Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition

Chapter 1: The Land and Native People

Tennessee has a great variety of rivers, landforms, climate regions, and plant and animal species. Numerous groups of people have settled in Tennessee beginning with Native Americans about 12,000 years ago. The lasting impact of Native Americans can be seen in the number of places with Native American names. In fact, the name “Tennessee” comes from the Native American word “Tanasi.” Settlers came to Tennessee to take advantage of its abundant natural resources, so it seems fi tting to begin by describing the land of Tennessee. Tennessee divides naturally into three “grand divisions:” East Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee. East Tennessee is an upland, oft en mountainous

Western Valley Eastern Highland Rim

Mississippi Valley River West Central Western Cumberland And Valley Tennessee Basin Plain Highland Plateau Ridge Rim

Unaka Mountains

West Tennessee Uplands Coastal Plain

0 25 50 75 100 Miles Inner Basin Sequatchie Valley Scale Physiographic Map of Tennessee region. Middle Tennessee has foothills surrounding a lowland area known as a basin. Th e land of West Tennessee is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Travelers coming to the state from the east fi rst encounter the towering Unaka and Smoky Mountains, followed by the Great Valley of East Tennessee. Moving across the Valley fl oor, they next face the Cumberland Plateau, which historically attracted little settlement and presented a barrier to westward migration. West of the Plateau, the terrain descends into the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee—a rolling, fertile countryside that drew hunters and settlers alike. Th e Central Basin is surrounded on all sides by the Highland Rim—the western ridge of which drops into the Tennessee River Valley. Across the river in West Tennessee begin the low hills and alluvial plain. An alluvial plain is formed from deposits of gravel, clay, and sand carried by a river. Th ese geographical “grand divisions” correspond to the distinctive political and economic cultures of the state’s three regions. Tennessee possesses a climate favorable for people and agriculture, with abundant rainfall and mild temperatures which create a long growing season for plants. Th e Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 1: Th e Land and Native People area is generally free from the long droughts and freezes found in some regions of the United States. Th e three major rivers that fl ow around and across Tennessee—the

Cross section map of Tennessee from the Unaka Mountains to the Mississippi River

Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers—have created watersheds that cover most of the state. A watershed is an area of land drained by a particular river or stream. Th e Tennessee River forms near Knoxville and fl ows in a southwesterly direction into Alabama, then loops back north to the Kentucky border. The Cumberland River drains northern Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee is covered by a network of slow-moving streams, swamps, and lakes that fl ow directly into the Mississippi River. Th ese rivers and the smaller streams that feed into them

Early map showing the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland River systems

2 The Land and Native People sh, sh in addition sh in addition sh and shellfi at land raised above above raised land at rst developed in Tennessee. farming Woodland Indians fi Indians Woodland Urello, courtesy of the Tennessee State Museum. State Tennessee the of courtesy Urello, Woodland Indians farming byWoodland Painting Carlyle in Tennessee. e Mastodon Hunt. Painting by Carlyle Urello, courtesy of the the of courtesy Urello, Carlyle by Painting Hunt. e Mastodon ng layers of rock are found throughout throughout found are rock of layers ng Early man hunted mastodon that roamed during the last Ice Age. roamed the last Ice Early that during mastodon man hunted Tennessee State Museum. State Tennessee Th

3 eir used have ey may cant role from the earliest times by providing fi providing times by the earliest from role cant Late the region. r covered Paleo-Indians ese nomadic oor. Archaic people gathered wild people food gathered Archaic plant and shellfi oor. People Native e Land and Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee begins in Tennessee e story man of pre- Tennessee stage of e next major behind their distinctive arrowheads Fossils found in rocks across Tennessee show that the state was covered by warm, warm, by was covered the state that show Tennessee across in rocks found Fossils Th the Paleo-Indians of period, descendants as the Archaic is known what During Th Chapter 1: Th Chapter a signifi played have the Cumberland Plateau. Plant and dinosaur fossils are found in the sandstones of of in the sandstones found are fossils dinosaur and Plant Plateau. the Cumberland mastodons, Mammoths, Tennessee. West the by south driven were sloths giant and Th Age. the Ice glaciers of advancing by serving as major transportation routes, and by creating the areas of fertile soils soils fertile of the areas creating by and routes, transportation servingby as major farmers. attracted that past. Coal-beari seas in the distant shallow Middle and in West be can found remains Tennessee. gla- Age the Ice of the last retreat with forests and climate when a colder ciers, fi spruce and of animal followed probably hunters Age Ice 12,000–15,000 about this area into herds Th ago. years and and rock shelters camped in caves left Th spear points. and to tools Age Stone or Paleolithic such lived that caribou and the mastodon hunt warm, began to climate the region’s ago, 12,000 years About in eastern Tennessee. modern our deciduous to being conifers mostly from changed the vegetation and of supply the abundant to attracted elk were deer and of numbers Large forest. climate, Warmer beech trees. and chestnut, oak, hickory, by food produced mast, or forests deciduous of the spread and mammals, Age Ice the large the extinction of society. American Native transform to together worked fl of areas are terraces River terraces. river settle on to began valleythe fl Sometime between 3000 game. hunting to the crucial took step BC, 900 and natives as squash such plants edible growing of agriculture. beginning of gourds—the and people Archaic provided crops Growing freed and food a dependable supply with wild plant seasonalthem of shortages from secure food a more With game. foods and scat- and rapidly grew populations supply, larger form to combined groups tered villages. is and history almost 2,000 years lasted Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 1: Th e Land and Native People

known as the Woodland period. During this era, Native people began to make containers and other objects out of clay. Th is craft is known as pottery. Th ey also began to live in settled farming communities and to construct burial mounds. Wealth increased and Native society began to stratify, or divide, into diff erent social classes. Native Americans in Tennessee made the transition from societies of hunters and gatherers to well-organized tribal, agricultural societies living in large, permanent towns. Th e peak of prehistoric cultural development in Tennessee occurred during the Mississippian period (900–1600 AD). Population grew aft er the introduction of new varieties of corn and beans. As chieft ains became more powerful, territorial warfare increased and ceremonial temples and public structures were built. Th e complexity of Mississippian society is seen in the elaborate pottery styles and personal items, such as combs, pipes, and jewelry, it produced.

Stone pipe from Roane County (left ) and engraved shell gorget (right), both from the Mississippian period. Images courtesy of the Tennessee State Museum.

People who do not have their own written language are oft en forgotten or known mostly from the documents written by their conquerors. Th is is what happened to the native inhabitants of Tennessee. Most of what is known about their culture comes from the writings of European Americans who oft en viewed Native American culture as inferior to their own culture. Disease, warfare, and the European fur trade had transformed Native American society long before white settlement reached the Tennessee country. Th e Cherokee were not the fi rst inhabitants of East Tennessee. Archeological evidence shows that East Tennessee had densely populated native communities prior to European contact. Native Americans in Tennessee began to grow maize, or corn, around 800–1000 AD. Th is development allowed towns and villages to grow rapidly. During the Mississippian period, organized chiefdoms developed in population centers such as Pinson Mounds in the west, Mound Bottom in Middle Tennessee, and Toqua and Citico in East Tennessee. In 1540–1542, Hernando DeSoto led a group of 600 conquistadors, or Spanish soldiers, through the mountains into East Tennessee where he encountered the remnants of this civilization.

4 The Land and Native People e e the last ey were is evidence a of ere fur trade would e colonial technology between the Old technology between the Old Africa, Asia) and (Europe, World and (North World the New and such as smallpox and measles measles and as smallpox such Because Spanish. the by carried had never been Americans Native diseases, exposed European to resistance, they had no natural the diseases. to Th immunity, or diseases European of introduction America South was and North to one aspect of the Columbian The Columbian Exchange. Exchange refers to the exchanges diseases, animals, and plants, of deerskins, from the Native Americans. Americans. the Native from deerskins, dependent made the Cherokee e system 5 of Chestowee in 1714. Cherokee hostility hostility in 1714. Cherokee Chestowee of er it was emptied by disease. by Th was emptied er it tribes the eastern early Tennessee. of of one were people e Yuchi People Native e Land and Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee in the mid-1600s marked traders Virginian and explorers French of e arrival Th When the English and French began to explore the region 150 years later, later, 150 years the region explore began to French the and English When they but remained, as the Yuchi, such peoples, native or the indigenous Some of Saul’s Mound, which stands at seventy-two feet, at Pinson Mounds State State which Mounds seventy-two Pinson stands at feet, Mound, at Saul’s Archaeological Park. change the Cherokee way of life forever. Th forever. life of way the Cherokee change time, the same At game. of the overhunting led to trade goods and European on European into the Cherokee also drew It warfare. intertribal increased trade greatly Soon, century. the eighteenth the end of at War Indian and as the French such wars, not seeking land, come would Europeans large-scale massacre at the Yuchi town town the Yuchi at massacre large-scale settle further and south eastern Tennessee abandon to the Yuchi caused probably Th in Georgia. word, been originally a Yuchi have may the state, to name its which gave “Tanasi,” eighteenth- many on River the Tennessee to given the name as was “Hogohegee,” century maps. years, the next hundred For culture. native Tennessee’s the end of the beginning of European between connection was the main pelts beaver the trade in deer and the and Virginia of reaches the western From Americans. Native and Americans ruled, having the Cherokee as Tennessee, be known would what into Carolinas Th the region. from Shawnee and Yuchi, the Creek, driven earlier Th Tennessee. of in part live actually to group native Chapter 1: Th Chapter and de Luna, Tristan DeSoto, by led expeditions, exploratory or entradas, Spanish 1567. 1540 and between the region through came Pardo, Juan or gone were DeSoto had found that towns valleys and populated the densely Th these inhabitants. to early happened certain what not are deserted. Historians in 1492. voyage Columbus’s America)South following who apparently the Cherokee, by century eighteenth in the early out driven were aft the region into migrated most likely explanation is that the Native Americans were wiped out by diseases by wiped out were Americans the Native is that explanation most likely Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier

Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier

New tribes moved into the Tennessee region aft er DeSoto’s visit. Th e Cherokee built their towns and vil- Terms & Deﬁ nitions lages along the Hiwassee and Little Tennessee Rivers. Th e Chickasaw Nation controlled the territory west of the Tennessee River. Th e Shawnee, a large Ohio Valley • Cede—to give up tribe, moved south into the Cumberland River area but • Flotilla—fl eet of ships were driven out by Chickasaw and Cherokee attacks. • Gap—a low area between Aft er 1715, Middle Tennessee had no Indian towns, mountains although several tribes used it as a common hunting ground. • Land speculators— businessmen who obtained cheap land from the Native Americans hoping to resell it at a profi t to incoming settlers • Land survey—a land survey locates, describes, and maps the boundaries of a piece of land Tennessee in 1796; note the separation of East and Middle Tennessee by Indian • Longhunters—men who territory. crossed the Appalachian Mountains to hunt deer and In 1673, both British and French explorers claimed other game for six or more the region. James Needham and Gabriel Arthur, British months each year traders from Charles Town (later Charleston), South • Military alliance—an Carolina, crossed the Appalachians to establish trade agreement between two with the Cherokee. Father Jacques Marquette and fur groups to assist each other trader Louis Joliet came down the Mississippi River and in war claimed its entire valley for the King of France. Britain • Militia—groups of ordinary and France later built forts and trading posts in the citizens who fi ght in times of region to reinforce their competing claims. emergency Th e early fur traders lived among the Indians and employed Indian hunters to supply them with beaver • Pack train—lines of horses skins and deer pelts, or skins. The furs were then or mules that carried goods shipped downriver to New Orleans or carried on pack on their backs across the trains to Charles Town. Pack trains were lines of horses mountains or mules that carried goods on their backs across the • Petition—a formal written mountains. South Carolina merchants dominated the request to a person or group early Tennessee fur trade. In 1748, they exported more such as a government than 160,000 skins worth $250,000. In return for furs, • Stations—log homes Indians received cloth, iron goods, and guns. Th e fur surrounded by walls and trade was profi table for the traders, but it wiped out used as forts during attacks 6 Struggle for the Frontier . Dr. Dr. discov- Cumberland Gap is a low area between area is a low As early as 1750, colonial as 1750, colonial early As gap trade because their lands trade because their lands of path in the directly were the across migration mountains. cross beganto explorers explore and the mountains While lands. Cherokee Land the Loyal for working Virginia, of Company Thomas Walker Thomas the ered A . Although still powerful, the the powerful, still . Although Fort Loudoun on the Tennessee River LoudounFort the Tennessee on dence by forming military alliances and military and alliances forming dence by 7 negotiated trade agreements and military and trade agreements negotiated ort Proclamation of 1763 of Proclamation mili- in 1754. in 1754. er years of of er years Fort Loudoun Fort ghting the war. the war. ghting er surrendering er surrendering is an agreement agreement is an or gave all up, its ict with Native Americans by prohibiting settlements beyond the the beyond settlements prohibiting by Americans ict Native with ceded, Cumberland Gap, the early passage to Kentucky and Middle Tennessee the early Kentucky passage to Cumberland Gap, France between e competition Th ghting, the British hoped to avoid hoped avoid the to British ghting, fi further confl in the Mountains Appalachian their indepen of had lost some Cherokee claims to land east of the Mississippi aft in 1763. Tired River near present-day Vonore in an eff in an Vonore present-day near loyal. the Cherokee keep to work. did not the plan However, sur- or siege laid warriors Cherokee starved the and the fort out rounded Aft inside. soldiers were soldiers the retreating the fort, many and the Cherokee, by attacked The British killed. were soldiers their despite the war won eventually a result, As Loudoun. Fort loss at France tary alliance assist each to groups two between in war. other North of control for Britain and America the the start led to of War and Indian French Both the French and the British their Native of needed the help allies in fi American built soldiers English alliances with Indian tribes. A Indian with alliances Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier the Frontier 2: Struggle for Chapter for competed French and the British As life. animal native Tennessee’s of much they fur trade, the valuable of control Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier mountains. Th e Cumberland Gap was used by Native Americans and later by colonial settlers to reach Tennessee and Kentucky. Th roughout the 1750s and 1760s, longhunters crossed the mountains into Cherokee territory. Longhunters earned their name by hunting for six to seven months before returning home. Th e longhunters shared their knowledge of the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains which encouraged settlers like William Bean to ignore the Proclamation of 1763 and move west into the valleys of East Tennessee. By the early 1770s, four different communities had been established in northeastern Tennessee—on the Watauga River, the North Holston, the Nolichucky, and in Carter’s Valley. The settlers claimed that they were living on land that was part of Virginia, but a land survey showed that claim to be false. A land survey locates, describes, and maps the boundaries of a piece of land. Because the Proclamation of 1763 prohibited buying land from the Cherokee, the settlers negotiated leases for their farms instead. Since Watauga and the other settlements were outside the boundaries of the colonies, colonial law did not apply. As a result, the independent- minded settlers created their own government A page from the Watauga Purchase, the fi rst transfer of land in Tennessee from natives to in a document called the Watauga Compact in settlers such as William Bean 1772. In addition to settlers, land speculators from Virginia and North Carolina also raced to acquire western lands. Land speculators were businessmen who obtained cheap land from the Native Americans, hoping to resell it at a profi t to incoming settlers. In March of 1775, Richard Henderson of North Carolina negotiated a private treaty with the Cherokee for the purchase of twenty million acres of land that included most of Kentucky and Middle Tennessee. In return, the Cherokee received six wagon loads of goods worth about 10,000 English pounds. Th e deal was known as the Transylvania Purchase. Henderson hired Daniel Boone to cut a trail through the Cumberland Gap that became known as the Wilderness Road. A few days later, the settlers asked the Cherokee to turn their lease into a purchase. Cherokee leaders such as Little Carpenter agreed, and the deal became known as the Watauga Purchase. Other Cherokee leaders were opposed to any plan to sell their ancestral lands. Dragging Canoe warned the settlers that they were Daniel Boone

