suited to your area.
Depending upon your soil type, you may need to water deeply every two to three days for the first two weeks. If you have a drip line make sure that you check each dripper every time you water in this initial stage. Check the amount of water per hour emitted by your drippers, to ensure that the young plants are receiving an adequate supply. The actual amount they require will also vary depending on the climate. Water more if the plants are wilting, less if the weather is cold or the ground is very wet. As a guide, try 10 - 20 litres per plant at first, slowly increasing the quantity of water and the length of time between waterings.
After a week or two the plants’ roots will be moving into the soil. To encourage your trees to grow deep roots for drought tolerance, slowly increase the time between waterings. To find out just how wet or dry your soil really is, pull up weeds close to your trees to check for moisture, or dig nearby.
Before the first expected frost, young trees should be sprayed with a frost prevention product such as Envy.
3.6 Weed control A weed is any plant that is growing out of place. After planting, weeds, particularly grasses, compete strongly with young trees for moisture, nutrients and light. The competition from weeds above the ground is easy to see, but it is in competing for water and nutrients below the ground that they are most damaging. Until the trees have become well established, maintain a consistently high level of weed control. A weed free area should be created before planting and maintained around each tree for the first few years. Ideally, this area should be one metre wide at planting and increased to two to three metres as the tree grows. Weeds need to be controlled, both between the rows of trees and around individual trees, by hand weeding, cultivation, spraying, slashing and/or mulching. Most growers use a combination of several methods.
Slashing and mowing are effective methods for weed control in the inter row spaces. One grower at the workshop has found that on his poorer soils, it is beneficial to keep soil disturbance to a minimum. He feels that it is also important to maintain some ground cover for erosion control and a number of attendees agreed with him. Another grower uses Eucmix (available in Ballarat). It is a “eucalyptus-safe” herbicide, which he applies by walking between the rows with a spreader. It kills weeds, not grass, doesn’t harm the trees, and has no residual effect.
Spraying is a useful method of weed control around the trees. Once the trees are mature, weeds can be sprayed with glyphosate (Roundup), as long as the spray is kept off the trunks of the trees as much as possible. This is usually done with a spot sprayer. Sheep were also suggested as practical “lawnmowers” once the trees are a reasonable size. For those who don’t wish to use herbicides, and have no suitable animals, there’s always the brushcutter!
In general, herbicides such as glyphosate are quite effective and can be improved by adding a small quantity of urea, but some weed problems might require specific
30 SECTION 3 - Production herbicides. Eucalypt suckers from cleared trees can be killed using repeated applications of glyphosate. Always seek professional advice from your supplier and follow the directions on the label.
Mulching is also an efficient method of controlling weeds around the base of the trees. (See Section 3.3.2 – Mulching)
3.7 Fertiliser application Trials indicate that eucalypts respond well to the addition of nitrogen and phosphorous. However, most of this work has been undertaken with species suited to forestry, where a high growth rate is important. Growers should be warned that too much can be worse than too little. High rates of fertiliser may grow a large tree that will carry little or no bud, and the foliage will not have the keeping quality of trees grown with minimal fertiliser. Most of our trees come from arid or semi-arid areas of generally low-nutrient status, and this is another reason why care should be taken with the application of fertiliser. Where trees are growing well or even a little slowly, no fertiliser should be applied unless deficiency symptoms appear.
3.7.1 Types of fertiliser There are three basic types of fertiliser – solid, liquid and foliar. Fertilisers may also be organic or inorganic. The quantity of fertiliser and the application method will depend on what type of fertiliser is used, as well as the plantation production system.
3.7.2 Fertiliser rates and application Necessary rates of fertiliser application will also vary, depending on species being planted, and soil types and conditions. Early plant growth can be increased by the addition of an appropriate type and amount of fertiliser. Several growers at the workshop have found that the addition of treated chicken manure (Dynamic Lifter) is beneficial when plants are young. If you have balanced the soil nutrients before planting, (as discussed in Section 3.3.1 Soil preparation), you may need very little additional fertiliser, apart from nitrogen, for several years. Regular soil and leaf analyses will assist in maintaining an effective and economic fertiliser regime.
It is advisable to do trials on a limited area before applying high rates to the whole plantation. Agronomists use soil and leaf analyses to identify the soil's limitations and to make appropriate recommendations for correct fertiliser application. You should be aware that drought will accentuate deficiency symptoms, which generally disappear with good rain.
When the decision has been made to apply fertiliser, the most common method is to spread a measured amount widely and evenly in a band around each tree. To prevent burning, it should be spread thinly, at least 30cm from the trunk. An alternative method is to dig one or two holes 10 - 20 cm deep near the tree, place the fertiliser in the holes and refill with soil. The best time for application is in spring, after the last expected frost, when most varieties are actively growing.
Solid fertilisers are usually granular in form, and are the most commonly used method of applying nutrients. There are many different brands available, which have varying nutrient analyses. Most of these are inorganic. Organic fertilisers include animal
31 SECTION 3 - Production manure and blood and bone. Apply solid fertilisers immediately before good rain, so that nutrients are washed down towards the root zone of the plants.
Liquid fertilisers are applied through the drip irrigation system, a process called fertigation. There are a number of liquid fertilisers that provide some nutritional benefits, including products such as liquid seaweed extract and fish emulsion.
Foliar fertiliser sprayed onto the trees, can be used as a supplement to a solid or liquid fertiliser program. It is not a suitable method for putting on large quantities of nutrients, but trace elements can be applied this way.
3.7.3 Nutrient deficiencies Table 2: Nutrient deficiency symptoms Nutrient Location Symptoms Nitrogen N leaves Even yellowing, first noticed in mature leaf and last in new growth. Some plants may develop a purple colour. Phosphorus P leaves, Similar to nitrogen deficiency, may develop purple plant form blotches on mature leaves - centres of blotches may die. Symptoms spread from old to young leaves, trees may be stunted and leaves may turn dark to blue green. Potassium K leaves, More mature leaves affected first, going yellow in a plant form mottled pattern, followed by dead patches at the tip and edge of the leaf. Plants are stunted with short internodes. Calcium Ca leaves, New leaves are affected first. They may be buckled or growing curled upwards. Growing points die or fall off. points Expanding leaves develop burns at tips and edges. Magnesium Mg leaves Older leaves affected first, showing mottled yellowing between the veins. Leaves may turn red or purple gradually. Leaf edges may die, causing leaves to curl inwards. Sulphur S leaves, Even yellowing of younger leaves first. Leaves may turn terminal buds pale red. Terminal buds may die. Iron Fe leaves Young leaves turn mottled yellow between the veins in a distinctive pattern. Mature leaves may show no symptoms. Copper Cu new growth, Young growth affected first. New growth may be plant form pendulous. Leaves become twisted with irregular margins. There may be some death of leaf edges. In severe cases, plants may be stunted, with a multi- stemmed habit. Zinc Zn plant form, Trees are stunted and leaves are small and crowded. leaves Older leaves start yellowing between veins. Leaves become distorted or turn red. Manganese Mn leaves Margins of all leaves turn yellow, green tissue remains close to leaf veins. Molybdenum Mo leaves Not often recorded in eucalypts, young leaves may turn evenly yellow. Boron B shoot tip, Shoot tip dies, which may cause lateral shoots to form, nodes, which also die. Nodes become enlarged. Leaves may be leaves, thick and coppery, sometimes curling and becoming flowering brittle. Plants do not flower.
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Fertilisers vary in the their nutrient content, but certain elements are vital for plant health and growth – in particular nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Plants also need calcium, magnesium and sulphur, in smaller quantities. Trace elements are required in very small quantities, and include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron and molybdenum.
When nutrient deficiencies become apparent, a localized soil pH test should be done, and the results compared with the plant nutrient availability chart, (See Appendix 4 – Plant nutrient availability chart), to give a general indication of the nutrient which may be deficient. If the symptoms are similar to any of those in the above table, then a specific nutrient may need to be applied. Nutrient deficiencies should be corrected with a number of applications of nutrients rather than one large application. There are specific publications available from CSIRO to help identify nutrient disorders. (See Section 7.3 – Reading for cultivation and care).
3.8 Pruning One of the most important items a grower needs is a good sharp pair of secateurs, which are well-maintained i.e. regularly oiled, sharpened and adjusted. Even if you cost-cut on everything else, buy the best quality secateurs you can find – they will end up better value in the long run, because you can buy replacement parts, and the blades themselves will last longer than cheaper ones. Brands such as Felco, which are available with a revolving handle, will reduce the risk of repetitive strain injuries. They may take a little getting used to, but you will never go back to ordinary fixed handle secateurs once you have. Ratchet-type cutters, and those with long handles are useful for thicker stems and small branches. A good quality pruning saw is also a valuable addition to your toolkit. Always use the right implement for the size of stem you are cutting. A clean cut will heal much more quickly than one that tears at the bark.
Shaping and pruning should be started early in the life of the tree, with the tips of new seedlings picked out to encourage branching, once the tree is about a metre tall. It is important to understand the growth habit of the particular species you are cultivating. If the plant is naturally bushy (e.g. E. tetragona), it may be best to leave it alone, or to just thin out some of the weaker leaders.
On the other hand, if the tree is of the type that must be a certain height and maturity before it flowers (e.g. E. pterocarpa), the leaders and branches can be tipped out again when the plant begins to look straggly. Leaders which are a minimum of 30cm long should be left. This will allow the tree to produce more foliage and fruiting branches. Select branches that are upright in habit, and remove those which are tending to grow horizontally.