8 Struggle for the Frontier are groups of of groups are ght in times of in times of ght John Sevier John Militia helped e settlers were . Militia from North North from . Militia Purchase. Great CherokeeGreat leaders such as Oconostota and Attakullakulla signed the Watauga signed the Watauga and Attakullakulla is peti- John series of series of is battles as known by Cherokee leaders who wanted to to who leaders wanted Cherokee by as Beloved Woman such war, avoid Nancy Ward the assisted Virginia and Carolina as well. Wataugans who fi citizens ordinary invaded The Wataugans emergency. Cherokee territory and burned several Th towns. . A 9 Th counterattacked. ly Watauga Petition Watauga the Americans gave e alliance los- angry about e Cherokee, was a mis- Britain with e alliance . Th er the war. Following the Cherokee War, War, the Cherokee Following er the war. , stopped the Cherokee and swift and the Cherokee , stopped is a formal written request to a person or or a person to request written is a formal Cherokee War Cherokee In July 1776, the Cherokee launched well- launched 1776, the Cherokee July In The Wataugans’ willingness to ignore the the ignore to willingness The Wataugans’ leader their popular led by e Wataugans, Mero (outlined in red) and Washington (outlined in gold) (outlined in red) and Washington Mero districts early Tennessee of tion Carolina North as a government. such group, became a part the settlements and help, to agreed District. as the Washington known the state of settlements. the East on Tennessee attacks planned Th Sevier Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier the Frontier 2: Struggle for Chapter the warlike establish to south retreated He bloody ground.” and “dark a purchasing years. the next twenty for settlements Tennessee tribe,which attacked Chickamauga the from land purchase 1763 and of Proclamation the for Edition Book: their contempt Blue Student demonstrated Tennessee Cherokee their Despite strict rulesgovernment. the British of the increas- of aware were the Wataugans isolation, government the British towards anger ing as the such Boston Massacre in events demonstrated the Wataugans’ However, Party. the Boston Tea and hostility was continued problem most important Th Cherokee. the from the allied settlers, to land more and more ing in the Revolutionary the British with themselves the settlements, of the safety Concerned about War. in a help for Carolina North asked the Wataugans as the document known take for the Cherokee. Th the Cherokee. for take take and military power the tribe’s reduce excuse to an land aft more the until home at focused matters on the Wataugans the the Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier fall of 1780. Responding to a threat made by British Major Patrick Ferguson, John Sevier and Isaac Shelby led a group of mili- tiamen over the mountains to fi ght Ferguson and his Tory, or Loyalist, troops at the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780. Th e Overmountain Men were joined by militia from Virginia and North Carolina. The Patriot force defeated Ferguson’s troops and set in motion the chain of events that ended one year later with Cornwallis’s surrender at Yorktown. Th e Revolution gave settlers an opening to push the frontier westward to the Cumberland River. Longhunters such as James Robertson, Kasper Mansker, and Th omas Sharpe Spencer had hunted and trapped through Middle Tennessee and spoke of its richness to their neighbors at home. Following the Transylvania Purchase,

Henderson hired Robertson to plan a settle- Letter from Isaac Shelby to John Sevier about Kings ment along the Cumberland River. In the Mountain winter and spring of 1779, 300 pioneers made the diffi cult trek to French Lick, the future site of Nashville. French Lick was the location of a natural salt lick along the Cumberland River that had been the location of a French trading post. Most of the men came overland under Robertson’s

Front cover and page from a journal kept by John Donelson on his voyage to French Lick, the future site of Nashville

10 Struggle for the Frontier . were log log were e Cumberland Cumberland e in 1781. Nearly all in 1781. Nearly Stations s spread and ed stations Cumberland Compact eet of ships, carrying women, carrying ships, women, eet of rst band of settlers established a established settlers of band rst , or fl , or is fi is number of fortifi of number of the Central Basin in search across good farmland. used walls and by surrounded homes Th attacks. during as forts of years fourteen withstood settlers and Creek by attacks brutal the from warriors Chickamauga the including towns, River Tennessee the Bluff of Battle in the lost someone families the early of Th fighting, but the Cumberland the Cumberland but fighting, otilla 11 fl led a and temperatures freezing endured e travelers the voyage of atboat known Nashborough as Fort in Nashville, later Station Bluff John Donelson John Harvill by Peggy is painting depicts a fl Donelson party to Nashville, 1780. party Nashville, Donelson to Th Chapter 2: Struggle for the Frontier the Frontier 2: Struggle for Chapter while leadership, Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee children, and enslaved people on a hazardous voyage down the Tennessee River River the Tennessee down voyage a hazardous on people enslaved and children, Th River. the Cumberland up and Native by attacks of the threat in time, and came, settlers survived.Settlements More the Tennessee had found speculators land and hunters, Traders, faded. Americans a state. it make would that was the farmers it but country, attacks from the Chickamauga before reaching their destination. Because the their destination. reaching before the Chickamauga from attacks the settlers the colonies, of the boundaries was outside Settlement Cumberland as the known in a document government their own formed Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 3: From Territory to Statehood

Chapter 3: From Territory to Statehood

In the days before statehood, Tennesseans struggled to gain a political voice and suff ered because North Carolina did not want the trouble or expense of protecting its western counties. Washington, Sullivan, Greene, Davidson, Sumner, and

1798 map of “Franklinia,” also known as the State of Franklin in East Tennessee

Tennessee Counties needed protection from Native American attacks as well as help building roads and forts. Th e national government formed under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to meet the westerners’ demands. Westerners wanted protection from Native Americans and the right to navigate the Mississippi River. In 1784, frustrated settlers formed the Terms & Deﬁ nitions breakaway State of • Ratify—to approve Franklin, also • Squat—to illegally settle known as on land “Frankland.” Th e ever-popular John Sevier Log cabin Capitol building of the State of was named gov- Franklin in Greeneville, Tennessee

12 From Territory to Statehood rati- nally nally Southwest Southwest as territorial territorial as . South of the River the River South of , , more commonly commonly , more , or approved, the new the new approved, , or Territory of the United the United of Territory President George George President state from the Confederation the Confederation from state Congress. it failed However, major- the two-thirds get to under the required ity Confederation. Articles of opposed Carolina North of the State of the formation reas- began to and Franklin western its over sert control 1788, the pres- By counties. Carolina North from sure the among fighting and them- East Tennesseans of the collapse to led selves When Franklin. of the State fi Carolina North fied government. the Federal to the area named Congress the States Ohio as the known Territory appointed Washington William Blount laws Land grant governor. Carolina passed in North in a booming market created set- before land Tennessee Landtlers had ever arrived. 13 At the same time, leaders of the Cumberland the Cumberland leaders of the time, same At Constitution of the United States in 1789, it also it in 1789, States the United of Constitution country, the Tennessee lands, western ceded its ernor, and the state began operating as an as an began operating the state and ernor, government. unrecognized but independent an forming about Spain approached Settlements Mississippi the lower controlled Spain alliance. Native be urging to was thought and River Settlements. the Cumberland attack to Americans some exercised had already Tennesseans Early the writing by self-government of the rights of 1785, In Compacts. Cumberland and Watauga as a recognition sought Franklin of the State James Robertson letter to Governor John Sevier Governor John to Robertson letter James of the State of Franklin of the State of Chapter 3: From Territory to Statehood Statehood to Territory From 3: Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 3: From Territory to Statehood speculation was based upon cheaply amassing large amounts of western land in hopes that the price of the land would increase when more settlers arrived. Most of Tennessee’s early political leaders, including Blount, Sevier, Henderson, and Andrew Jackson, were involved in land speculation. It was sometimes difficult to tell if their political deci- sions were meant to benefit the people or Map of the Southwest Territory themselves.

Map of Indian Treaties, 1770–1835

14 Tennessee’s Coming of Age , e in June. Th in June. Rocky Mount in 1796 adopted rst Constitution, Treaty of the Holston of Treaty which they ceded large areas of land. land. of areas theywhich ceded large , or illegally settled, on Native American Native on settled, illegally , or Page from Tennessee’s fi Tennessee’s from Page 15 squatted er 1806, the state began to sell public land for low low for land sell public began to theer 1806, state for easy targets were Settlements Cumberland e remote signed the e Cherokee John chose e voters Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age the rules and en ignored a who launched Creeks and the Cherokee angered in squatters e increase with war of the threat once quickly grow began to Tennessee of e new state Th With peace restored, Governor Governor peace restored, With the Cumberland most of and region the south-central of much gained e state Native Americans declined. Aft declined. Americans Native the East. 1806, the Cherokee Between from settlers 1798 and which attracted prices, in treaties of signed a number Chickasaw and Th Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age Age of Coming Tennessee’s 4: Chapter be had to per- Americans Native settled, legally sold and was land public Before from traveled 1791, Blount In the land. to their claims drop suaded to Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee his home in upper East Tennessee, to present-day Knoxville to negotiate a treaty a treaty negotiate to Knoxville present-day to East Tennessee, in upper his home Th Cherokee. the with treaty stated that United States citizens could not settle on Cherokee land. However, However, land. Cherokee settle on not could citizens States United that stated treaty oft settlers in 1792. Th series attacks of Robertson orga- James their settlements, protect to order parties. In raiding Creek territory. in Chickamauga Towns the Lower destroyed that attack nized an militia the by attacks Additional the settlements on the raids stopped a period led to peace pros- and of and perity in the region. to ahead plans with moved Blount create a state. Blount called for a meet to convention constitutional from delegates where in Knoxville, a model up drew all the counties democratic and constitution state Th rights. of bill lead- Tennessee Sevier as governor. a state the territory into converted ers before asking Congress for approval. was Territory theSince Southwest apply territory to Federal the first was uncer- statehood, Congress for the of Members proceed. to how tain partystatehood opposed Federalist because they assumed Tennessee for support would in Tennessee voters the Democratic- their opponents, these problems, Despite Republicans. of the admission approved Congress the of state as the sixteenth Tennessee 1, 1796. June on Union land. Th land. Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age

Plateau. This was especially important because it gave the state control over all the land from the east- Terms & Deﬁ nitions ern counties to the Cumberland Settlements. It also made it easier for travelers to reach the Cumberland Settlements. • Abolition—the desire to The availability of so much land, some of which abolish or end slavery was very fertile, caused Tennessee’s population to • Confederacy—groups of grow very rapidly. Between 1790 and 1800, the state’s ordinary citizens who fi ght population tripled. It grew 250 percent from the years 1800 to 1810, increasing from 85,000 to 250,000 dur- in times of emergency ing the fi rst fourteen years of statehood alone. By 1810, • County seat—the town Middle Tennessee had moved ahead of the eastern from which the county’s section in population. Th is shift in population led to government operates a shift in political power from the older region of East • Emancipation—an action Tennessee to the middle section of the state. Th e state taken by the government to capital was Knoxville from 1796 to September 1807, free slaves when the capital was Kingston for a day. Th e capital • Labor—work was relocated back to Knoxville until 1812, moved to • Manumit—free slaves by Nashville from 1812 to 1817, then returned briefl y to individual action (i.e., an Knoxville. From 1818 to 1826, the General Assembly owner frees his own slaves) met in Murfreesboro, and in 1826, the capital moved to its permanent site in Nashville. • Muster—to gather for Slavery played a major role in Tennessee’s rapid military duty expansion. Th e territorial census of 1791 showed an • Mutiny—rebellion of African American population of 3,417—ten percent of soldiers or sailors against the general population. By 1800, the African American their commanding offi cers population had • Plantations—large farms jumped to 13,584 oft en using slave labor (12.8 percent), • Suff rage—voting rights and by 1810, African Americans made up more than twenty percent of Tennessee’s people. Most African Americans in Tennessee were slaves. More slaves were brought to the state following the invention of the cotton gin by Cotton on the stalk grown in the fertile Mississippi Eli Whitney in Valley lowland near Memphis 1793. Cotton and