As trees get older, a regular pruning program should be implemented. This would normally include: • removal of all branches that are low hanging or touching the ground. This will help air circulate around the base of the tree and discourage fungal attack. • removal of all dead or diseased branches to stop the further spread of disease through the tree.
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• removal of all dead or diseased trees from the plantation, to stop the further spread of pathogens. Once removed from the plantation, these trees should be burnt.
As a general guide, tall, bud-producing species should be pruned after harvest, by one third of their height. This will encourage more producing branches, a larger canopy for the tree, and keep it at a manageable height. Taking any more than one third off may set the tree back or even kill it. However, some growers at the workshop said that they do routinely cut their bud species back harder than the recommended one third, and while they do not get flowering for two years afterwards, the end product is better quality and more plentiful. Some eucalypts have a lignotuber, and so will regrow from a stump. Others do not, and care should be taken to leave some branches with foliage.
Trees that are grown specifically for foliage can be cut back much further than bud producing varieties. Up to two thirds of the height of the trees can be pruned off, with some growers recommending the more severe treatment of coppicing to about 50cm from the ground.
Secateurs and saws should ideally be cleaned after pruning each individual tree. This will help to stop the spread of pathogens carried on the pruning equipment. Cuts larger than your thumbnail can be treated with mancozeb, to stop infection. Copper oxychloride can also be used to cover pruning cuts. A solution of 25gm copper oxychloride to 1litre of water will prevent fungal infection and is cheaper and easier to use than paint.
Pruning is an important part of plantation management, and there is still much to be learnt. Preliminary research is under way at the University of Adelaide, but it will still be some time before definite recommendations can be made.
3.9 Pest and disease management It is advisable to check your plantation regularly for signs of pest and disease outbreak. It is definitely a case of “a stitch in time saves nine”. Often an attack will only involve a few trees rather than the whole plantation. Treating only the affected trees will be a big saving on spray costs and will conserve predators. Early detection will optimise the effect of any treatment applied, and minimise damage (or even loss) of the crop.
Remove any diseased material, and if plants die, pull them out roots and all – disease can develop in the remaining stumps. Burn them when it is safe to do so. Depending on why the plant died, it may be unwise to replant in the same spot – and in any case, if the surrounding plants are more than a couple of years old, a new plant may have little chance of thriving because of competition.
In South Australia, “Mundalla Yellows” is causing deaths in wild populations of eucalypts. For some time, there was heated debate about whether in fact it was a disease, or merely a reaction to local weather or soil conditions. Research now suggests that the problem may caused by a virus, which is probably spread by leaf- sucking insects. However, it appears that it could also be transmitted through seed and cutting material, which has major implications for possible spread of the disease. (See Section 7.3 – Reading for cultivation and care).
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It is important to have some understanding of the life cycle of the particular pests that are causing problems. This will ensure that you apply any recommended treatment at the time when it will be most effective. The range of pests often found in plantations is considerable and includes insects, diseases and weeds. Weed control has been discussed earlier (See Section 3.6 - Weed control), and the CSIRO has produced a series of leaflets about insect pests (See Section 7.3 - Reading for cultivation and care).
A number of growers at the workshop did not use any sprays, believing that it is better to maintain a natural balance between pests and predators, and to select species that are healthy and disease-resistant when grown in their areas. Others had regular spray programs, and believed that this was the only way to grow a top quality product. They also said that it saved time in the packing shed, as there was much less damaged material to be removed during processing and bunching. A cost/benefit analysis should be done to help decide what is best for your plantation.
Before using any pesticides: • check your state’s chemical use regulations, because in some states, you must hold a valid Chemical Users’ Certificate. In any case, doing such a course makes good sense from a health and safety perspective – for the environment, for you, your family and your customers. • check that the chemical you choose is registered for use on ornamental crops. • always read the label (completely!) and follow the directions accurately. • check use-by dates, and safely dispose of any chemicals that are out of date. At best they may have become ineffective, at worst, they may have become dangerously more toxic. • be careful about mixing chemical “cocktails”. There can be dangerous products created
3.9.1 Fungicides A range of fungal diseases including Pythium (damping off), Phytophthora (brown root rot), Oidium spp. (powdery mildew), gummy stem, Botryoshaeria spp. and Endothia gyrosa (tree cankers), Puccinia psiddii (leaf rust) and Rhizoctonia can be found in many plantations. Some control may be obtained by using fungicides such as phosphoric acid (e.g. Agrifos), mancozeb, thiram and ziram. Some fungal problems can be caused (or made worse) by humidity. Keeping the trees well pruned, with plenty of airflow through them, can minimise humidity problems.
Agrifos is most effective if used in conjunction with protectant treatments such as mancozeb and copper oxychloride. It can be mixed with most fungicides and common protectants without affecting its activity.
Agrifos is also a good protectant against phytophthora. It is sprayed on the foliage, as it acts by strengthening the plant’s immune system. Suggested use is every eight weeks, depending on likely disease pressure (high temperature and rainfall). Spray to the point of runoff.
Some AUSBUD growers use copper oxychloride and mancozeb, but while they find these products are effective protectants, they suggest that you trial them on your
35 SECTION 3 - Production plantation before committing to a full program. The recommended dose rates for ornamental plants of copper oxychloride and mancozeb may be phytotoxic to eucalypts. If these products are used on silver foliage six weeks before harvest, some loss of colour may result. Growers are trialling other products as interrupters to prevent resistance to current products. (This is good practice with any pesticide, as continual use of a particular spray will inevitably lead to resistant pests, which will then require increasingly more toxic chemicals to kill them).
A very good wetting agent must be used with these chemicals to obtain the best effect. Oil based wetters are of no use, as they cause coagulation or balling of the fungicides. Non-ionic soap solutions appear to be very effective e.g. Down to Earth, Morning Fresh or Amway LOC).
3.9.2 Insecticides Many insect pests attack eucalypts, however most of these have natural predators, which will build up to control outbreaks. Some of the most common pests are leaf miners, snails, looper caterpillars, light brown apple moth, leaf chewing insects, lerps, psyllids, scale, and scarab beetles (also known as Christmas beetles or gum tree beetles).
On some trees, scale can be easily removed by hand, but heavy infestations require a spray with malathion (Maldison etc.) and white oil. This should be repeated once seven to ten days later, and is best done in spring before the days get too hot. Growers use Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel) and carbaryl (Sevin) for control of caterpillars. (For more information about what chemicals and control methods to use for different pests see Section 7.3 – Reading for cultivation and care, and Appendix 5 – Potentially useful insecticides).
Insecticides kill not only the pest but also a host of predators. Repeated use will encourage the pest to become resistant to the chemicals used and may result in other insects (for example, mites) which were not evident before, becoming a major problem.
It is a good idea to record the chemical dose rate and date of application. Some products have a withholding period before it is considered safe to harvest the product. All chemicals should be used with care and the manufacturers label recommendations followed for safe application.
3.9.3 General management strategies Whatever pest you find, there are some general rules to keep in mind, which will ensure that when your plantation is attacked, you are ready to respond quickly: • Have all application equipment serviced and ready to go • Have all safety equipment in perfect working order – including such basic things as replacing cartridges in respirators, checking gloves for holes or perishing and replacing them if necessary, making sure your first aid box has a complete range of supplies • Have a good knowledge of the chemicals that you use • Have sufficient supplies of chemicals on hand • Inspect the plantation from mid to late afternoon for 1 to 5 days after rain in the spring and summer period. Humid weather will aid the onset of a number of pests.
36 SECTION 3 - Production
• Collect samples of any unfamiliar pests or diseases and have them identified. The Departments of Primary Industries or the Department of Natural Resource officers in your local area are able to do this. • Samples may be sent through the mail. Insects can be sent in a matchbox with tissue paper in the bottom, diseased plant specimens in a sealed plastic bag.
To enable early treatment and even possible prevention of future attacks, make notes on the following: • Which pests were identified? • Which trees were preferred? • Which trees were least preferred? • Size of the attack? • Was there a recurrence of the attack? • What were the weather conditions? • What control was applied, at what rate, and how effective was it? • Was there any adverse reaction to any chemical used? • What agronomic practice have you implemented in the plantation? • Is there anything in your control program that you would do differently next time?
37 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling
4. Picking and postharvest handling All your hard work in the field will possibly be undone if your picking procedures and postharvest handling of your product are lacking. This includes such things as when the product is picked, when it is put into water, how well it is graded, how it is bunched and how it is stored before delivery to market.
4.1 Picking Picking should be done in the coolest part of the day – most growers at the workshop felt that the morning was best. The frequency of picking varied from every day to once a week, according to demand, and the particular product grown. Again depending on the species grown, the picking season varied from farm to farm, but there seems to be some eucalypt product available just about all year round – be it foliage, bud, flower or capsule.
Make sure that your secateurs are clean and sharp, and disinfect them (with bleach or methylated spirits) as you move from one tree to the next, to avoid transferring any diseases. Cut just below where there is a branching from the stem – leave some green healthy leaves behind. A comment was made that some bud species like E. youngiana only form buds on the new growth, even if some of the stem is two years old.
There was much discussion at the workshop about whether it was beneficial to pick product straight into water. Some bud species (e.g. E. erythrocorys and E. youngiana) seem to keep better if they are not put into water at all before transporting off the farm, but stored dry at 2°C or even a little colder, because turgid pressure in the stem appears to cause bud caps to “pop”. Most other bud species (e.g. E. forrestiana and E. pterocarpa) benefit from at least two hours in water before packing. Foliage species are best placed into water within two hours and left for as long as necessary before packing for market. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that giving the trees a good watering the evening before harvest is effective for extending vase life.
Cut foliage should be at least 45cm - 60cm in length for standard bunches, and 30cm - 45cm for posy bunches. Bud product should be at least 50cm - 60cm for standard bunches, and 30cm - 40cm for posy bunches. Product that is less than 30cm long should be left to grow to a usable length, rather than being included in posy bunches. Choose stems that have mature leaves with even colouration, and minimal blemishes showing on leaves or stems. Blemishes generally indicate nutrient deficiencies or disease.
If the product is too immature, the tips will wilt, blacken and subsequently dry, so it is therefore best left on the tree to harden. To test the firmness of the tips, pick several stems from a few trees, preferably from around the lower half of the tree (where the tips are usually harder). The foliage should be cut on a 45° angle to give more surface area to draw up water, and put straight into a bucket with clean water for approximately 8 hours overnight. Remove from the water, place the stems on a table out of direct sunlight and leave them for 24 hours. If the tips stay firm, the product is ready to pick. If the tips are soft, a minimal amount may be discreetly removed. However, if the tips turn black and the lower leaves are also soft, the product is not ready to be picked and should be left. The market demands that tips to be left for presentation, so if it’s not ready don't pick it!
38 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling
Bud and flower species can be picked when they have developed the desired colour, and before the caps come off. The stems should have a sufficient number of buds – just one or two on a stem is not acceptable. Time of harvesting for capsules is less critical, but should be done before there is too much soft new growth on the stem.
4.2 Processing The time that you spend, and the processes that you use in preparing your product for market, can make the difference between receiving a good price, and not selling it at all. It is pointless to grow a perfect crop, and then mistreat it – by allowing it to be exposed to extremes of temperature or to toxic fumes, for example. If the bunches are untidy and badly graded, this too will dissuade the buyer from choosing your product over someone else’s. Conversely, if the product has been poorly grown – if there is a lot of pest and disease damage, if the stems are too short, or picked at the wrong stage - no amount of time spent in the shed will make it into a quality item. Try to look at your product as a consumer would – if you wouldn’t buy it, they probably won’t either!
4.2.1 The packing shed In order to prepare your product for market, you need a shed, which is large enough to house sorting tables, a coolroom, and if exporting, a fumigation room. You will be spending a lot of time here, so it is worth outlaying a little extra money and effort to ensure that the facilities are arranged in an efficient layout, thus optimising the workflow. Ideally, the shed should be either insulated or well-shaded, to maintain a reasonable temperature inside during summer. This makes working conditions more pleasant, and just as importantly, it is better for the product, because heat is one of the major factors in the reduction of vase-life. The floor should be concrete, with surface drainage for ease of cleaning. Workers who spend many hours standing at the processing benches will appreciate some sort of matting to stand on – for example rubber carpet underlay.
The ideal location for the shed is in the centre of the plantation (because of reduced distance to and from the crop), but there may be other considerations such as road access, electricity and the availability of clean water. The actual size will depend on the scale of your operation, but a minimum of 150sq metres is suggested.
Good light is very important, to aid in the inspection of product during grading – either natural light, or fluorescent lights placed directly over the processing benches. Incandescent lights generate heat, which is detrimental to both product and workers.
4.2.2 Shed equipment As with the actual shed, having the right equipment can make a grower’s life a lot easier. These days, occupational health and safety issues must always be considered. Are the floors slippery when wet? How are heavy items like buckets and boxes of flowers moved? Are chemicals safely used and stored?
The most basic requirement is a sorting table – more than one if there is room. As mentioned earlier, this bench should be well-lit, to aid the grading process. It needs to be deep enough to accommodate your longest stems, and long enough to accommodate a reasonable amount of product, in various stages of processing. It is
39 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling helpful to have 10cm graduations marked on it too, either along the edge or across the width of the bench.
Some growers at the workshop did not use a coolroom, but as it is generally accepted that maintaining the cool chain is one of the most important things in achieving an acceptable vase life, it is preferable to have one. Coolroom size should be determined by the amount of produce at peak times, not by the total production over a 12 month period. If the coolroom is to be larger than 4m x 4 m, the electricity supply should be 3-phase, for compressor motor efficiency. It should be run at 1 - 4 °C, with humidity of around 95%.
To maximise use of the vertical space in the coolroom, multishelf trolleys are a good idea. They can be used to easily move quantities of product in buckets from one area to another, saving time and aching backs.
If your product is either gassed or dipped in pesticide, care should be taken to ensure that people are not exposed to the chemicals, and that there is adequate ventilation. A drying area is required for dipped product.
It is desirable to have a selection of bucket sizes, to accommodate different stem lengths of product. This minimises damage to the product, and allows for efficient use of space during storage. If buckets are light-coloured or white, they can easily be checked for cleanliness.
There must be a ready supply of clean water, preferably rainwater. A grower at the workshop had noticed a significant improvement in vase life once he used rainwater for hydrating product. You will also need somewhere to clean those buckets – a sink or bath would serve the purpose. There needs to be space to store buckets when they are not in use, and also a clean dry area for carton storage.
Exhaust fumes from vehicles will reduce vase life, so vehicles should not enter the packing shed. Cigarette smoke is a similar problem, quite apart from any health issues regarding smoking while using chemicals. The simple answer is to declare the packing shed a smoke free zone – and enforce it!
4.2.3 Grading and bunching There are several distinct procedures involved in this part of processing – grading (for length and general quality), stripping off some of the leaves, and then the actual bunching - so it is worth learning from Henry Ford, and considering the benefits of a production-line system. There are several things that happen. By doing just one part of the job, you are saving time picking up and putting down equipment, and you can also concentrate better on the actual process. By swapping the jobs around every so often, you can avoid repetitive strain injuries, though you may find that a particular person comes to prefer (and be very good at) a certain job. The other advantage is, that what is basically a fairly mundane job, can be enlivened by having someone to talk to (so long as the workers can work and talk at the same time!).
A QUALITY BUNCH HAS: Good eye appeal, minimal damage to foliage, quality buds with good colouration, correct stem length and neatly trimmed stems. The stems in any particular bunch should all be the same length. There was a wide variation in
40 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling the content of bunches produced by growers at the workshop – most said they just did what their customers wanted. Some sold product as short as 20cm, others sold stems as long as 150cm; some sold by weight, others by number of stems in a bunch, and yet others sold individual stems. The following guidelines are those recommended by AUSBUD, and are reproduced here as a starting point in trying to standardise bunches.
Table 3: Bunch standards Bunch Type No. Stems Stem Length Min. Weight Foliage Standard 10 45 – 60cm 400gm Posy 20 30 – 45cm 300gm
Feature/Filler Bud Standard 5 50 – 60cm 500gm Posy 10 30 – 45cm 375gm
Feature Flowers Standard single 30cm (min) to buds Min. 3 groups buds, including 1 flower at early opening stage
The following steps will help you to produce that “quality bunch”. • Place cut product onto the sorting table. • Check that the stem is straight • If applicable, check that there is sufficient bud on the stem (one or two buds are not enough!) • Hand-strip 10-12cm of foliage from the bottom of the stem (being careful not to tear the bark). It may be necessary to actually cut some twigs off, in order not to damage the main stem. • Remove any tips that show signs of wilting – this should be minimal if the product has been picked at the correct stage. • Carefully inspect the leaves and/or buds. Trim off any blemished or insect- damaged material and discard it. If it is necessary to remove them, cut them off rather than pulling them off – again to avoid damage to the main stem • If they are long enough, branched stems may be dissected and can be included into the standard bunch, or put aside for a posy bunch. • Stems should be sorted by length and quality. Stems of lower quality SHOULD NOT BE INCLUDED into either standard or posy bunches. • If you cannot make the weight requirements for a standard bunch with the required number of stems, the shorter and lighter stems can be cut down and included in a posy bunch. • Make sure that all stems are cut evenly across the bottom of the bunch. This can be done either by pre-measuring and cutting each stem during grading, or by cutting all the stems once the bunch has been created. • Arrange the stems into a bunch, slip a rubber band (size 32) around one sturdy stem, then wind around the entire bunch a couple of times. Hook it around the end of another sturdy stem. Remember not to wind the rubber band too tightly, as this may restrict the uptake of water and cause bruising of the
41 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling
stems. However it must be tight enough to hold the bunch firmly, so that the presentation looks tidy. • The rubber band should be l0-12cm from the bottom of the stems (just below where the foliage has been stripped off) as product should be re-cut before being placed back into water. This is why, apart from appearance, it is important for stems to be even – any uneven stems could miss being re-cut and might die.
A couple of other hints: • Be careful to handle the foliage of waxy varieties (e.g. E. tetragona) as little as possible, as the wax is easily removed, resulting in the downgrading of your product. • Grow a quality product in the paddock – it will be less work on the sorting table!
4.2.4 Conditioning before packing Eucalypt foliage is well known for its long vase life, but the buds and flowers have more variable lasting qualities. At this time in the industry’s history, we are still building up a bank of experience upon which to base recommendations, mainly because there seems to be such a degree of variability in behaviour between species under given conditions. The health of the tree, the turgidity of the stem (the amount of water it contains) at the time of picking, and maintaining the cool chain from paddock to customer, are three very basic things that seem to have a noticeable effect across all the species currently being grown for floriculture. Growers mentioned some species that perform consistently well – E. tetragona, E. polyanthemos and some of the mallee types.
After bunching, foliage product should be placed into suitable buckets, containing clean water (rainwater if possible) and a germicide, such as chorine, then preferably into a cool room, for a minimum of two hours before packing. Some people also add citric acid to aid water uptake. The depth of water required generated some discussion – 10cm seems to be what most people use. The foliage of E. macrocarpa appears to be particularly sensitive to water splashes, especially if the water is very cold.