16 Tennessee’s Coming of Age , or , or is an is an estab- irty-six manumit Manumission Manumission Emancipation Elihu Embree Elihu , or voting rights, and and rights, voting , or had 1796 Constitution e also e 1796 Constitution , but the name was later was later the name , but rage Log in Gatlinburg cabin rst newspaper in the United in the United newspaper rst suff cult for owners to free their slaves, their slaves, free to owners cult for In addition to slaves, Tennessee had a Tennessee slaves, to addition In made it easy for owners to to owners easy for made it slavery became more As their slaves. free, econ- Tennessee’s to important more and became more It changed. the laws omy, diffi lost many African free Americans and the opposed Some Tennesseans rights. especially in East slavery, of expansion move- emancipation an where Tennessee developed. ment free to the government taken by action 1819, In slaves. lished the fi slaves freeing to entirely devoted States was The newspaper Jonesborough. at called the originally Intelligencer relative social equality to free African African free to social equality relative Th Americans. seven times as many slaves west of the the of west slaves seven times as many as in East Plateau Cumberland Tennessee. African free of population large fairly Th Americans. granted 17 is is . By the 1820s, East Tennessee had become a center of of had become a center the 1820s, East. By Tennessee is the desire to abolish or end slavery. East Tennessee was East Tennessee end slavery. or abolish to is the desire county seat ve counties were formed between 1796 and 1819. Isolated 1819. Isolated 1796 and between formed were counties ve , or work, to produce. As a result, slavery was more common in in common slavery was more a result, As produce. to work, , or Emancipator Abolition labor Despite the growth of towns, towns, of growth the Despite Tennessee prospered and developed rapidly between 1806 and 1819. Th between 1806 and rapidly developed and prospered Tennessee List of slave births at Wessyngton Plantation, Robertson Plantation, Wessyngton births at List slave of County abolitionism. abolitionism. which the county’s from the town no Nashville, operates. government attack, of threat under constant longer the of cities the leading of became one South. Upper mostly rural. Log remained Tennessee the most common remained cabins of percent Eighty housing. type of changed to the the nation. but the state only not divide would the issue that for ground a staging ninety-fi Tennessee’s of into developed quickly settlements A seats. county busy Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age Age of Coming Tennessee’s 4: Chapter required but Tennessee West and Middle of soil in the fertile well grew tobacco intensive Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Middle and West Tennessee than mountainous East Tennessee. By 1830, there were were 1830, there By East Tennessee. mountainous than Tennessee West and Middle Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age

Th e Emancipator, one of America’s fi rst anti-slavery newspapers

18 Tennessee’s Coming of Age table, easily easily table, true e one rst ironworks, called ironworks, rst ey were profi forged crops, elds, planted , or large farms, with slave labor. labor. slave with farms, large , or mills ground corn and wheat into meal into wheat and corn mills ground turned corn into whiskey. Th whiskey. into corn turned was ironmak- industry Tennessee in early constructed were ironworks Frontier ing. men who had by Eastin upper Tennessee James Pennsylvania. from immigrated the fi Robertson built in Middle Furnace, the Cumberland in 1796. Soon Tennessee Middle Tennessee furnaces and many built ironmasters the abundant of take advantage to forges Rim Highland the western of ores iron enter- complicated These were region. freemen and used bothprises slaves that 19 plantations Flatboards such as these at Ross’s Landing, allowed Chattanooga send their crops farmers to such Ross’s as theseFlatboards at to market. to our. Sawmills cut lumber, and tanneries processed animal hides. Distilleries hides. Distilleries animal processed tanneries and lumber, cut Sawmills our. Most types of types of Most to corn fed also ey ironworks Great Western furnace in Stewart County, a typical early furnace in Stewart County, Western Great Tennessee farmers also converted corn, the state’s most important crop, into corn- into crop, important most the state’s corn, also converted farmers Tennessee meal and whiskey. Th hogs which were to then butchered cured pork. produce poor of Because Tennesseans roads, riv- on mainly relied their move to ers market. to crops were Products keelboatshipped by or flatboat to and New Natchez the on Orleans River. Mississippi like manufacturing, soap- cloth, spinning forging and making, by mostly divided were chores Household in the farm household. done were tools, preserving food, producing cooking, for responsible generally were Women gender. fi cleared Men children. for caring and clothing, and cloth tools, and cared for animal herds. Children performed many chores such as gather- such chores performed many Children herds. animal for cared and tools, ran Some families their parents. alongside working and cows, eggs, milking ing Grist products. farm process to businesses fl and transported, and could be worked on on be worked could and transported, Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age Age of Coming Tennessee’s 4: Chapter the food needs of supply to simply most worked and farmers, were Tennesseans crops.” certain selling “cash be made from could income However, their families. the beginning. Th from cash crops were tobacco and Cotton Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age

to dig the ore, cut the wood for charcoal, and operate the furnace. Th e early Tennessee iron industry supplied blacksmiths, mill owners, and farmers with the metal they needed and laid the groundwork for future industrial development. Th e hardworking settlers had little time for recreation. As a result, the settlers found ways to combine work and recreation. All able-bodied men were required to serve in the militia. Th e days when the militia mustered, or gathered for duty, served as festive social occasions for the whole county. Th ere was little opportunity for organized religious services in the early days and few ministers to preach. Instead, itiner- ant, or traveling, ministers held camp meetings. Because travel was so diffi cult, frontier families would camp near the meeting site for several days. The Methodists and Baptists gained many converts through the camp meetings. Because many of Tennessee’s early settlers A Methodist Camp Meeting were Scots-Irish, Presbyterianism was also very popular. Presbyterianism insisted on an educated clergy, which led to the development of many schools in early Tennessee. Ministers such as Reverend Samuel Doak in East Tennessee and Reverend Thomas Craighead in Middle Tennessee founded academies in the 1790s. Academies chartered by the state were supposed to receive part of the proceeds from the sale of state lands, but this rarely happened. While state support for education languished, ministers and private teachers took the lead in setting up schools across the state. Relations between whites and Native Americans were relatively peaceful aft er 1794, although trespassing on Indian land was common, and life continued to be hazardous for settlers in remote areas. However, as Tennesseans pushed west and south toward the Tennessee River, they began to press upon Creek territory, and fi ghting resumed. Th e Creeks were the most formidable tribe on the Tennessee borders, and they were widely believed to be under the infl u- ence of hostile British and Spanish agents. In 1812, Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet, succeeded in creating a confederacy, or alliance, of tribes in the Ohio Valley. Tecumseh wanted to roll back white settlement. Tecumseh visited the Creek Nation in 1811 to urge the southern tribes- men to join his movement. His prophecy that the earth would trem- Reelfoot Lake

20 Tennessee’s Coming of Age ” in Andrew Andrew Mims e Fort War Hawks caused the Mississippi the Mississippi caused . Jackson’s 1813–1814 1813–1814 . Jackson’s Anti-British feeling ran ran feeling Anti-British River to run backwards for for run to backwards River in the resulted a time and Lake. Reelfoot of creation and high in Tennessee, easily were Tennesseans Native link the to willing with threat American the high on actions British Grundy seas. Led Felix by rep- the state’s Nashville, of were resentatives prominent among the “ to who wanted Congress, Great with war to go was war When Britain. 1812, in June declared oppor- an saw Tennesseans rid their to borders tunity Native all of for and once Their chance Americans. soon News enough. came in August Nashville reached of the massacre 1813 of and 250 men, women, some Mims, Fort at children mes- Tecumseh’s Alabama. and had takensage hold, split was Nation the Creek Th war. civil by by out was carried attack a series massive rmed by of Jackson campaign against Weatherford’s War, as the Creek known warriors, was the Southern the War phase of chal- faced many 1812. Jackson of support of lack including lenges the war faction, called Red Sticks, Red Sticks, called faction, the war William under their chief, Willie Governor Weatherford. called out immediately Blount them placed and 2,500 volunteers of under the command 21 New Madrid Earthquakes Madrid New e Drawing of Fort Mims, Alabama Fort of Drawing General Andrew Jackson addresses volunteers during the CreekGeneral during addresses War. volunteers Andrew Jackson Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age Age of Coming Tennessee’s 4: Chapter struggle the coming was seemingly confi of as a sign ble Th in 1811–1812. earthquakes Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 4: Tennessee’s Coming of Age from the War Department, shortages of supplies, and a mutiny, or rebellion, by some of his soldiers. Despite these problems, Jackson won several victories against the Red Sticks. His victory at the Battle of Tohopeka, or Horseshoe Bend, utterly destroyed Creek military power. As a result, Andrew Jackson and his lieutenants, William Carroll and Sam Houston, gained national prominence, or importance. Following his victory over the Creeks, Andrew Jackson was appointed major general in the U.S. Army and given command of the Southern military district just in time to meet an impending British invasion of the Gulf Coast. Jackson secured Mobile, Alabama and drove the British out of Pensacola, Florida. Jackson then hurriedly marched his troops to New Orleans to rendezvous, or meet, with other Tennessee units converging to defend General Andrew Jackson suppressing a mutiny among his troops the city. On January 8, 1815, Jackson’s ragtag troops inflicted a crushing defeat on an experienced British army. British general Sir Edward Pakenham was killed along with hundreds of his soldiers. Th e Americans only suff ered twenty-three casualties. Because of poor communication, the battle actually occurred fifteen days after the signing of the peace treaty with Great Britain in Ghent, Belgium. Th e Battle of New Orleans was a brilliant victory and one of the few clear American suc- Battle of New Orleans cesses of the war. This triumph launched Andrew Jackson on the road to the presidency. Th ree years later, he led another force of Tennesseans into Florida to stop attacks by the Seminoles. Jackson’s actions in Florida convinced Spain to cede Florida to the United States. Aft er forcing Creeks to cede their land claims, Jackson and Governor Isaac Shelby of Kentucky negotiated a treaty with the Chickasaw in 1818 that extended Tennessee’s western bound- ary to the Mississippi River. The Death of British General Pakenham at the Battle of New Orleans agreement, also known as the Jackson

22 The Age of Jackson

rst Memphis steam- by Nashville at en arrived rst steamboats reached Nashville. Nashville. reached steamboats rst ined enthusiastically in the California in the California ined enthusiastically depression economic violent but is brief and southeastern Tennessee as Cherokee territory, 1818 as Cherokee territory, Tennessee and southeastern 23 land a booming and settlers of numbers large of e arrival Chapter 5: The Age of Jackson er the Jackson Purchase. However, that did not end Tennesseans’ urge urge end Tennesseans’ did not that However, Purchase. er the Jackson Jackson of e Age Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee , opened up a rich, new agricultural region for settlement. By 1820, the By settlement. for a rich, new region agricultural up , opened ve years of statehood as a period of growth and prosperity comparable to to comparable prosperity and statehood as a period of growth years of ve Map showing West Tennessee as Chickasaw territory Tennessee showing West Map e frontier phase of Tennessee’s history ended with the rapid settlement of West West of settlement history the rapid ended with Tennessee’s phase of e frontier Th the state connect to transportation reliable the need for developed, Tennessee As ruined most banks and many individuals. However, the state’s economy bounced bounced economy the state’s However, individuals. many ruined and banks most and Tennessee, in West became the crop leading Cotton quickly. back market in West Tennessee caused a frantic period of business prosperity, which period prosperity, a frantic business caused of Tennessee in West market 1819. Th of the Panic with ended suddenly their fi on look back could Tennesseans trade. the cotton of became a center twenty-fi in the nation. state any of that aft Tennessee Missouri, settled Texas, in Arkansas, Tennesseans of numbers Large west. move to jo and Alabama and Mississippi, Illinois, gold rush. gold 1820, the fi increased. By the nation of the rest to only Native Americans remaining in Tennessee were squeezed into the southeast into squeezed were in Tennessee remaining Americans Native only Th the state. of corner to Tennessee in Middle farmers for cheaper and easier, faster, made it Steamboats Goods markets. oft in downriver sell their products like the city from radiated that roads on overland then transported were and boat Chapter 5: Th Chapter Purchase Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 5: Th e Age of Jackson

the spokes of a wheel. Th e most famous of these roads, the Natchez Trace, connected Middle Tennessee directly with the lower Mississippi River. Memphis was established in the southwestern corner of the state aft er the Jackson Purchase. Th e town

Terms & Deﬁ nitions

• Annex—add • Breadbasket—grain supplier • Insurrection—rebellion • Landlocked—a landlocked region is one that has no access to larger bodies of water such as a sea

• Landslide majority—a Steamboat City of St. Joseph loading cotton on the Memphis waterfront landslide majority is when one candidate wins by a quickly developed into a thriving river port because of huge number of votes its steamboat traffi c. Cotton bales from plantations were • Nullify—ignore carted into Memphis to be loaded onto boats and • Popular votes—votes from shipped to New Orleans. the people East Tennessee’s transportation problems were more diffi cult to solve because the region was landlocked. A • Revolutionized—radically landlocked region is one that has no access to larger changed bodies of water such as a sea. Th ough the Tennessee • Secede—leave River ran through the region, it contained many shoals • Shoals—shoals are shallow and other obstructions that made it very diffi cult to areas in rivers that oft en navigate. Shoals are shallow areas in rivers that oft en contain many sandbars contain many sandbars. Although the steamboat Atlas • Stump speeches—stump managed travel as far as Knoxville in 1828, business- speeches are standard men in East Tennessee began asking for state assistance speeches used by a politician in building railroads. However, government offi cials running for offi ce opposed such spending so Tennessee got a late start in railroad construction. Th e state had no railroad mile- age in 1850, but by 1860, 1,200 miles of track had been laid, most of it in East Tennessee. East Tennessee’s railroads connected it to markets on the East Coast, but there was no line that connected Knoxville directly with Nashville. As East Tennessee began to develop railroads, coal mines, and industries, it became even more separate from the rest of the state.