Growers at the workshop generally agreed that while the above treatment gives the longest vase life for foliage, they have had a variety of experiences with bud and flower species. While several feel that putting such product into water before packing actually shortens vase life, a number of others believe that up to two hours in water is beneficial. (See Section 4.1 – Picking). If left for longer than this, some buds (e.g. E. forrestiana) begin to produce a black, sticky ooze, which makes the stems unsaleable. With E. pterocarpa (‘Golden Swirl’), and E. fraseri/E. lesouefii (‘Silver Swirl’) the buds are unaffected, but the leaves develop dark, blotchy patches. These eventually disappear on ‘Golden Swirl’, but remain on the glaucous leaves of ‘Silver Swirl’.
A number of growers have experienced the problem of bud-blackening on small-bud species for other reasons than being too long in the coolroom. It seems that the health of the tree itself can be a factor, or in some cases, immaturity of the buds. Physical damage has been seen to cause the problem in E. erythrocorys. Another possible cause was thought to involve the oil glands. No scientific evidence exists to support or disprove these theories as yet.
42 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling
While the smaller bud species appear unaffected by a longer time in water, species like E. youngiana and E. pyriformis rapidly lose their caps. Growers of these products have found that it is best to store them dry at 2°C, if they are to be supplied in bud with the caps intact. In the experience of some growers, storage temperature (ideally about 2°C) is much more important for bud species than water.
Discussion also focussed on the benefits (or otherwise) of pulsing with sugar (sucrose). While it is supposed to provide food for the flowers, it certainly causes the caps to fall off and the flowers to open more quickly than they might otherwise do. If the product is to be sold in bud form, this is obviously a disadvantage. At concentrations greater than 5%, sucrose has been shown to cause leaves to go purple and dry out, thus reducing the vase life considerably (Delaporte et al 2000).
If the product needs to be dipped in fungicide before exporting, most growers prepare, bunch, hydrate and pre-cool the stems before dipping. Once dried, they can either be put back into water or packed immediately.
The issue of ethylene sensitivity is one that requires more investigation. While the foliage species do not generally seem to be affected, there has been stamen-drop reported with some flowering species. The possible benefits of using STS (silver thiosulphate) and nitric oxide need to be assessed.
Further research is presently being undertaken at the University of Adelaide, to identify optimal postharvest treatments for a range of species.
4.2.5 General hygiene Decaying plant material not only makes the packing shed look untidy, it produces gases that may affect the vase life of your product. Likewise, any accumulation of dust, gum or other debris can be picked up by the product during processing, and will detract from its appearance. Basic hygiene will solve these problems: • Clean the processing benches down with disinfectant after each use • Clean all buckets after each use, with chlorinated water and a sponge or brush • Clean up all discarded plant material after each day in the processing shed • Regularly discard any unsold product still held in the coolroom – the length of time it can be held and still have a good vase life will vary depending on the species • Thoroughly clean and oil secateurs after each use
4.3 Value-adding Value-adding is something that has the potential to give growers a much larger return for their investment. Think about what is going to happen to your product once you have sold it. Will it be dyed, dried, put into mixed bunches or into other types of arrangements? Could you do this yourself and increase your prices accordingly? By using the production line system mentioned earlier it might be possible to significantly increase the value of your product with a relatively small increase in time and labour.
Think about all the items that lavender growers create to sell their product – soap, hand lotion, greeting cards, even biscuits – to name but a few! What could you do? Eucalyptus foliage, which has been glycerined and/or dyed is extremely popular for
43 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling use in flower craft – it not only looks attractive, but also has a pleasant fresh smell. There is an expanding market for made-up mixed bunches, and small arrangements in pots and boxes. Other possibilities might include pot pourri and packaged seed capsules for the craft market. Obviously, if you can use more of your crop than just the flowers or foliage, there is a potential to increase your return per hectare.
4.4 Packing and distribution Assuming that you have decided to supply product to other than immediately local businesses, you will need to pack and transport it, so that it reaches the consumer in the best possible condition.
4.4.1 Which carton? Most often, this will involve the use of cardboard cartons. In the absence of any set standards, there are probably as many carton designs as there are wholesalers and exporters! Most seem to have their own particular requirements, so before you invest in hundreds of boxes (and they can be expensive), make sure just what your buyer wants – they may want you to use their own distinctively labeled containers. To maximise expensive freight space, it is advisable to use cartons that fit onto standard pallets with no wasted area.
The market destination will most often be the deciding factor in the size of the carton, and influence the choice of a one or two-piece box. For domestic (interstate) transport, most wholesalers prefer larger, one-piece cartons (nominally 20 - 25 kg). For the export market however, especially for Japan, the boxes may only hold a nominal 4kg, and are generally two-piece, with a bottom and a separate lid. The two-piece design is much stronger, and better able to withstand the rigours of many hours (and much handling) between farm gate and consumer. This is where an understanding of how the markets operate can make the difference between receiving a good per stem return, or a much lower one.
4.4.2 How to pack Once your product has been boxed, it will probably not be placed back into water until it reaches its destination, so do not pack it until just before you are ready to send it off to market. Especially if you are packing a lot of boxes, make sure that you are working at a comfortable height, so that you are not bending over too far, or stretching up too high.
Buyers will have different requirements about what is actually placed in each box, and you need to have found this out before you start! Some will want a “mixed” carton – a mixture of different lengths and maybe even different species. Others will want only one species of one length per box, and a specific number of bunches (particularly for export).
To assemble, many cartons will require taping with packing tape, so a dispenser is a worthwhile investment. Line the bottom of the box with clean paper (e.g. butchers’ paper). The product should be dry when packed, so that dampness doesn’t cause the cardboard to disintegrate.
Either count the bunches before you start packing (safer!) or count as you pack – OK for small boxes with only one layer). Starting at one end, pack the bunches side by
44 SECTION 4 - Picking and Postharvest Handling side, with the ends of the bunches to the middle. Depending on the size of the carton and the length of the product, you may be able to place another one or two rows facing this way. Then start at the other end of the box, again placing bunches side by side with the ends of the bunches to the middle. Carefully weave the ends between those lying in the other direction – this maximises use of space and minimises movement during transport. The next layer of product (if the box is deep enough to take it) will have the heads of bunches in reverse to the previous layer, which again reduces any waste space. The number of bunches in a carton will vary according to the volume of the container, the product variety and how well it packs. Overcrowding a box of foliage or bud can lead to bruising, rubbing or overheating the product. However, there can also be damage if the product is too loosely packed.
Place sheets of butchers’ paper on top of product, then close the box and strap it, using plastic strapping tape. Never tape the box right up with adhesive packing tape, as especially during the summer months, this can cause overheating, thus stressing the product so much that it may not recover. Two straps, one on either end of the box, will allow easier handling during transport. Strapping tape is much stronger than packing tape, which can break and lead to disaster during transport.
Some growers at the workshop had experimented with the use of longlife film when packing eucalypts. The film acts by lowering the oxygen level in the carton, while building up carbon dioxide. It has been extremely beneficial for products like Festival Bush (Ceratopetalum gummiferum), and while it has not yet been evaluated for eucalypts under controlled conditions, initial results seem promising.
Return each carton to the cool room until it is time to load them all for market. This is particularly important in hot weather, as changes in temperature cause loss of vase life for the end-user. If there is space in the cool room, it is even worthwhile chilling the cartons before they are filled.
Clearly mark cartons with the grower’s name, details of the contents, and the destination. Number each box, indicating also the total number of boxes in the shipment e.g. 1 of 6, 2 of 6 etc. The number of cartons in the shipment should be noted on the invoice, so that if any go astray, it is immediately obvious at the receiving end.
4.4.3 Transporting Transport the product from the farm in a closed truck or van, which is refrigerated or at least air-conditioned. Bouncing cartons around in the back of a utility or on a trailer, exposed to the elements, is a good way to ruin even something as hardy as eucalypt foliage, to say nothing of how many buds and flowers might drop off. If possible, send your product with a company that is familiar with handling flowers – they will be careful not to ship your product with fruits that are known to give off ethylene. Because, as mentioned earlier, not a lot is presently known about ethylene sensitivity of various eucalypt species, it is safer to avoid exposure to it.
On arrival at the airport or freight depot, ensure that your product is either loaded straight away, or put into their cool storage. If such facilities are not available, change your freight forwarder!
45 SECTION 5 – Marketing
5. Marketing In some ways, this section should be at the front of the manual – because if you are not growing what the market wants, you will probably have a very difficult time selling any quantity of your product. Because eucalypt growers need to invest considerable time and capital before there is much return, market research is even more important than it is for growers of other florist lines that will mature in only a few months.
There have been a number of reports published in the last few years, which discuss the potential for marketing wildflowers in general in various countries (See Section 7.1 –Reading for general information on wildflower growing and marketing), so these would be a good place to start your research. The other obvious sources of information are the wholesalers and exporters with whom you plan to start a business relationship, florists, and floral designers. More clues can be gathered by looking at the trends in home decorating and design, as displayed in the many magazines and TV shows that focus on these subjects and play a large part in influencing the fashion trends.
5.1 What is popular now? Global fashion trends begin in Europe and America, and then filter through to the rest of the world. At the time the workshop was held, the exporters present were finding that there was a great deal of interest overseas in new eucalypt products. Eucalypt foliage is grown in many countries around the world, which are much nearer the market centres than is Australia, and hence have a freight advantage. The interest therefore centres on species grown only in Australia, for their bud, flowers or seed capsules.