24 The Age of Jackson 25 West Tennessee now part of the United States, 1822 States, now part the United of Tennessee West By 1860, 1,200 miles railroadBy of track had been laid in Tennessee. Jackson of e Age Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Chapter 5: Th Chapter Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 5: Th e Age of Jackson

A map of the richest plantations of the Old South along the Mississippi River

26 The Age of Jackson , , breadbasket revolutionized ted from growing growing from ted born architect architect born Heiman Adolphus also designed a number of elaborate homes and churches Tennessee. in Middle and Businessmen wealthy planters silver- employed engravers, smiths, makers, furniture print- cutters, stencil music and ers, Early teachers. Tennessee portrait portrait Tennessee uence the members of of uence the members None the nation. uence on Representatives of e House , or votes from the people, than than the people, from votes , or based was on the capitol e design of the cotton to Tennessee is connected 27 erent. erent. popular votes popular nished in 1859 Tennessee’s new Capitol, fi new Capitol, Tennessee’s Jackson of e Age Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee in 1845 Nashville to came Strickland William architect Philadelphia e noted During this time period, Tennessee’s cultural and intellectual life developed rap- developed life intellectual and cultural thisDuring time period, Tennessee’s Th Tennessee agriculture achieved great success during this period. success during 1840, the state In achieved great agriculture Tennessee infl had a huge politicians Tennessee 1820–1850, From economy, but also made Tennessee diff also made Tennessee but economy, or grain supplier, to states further states Th to south. supplier, grain or Many the in South. education the arts and of center early became an Nashville idly. industry publishing preserved the music to thanks were tunes American traditional into had grown Nashville of the 1850s, thewhich started University in 1824. By the of west the physicians of medical schools. Many leading the nation’s of one there. their training received Appalachians Th capitol. the new state build design and to the Prussian- and Vaught, Nathan Strickland, Greece. ancient of the architecture Chapter 5: Th Chapter hogs than more raised in 1850, it and in the nation, producer corn was the largest export to food down- it allowed network transportation Tennessee’s state. other any benefi in the Deep Tennessee South. plantations supply to river Shaver, Samuel and Cooper, B. Washington Earl, as Ralph such E. W. painters, portraits. numerous produced the who had received Quincy Adams, John and decide between Jackson had to of the House the of Speaker Henry Clay, votes. of second-highest number infl would Clay Adams. made a deal with Representatives, a variety of crops including fruits, vegetables, hemp, tobacco, and grains. Farmers Farmers grains. and tobacco, hemp, fruits, vegetables, including crops of a variety land so devoted much southern states Many livestock. other and also raised mules served as a food. Tennessee they import had to that cotton growing to campaigns Jackson’s Jackson. Andrew than impact an of had more in lost the presidency Jackson system. electoral the American changed, radically or more 1824 even though he received candi- the other than votes electoral more also received He candidates. the other Th be he needed to president. the majority not but dates, Adams the Secretary made Clay State. of if Adams Adams, for vote to the House Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 5: Th e Age of Jackson agreed and became president. Jackson’s supporters referred to the deal as the “corrupt bargain.” Many voters viewed the “corrupt bargain” as unfair, which caused them to vote for Jackson in 1828 and 1832. Jackson won both elections by a landslide majority. A landslide majority is when one candidate wins by a huge number of votes. Huge numbers of new voters took part in the elections of 1828 and 1832 because of changes to voting requirements. Jackson’s election signaled a shift in political power away from Virginia and New England to the west. Even after Jackson’s second term as president ended, he continued to have enormous influence over Tennessee and national politics. Jackson faced several cri- ses during his eight-year presidency. He clashed with South Carolina politicians who voted to nullify, or ignore, a Federal tariff, or tax. Jackson refused to back down even when South Carolina threatened to secede, or leave, the Union.

A broadside featuring the electors for Jackson also attacked the presidential candidate Andrew Jackson Bank of the United States because he viewed it as favoring the wealthy while denying loans to ordinary people. Jackson eventually won when the bank’s charter expired in 1836. Most important for Tennessee was Jackson’s Indian removal policy. Jackson and his supporters in Anti-nullifi cation letter by Congress wanted to move Native Andrew Jackson written in opposition to South Carolina’s Americans to land west of the threat of secession Mississippi River. Indian removal began when Georgia attempted to take over Cherokee land and property in that state. Th e Cherokee in North Georgia and Southeast Tennessee had adopted many elements of white culture including converting to Christianity, becom- Sequoyah ing slave owners, and writing a constitution. Sequoyah

28 The Age of Jackson rmly rmly Court Supreme e Regulations concerning the removal of the Indians, the Indians, of the removal concerning Regulations published by the United States War Department War States published by the United against so vote as to far went e state language that allowed the Cherokee to to Cherokee the allowed that language 29 ght the removal policy Th in the system. court the removal ght ey also wanted government to assist the growth of industry. Jacksonian Jackson of e Age Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee opposed that party in England a political from their name took e Whigs the Cherokee taken from e lands Several other leading Tennessee politi- Several Tennessee leading other Chapter 5: Th Chapter the Cherokee for system a writing created rates participation in 1844. Voter president for K. Polk James Democrat Tennessee become more literate than their white neighbors. Cherokee Principal Chief John Chief John Principal Cherokee neighbors. their white than literate become more fi Ross decided to Many their land. up giving opposed in 1838 land their on still were Cherokee evict to was sent them Army when the U.S. journey to a terrible send them on and cold and Disease, hunger, Territory. Indian thousands of the deaths led to weather call to came Cherokee the trail the along of A small band Tears.” of the “Trail with comply to who refused Cherokee the Smoky escaped into removal forced still descendants their where Mountains, Th live. settlers, to the state sold by quickly were into Landing Ross’s Chief John who turned Chattanooga. of the town in opposition their careers developed cians party. his Democratic and Jackson to served as gover- Carroll six terms William a 1835, despite 1821 through from nor, lack of supportfrom Jackson. David Ephraim White, Lawson Hugh Crockett, Cannon, Newton C. Jones, James Foster, while Bell in power also rose John and the Some Democrats. business- opposing the national on war Jackson’s men resented Jackson’s from excluded felt Others bank. favored in the Eastern Division Tennesseans allies. Many political of inner circle and bridges, as roads, such improvements internal for money government using Th railroads. a As in these money ways. spending government opposed generally Democrats Whig the anti-Jackson of becamea birthplace state home Jackson’s Andrew result, Party. Th 1836 between nine elections of six out won governor for candidates Whig the king. also carried Tennessee Whigs close. extremely were the elections all of 1852, but and Th elections. presidential in six consecutive ruled in favor of the Cherokee, but Jackson refused to enforce the decision. Georgia Georgia the decision. enforce to refused Jackson but the Cherokee, of ruled in favor ordered Jackson and land, Cherokee take to plans its with continue to was allowed A small if necessary. their lands from the Cherokee remove forcibly to the army the government from pressure the increasing in to tribe gave of members number fi most Cherokee in 1835. However, Echota New of signed the Treaty and Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 5: Th e Age of Jackson

reached all-time highs during this time period. Th e two political parties competed fi ercely for votes through newspapers, barbecues, and stump speeches. Stump speeches are standard speeches used by a politician running for offi ce. Th e speeches got their name because candidates would often stand on stumps to help their voices carry while speaking to large crowds. Tennessee earned the nickname “Volunteer State” during this period for its role in America’s wars of expansion. Tennesseans played important roles in the War of 1812, the Texas Revolution, the Seminole Wars, and the Mexican War. Jackson and his troops saved the Gulf Coast from British claims and forced Native American tribes to give up major portions of Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky. Jackson’s 1818 expedition into Florida resulted in that territory becoming part of the United States. In 1836, Tennesseans David Crockett and Sam Houston led the fi ght for Texan independence. Crockett died at the Alamo, but Houston led the Texans to victory at San Jacinto and later became president of the Lone Star Republic. Tennesseans volunteered in large numbers for the war with Mexico and played key roles in several battles. Perhaps the ultimate military adventurer was Nashvillian William Walker. During the 1850s, Walker led several expeditions to create independent, slaveholding King Andrew the First, a political cartoon criticizing President Andrew Jackson republics in Lower California and Central America. Tennessee politicians also played a key role in the expansion of the United States’ boundaries. Felix Grundy declared in 1811 that he was “anxious not only to add the Floridas to the South, but the Canadas to the North of this empire.” Tennessee’s congressional representatives were leading “War Hawks” in 1812 and throughout the confl ict with David Crockett Mexico. Having already removed Native Americans from millions of acres of land, Jackson’s fi nal act as president was to recognize the Lone Star Republic. When James K. Polk of Maury County was elected president in 1844, his fi rst act was to annex, or add, Texas to the United States. Th e Mexican War was primarily a war of Southern expansion. By the end of the war, the United

30 The Age of Jackson 31 Jackson of e Age Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee with Mexico An 1848 map of Mexico, California, and Oregon, which represents much of the territory taken by the United States in the war States by the United taken the territory of much which represents and Oregon, California, Mexico, of 1848 map An Chapter 5: Th Chapter Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 5: Th e Age of Jackson

States had gained California, the New Mexico territory, and Oregon. Tennessee politicians believed in the idea of manifest destiny and played key roles in the nation’s expansion. Most Tennesseans resented anti- slavery Northerners who raised the issue of banning slavery in the new territories in the Wilmot Proviso. Th e Wilmot Proviso did not pass, but it demonstrated the deep division in the country over slavery. Tennessee’s slave population had increased from 22.1 percent of the population in 1840 to 24.8 percent in 1860. Ownership of slaves was concentrated in relatively few hands: only 4.5 percent of the state’s white population were slaveholders in 1860. As the Congressional resolution on the Texas annexation demand for cotton increased, the cost of slaves also increased. Nashville and Memphis were renowned centers of the slave trade. Th e profi tability of cotton and slave labor made planters determined to resist Northern attacks on slavery. In the early 1830s, two events caused Tennessee to tighten laws related to slaves and free African Americans. Th e Virginia slave uprising led by Nat Turner badly frightened slave owners. White Tennesseans reacted by stepping up “patrols” for run- aways and tightening the rules regulating slave conduct, assembly, and movement. The state Constitution was amended in 1834 to prevent free African Americans from voting. Free African Americans were pressured to leave the state, and rumors of planned slave insurrections, or rebellions, kept tensions high. By the 1850s, Tennessee was sharply divided between anti-slavery advocates in East Tennessee and diehard defenders of slavery in West Tennessee. From 1848 onward, slavery overshadowed other political issues. Political parties and church denominations broke apart over An inventory of Isaac Franklin’s slaves on his plantation, slavery. Newspapers waged a vicious war Fairvue

32 The Time of Troubles ring on Fort Fort on ring the viewed ey er the fi separation, rm against the political uence over rmed the superiority of of superiority the rmed in small relatively ough Sumter in April, President President in April, Sumter issued a call for Lincoln the force to 75,000 troops line. into back seceded states This angered many who believed Tennesseans in or stay to the decision that to belonged the Union leave Harris Governor the states. con- troops, raising began tacted the Confederate submitted and government, secession to of ordinance an a In the General Assembly. East Tennessee 8 vote, June held fi 33 nd a way keep the nation together. In February February In together. the nation keep nd a way y-four percent of the state’s voters voted against send- against voted voters the state’s of percent y-four secession. support did not most Tennesseans erefore, ft Most Tennesseans initially showed little enthusiasm for for enthusiasm little showed initially Tennesseans Most airs of Middle and West Tennessee, and they were convinced convinced they were and Tennessee, West and Middle of airs chasing slaves to willingly give up their slaves. Th their slaves. up give willingly to slaves chasing in 1860 Lincoln Abraham Republican anti-slavery of election his that in Tennessee support Lincoln had so little as a disaster. Th ballot. the on even not was name infl exerted great slaveholders numbers, aff Governor the North. with a break for the time had come that and pro-secession was also enthusiastically Harris Isham had that states the ten with align Tennessee to hard worked the Union. seceded from already Bell the of 1860, John In the nation. from away breaking by votes electoral Tennessee’s won Party Union Constitutional Bell who was a moderate native Tennessee a small margin. fi to wanted 1861, fi Aft a secession convention. to delegates ing Chapter 6: The Time of Troubles Chapter 6: The Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Despite the political tensions over slavery, trade and farm wealth climbed steadily steadily climbed wealth farm trade and slavery, over tensions the political Despite Results from Maury County in Middle Tennessee from the June 8 vote to secede to 8 vote the June from Maury CountyResults in Middle from Tennessee ticket Constitutional Union Party Constitutional Party Union in the 1850s. To some Tennesseans, economic success confi economic Tennesseans, some in the 1850s. To of words over abolitionism and the fate of the Union. Southern delegates met in Southern delegates the Union. of the fate and abolitionism over words of slavery. in interference Northern over their anger express in 1850 to Nashville was the state meant South social the and Lower ties with economic Tennessee’s military politi- of and tradition long had a Tennessee However, pro-slavery. mostly cal service Th the nation. to in 1860. disaster the country of stood the brink of on the rest and Tennessee pur- money too much had invested Planters all. and Southern agriculture—slavery Chapter 6: Th Chapter Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 6: Th e Time of Troubles while West Tennessee overwhelmingly voted for secession. Th e big shift came in Middle Tennessee, which went from fi ft y-one percent against secession in February to eighty-eight percent in favor in June. Tennessee became the last state to withdraw from the Union. War was inevitable. While Tennesseans on both sides of the confl ict acted heroically, the fact remains that this was the worst of times for Tennessee and its people. Families across the state endured hardship and loss through- Terms & Deﬁ nitions

• Billy Yank—nickname for Union soldiers • Contraband camps—camps organized for fugitive slaves who fl ed to Union army camps • Fugitive slaves—runaway slaves • Guerrilla—a fi ghter who uses ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run tactics to attack larger armies or other groups of guerrilla fi ghters • Johnny Reb—nickname for Confederate soldiers • Requisition—an offi cial order to claim property for military use • Siege—a military operation in which an enemy surrounds a fort or town and cuts off essential supplies

Results from Scott and Hardeman Counties from the June 8 vote to secede

34 The Time of Troubles Company , or Union Union , or ghters use fi Billy Yanks Billy Guerrilla 35 , or Confederate soldiers, and and soldiers, Confederate , or Tintype of Private Milo Stone and two soldiers hardtack Milo eating Stone Private of Tintype Johnny Rebs Johnny ghters. ict. For most Tennesseans, theperiod 1861–1865 was a brutal from most Tennesseans, ict. For Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee . Tennessee provided 187,000 soldiers for the Confederacy and 51,000 soldiers the Confederacy and for 187,000 soldiers provided . Tennessee government the Confederate to over turned Harris Governor that e troops Th ght on both sides of the Civil War. One Confederate soldier, Sam Watkins, would would Watkins, Sam soldier, One Confederate War. the Civil bothof sides on ght ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run tactics to attack larger armies or other groups groups other or armies larger tactics hit-and-run attack to and sabotage, ambushes, guerrilla fi of became the basis of the Confederacy’s main western army, the Army of Tennessee. Tennessee. of the Army army, western main thebecame Confederacy’s the basis of Tennessee’s most of army, Lee’s east to sent were Confederates a few Tennessee While Army the Confederate a result, As soil. their home on fought soldiers Confederate numerous more and the better-armed against hard particularly fought Tennessee of Aytch Rival the state. throughout evident were loyalties divided Tennessee’s the Union. for signed up recruiters County Scott Unionist in Knoxville. each other from blocks a few just soldiers, County, McNairy In Scott. of State Independent and be to the Free itself declared protect and the Union aid to soldiers mounted organized Hurst Fielding Unionist guerrilla attacks. from Nation” as “Hurst known the area later write about his experiences as a “humble private” in a memoir titled titled in a memoir private” his experiences as a “humble about write later Chapter 6: Th Chapter the confl out men to of numbers large sent ruin ruled Tennessee and time when death the land. fi ense leBo:SuetEiin Chapter 6:Th Tennessee Student Blue Book: Edition 36 eTime of Troubles

Map of the major locations of the Civil War in 1863 The Time of Troubles ooded fort. fort. ooded is a military operation is a military operation seven gunboats and 15,000 15,000 and seven gunboats Henry. Fort attack to troops quickly gunboats Union the half-fl defeated came boats Foote’s While back around to the Cumberland Grant River, to overland his army marched A Donelson. Fort to siege lay siege surrounds enemy in which an off cuts and town or a fort The supplies. essential were there guns Confederate Commander Confederate erefore, 37 Bombardment of Fort Henry Fort Bombardment in Stewart of County River the Tennessee Henry on Fort were points e weakest Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Storming of Fort Donelson by the Iowa Second Regiment by the Iowa Donelson Fort of Storming and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. In late January 1862, General Ulysses January late In River. the Cumberland on Donelson Fort and with River the Tennessee up steamed Foote Andrew Commodore and S. Grant Chapter 6: Th Chapter rivers Tennessee’s the Confederacy that recognized and Both the Union army. Union Th the South. into pathways servecould as natural to Mountains the Appalachian line from a defensive set up Albert Sidney Johnston Th River. the Mississippi Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 6: Th e Time of Troubles more than a match for the Union gunboats. Th ough the Confederates had a good chance at breaking through the siege, three generals decided to surrender on February 15, 1862. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest refused to surrender and managed to lead some troops out of the fort. Approximately 10,000 Confederate soldiers were surrendered and packed off to Northern prison camps.

View of the stockades around the Tennessee State Capitol

Th e loss of Fort Donelson was the fi rst real catastrophe for the Confederacy. In a show of force, Foote sent the gunboats steaming up the Tennessee River into Alabama. Th e rivers that had been so valuable to Tennessee before the war now became routes by which Union forces captured the region’s towns and cities. Nashville had been left undefended except for two weak forts. Union troops cap-

Recruitment fl yer from Nathan Bedford Forrest to the citizens of Columbia and Maury County

The Time of Troubles A hospital requisition form for the Confederate army, December 1864 December army, Confederate the for form requisition hospital A 39 Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Chapter 6: Th Chapter Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 6: Th e Time of Troubles tured the city on February 24, 1862, as frightened residents streamed southward out of the city. Th e loss of Nashville and Middle Tennessee was a huge blow to the Confederate war eff ort. Th e Confederacy had lost one of its chief manufacturing centers, tons of badly needed supplies, and one of its richest farm regions. Nashville remained in Union hands until the end of the war, sparing it the destruction suff ered by other Southern cities. Th e city would serve as the headquarters, supply depot, and hospital center of the Union command in the West. Th e retreat of Confederate forces to Mississippi left West and Middle Tennessee occupied by enemy troops, a harsh condition that soon stirred up resistance from civilians. Vicious behind-the-lines warfare broke out between Confederate guerrillas and Union troops. Th ere was widespread fi ghting in East Tennessee between Unionist and Confederate sympathizers. Th e breakdown of civil order off ered many opportunities for settling old scores. Houses were burned, property was stolen, and lives were taken by bands of armed men who roamed the countryside. Guerrilla warfare was particularly brutal on the Cumberland Plateau where Confederate guerrilla Champ Ferguson and Unionist “Tinker” Dave Beaty were responsible for many deaths. In April 1862, General Johnston’s army attacked Grant’s troops near Shiloh Chapel in Hardin County. Th e two forces were of roughly equal size, but the Confederates

Map of the battlefi eld on the fi rst day of the Battle of Shiloh

40 The Time of Troubles er Braxton Bragg Braxton dent dent Rosecrans Confederate General ghting cost the lives cost the lives ghting e fi e e overconfi e rst day of battle, but were stopped by by stopped were but battle, of day rst River was killed, wounded, or missing. missing. or wounded, was killed, River use to en forced at in the U.S. Senate despite Tennessee’s Tennessee’s despite Senate in the U.S. at 41 under the command now e weary Confederates, ee the state altogether. In its place, President Lincoln President place, its In altogether. ee the state Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee July late until River Duck line along in a defensive stayed Tennessee of e Army Tennessean David Farragut’s capture of New Orleans in late April was an impor- was an April in late Orleans New of capture Farragut’s David Tennessean summer of in the raised late were hopes Confederate Th secession. Johnson introduced a new political order to Union-occupied Tennessee. Tennessee. Union-occupied to order a new political introduced secession. Johnson the favoring as soon as possible by the Union to the state return to wanted Johnson the pro-Confederate suppressing and minority Unionist was oft and unpopular was Johnson crowd. of General P.G.T. Beauregard, were forced to withdraw that evening. Shiloh was Shiloh evening. that withdraw to forced were Beauregard, General P.G.T. of Shiloh of lost in the Battle men were More the nation. for call a bloody wake-up the war that realize both to sides began and wars, previous America’s in all of than costly. and be long would Another River. Mississippi the entire control to plan in the Union’s step tant when Memphis control under Union came the Mississippi on port city important under Union entirely were Tennessee West and 6, 1862. Middle June on surrendered hands. in Confederate remained East Tennessee pro-Union only Ironically, control. aft Memphis to which had moved government, the state and Harris Governor fl to forced were fall, Nashville’s A loyal be to military governor. Johnson Andrew Governor former appointed his se he had kept Unionist, Greeneville his orders. enforce to troops Union Hunt John and Forrest cavalry by raids 1862, when brilliant Chattanooga on advance the Union’s stopped Morgan the to Tennessee Middle lower of control returned and the quick-tem- of the command Under Confederates. advanced Tennessee of the Bragg, Army pered Braxton Perryville, of Bragg’s the Battle Following Kentucky. into the Union’s await to Murfreesboro near camped army 50,000 under of army an December, late In next move. confront to Nashville from out moved Rosecrans William On December the 31, Murfreesboro. near the Confederates the fi on back the Union drove Confederates a disastrous launched 2, Bragg On January positions. defensive strong the Union’s artillery. Union by slaughtered were Confederates the in which assault infantry Stones at every men whoOne of fought four of center the rail vital abandoning into Bragg maneuvered 1863, when Rosecrans Th Georgia. North into retreating and Chattanooga 20, 19 and On September Creek. Chickamauga along army Bragg’s into stumbled compared general one that in the woods—a battle savagely fought armies the two force Bragg’s of part day, On the second scale.” a grand on warfare “guerrilla to army. Rosecrans’s defeated nearly line and in the Union a gap through poured Chapter 6: Th Chapter the men to Grant’s theydriven evening, had nearly By seized the advantage. Th blow. the knockout deliver did not but River Tennessee 25,000 fresh During the himself. night, General Johnston men, including many of a strong mount him to allowing troops, battered Grant’s reinforced troops Union Th the next day. counterattack Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 6: Th e Time of Troubles

General George Th omas earned the nickname the “Rock of Chickamauga” by stop- ping the Confederate advance and allowing the rest of Rosencrans’s army to escape. Bragg won a great victory at Chickamauga but at a frightful cost (21,000 casualties

Battle of Stones River

out of 50,000 troops), and he again failed to follow up his success. Th e Union troops dug in around Chattanooga, while the Confederates occupied the heights above the town. Grant hurried to Chattanooga to take charge of the situation, and, on November 25, his troops drove Bragg’s army off Missionary

Report of the killed, wounded, and missing of the 26th General Ulysses S. Grant on Lookout Mountain in 1863 Ohio Volunteer Infantry at the Battle of Chickamauga

42 The Time of Troubles dis- plantation of e system slavery. a sudden end to brought e war Th hands. in Union was now state e whole 43 to the problem, undisciplined troops stole stole troops undisciplined the problem, to local from be eaten could that anything both the supply to Being forced citizens. caused armies Confederate and Union in property of loss destruction and more actual combat. than Tennessee in their free- rejoiced African Americans their future uncertain about were but dom Th in Tennessee. break to began patrols slave and cipline cial order to claim property for military use. Adding military use. Adding for property claim to cial order is an offi an is Troubles of e Time Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee requisition Topographical map showing the positions of the Union and Confederate forces during the 1863 Siege of Knoxville of the 1863 Siege during and Confederate forces showing the positions the Union map of Topographical At the same time that Bragg abandoned Chattanooga, a Union force under under force a Union Chattanooga, abandoned Bragg the time that same At into service the Civil during into army War. by the Union Local citizens were burdened by the constant requisitions of food, grain, and live- and food, grain, of requisitions the constant by burdened were Local citizens stock. A Chapter 6: Th Chapter army the Confederate before a year be nearly would It Georgia. into back and Ridge Tennessee. to returned Th Knoxville. captured Burnside Ambrose African Americans from contraband camps were impressed impressed camps were African contraband Americans from Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 6: Th e Time of Troubles down early in the war. Union commanders organized “contraband” camps to accom- modate the large numbers of fugitive, or runaway, slaves who streamed into Union camps. Th e Union impressed, or forced, African Americans from the contraband camps into service as laborers. Th e men built railroads, bridges, and forts throughout Tennessee. Missionaries and sympathetic Union offi cers provided education for people in the camps. Th ey also arranged for some ex- slaves to work for wages on military projects. Hiring African Americans to work for the U.S. government helped former slaves to transition from being unpaid laborers to freedmen. In late 1863, the Union army started recruiting men to serve in “colored regiments.” The call was answered by 20,133 Tennesseans. Th ese men made up forty percent of Tennessee’s Union recruits. African Americans in Tennessee gained citizenship and the right to vote earlier than other African American Impressed slaves began construction of the North Western Railroad Southerners partly because of for the Union army, later completed by the 12th and 13th U.S. Colored their record of military service. Infantries. In the fall of 1864,William T. Sherman’s army captured the city of Atlanta. This convinced John Bell Hood, commander of the Army of Tennessee, to take bold action. Hood wanted to draw the Union out of Georgia by threatening Nashville. Hood’s plan had little chance of success, but the Confederacy’s situation was desperate, and Hood was desperate for Lithograph of the Battle of Franklin glory. The Tennessee