Brian Harris of Collina Export listed the following species as those that he has found are currently most in demand. For buds and/or flowers: E. pterocarpa (‘Golden Swirl’), E. forrestiana, E. transcontinentalis, E. fraseri/E. lesouefii (‘Silver Swirl’), E. torquata (‘Coral Bud’), E. crucis, E. yalatensis, E. gillii, E. erythrocorys, E. youngiana, E. georgei, E. hypochlamydea, and E. uncinata. For seed capsules: E. tetragona and E. youngiana
As noted in Section 2 – Choosing What to Grow, there are a number of Eucalyptus species currently being grown for foliage only. Eucalypt foliages are well known and popular, but because of vigorous competition on export markets, returns per stem are usually very low.
A grower asked how best to make the connection between marketers, growers and researchers. Exporters all have different clients, so it was suggested that samples be sent to five or six buyers to get feedback. The researchers at the University of Adelaide always send their primary selections from the breeding program to their industry partners, for feedback prior to secondary selection.
46 SECTION 5 – Marketing
Exporters at the workshop felt that it was important to look for compact forms, which have uniformity between stems, to aid packing. If the product is very large, it restricts the market to those who are prepared to pay.
5.2 The main markets The volume of flowers sold each day in the markets of USA, Japan and Europe is enormous, and it is here that the potential exists for increasing the sale of eucalypt products. There was discussion at the workshop about which parts of the tree were most valuable as a crop. The consensus of opinion was that while it was preferable to use to all material, on the export market, bud product was the most valuable, reliable and in demand, followed by flowers, capsules and foliage. Flowers can be successful on the domestic market, particularly for festive occasions such as Christmas.
5.2.1 Japan The Japanese auction system has been the main export market for Australian wildflowers for many years. Particularly in the early days, when the products were novel and in short supply, some astounding prices were achieved – provided that the product passed quarantine inspection. With increasing availability, prices have generally dropped, and have certainly become much more variable – with per stem returns just as often affected by the quantity of product available at the auction on the day, as by the quality. The main advantage of this system is the ability to move large volumes in a short time.
As Australian exporters have become more experienced, a number of them have developed relationships with Japanese wholesalers, who will offer fixed price contracts. While this will not guarantee the grower a better return than the auction, prices achieved are generally better than on a bad auction day. Individual growers must decide if they are prepared to risk the variations of the auction, or whether they are more comfortable with a fixed (and possibly lower) price.
The demand in this market is more for flowers, buds and capsules, rather than foliage, which is well-supplied from other cheaper sources. Japanese have strong preferences – they like unblemished leaves, and a bigger sized bud, which is a contrasting colour to the foliage. They don’t like anything small, but some that are not suitable for Japan, may be well-accepted in USA.
5.2.2 USA The USA is a high volume market, well-supplied with most floral commodities by both its own growers and those from South America. Until recently, American importers were scathing in their comments about both Australian exporters, and the product they sent. They played exporters off against one another, until prices were so low, there was no profit left for anyone in Australia. They said that the product was extremely variable in quality and poorly packed.
Through persistence, Australians have now found some high quality niche markets, which will pay good returns for novel products of good quality. This is where the potential lies for eucalypt flowers, buds and capsules. There are huge foliage plantations in America, but little variety, so there is also a possible market for more unusual eucalypt foliage.
47 SECTION 5 – Marketing
There is also a huge market for mixed bouquets supplied to supermarkets, but the challenges are many – extremely large quantities are required at very short notice, and the product is very price-sensitive. Everything must be bar-coded and sleeved, so if exporters want to enter this market, there needs to be a considerable investment in the technology required, and they need to know that supply is available to fill orders. One exporter at the workshop prefers to make his own bouquets, while another provides foliage bouquets, to which the buyer adds feature flowers. Generally, because of freight costs, only foliage from Australia will meet the required price point, but there are some species with very small, shiny buds, which have enormous potential to be marketed as “seeded eucalypts”.
5.2.3 Holland/Europe Foliage specialists in Holland and Europe provide another potential market for eucalypts. They handle high volumes, but again, the returns per stem to the grower are very low. Two of the exporters at the workshop felt that with current production techniques and high freight costs, Australian eucalypt foliage product could not compete in this market at present.
5.2.4 Other markets Questions were raised at the workshop about other markets. China, being a relatively near neighbour with a huge population, was an obvious target. Exporters felt that while there was potential, because there are many very wealthy Chinese, it is an extremely cost-sensitive market. They are keener to grow Australian wildflowers, than to buy them. While they don’t necessarily have the space, climate or soil for many Australian plants, eucalypts will grow there.
The United Kingdom, being the world’s fourth largest importer of flowers, also interested some growers. Exporters said they had made several forays into this market with varying success. Growers need to aim for the top end of the market, because the lower reaches are well-supplied by Holland and Israel.
There are niche markets in some European countries, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Korea. Exporters have had exchange rate problems in Hong Kong, and have found that Koreans tend to be late payers.
India is a possible future market, because there are some very wealthy people there, but lack of infrastructure (e.g. to maintain the cool chain) is a constraint at present. Indonesia also has infrastructure problems, and there is wide-spread corruption, which adds a further impediment to profitable marketing there. The Middle East and Bahrain are huge markets, where there is a lot of money.
Research needs to be done to ascertain the potential for mass acceptance of eucalypt species. There are no guaranteed markets. You need to talk to buyers about what they want, and what they are prepared to pay, and then decide whether you can grow the desired product for that price. You also need to know the size of the market for the particular product.
48 SECTION 5 – Marketing
5.3 Main competitors Eucalypts have been grown around the world for many years, and countries like France and Italy produce top quality foliage such as E. gunnii, E. crenulata, and E. cinerea, very cheaply – they have no problems with pests!
In the USA, particularly in California, eucalypts are commodity foliages. Californians grow mainly ‘Baby Blue’, which is sold fresh, or dyed (transpirationally preserved) in a range of beautiful colours.
Israel is a potential future competitor, because the government is interested in currency, and the other challenge is coming from tropical commodity foliages like Salal. It is therefore important that Australia preserves that which is unique, so higher prices are achieved.
5.4 Issues to be addressed While eucalypts have enormous potential as an export crop, they are relatively new products in commercial production, and there are still many hurdles to be overcome. Growers are still learning the best way to grow the various species – how much water and how often, pruning regimes etc. Problems with bud failure seem to be at least partly due to incorrect picking time – so growers need to be able to assess the right time. Flower species (e.g. E. ficifolia) should be picked with the caps cracked and about to come off, and one flower open. It may be beneficial to develop a treatment to open the flowers after delivery. The optimum postharvest treatments for each species are yet to be determined.
A major impediment to success on the export market is the problem of how to pack dramatic species like E. youngiana, E. pyriformis and E. macrocarpa. The size of the product influences packing and freight costs, and the resulting per stem costs. Stem conformity is important for packout efficiency, that is, a consistent number of similar stems in each carton of the particular product. The comment was made that E. tetragona capsules are a model crop – they are spectacular, in demand, terminal flowering, and the packout rate is reasonable.
Insects (which can hide in capsules, and therefore be very difficult to kill) and various diseases (e.g. stem cankers), have caused quarantine problems, particularly in Japan and USA. There has been confusion among inspectors at some ports in America, regarding the legality of accepting shipments that contain seed capsules. Up until a few years ago, it was illegal, and Australian exporters believe that it was being used as a non-tariff trade barrier. That is no longer the case, but shipments are subjected to rigorous inspection, and rejected if any disease is found. Quarantine inspectors, both in Australia and USA, need to be educated about eucalypts for this reason.
Because of these issues, one exporter recommended that everything should be fumigated, regardless of its destination. He suggested using phosphene or nitric oxide gas. For this purpose, a simple fumigation room can be made out of black plastic and timber. Another exporter however, said that there have been problems with reduced vase life after gassing with phosphene. Researchers at the Institute for Horticultural Development at Knoxfield, Victoria, have done some work on this issue, and there is a RIRDC publication available (See Section 7.3 - Reading for cultivation and care).
49 SECTION 5 – Marketing
One grower had tried dipping E. tetragona in Cislan, but this had taken off the waxy “silver” bloom. It seems that until a satisfactory treatment can be developed, the best solution is to keep the product as clean, healthy and pest-free as possible in the field.
In addition to the above challenges, exporters addressing the workshop felt that continuity of supply, and a reasonable length of season for a particular product, would both affect the sustainability of the eucalypt cut flower industry. They suggested that plantings should be coordinated across Australia, with the same species grown in different areas to extend availability.
5.5 Promotion There was lively discussion about how best to promote eucalypts, including whether to use common or botanical names. Both names are required on export documentation, however, the exporters advised that it was as good idea to continue, and indeed broaden, the use of common names – customers need to be able to pronounce them and remember them! They suggested that growers work with FECA (Flower Export Council of Australia) to standardise and develop acceptable trade names. This would also apply to the hybrids being developed at the University of Adelaide. The researchers present said that they would also need to involve the PBR (Plant Breeders’ Rights) office in the selection of names for these new varieties. The issue was further complicated because sometimes a marketing name covers a group of species (e.g. ‘Silver Swirl’), so it is extremely important to keep all those involved properly informed.
Another point that caused debate was the number of different eucalypt products on the market currently, and the best procedure for introducing new species. There were two distinct opinions. Some thought that it was best to produce fewer lines really well, while others felt that it was important to have new products coming on all the time – at least two a year. New products are an opportunity to increase market share, though inevitably, there will eventually be a decrease in demand for “older” lines, as they become less fashionable.