44 Reconstruction and Rebuilding e small e e Union Union e split e war meet ey would gains economic e ectively ended the ended the ectively ey were free at last. itself hurled er regiment had devastat- War e Civil Th cult during the Th war. 1864. The United States States 1864. The United a key played Troops Colored victory at in the Union role man- forces Hood’s Nashville. never would but retreat to aged control Union challenge again the war Although Tennessee. of another for continue would of the Battle months, four eff Nashville in Tennessee. war So effects Tennessee. ing on many young men were severely severely men were young many bitter- legacy political of e war’s teers who sold goods for outra- who sold goodsteers for 45 royed the Army of Tennessee. Th Tennessee. of the Army royed eld towards Union troops protected by temporary temporary by protected troops Union eld towards ve ferocious hours, 1,750 Confederate soldiers were were soldiers 1,750 Confederate hours, ferocious ve of the 1850s were erased, and farm production and prop- and production farm erased, and the 1850s were of their 1860 levels reach not would in Tennessee erty values the 275,000 hand, 1900. On the other until again earlier years four who had been enslaved Tennesseans Th property. anyone’s no longer were the were War the Civil whoOthers benefited from behind-the-lines profi the with both sides lived of Veterans prices. geous their of the rest for the war of memories and wounds honor of most was a place for reward the chief and lives, in their communities. armies. With the slaves gone, husbands and sons dead sons and husbands gone, the slaves With armies. plantations large neglected, many farms and captive, or Th abandoned. were small farms and er the surrender of Confederate armies. Th armies. Confederate of er the surrender Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Tennessee’s problems did not end when the war was over, but continued during during continued but was over, end when the war did not problems Tennessee’s Specially David constructed shoe for M. Dotson, who lost his foot at the who at lostM. Dotson, his foot Battle of Franklin of Battle the McGavock Cemeterythe McGavock Confederate Dead. of 1,750 Confederate soldiers killed were Franklin of and buried in the Battle at amount of food that was produced during the war years was consumed by the the by was consumed years the war during was produced food that of amount the postwar period known as Reconstruction. Th periodthe postwar as Reconstruction. known other. each on revenge get to who wanted groups rival society into Tennessee’s against the Union line for fi line for the Union against that unmarried in the years remained women young many that killed or wounded diffi extremely harvesting were and Planting followed. aft years for ness endured the Union army at Franklin on November 30, 1864. On Hood’s orders nearly 20,000 nearly orders Hood’s 30, 1864. On November on Franklin at army the Union fi open an across men charged aft regiment As branches. tree earth and made of defenses had dest recklessness Hood’s killed. December 15–16, on again fought armies the two where Nashville towards retreated Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter Th state. their home as they in high crossed spirits into were troops Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding

Each side wanted to use political power to punish its enemies and stop them from participating in the political system. Th is political fi ghting was only slightly less violent than the war that had just ended. President Lincoln’s formula for reconstructing the Southern states required that only ten percent of a state’s voters take the oath of alle- giance and form a loyal government before that state could apply for readmission. In 1864, Lincoln selected Terms & Deﬁ nitions Tennessee Unionist and Democrat Andrew Johnson as his vice presidential running mate. Lincoln selected Johnson because he wanted to show Southerners that • Amnesty—forgiveness for an off ense • Buff alo Soldiers—African American soldiers in the United States Army who played a key role in the Indian Wars of the late 1800s • Carpetbaggers—Northern businessmen who relocated to Tennessee to take advantage of cheap labor and abundant natural resources. Th ey were viewed Political cartoon depicting Andrew Johnson (left ) and Abraham Lincoln (right) as shameless opportunists by some Tennesseans who the South would receive fair treatment when the war called them carpetbaggers was over. In January 1865, after Andrew Johnson because so many of departed for Washington to become Lincoln’s vice presi- them arrived with their dent, a group of Tennessee Unionists met in Nashville belongings in carpet bags. to begin the process of restoring Tennessee to the • Contraband camps— Union. They nominated military forts William G. “Parson” Brownlow • Exodusters—freedmen who of Knoxville for governor, moved to Kansas aft er the rejected the act of secession, Civil War and planned a vote on an • Grassroots movement— amendment to the state Constitution abolishing slav- political or social movement ery. About 25,000 voters that begins with people on approved the amendment and the local level elected Brownlow as governor, essentially meeting the William G. “Parson” Brownlow requirements of Lincoln’s plan.

46 Reconstruction and Rebuilding —a — nitions —laws —laws ﬁ —people —people —a group of of —a group —people who use who —people —an illegal illegal —an —a tax that must must that —a tax execution usually carried usually execution accused has the before out a trial designed to make African African make to designed second-class Americans their away taking by citizens rights legal violence to enforce the rules the enforce to violence society their of laws or group of political candidates candidates political of group political a set of share who views which in settlements tried members community a perfect society create to of philosophy the based on founders its be paid before a person can a person can before be paid vote farm to land rented who by landowner the paid and the of a portion him giving produced they crop voters who share common common share who voters vote therefore and concerns candidates same the for • “Jim Crow” laws Crow” • “Jim • Poll tax • Poll • Lynching • Voting bloc • Voting • Utopian colonies • Utopian • Vigilantes • Sharecroppers candidates of • Slate Terms & De in the course 47 Lieutenant General for Nathan cial pardon , or forgiveness, to most former most former to forgiveness, , or gain- were Radical e Republicans amnesty Ticket to President Andrew Johnson’s impeachment hearing Andrew Johnson’s President to Ticket Bedford Forrest Bedford President Andrew Johnson’s offi Andrew Johnson’s President Lincoln’s assassination in April launched Johnson into into Johnson launched in April assassination Lincoln’s ing power in Congress, and they wanted to punish the punish to they wanted and in Congress, power ing Johnson did. Johnson Lincoln or either than more South he soon found and a verywas not skillful negotiator, in conflict the Radicalhimself with Republicans. del- congressional refused Tennessee’s seat to Congress Johnson’s that claimed Congress of Members egation. plan to give that ordered Congress was too lenient. Confederates legal protection and citizenship extended that states only former to rights denied voting and freedmen to Amendment the Fourteenth ratifying by Confederates of Reconstruction. Th Reconstruction. of Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter slav- abolish to seceded became the only state Tennessee act. ery own its by Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee signaled a drastic shift and the presidency Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding would be readmitted. Ultimately, Johnson’s confl ict with Congress would lead to his impeachment. Th ough Johnson was acquitted of the charges, he did not run for reelection in 1868. Many Tennesseans opposed the Fourteenth Amendment because it denied former Confederates the right to participate in government. Despite these objections, Brownlow was able to force the General Assembly to ratify the amendment on July 18, 1866. Th is action paved the way for Tennessee’s early readmission to the Union. Tennessee became the third state to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, before any other Southern state and earlier than most Northern states. Th ough many citizens despised Brownlow’s government, it ensured that Tennessee rejoined the nation sooner than any other seceded state. More importantly, it meant that Tennessee would be the only Southern state to escape the harsh military rule infl icted by the Radical Congress. Governor Brownlow’s administration cooperated with the Radical Republicans in Congress, but not with the majority of the people in its own state. Brownlow faced considerable opposition from other Unionists who resented his undemocratic methods. Th erefore, he decided to give the vote to freedmen in order to strengthen his support at the polls. Accordingly, in February 1867, the Tennessee General Assembly declared its support for giving voting rights to African American males. Th is came two years Letter from Governor William G. Brownlow ordering the state before Congress passed the Fift eenth militia to enforce the franchise law Amendment. With the help of African American voters, Brownlow and his slate of candidates swept to victory in the 1867 elections. A slate of candidates is a group of political candidates who share a set of political views. Brownlow’s unpopular and undemocratic government caused its own downfall. Th e Ku Klux Klan emerged in the summer of 1867, one of several shadowy vigilante groups opposed to Brownlow and freedmen’s rights. Vigilantes are people who use violence to enforce the rules or laws of their society. In this case, the Klansmen wanted to enforce the pre-Civil War rules that denied rights to African Americans. Th ese groups were made up largely of ex-Confederates. Th eir goal was to intimidate the African American voters by attacking their homes and families. Many former Confederates joined the Ku Klux Klan because it was the only political organization open to them while Brownlow was governor. In 1869, Brownlow was selected to fi ll a seat in the United States Senate. With Brownlow gone, the Klansmen saw a path back to political power. Th e group offi cially disbanded in 1869 but would be revived in the early twentieth century.

48 Reconstruction and Rebuilding ce, he ce, Klan Gibson County, presumably presumably County, Gibson committed by the Ku Klux by the Ku committed on a recent murder of an A letter to the editor reporting the editor to A letter African American man in a key to the future and was organized to a key the future to is a tax that is a taxthat 49 ed the abolition of of ed the abolition In 1870, delegates 1870, delegates In won the governorship in the governorship won 1869. of the election Seven times as many in voted Tennesseans in 1867. 1869 than the state across from the state rewrite met to the While Constitution. mostly were delegates they were conservatives, a consti- write to careful allow would that tution avoid to Tennessee military occu-Federal Delegates pation. ratifi rights voting slavery and lim- but freedmen for participation voter ited a poll tax. enacting A by poll tax a before paid be must person can vote. ectively ended in Tennessee with with ended in Tennessee ectively considered education Bureau e Freedmen’s teach basicteach skills writing, reading, and math freed to and children. men, women, Th After the war, After the war, Brownlow’s departure for Washington gave conservatives a chance to bring ex- bring to a chance conservatives gave Washington for departure Brownlow’s in 1870 Page from Tennessee’s third Constitution, adopted adopted Constitution, third Tennessee’s from Page allowed ex-Confederates to register to vote. As a result of their support, Senter easily Senter their support, of a result As vote. to register to ex-Confederates allowed eff reconstruction Political the of the rewriting the but Constitution, the civil struggle over of rights economic and had freedmen black begun. just African Americans difficul-faced more most other ties than Many Tennesseans. leftfreedmen the rural and plantations for communities as such areas urban Nashville, Memphis, Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter Senter, DeWitt successor, Brownlow’s government. state into back Confederates Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee offi took Senter once However, be to a Radicalwas also thought Republican. Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding

Chattanooga, and Knoxville looking for work and a chance to improve their lives. Freedmen also fl ed the countryside to escape the violence of groups like the Klan. Th ese newcomers settled near the contraband camps, or military forts, where black troops were stationed. Over time, these areas developed into major African American communities such as North Nashville and South Memphis. In time, an African American professional and business class developed in the cities. One institution created specifi cally to aid former slaves was the Freedmen’s Bureau. With help from Northern missionaries, the Freedmen’s Bureau set up hundreds of public schools for African Americans. Freedmen responded enthusiastically to the new schools, and a number of colleges—Fisk, Tennessee Central, LeMoyne, Roger Williams, Lane, and Knoxville—were soon founded to meet the demand for

Fisk University was originally established at the site of former Union army hospital barracks. higher education. However, the Freedmen’s Bureau was not generally successful in helping African Americans acquire their own land. Most African Americans in the countryside were laborers or tenant farmers. Aft er the army left in 1866, the Freedmen’s Bureau declined in infl uence. In the future, Tennessee freedmen had to rely on themselves and their own leaders to advance their goals. African Americans were politically active and exercised their newfound legal rights even aft er the Radical Republicans lost power in 1869. Th ey brought suits in the county courts, fi led wills, and ran for local elected offi ces, particularly in the cities where they commanded strong voting blocs. A voting bloc is a group of voters who share common concerns and therefore vote for the same candidates. Beginning with Sampson Keeble of Nashville in 1872, thirteen black legislators were elected to the Tennessee House of Sampson Keeble Representatives. Much of their legislative work consisted of try- Samuel A. McElwee

50 Reconstruction and Rebuilding ese er a character er a character aft “Jim Crow” laws Crow” “Jim are illegal executions usually carried carried usually illegal executions are 51 Lynchings One young woman, Ida B. Wells, challenged the the challenged Wells, B. Ida woman, One young “separate but equal” law on the railroads in an 1883 in an the railroads on law equal” but “separate the ladies’ for a ticket had purchased case.court Wells when the conductor her seat up give refused to and car out before the accused Beginning has a trial. in the before out designed to pass laws to began 1870s, the Legislature Th citizens. second-class African Americans make called were laws in a popular traveling show. Poll taxes and literacy literacy and taxes Poll show. traveling in a popular greatly and voters American African targeted tests participat- African Americans of the number reduced the 1880s, the Legislature By system. in the political ing in blacks and whites for facilities separate demanded on and houses, boarding like accommodations, public railroads. Letter describing a recent lynching in Shelby County Ida B. Wells B. Ida Once the Democrats regained political power, they began to reverse the move- they reverse began to power, political regained Once the Democrats ment towards racial equality. The Klan had enforced white supremacy with with supremacy white The Klan had enforced racial equality. towards ment arson. and beatings, lynchings, demanded she move to the “Jim Crow” car. Wells later sued the railroad company company sued the railroad later Wells car. Crow” the “Jim to she move demanded Court ruled against Supreme State the Tennessee but courts, in the lower won and Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter Styles S. A. McElwee, Reconstruction. during gained the rights protect to ing Gooden, lawmakers be the last black elected in 1887, would Monroe and Hutchins, Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee the 1960s. until serveto in Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding her. Wells moved to Chicago and spent the rest of her life fi ghting for equality for African Americans and women. She drew the nation’s attention to the use of lynching as a means of terrorism against African Americans in her book Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases. Former slave and Chattanooga newspaperman Randolph Miller also fought discrimination in Tennessee. Miller helped to organize a boycott of Chattanooga’s streetcars aft er they were segregated. Nashvillian Benjamin Singleton also worked to improve the lives of African Americans. Singleton urged his fellow freedmen to leave the South altogether to homestead in Kansas. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave settlers the opportunity to claim 160 acres of public land in the West. Homesteaders had to pay a small fee and live on the land continuously for five years. The freedmen who moved to Kansas were known as Exodusters. Th e Chesapeake, Ohio, and Southwestern Another group of African Railroad Company vs. Ida B. Wells case Americans who played an important role in the settlement of the West were the Buff alo Soldiers. Many Buff alo Soldiers were former slaves who joined the Union army aft er emancipation. Buff alo Soldiers like Tennessean George Jordan played an important role in the Indian Wars of the late 1800s. Jordan was awarded the Medal of Honor in 1890 for his leadership in an 1880 battle against Apaches. Despite receiving this honor, Jordan died in 1904 aft er being denied treatment at Fort Robinson’s Newspaper article about the hospital because he was African American. Exodusters One response to the labor shortage and property losses caused by the war was the campaign to rebuild a “New South” based on industry, skilled labor, and outside capital. Promoters and state offi cials worked hard to attract skilled foreign immigrants to the state. Th e state never succeeded in attracting a large number of immigrants. However, a few isolated German and Swiss colonies, such as Gruetli in Grundy County, were formed. As late as 1880, the foreign-born part of Tennessee’s population was still only one percent, compared with a national average of fi ft een percent. “New South” advocates backed the educational reform act of 1873. Th e act tried to establish regular school terms and reduce the state’s high illiteracy rate. A statewide administrative structure and general school fund were created, but the Legislature

52 Reconstruction and Rebuilding e ted greatly from Northern Northern from greatly ted y the debt for many years. One method years. many for y the debt e businessmen as shameless opportunists opportunists as shameless e businessmen ” because many of the men arrived with with the men arrived of ” because many en, many of whom had served in Tennessee had served whom of in Tennessee en, many 53 African medical school American in the nation, rst eld of higher education: Vanderbilt University was University Vanderbilt higher education: eld of carpetbaggers Mineral deposits map of East Tennessee and Western North Carolina (1876) Carolina North and Western Mineral East deposits of map Tennessee e city grew rapidly into one of the South’s leading industrial cities. In In cities. industrial leading the South’s of one into rapidly grew city e outside success in attracting also some met with promoters South” e “New Th State funding for railroad construction left Tennessee $43 million in debt. in debt. million $43 left Tennessee construction railroad for funding State was founded. Finally, the University of Nashville became the Peabody State Normal Normal State became the Peabody Nashville of the University Finally, was founded. teachers. training to exclusively devoted the Southern earliest colleges of School, one businessm Northern Tennessee. to capital natural abundant and labor cheap of take advantage to here relocated the war, during viewed thes Tennesseans Many resources. Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter was full Better progress time. operate to the money schools enough give to failed the 1870s in the fi made during Edition and Book: Blue Student Tennessee; Tennessee of the University to College was converted East Tennessee chartered; the fi College, Medical Meharry them as “ to referred and lease convict was the infamous income, or used raise revenue, to the state that their belongings in carpetbags. Perhaps the most prominent of these “carpetbaggers” these of “carpetbaggers” the most prominent in carpetbags. Perhaps their belongings Rockwood in Roane at ironworks a major who built Wilder, was General John industry steel benefi and iron Chattanooga’s County. Th money. Coca-Cola. bottle to the rights bought Th Chattanooga from lawyers 1899, three the country. Coca-Cola bottle men then to sold the right throughout businessmen to $72 reached in Tennessee goodsproduced manufactured of 1890, the value By manu- of $700,000 worth about produced only Tennessee the war, Before million. goods perfactured year. pa to how debated lawmakers Tennessee’s Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding system. In this system, prisoners were leased to private businesses as laborers. Th e business was responsible for providing food and shelter for the prisoners and pre- venting them from escaping. Legislators liked this system because it earned money for the state and prevented the state from having to build a new prison. In 1871,

Aerial map of Chattanooga, Tennessee (1888)

Tennessee began leasing prisoners for work in the coal mines of East Tennessee. In the Cumberland Plateau region, the largest mine operator was the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company (TCI). In 1884, TCI signed an exclusive lease with the state for the use of convicts in its mines. In addition to keeping labor costs low, convict lease labor was one means of overcoming strikes. According to A. S. Colyar, TCI’s president, “Th e company found this an effective club to hold over the heads of free laborers.” Trouble erupted in 1891 at mines in Anderson and Grundy Counties, when TCI used convicts as strikebreakers against striking coal miners. Miners began releasing con- Telegram regarding Coal Creek rebellion victs and burning down the

54 Reconstruction and Rebuilding rst ree rst pension act for act for pension rst his of as a result ered elds peaked during the the during peaked elds with merged later e Wheel joined Alliance e Tennessee also e Democrats criticized the popularity suff popularity the Coal upris- of Creek handling Th ing. Populist formed newly the with chal- a serious organize to Party two-party traditional the to lenge Democrats, however, system. the rumors Populists that spread had made a deal. Republicans and Th African admitting for alliances which dam- members, American agedthe Populists’ reputation 1896, the By farmers. white among Alliance Farmers’ and Populists at new two prisons also built e state 55 is a political or social movement that begins with with begins that social or movement is a political rented land to farm and paid the landowner by giv- by the landowner paid and farm to land rented their fami- or veterans Confederate act allowed e pension as known miners, armed with battles a series of fought e militia Sharecroppers end convict to the General Assembly convinced e Coal War Creek er the war, farmers concentrated on growing cash crops such as cotton, as cotton, such cash crops growing on concentrated farmers er the war, grassroots movement ough most Tennesseans were still farmers, it became harder and harder for for harder and harder became it farmers, still were Tennesseans most ough ce. Buchanan’s farmer-dominated Legislature passed the fi Legislature farmer-dominated Buchanan’s ce. In 1890, Alliancemen put their candidate, John Buchanan, in the Governor’s in the Governor’s Buchanan, John their candidate, put 1890, Alliancemen In Th move- in a series political of organize began to farmers the 1880s, Tennessee In Members of the Second Tennessee Infantry the Spanish- during the Second of Members Tennessee American War Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter in the coal fi Violence housed. they where were stockades Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee the local level. on people Offi Th veterans. Confederate Buchanan’s However, the state. from payment a small monthly receive lies to summer of 1892, when state militia was sent to the Coal Creek area by Governor Governor by the Coal area to was sent Creek militia 1892, when state summer of Th Buchanan. John miners twenty-seven and arrested, were 500 miners than More the Coal War. Creek Th killed. were the fi of one Tennessee making expired, contract 1895 when in leasing the TCI Th the rid system. of get to Southern states Mountain Brushy at Prisoners County. in Morgan Mountain Brushy and Nashville mines. mined coal in state-owned a wide variety had grown farmers Tennessee’s the war, Before earn a living. them to Aft crops. of the Depression and rates, high prices, railroad farm Falling peanuts. and tobacco, became farmers many a result, As farmers. independent against 1873 all worked of sharecroppers. in always nearly were Sharecroppers they produced. the crop him a portion of ing the typically they were and supplies, and tools, land, for rates high interest at debt farmers. of class poorest governor. win therace for helped Robert farmers Taylor from 1886, votes In ments. Th campaign. the Roses” of “War in the famous brother his defeated Taylor 78,000 signed up Wheel called the Agricultural organization a farmers’ later, years Th state. other in any than more in Tennessee, members move- grassroots a strong create to Alliance called the Farmers’ organization an A ment. Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding had virtually disappeared in Tennessee, another victim of the dismal racial politics of the period. Th e state continued its military tradition. When the Spanish-American War began in 1898, four regiments of Tennesseans volunteered for the United States Army. Th e Second, Th ird, and Fourth Regiments were sent to Cuba, where they suff ered from heat and disease but saw little action. Th e First Tennessee Infantry was dispatched to San Francisco and then by troopship to Manila in the Philippines. Th ere, these troops aided in the suppression of the Filipino nationalist movement, returning to Nashville late in 1899.

Broadside encouraging “Good Luck” to American soldiers in the Philippines (left ) and broadside welcoming the Tennessee First Regiment back from service in the Philippines (right)

Late nineteenth-century Tennessee has been called a “social and economic labo- ratory” because of the variety of experimental communities established here. Th e state became home to a number of utopian colonies, land company settlements, and recreation spas. Leaders of utopian communities wanted to create perfect communities based on their individual philosophies. Th ese communities were formed in part due to the availability of cheap land in remote natural surroundings. In 1880, some absentee landowners sold English author Th omas Hughes a large tract of land in Morgan County, on which he established the Rugby colony. For the next twenty years, English and American adventurers settled here to take part in the intellectual and vocational opportunities Rugby off ered. Another experimental colony was Ruskin, founded in 1894 by the famous socialist publicist Julius Wayland. Located on several hundred acres in rural Dickson County, Ruskin was a cooperative community in which wealth was held in common, and members were

56 Reconstruction and Rebuilding e Tennessee Tennessee e ed, and the city city the and ed, yellow fever the 1870s. epidemic of Catholic Sisters of Charity of tended Catholic the sick the Sisters during expres- was the ultimate e centennial e er 57 Nashville Nashville and e priests in the follow- years. ing was also proud develop- its of the after ment 1897, In war. Nashville hosted a huge in celebration Th 100th birthday. the state’s of honor technol- industrial showcased Exposition Centennial including wonders the world’s of ogy recreations and Th the Parthenon. During South. in the Upper Age the Gilded of sion the Exposition Park, Centennial run at six-month its see dazzling to its visitors million two nearly drew Robert Governor recovery. the South’s to monuments ruined our them who saw of observed, “Some Taylor the appreciate will certainly ago thirtycountry years miracles.” wrought have we fact that ocked to Memphis ocked Memphis to mosquito. Memphis was especially vulnerable to yellow fever because fever yellow to was especially vulnerable Memphis mosquito. Tennessee had begun to recover from the devastation of the Civil War. Sixteen Sixteen War. the Civil of the devastation from had begun recover to Tennessee fever in Lizzie Rhodes, age 19, and Daily report on the progress of yellow of Daily report the progress on paid for their work in paper scrip based on units of labor. Both Rugby and Ruskin Ruskin and Both Rugby labor. of units scrip based in paper on their work for paid 1900. by had declined city, the largest in 1900, with in cities lived people million two the state’s of percent had survived separate three 102,300. Memphis of a population having Memphis, the by is spread fever the 1870s. Yellow during fever yellow deadly of outbreaks Aedes aegypti breed. to places many the mosquitoes gave systems drainage and poor sanitation its fl citizens wealthy Memphis’s most of the 1878 outbreak, During their patients from fever yellow contracting Th Memphis. of as theMartyrs known are A new state killed 7,750 people. epidemics over- to city health helped the river of board which system sanitation health and its haul outbreaks. future of the threat reduced fl businesses and People almost ceased to function. Many brave doctors, nurses, nuns, and priests remained remained priests and nuns, nurses, doctors, brave almost ceased function. Many to con- to only the sick, for care to in the city Th tract the themselves. illness who died aft Cathedral Mary’s St. of nuns Arnold Rhodes,Arnold age 5 Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding Rebuilding and 7: Reconstruction Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 7: Reconstruction and Rebuilding

Yellow fever quarantine scenes from Memphis

58 Early Twentieth Century rough his rough icts the values between rage, religion, and education. education. and religion, rage, rage document issued by Southern Women’s League rage document issued by Southern Women’s for the rejection of the Susan B. Anthony Amendment Anthony B. the Susan the rejection of for Anti-suff c, and technological innovations were were innovations technological c, and Martin CollegeMartin Prohibition advocating for students 59 originally focused on limiting the consumption of of the consumption limiting focused on originally Carmack Carmack . , the defeated , the defeated is a person who is is a person who is Tennessean Prohibition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Chapter 8: Early martyr liquor banned e new law Temperance movement movement Temperance e As the new century began, Tennessee was troubled by confl by was troubled the new century began, Tennessee As Th Carmack’s killing gave the Prohibition the Prohibition gave killing Carmack’s orts of Federal agents and and agents Federal of orts the liquor later, irty years Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee of its traditional agrarian, or farm-based, culture and the demands of an increas- an of the demands and culture farm-based, or agrarian, traditional its of the Civil during leadership national of position lost its Having world. urban ingly taking in large place the changes from isolated had become somewhat the state War, scientifi intellectual, Tremendous cities. sweeping America early in the twentieth century. Tennessee became a major battle- became a major Tennessee century. in the twentieth Americaearly sweeping debates Political life. of ways traditional with clashed these forces where ground Suff Women’s focused as Prohibition, such issues on alcohol. However, by 1900 it had become a movement to prohibit liquor altogether, altogether, liquor prohibit to had become a movement it 1900 by However, alcohol. as known history had a long Tennessee that production alcohol of the despite had continued eff In local it. sheriffs stop to advocates 1877, Temperance had in the General Assembly Mile pass a “Four to managed the sale of prohibiting Law,” a four-mile within alcohol school. a public of radius Th candi- the “dry” Carmack, Edward Senator governor. the race for issue dominated Th Prohibition. who opposed Patterson Malcolm by was defeated date the newspaper, words of war a fierce waged Carmack his sup- and Patterson Governor against 9, 1908, the On November porters. on gun battle in a culminated argument left that Nashville of the streets closest the governor’s of two dead and murder. with charged advisors in part because the a martyr, movement the by him was pardoned who shot man A governor. her beliefs. his or killed because of the momentum created death Carmack’s the “Four extending pass legislation to Th Law.” Mile state. the entire virtually over the of control gained Prohibitionists Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century