Trade shows are a good place to introduce novel lines, and FECA has had success with display and information stands at Dutch and Japanese events. They have also had a recent promotion in China. Another way to introduce new lines, if unable to have direct representation at trade shows, is to send samples to good wholesalers for use on their stands. In Japan, displays in the foyers of the auction houses will showcase the product to prospective buyers. There is definitely a potential to increase Australia’s share of the Japanese and American markets. Influential American television personality and business owner, Martha Stewart, is producing a feature on Australian flowers in conjunction with FECA. This is expected to create a huge demand for Australian product. By working together under the FECA banner, exporters can effectively promote Australian product at a lower individual cost.
Floral design is a fashion industry, and florists are always looking for something new and different. The problem from the growers’ point if view, is to ascertain just how big the market might be. While a potential new product needs to be assessed for market acceptance, exporters believe that it is important not to “talk it up” too much before there are reliable supplies available. It can take five years to push a new product into the market, and education of florists overseas (for example through face-
50 SECTION 5 – Marketing to-face demonstrations, or video training) should be a vital part of any promotion campaign.
Some state governments are running promotions, which can involve cut flower growers. Queensland has had successful forays into Korea, and these have opened up some interesting opportunities. Exporters now need to work with the government to overcome payment and quarantine problems.
There was general agreement among exporters that Australia does have a “clean green” image, which can be used as a promotional tool, because this aspect of production is becoming increasing important on world markets. Some growers are using “Australian Plantation-grown” stickers to emphasise that their product is not bush-picked. One exporter is using tags with Australian animals printed on them, to differentiate Australian-grown Australian flowers from those produced elsewhere in the world.
The discussion then turned to the benefits of internet technology. All the exporters agreed that these days, an internet site is a valuable marketing and promotional tool. It is not only a point of contact, but can list available product, and prices. With pictures showing both the individual lines and arrangements using the product in season, it can also serve as a device to educate buyers. There are now systems available, which will allow direct ordering and payment of accounts through a secure site. This can also be extended to include growers who are supplying the exporters.
In summary, effective promotion overseas is expensive, and is best left to the marketers. Grower groups can act as contact points for those marketers to access product, and to feed back information on market trends.
51 SECTION 6 – Research Opportunities
6. Research Opportunities All present at the workshop agreed that it had been a valuable and worthwhile exercise. It provided an excellent opportunity for members of all sectors of the eucalypt industry to exchange information and opinions. Delegates therefore decided that they would meet again in approximately two years, with the objective of reviewing new information, and subsequently updating this guide.
There were a number of areas identified, where further formal research would be of major benefit to the profitability of the industry.
6.1 Variety selection and improvement The hybrids being developed at the University of Adelaide excited a great deal of interest and enthusiasm amongst the workshop attendees. Delegates had the opportunity to see these trees growing in plantation conditions, and to rate them for their suitability as cut flower crops. The feedback from growers will be used to assist in the selection of superior hybrids for further development. All at the workshop agreed that the research into breeding and varietal selection was extremely worthwhile, and should be continued into the foreseeable future.
6.2 Propagation The hybrids being developed at the University of Adelaide will require clonal propagation to ensure they remain true-to-type, and the development of clonal propagation techniques is vital to the commercial viability of the Industry. Research into methods such as grafting, cutting propagation and tissue culture should continue.
6.3 Nutrition To produce top quality product at reasonable cost, the nutrition requirements of the various eucalypt species in commercial production need to be investigated. At present, some growers add no fertiliser at all, while others give regular applications. Could the production of the “no fertiliser” plantations be significantly improved by use of various fertilisers? If so, what should be applied, and when? Will this vary much for the same species depending on the location of the plantation? Are those growers presently using fertilisers getting value for their money? Could they be using less, or something different, or should it be applied at a different time in the growing cycle? Answers to these questions should make growing eucalypts a more profitable exercise.
6.4 Irrigation With increasing demands being placed on dwindling water resources, the price of water will go up. This means that more than ever, it is important for growers to make best use of the water available to them. Eucalypt growers need to be able to apply the right amount of water at the right time, for optimum growth and quality of flowers. How much water do the various species need and how often? Should growers apply a little water often, or greater volumes less often? How is this related to the soil and climatic conditions? Some growers felt that it was a good idea to try and replicate the watering patterns the tree experiences in its natural environment. Is there any validity in this theory? Again, there are many questions that need answers, to facilitate sustainable production.
52 SECTION 6 – Research Opportunities
6.5 Pest and disease management Being Australian native plants, eucalypts are subject to attack from many different diseases and insect pests. What is the best way to manage these problems? The answer must take into account cost, social and environmental issues, and impact on the quality of the product. Some pesticides have been shown to damage foliage, or shorten vase life, so, which are the most effective for the commercial cut flower species? Are there natural alternatives to chemical sprays e.g. safe and effective biological controls, or the use of “bait” trees in the plantation, which are preferred hosts? Pesticides are expensive and time-consuming to use, and so can have a serious effect on plantation profitability.
6.6 Pruning All growers agreed that pruning was necessary to produce a quality product. What they did not agree about was just how that should be done. Should the tree be cut back very hard at harvest, and maybe only produce a crop (but a superior one) every two years? Do the same techniques apply to the same species when grown in a different area? Is there a way to train some of the taller species, by espalier, for example, so that they produce more saleable stems closer to the ground? The development of recommended pruning techniques will enable growers to increase their returns per hectare, and will probably extend the commercial life of the trees. The current University of Adelaide work will provide valuable knowledge for growers, and needs to be expanded when possible.
6.7 Postharvest Treatments This was the area where there were perhaps the most divergent opinions amongst the delegates, and it is one where there are many questions that require answers. It appears that different treatments may work better for one species than another, so growers need to know what is the most beneficial and cost-effective for their particular product. How can the stage of development of the bud/flower at the time of picking be quantified? How does the maturity of the stem at the time of picking affect the lasting qualities? Cold rooms are expensive, so just how much difference do they make to the effective vase life of different species? Are there additives that can significantly extend vase life? Are certain species sensitive to ethylene, and if so, what postharvest treatments will be most effective in protecting the product? Work currently under way at the University of Adelaide will provide some important direction, but there is still a great deal more to be investigated.
6.8 Packing A number of the species currently being grown are limited in their marketability, because they do not pack and/or travel well. While breeding, and pruning to shape the tree, may be of some benefit in the future, attention may also need to be paid to the development of specialised packing materials, such as are used by growers of some other cut flowers. The main short term issue however, is the development of bunching standards, which are widely recognised and used throughout the industry. Without this standardisation, growers are at a disadvantage in the market place, because buyers are not able to accurately compare the value of similar products. Freight is a large part of a grower's cost structure, so attractive, efficient, cost-effective packaging is a prime requirement for improved profitability.
53 SECTION 6 – Research Opportunities
6.9 Marketing Marketing was discussed in depth during the workshop. Specific market research about eucalypt products could provide further direction for variety improvement and value adding.
6.10 Quality Assurance While this issue was not discussed at the workshop, Quality Assurance will need to be addressed in the future. A first step will be the development and wide implementation of standard products and presentation.
54 SECTION 7 – Further Information
7. Further Information There are many sources of further information for the growers who wish to expand their knowledge about eucalypts and where best to market them, as well as the wildflower industry in general.
7.1 Reading for information on wildflower growing and marketing Beckingham, C. & Gollnow, B. 1998. Commercial Realities of Cutflower Production: Conference and Farm Visits, 22-24 May 1998, South Grafton, NSW. NSW Agriculture, NSW. Brooks, P. 2001. Flower Export Statistics. RIRDC publication No 01/097. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Carson, C. 2000. Should I Grow Wildflowers? Agrilink Agdex 294/10. Department of Primary Industries, Queensland. Cass, A., Slater, T. & Tregea, W.1996. Growing Wildflowers for Profit. Institute for Horticultural Development, Knoxfield Victoria. Faragher, J., Slater, T., Joyce, D. & Williamson, V. 2002. Postharvest Handling of Australian Flowers. RIRDC Publication No. 02/021. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Horsman, C. 2000. Domestic Market Analysis for Wildflowers. RIRDC Publication No.00/42. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Horsman, C. 2000. Wildflower Marketing Workshop. RIRDC Publication No. 00/125. Hyde, K.W. 1998. The New Rural Industries, a Handbook for Farmers and Investors. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. James, K. 1999. A Study of the Canadian Flower Market. RIRDC Publication No. 99/34. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. James, K. 1999. A Study of the Taiwan Flower Market. RIRDC Publication No. 99/40. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. McKinna, D. et al. 2001. A Study of the USA and Canadian Flower Markets. RIRDC Publication No. 00/181. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra, and Commonwealth Department of Industry, Science and Resources, Canberra. Slater, T. 1997. Victorian Cut Flower Export Best Bet Analysis. ExpHort 2000 Publication No. 8. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria. Slater, T. 1999. Victorian Cut Flower Export Best Bet Analysis. ExpHort 2000 Publication No.79. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria. Slater, T. & Faragher, J. 2000. Wildflowers the Beginning 2nd Edition. Agriculture Victoria Knoxfield, Institute for Horticultural Development, Victoria.
7.2. Reading for eucalypt species selection and general information Brooker, M.I.H. 2000. A New Classification of the Genus Eucalyptus L’Her. (Myrtaceae). Australian Systematic Botany 13, 79-148. Brooker, M.I.H. & Kleinig, D.A. 1990. Field Guide to Eucalyptus, Volume 2: South- western and Southern Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne and Sydney Brooker, M.I.H. & Kleinig, D.A. 1994. Field Guide to Eucalyptus, Volume 3: Northern Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne and Sydney Brooker, M.I.H. & Kleinig, D.A. 1999. Field Guide to Eucalyptus, Volume 1: South Eastern Australia, 2nd Edition. Bloomings Books, Hawthorn.
55 SECTION 7 – Further Information
Brooker, I. & Kleinig, D. 1996. Eucalyptus – An Illustrated Guide to Identification. Reed Books, Melbourne. Chippendale, G.M. 1968. Eucalyptus Buds and Fruits. Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra. Chippendale, G.M. 1973. Eucalypts of the Western Australian Goldfields. Department of Primary Industries, Forestry and Timber Bureau. Australian Government Printing Service. Chippendale, G.M. 1988. Flora of Australia, Volume 19: Eucalyptus, Angophora (Myrtaceae). Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Delaporte, K.L. 2001. Gumnuts Galore: Current Research and Adventures with Ornamental Eucalypts. ANFP Conference: Commercial Native Flower Growing in Western N.S.W, Gilgandra, NSW, 11-12th August, 2001. Delaporte, K.L., Collins, G., Conran, J., Klieber, A. & Sedgley, M. 1999. Development of Ornamental Eucalypts. Proceedings of the 5th Australian Wildflower Conference, Melbourne, 14th to 17th April, 1999. pp:51-52. Delaporte, K.L., Conran, J. & Sedgley, M. 2000. Hybridisation in Eucalyptus ser. Curviptera: a Morphological Study. Flowers 2000: The First Australian Flower Conference, Tumbi-Umbi, New South Wales, 2-6 August, 2000. Delaporte, K. L., Conran, J.G. & Sedgley, M. 2001. Interspecific Hybridisation Between Three Closely Related Ornamental Eucalyptus Species: E. macrocarpa, E. youngiana and E. pyriformis. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 76(4):384-391. Delaporte, K. L., Conran, J.G. & Sedgley, M. 2001. Interspecific Hybridisation Within Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae): Subgenus Symphyomyrtus, Sections Bisectae and Adnataria. International Journal of Plant Science 162(6):1317-1326. Delaporte, K. L., Conran, J.G. & Sedgley, M. 2001 Morphological Analysis to Identify the Pollen Parent of an Ornamental Hybrid Eucalyptus. Scientia Horticulturae 89(2001):55-72 Delaporte, K.L., Klieber, A. & Sedgley, M. 2000. Postharvest Vase Life of Flowering Eucalyptus. Ornamentals Update 15(3):7-8. Delaporte, K L., Klieber, A. & Sedgley, M. 2000. Postharvest Vase Life of Two Flowering Eucalyptus species. Postharvest Biology and Technology 19:181- 186. Delaporte, K.L. & Sedgley, M. 2002. Gumnuts Galore: the Pursuit of the Ultimate Eucalypt. Proceedings of the 6th Australian Wildflower Conference, Sydney, 30th May to 1st June, 2002. Delaporte, K.L. & Sedgley, M. 2000. Ornamental Eucalypts – Species for Cut Bud and Flower production. Australian Plants 20:354-359. Eldridge, K., Davidson, J., Harwood, C. & van Wyk, G. 1993. Eucalyptus Domestication and Breeding. Oxford University Press, New York. French, M.E. 1996. The Special Eucalypts: Perth and the South-west. F&N Publications. Hill, K.D. & Johnson, L.A.S. 1994. Systematic Studies in the Eucalypts - 7: A revision of the Bloodwoods, genus Corymbia (Myrtaceae). Telopea 6(2-3):182- 225 & 500-504 Kelly, S., Chippendale, G. & Johnston, R. 1989. Eucalypts – Volume I & II. Penguin Books Australia, Melbourne. Nicolle, D. 1997. Eucalypts of South Australia. Lane Print Group, South Australia. Payne, W.H. 1996. Name Change for our Eucalypts. Australian Plants 18(148):362.
56 SECTION 7 – Further Information
Wirthensohn, M. & Sedgley, M. 1996. Epicuticular wax structure and regeneration on developing juvenile Eucalyptus leaves. Australian Journal of Botany 44:691– 704. Wirthensohn, M.G., Sedgley, M. & Ehmer, R. 1996. Production and Postharvest treatment of cut stems of Eucalyptus L. Her. Foliage. HortScience 31:1007- 1009. Wirthensohn, M.G. & Sedgley, M. 1998. Effect of pruning on regrowth of cut foliage stems of seventeen Eucalyptus species. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38:631-636. Wirthensohn, M.G., Collins, G., Jones, G.P. & Sedgley, M. 1999. Variability in waxiness of Eucalyptus gunnii foliage for floriculture. Scientia Horticulturae 82:279-288. Wirthensohn, M.G. & Sedgley, M. 2000. Production, Postharvest treatment and epicuticular wax structure of cut stems of Eucalyptus L’Her. foliage. Acta Horticulturae 518:183-186.
7.3. Reading for cultivation and care Attiwill, P.M. & Andrews, M. 1996. Nutrition of Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing Australia. Deli, B., Malajczuk, N., & Grove, T.S. 1995. Nutrient Disorders in Plantation Eucalypts. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. Hanold, D. & Randles, J.W. 1999. A Field Guide to Mundalla Yellows. University of Adelaide, Adelaide. Keane, P.J., Kile, G.A., Podger, F.D & Brown, B.N. 2000. Disease and Pathogens of Eucalypts. CSIRO Publishing Australia. Insect Pests of Eucalypts on Farmland and in Plantations in South-eastern Australia. CSIRO identification leaflets. CSIRO Publishing Australia. Jones, D. & Elliot, R. 1995. Pests, Diseases and Ailments of Australian Plants. Lothian Books. Phillips, C. 1996. Insects, Diseases and Deficiencies Associated with Eucalypts in South Australia. Primary Industries SA Forests. Williams, P. 2000. Improved Fumigation for Export Wildflowers. RIRDC Publication No. 00/41. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
57 SECTION 7 – Further Information
7.4 Useful websites
Government departments and other organisations Website address
Agriculture Western Australia www.agric.wa.gov.au Australian Flora & Protea Growers Association www.afpga.com.au Australian Quarantine Service www.aqis.gov.au Dept. Natural Resources and Environment Victoria www.nre.vic.gov.au Dept. Primary Industries and Fisheries Tasmania www.dpif.tas.gov.au Flower Export Council of Australia www.feca.org.au Flowers Victoria www.flowersvic.com.au NSW Agriculture and Fisheries www.agric.nsw.gov.au Primary Industries South Australia www.pir.sa.gov.au Queensland Department of Primary Industries www.dpi.qld.gov.au Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation www.rirdc.gov.au South Australian Research and Development Institute www.sardi.sa.gov.au The University of Adelaide, Dept. of Hort., Vit. & Oen. www.adelaide.edu.au/hvo
Exporters Website address
Collina Export www.collinaexport.com.au Flora Marketing Australia Pty. Ltd. www.floramarketing.com. au Floratrade International Pty. Ltd. www.floratrade.com IHM Australia Pty. Ltd. www.ihmaustralia.com.au The Australian Flower Company www.austflower.com.au Total Flowers www.totalexports.com WAFEX www.wafex.com.au
58 SECTION 8 – Appendices
8. Appendices Appendix 1 - List of attendees
Business Name Postal Address Town Phone Fax Email Collina Export Brian Harris P.O. Box NFC567, Footscray VIC 3011 0396896600 0396895222 [email protected] Melbourne Mkts, 542 Footscray Rd Longford Flowers Denis Tricks 35 Gordon Street Hampton VIC 3188 0395985151 0395981509 [email protected] APS Euc study group Tam Kendall/ P.O. Box 2002 Rangeview VIC 3132 0398742849 - [email protected] Werner Kutsche 41 Norrie Avenue Clovelly Park SA 5042 Redlands Farming Geoff & Vic Sullivan MS 599 Jandowae QLD 4410 0746686118 0746686191 [email protected] Gundy Eucalypts Diane & Robert Cairns P.O. Box 832 Goondiwindi QLD 4390 0746712005 0746714225 [email protected] Lange Farming Trust David Lange MS 501 Dalby QLD 4405 0746921285 0746921293 [email protected] Great Aussie Flower Brian Richards P.O. Box 61 Crows Nest QLD 4355 0746981531 0746981700 - 59 Growers
Carlingford Jeanette & James Carlingford Garah NSW 2405 0267548117 0267548128 [email protected] Matchett Yallaroo Ian Mulcahy Yallaroo Gilgandra NSW 2827 0268471198 0268471192 - Kyreema Richard & Geraldine Kyreema Carroll NSW 2340 0267431713 0267431713 [email protected] Austin Winchburg Partnership Kim Goldsmith P.O. Box 933 Dubbo NSW 2830 0268879262 0268879211 [email protected] Kiaka Associates Gerard Faber P.O. Box 20 Longwood SA 5153 0883882212 0883882535 [email protected] Kandara Flowers Marjory Stuckey P.O. Box 471 Millicent SA 5280 0887343036 0887343079 [email protected] Sunnyhill Trees Trevor & Pam Burk P.O. Box 186 Moonta SA 5558 0888252952 0888252952 - Calperum Station Michael & Tamara P.O. Box 955 Renmark SA 5341 0885957359 0885957360 [email protected] Boland & Len Davis Bald Hills Nursery Ray Purches & Alan R.M.B 7242 Wangaratta VIC 3678 0357253270 0357253270 [email protected] Gibb Murray River Gum Doug & Cathy Wright P.O. Box 2393 Cobram VIC 3644 0358722495 0358722495 [email protected] Australian Bush & Ray Scudds 202 Clenton Road Gidgegannup WA 6083 0895747064 0893583241 [email protected] Flower
SECTION 8 – Appendices
Business Name Postal Address Town Phone Fax Email Jerry’s Plains Wayne & Tanya Oliver 26 Oakes Street Karong NSW 2250 0243405046 - - Wildflowers Saxon Farms Misha King 149 Old West Road Bullsbrook WA 6084 0895713070 0895713070 Peacock Road Flower Dale Turner & Jan Lloyd P.O. Box 365 Fullarton SA 5063 0411591951 0883898096 [email protected] Farm RR Willson Robert Willson & Hazel 3/22 Montpelier Exeter SA 5019 0421994051 0883498085 - Robertson Street SA Native Flowers Cherie Tilley P.O. Box 128 Lucindale SA 5272 0887662066 0887662246 [email protected] IHM Australia Brian Freeman P.O. Box 700 Gosford NSW 2250 0243239501 0243239504 [email protected] Martin & Michelle Smith 189 Konda Road Somersby NSW 2250 0243721202 - - The University of Professor Margaret Dept. H.V.O, Waite Glen Osmond SA 5064 0883037248 0883037116 [email protected] Adelaide Sedgley Campus, PMB 1 The University of Kate Delaporte Dept. H.V.O, Waite Glen Osmond SA 5064 0883036665 0883037116 [email protected] Adelaide Campus, PMB 1 TCTV Video Christine & Tony C/- Post Office Kersbrook SA 5231 0883893057 0883893057 [email protected] Productions Horsman 60 -
SECTION 8 – Appendices
Appendix 2 – Workshop program
Saturday 22nd June 2002 Topic Speaker 8:00- 8:15 Welcome Welcome to the workshop Prof. M. Sedgley 8:15-10:15 Session 1 Varietal selection: what, why and Dr. Kate Delaporte where should you grow? 10:15-10:30 Morning tea 10:30-12:30 Session 2 Marketing: what, where and how Brian Harris, should you sell Collina Export and panel 12:30- 1:30 Lunch 1:30- 3:00 Session 3 Postharvest: making the most of Panel lead by your product Denis Tricks 3:00- 3:15 Afternoon tea 3:15- 5:30 Session 4 Production: how to get the best Panel lead by from your eucalypts Geoff Sullivan 5:30- 6:00 Wrap-up Summary of day’s sessions, Dr. Kate Delaporte close of workshop
Saturday 22nd dinner 7:00 for 7:30pm at Eagle on the Hill Restaurant, à la carte menu.
Sunday 23rd June 2002 Time Activity 8:00 am Depart Waite 9:00 am Arrive State Flora, Murray Bridge, for inspection of Eucalyptus hybrids and cut flower trial 9:35 am Depart Murray Bridge 10:00 am Arrive Monarto Woodland, Callington, for bush walk and morning tea 11:15 am Depart Monarto Woodland 12:30 pm Arrive Waite Campus, lunch provided 1:15 - 2:45 Tour of Eucalyptus breeding programme 3:00 - 3:15 Refreshments 3:15 - 4:00 Quick tour of the University of Adelaide facilities available to the Eucalyptus breeding programme (greenhouse, tissue culture)
61 SECTION 8 – Appendices
Appendix 3 – The role of elements in plant growth Certain elements are necessary for plant health and growth - in particular nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Plants also need calcium, magnesium and sulphur, in smaller quantities. Trace elements are those that are only required in very small quantities, but are nonetheless vital for healthy plant growth. They include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron and molybdenum.
Some of these elements, their main plant functions and forms as compounds are:
Nitrogen (N): This element governs the growth of the plants, particularly leaf and stem development. Too much nitrogen will result in soft, leafy, disease-prone plants. Organic sources of N include blood and bone fertiliser, animal manure containing urine, and fowl manure. Inorganic sources are urea, ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate.
Phosphorus (P): This is an important substance for root growth and the production of flowers and fruit. Organic sources are bones, bone dust, blood and bone fertiliser, fish fertiliser and animal manure. Inorganic sources are superphosphate and rock phosphate.
Potassium (K): Also known as potash, it is important in the formation of plant tissue, in the quality and strength of growth, and in the development of flowers and fruit. It also acts as a general deterrent to plant disease. Organic sources are dried blood, blood and bone fertiliser, decayed plant wood tissues, wood ash and animal manure. Inorganic sources are potassium sulphate, potassium chloride and potassium nitrate.
Calcium (Ca): This element neutralises acidity in the soil, promotes bacterial activity and helps the plant deal with harmful substances absorbed by the roots. It is also essential for the proper growth and functioning of root tips. Sources include lime (calcium carbonate), gypsum (calcium sulphate) and dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate).
Magnesium (Mg): This substance assists plants in the use of nitrogen and the formation of green colouring matter in the leaves (chlorophyll). It also plays an important part in the transport of phosphorus in the plant. Sources include dolomite and Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate).
Sulphur (S): This nutrient promotes the synthesis of protein. It is available to plants from ammonium sulphate, superphosphate and gypsum.
62 SECTION 8 – Appendices
Appendix 4 – Plant nutrient availability chart
The availability to plants of nutrient elements varies with pH in this manner in mineral soils. The wider the bar, the greater the availability. From Truog, E. US Dep. Agr. Yearbook, 1941-47, pp566-576.
63 SECTION 8 – Appendices
Appendix 5 – Potentially useful insecticides
The following is a list of some of the insecticides that may be of benefit to growers, once a specific pest has been identified. These chemicals are poisons and should be used strictly according to label recommendations.
Organophosphates Active constituent: dimethoate (e.g. Folimat 800 ) Controls aphids, lace bugs, mealy bugs, mites, thrips, whiteflies
Active constituent: anticholinesterase compound (e.g. Chlorphos, Chloryfos) Controls larvae of scarab beetles. (Caution: drenching may cause root damage and should be tested on a few plants before widespread use).
Carbamates Active constituent: carbaryl (e.g. Bugmaster Flowable) Controls wingless grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, chewing insects, sucking pests. (Caution: Because of the wide range of ornamentals and their pests, efficacy of this product cannot be guaranteed. It may be phytotoxic, so test on a small area before widespread use. A spotty white residue may remain on leaves). . Pyrethroids Active constituent: tua-fluvalinate (nerve poison) (e.g. Mavrick Aquaflow ) Controls native budworms, corn earworms, two-spotted mites. Where foliage may be difficult to wet due to dust, hairiness or waxy leaves, and where mite control is required, the addition of a surfactant is recommended. Thorough coverage is essential.
Pemethrin Registered for ornamentals and can be used as a spot spray to control beetles, caterpillars and borers. Comes in a pressure can pack.
Pyrethrins Pyrethrin P.B.O Controls greenhouse whiteflies, aphids, thrips, leafhoppers, caterpillars. A natural product, which breaks down quickly in sunlight. Spray in the late afternoon for the best results. Probably best used as a spot spray for small groups of pests. Comes in a pressure can pack.
64 Section 8 – Appendices
Appendix 6 – Domestic market prices for eucalypts Wholesale prices ($AUD) of “gum foliage”, “gum nuts” and “tetragona nuts” on domestic markets, December 2000 to May 2002. (Growers receive returns of about two thirds of these figures.) “gum foliage” average “gum nuts” average “tetragona nuts” average by by by month month month month NSW VIC SA QLD WA NSW VIC SA QLD WA NSW VIC SA QLD WA Dec-00 5.00 2.50 5.00 5.00 3.00 4.10 5.75 4.00 6.50 5.42 5.75 5.75 Jan-01 Feb-01 3.00 2.50 5.70 3.73 5.00 6.50 5.75 na Mar-01 6.50 2.50 4.50 5.00 3.00 4.30 6.00 5.50 5.75 na Apr-01 4.00 3.00 5.00 5.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 6.00 5.75 5.00 6.25 5.67 May-01 4.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 3.00 3.60 6.25 6.25 5.75 6.25 6.00 Jun-01 3.00 4.50 4.75 3.00 3.81 6.00 4.00 5.00 5.50 6.00 5.00 6.25 5.69 Jul-01 4.00 3.00 5.00 4.75 3.00 3.95 6.00 6.25 6.13 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.00 Aug-01 4.00 3.00 4.50 5.00 3.00 3.90 6.00 5.00 6.00 5.67 5.75 6.00 5.00 6.25 5.75 Sep-01 3.50 3.00 4.50 5.00 3.00 3.80 6.00 5.00 6.00 5.67 6.00 5.00 6.50 5.83 65 Oct-01 4.00 3.00 4.50 5.00 3.50 4.00 5.00 5.00 na Nov-01 4.00 2.50 4.50 5.00 3.50 3.90 6.00 5.00 6.50 5.83 5.00 6.50 5.75 Dec-01 4.00 3.00 4.50 5.50 3.50 4.10 6.00 5.00 5.50 5.00 6.25 5.63 Jan-02 Feb-02 4.00 3.00 5.00 5.50 3.50 4.20 5.00 6.50 5.75 na Mar-02 4.00 3.00 5.00 5.50 3.50 4.20 6.00 7.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 7.25 Apr-02 May-02 4.00 3.00 5.50 3.50 4.00
average by 4.14 2.87 4.66 5.11 3.21 4.00 5.75 5.73 5.13 6.22 5.71 5.71 5.80 5.46 6.47 3.50 5.86 state
Sourced from Australian Horticulture cutflower price index.