Republican Party, and their candidate, Ben Hooper, won election as governor in 1910 and 1912. Tennessee remained offi cially “dry” from 1909 until the repeal of national Prohibition in 1933. However, the law met with Terms & Deﬁ nitions considerable resistance from the mayors of Nashville and Memphis who used saloons as gathering places for • Excise tax—tax on a the members of their political machines. Political particular good or item machines are political organizations in which one per- • Martyr—a person who is son controls the politics of a city by providing supporters killed because of his or her with jobs, city contracts, or other rewards. Statewide Prohibition was never eff ec- beliefs tively enforced, yet the issue • Normal schools—schools continues today in the form of for training teachers “local option” ordinances • Political machines— against liquor. political organizations in Tennessee became the focus which one person controls of national attention during the politics of a city by the campaign for Women’s providing supporters with Suffrage, or voting rights. jobs, city contracts, or other Women’s Suffrage, like rewards Temperance, was an issue with • Prohibition—movement its roots in middle-class reform eff orts of the late 1800s. Anne Dallas Dudley and children to prohibit or ban alcohol The movement began to see completely success after the founding of the Tennessee Equal • Rationing—limits on goods Suff rage Association in 1906. Led by wife and mother such as food, gasoline, and Anne Dallas Dudley, Tennessee suff ragists were able tires imposed by the United to dispel many stereotypes about themselves looking States government during “mannish” and being uncaring towards their children. World War II Anti-suff ragists, led by Josephine Pearson, argued that • Revenue—income Women’s Suff rage would bring an end to the traditional • Scrip—type of paper southern way of life. Despite a determined opposition, currency issued by a Tennessee suffragists were private company or local moderate in their tactics and gained limited voting rights in government 1919. In 1920, Governor • Suff rage—right to vote Albert Roberts called a spe- • Vaudeville—form of cial session of the Legislature entertainment that to consider ratifi cation of the combined singing, dancing, Nineteenth Amendment. and comedy routines Leaders of the rival groups • Victory gardens—gardens fl ooded into Nashville to lobby the government encouraged the General Assembly. In a citizens to plant for their close House vote, the suff rage Harry T. Burn own use in order to ensure amendment won passage that American soldiers and sailors had enough canned 60 food Early Twentieth Century er receiving a er receiving cation. With Burn’s Burn’s With cation. , switched sides aft , switched immediately made their presence felt by by felt made their presence immediately 61 Harry Burn Sheet music featuring an aerial drawing of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition Centennial in 1897 the Tennessee an aerial drawing of Sheet featuring music rage became national law. Women Women law. became national rage telegram from his mother encouraging him to support ratifi support him to encouraging his mother from telegram Women’s and became the the thirty-sixth ratify amendment, to state Tennessee vote, Suff Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter legislator, Eastwhen an Tennessee Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century swinging Tennessee to Warren Harding in the 1920 presidential election—the fi rst time the state had voted for a Republican presidential candidate since 1868. Tennessee gained further national attention during the so- called “Monkey Trial” of John T. Scopes. In 1925, the Legislature passed a law that forbade the teaching of evolution in public schools. Some local boosters in Dayton concocted a scheme to have Scopes, a high school biol- ogy teacher, violate the law and stand trial as a way of drawing publicity and visitors to the town. Th eir plan worked all too well, as the Rhea County courthouse was turned into a circus of national and even international media coverage. Th ousands fl ocked to Dayton to witness prosecutor William Jennings Bryan and defense attorney Clarence Darrow argue their case. Tennessee was ridiculed in the Political cartoon of the Scopes Trial Northern press as the “Monkey State,” even as a wave of revivals defending religion swept the state. Th e legal outcome of the trial was unimportant. Scopes was convicted and fi ned $100, a penalty later canceled by the state court of appeals. Th e law itself remained on the books until 1967. The case was more important because it expressed the anxi- ety felt by Tennessee’s rural people over the threat to their traditional religious culture posed by modern science. Another clash between community practices and the forces of the modern world took place in 1908 at Reelfoot Lake in the northwest corner of the state. Th e lake had for many years supported local fi shermen and hunters who supplied West Tennessee hotels and restaurants with fi sh, Th ousands fl ocked to small-town Dayton to witness the turtles, swans, and ducks. Outside busi- spectacle of the Scopes Trial. nessmen and their lawyers began buying up the lake and shoreline in order to develop it as a private resort. In the process, they denied access to the lake to local citizens who depended on the lake to earn

62 Early Twentieth Century eld popular with with popular they recorded ere en called night-riding, fi opening, er the Opry’s blues music Postcard of the WSM Radio Tower in Nashville RadioTower the WSM of Postcard rst nationally popular rural records. rural records. popular nationally rst . 63 Just as Tennessee was fertile ground for the for was fertile ground as Tennessee Just Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family to pro- to the Carter Family and Rodgers Jimmie the fi duce of as the birthplace became known Tennessee music. country traditional a so was it audiences, white by enjoyed music the for center BothAfrican in Americans. had their roots and songs, work harvestthe dances, festivals, Because rural communities. of meetings camp the Mississippi of the top at location its of this for was a center Memphis Delta, River rst step toward toward step rst Grand Ole Opry Grand bands ddle string Ernest Tubb acts combined singing, dancing, dancing, singing, acts combined approach that When in court. the developers stop tried to e residents , a powerful Nashville radio station that that radio station , a powerful Nashville sh preserve, marking a fi sh preserve, marking Ironically, at the very time that Tennessee’s the very Tennessee’s at time that Ironically, Dressed in masks and cloaked in darkness, the night riders terrorized county county terrorized riders the night in darkness, cloaked in masks and Dressed cials, kidnapped two land company lawyers, and lynched one of them in the of one lynched and lawyers, company land two kidnapped cials, entertain- of a wide range e Opry provided Th banjo-and-fi including ment groups, gospel-singing family Appalachia, of of that acts like vaudeville country and Macon. Dave Uncle native Murfreesboro Vaudeville the most popular One of routines. comedy and Opry African was an the Tennessee of stars in program radio longest-running the Still Bailey. Deford performer, American the Opry a huge used into the new tap technology radio to of history, American aft years Two music. “hillbilly” or “old-time” for market the conservation of Tennessee’s natural natural Tennessee’s of the conservation resources. its seemed be to rural under attack, culture 1925, In audience. a national found music WSM the began South, throughout be heard could music live of program a weekly broadcasting as the was soon known that to stop them. stop to offi the violence; stop to militia the state out called Patterson 1908. Governor of autumn further Fearing free. went all eventually but trial, to brought were riders night eight develop- the private over violence of outbreaks the acquire began to the state the lake, of ment 1925, In resource. as a public property lake game LakeReelfoot as a state was established fi and Th Tennessee. Bristol, to traveled Company the Victor of scouts Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter Th a living. acts, oft vigilante of custom the old to they resorted failed, Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century music by the 1920s. Th e city became a magnet that drew performers from cotton farms to the clubs of Beale Street, the Upper South’s premier African American main street. Musician and composer W. C. Handy was able to transform blues songs

Memphis became a magnet for blues performers in the 1920s. into sheet music. Th is allowed blues music to spread outside the South. However, blues music lacked the radio exposure that benefi ted country music. Beale Street off ered a rich musical setting where one could hear everything from W. C. Handy’s dance band to the jazz-accompa- nied blues of Ma Rainey or Chattanooga-born Bessie Smith. Delta blues spread across the country as better highways and the lure of wartime jobs brought greater numbers of rural African Americans into the cities. Memphis was also home to an important innovation in food purchasing. In 1916, Clarence Saunders opened Piggly Wiggly, the nation’s fi rst self- service grocery store. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, around 100,000 of the state’s young men volunteered or were draft ed into Newspaper photograph of a Piggly Wiggly grocery store the armed services. A large propor-

64 Early Twentieth Century 65 Gold Star Record for World War I soldier Jim Granberry I soldier Jim War World Gold for Record Star Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century tion of those men actually served with the American Expeditionary Force in Europe. More than 17,000 of the 61,000 Tennessee draft ees were African Americans, although African American units were still segregated and commanded by white offi cers. Four thousand Tennesseans were killed in combat or died in the infl uenza epidemic that swept through the crowded troop camps in 1918. Lawrence Tyson of Knoxville played a key role in breaking the Hindenburg Line in September of 1918. Th e Hindenburg Line was a heavily fortifi ed area near the border between France and Belgium considered to be Germany’s last line of defense. Tennessee provided the most celebrated American soldier of the First World War: Alvin C. York of Fentress County. York initially resisted serving in the military for religious reasons but later changed his mind. In October of 1918, York captured an entire German machine gun regiment in the Argonne Forest. As a result, York received the Congressional Medal of Honor as well as French military honors. York also became a powerful symbol of patriotism in the press Sergeant Alvin C. York and Hollywood fi lm. State politics and government were transformed following World War I. Austin Peay of Clarksville served as the fi rst three-term governor since William Carroll, due in large part to the backing of rural and small-town voters. Governor Peay streamlined government agencies and reduced the state property tax while imposing an excise tax on corporate profi ts. An excise tax is a tax on a particular good or item. When his administration began, the state had only 250 miles of paved roads, but Peay undertook a massive roadbuilding program with the money generated by Tennessee’s first gasoline tax. He crisscrossed the state with thousands of miles of hard-surface highways, making him very popular among voters in rural areas. Another achievement of the Peay administration was the part it played in over- hauling public education. At the beginning of the century, Tennessee had no Mt. Pisgah School in Macon County state-supported high

66 Early Twentieth Century e 1925 act , or income, income, , or , Tennessee’s , Tennessee’s nally received nally received normal schools cation, and turned turned and cation, revenue Great Migration devastating most and e longest the of many drove ese problems mes had started earlier, particularly for for particularly mes had started earlier, 67 ve percent of the state’s the state’s of percent ve Cotton picking machine, 1936 machine, picking Cotton the land as the old sharecropping system collapsed. Tractors Tractors collapsed. system sharecropping as the old the land be to the the start of October considered crash of 1929 is usually market e stock Th poorest farmers off farmers poorest to migrated African sharecroppers American and both white a result, As farm. to this in the1920s. During periodcities as the known for education, and in 1913, that share was increased to one-third. A law requiring requiring A law one-third. was increased to share in 1913, that and education, for established, high schools were passed, was county school attendance fi Tennessee of the University and built, were teachers training for Agricultural sothe Tennessee segregated schools remained However, support. state serve to on School Building African was built Americans. Normal Industrial and eight-month an for funding gave law 1925 education Peay’s this base, Governor Th beganschool the modern school term and administration. of system certifi teacher salaries, teacher standardized also supplemented these reforms of some Although colleges. teacher four-year schools into the normal its improved nevertheless had dramatically survivedid not the thirties, Tennessee school system. public ti the hard Tennessee, In Depression. Great peace, of the coming with but prices, agricultural I had raised War World farmers. Th dropped. prices and dried up the export markets Th problems. farmers’ added to record on drought needed hands of the number also reducing were pickers cotton mechanical and northern to moved people of as thousands declined African population American Chicago. like centers industrial Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter salaries Teachers’ school. attended children eligible half its than fewer schools, and In funding. state any receive did not university public the only and terrible, were set aside twenty-fi 1909, the Legislature Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century

Some of these country people found jobs at Tennessee factories, such as the DuPont plant in Old Hickory, rayon plants in Elizabethton, Eastman Kodak in Kingsport, and the Aluminum Company of America Works plant in Blount County. Th ese large enterprises had replaced the earlier “rough” manufacturing—textiles, timber, and fl our and mill products—as the state’s leading industries. Th e Alcoa plant was built specifi cally to take advantage of East Tennessee’s fast-falling rivers in order to generate electricity. Private hydroelectric dams were constructed in the state as early as 1910, and the pos- sibility of harnessing rivers to produce power would eventually prove a strong attraction for industry. Tennessee was still a predominantly agricultural state, but it now had a growing industrial workforce. In East Tennessee, it also had the begin- nings of an organized labor movement. Strikes, while less common than in northern states, were becoming more widespread.However, Tennessee’s industrial economy was soon damaged by the shutdowns and high unemployment of the 1930s. Th e Depression made every- one’s life worse: farmers produced more and made less in return; young people left the farms only to be laid off from Pickwick Landing Dam is a hydroelectric dam on the Tennessee River in jobs in the cities; merchants West Tennessee, Hardin County. could not sell their goods; doctors had patients who could not pay; and teachers were paid in heavily discounted scrip instead of U.S. currency. Scrip is a type of paper currency issued by a private company or local government. In the countryside, people dug ginseng or sold walnuts to make a little extra income. City dwellers lined up for “relief” in the form of food or went back to the farms where they could at least survive. Local governments were unable to collect taxes, and hundreds of businesses failed (578 in 1932 alone). In 1930, the failure of three major banking institutions, including Caldwell and Company, brought most fi nancial business in the state to a grinding halt. Th e collapse of the fi nancial empire of Nashvillian Rogers Caldwell cost the state $7 million, and thousands of depositors lost their savings. Th e collapse nearly caused the impeachment of newly elected Governor Henry Horton. Governor Horton had close ties with Caldwell and his

68 Early Twentieth Century ered by by ered Edward H. Crump Nashville streetcar Nashville 69 course, a moderate ese followed leaders ed the “boss” ed the “boss” the en produced poll tax kept A two-dollar ce. County oft Shelby is meant Mayor Crump and Nashville Mayor Hilary Howse’s political machines succeeded machines political Hilary Howse’s Mayor Nashville and Crump Mayor Former Memphis Mayor Edward H. Crump led H. Crump Edward Mayor Memphis Former once they were in offi they were once However, these years. during low turnout voter the tax paid routinely organization the Crump whoCounty voters voted as they Shelby for were Th told. to Crump allowed and votes the state’s of majority 1936, In primaries. Democratic statewide control as election won Browning Gordon example, for Shelby from 60,218 votes of the with help governor was Crump his opponent. 861 for only to County the by thirties forties, most of and during in Tennessee the most powerful politician he chose. whichever candidate to votes a vast bloc of deliver to being able virtue of organizations. political black from they received the support becausein part of a community, black the Memphis leader of was the political Jr., Robert Church, In jobs. Federal of hundreds a dispenser of and broker, power Republican major spokesman as a political position the same held much C. Napier James Nashville, Th African middle-class Americans. for off freedoms and rights the limited accepting and confrontation avoiding politicians white Crump. like other However, African were Americans attack to willing laws Crow” “Jim In directly. more 1905, R. H. Boyd and other busi- Nashville followed nessmen a successful boy- segregated of cott streetcars by a organizing competing, black-owned Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter of convicted who was ultimately Lea, publisher a newspaper Luke ally, political prison. to sent and fraud assumed the quickly and Horton the outcry against Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee County. Shelby and politics state of as “boss” role be who wished to 1948, anyone Between 1932 and blessing, Crump’s have had to senator or governor defi his followers of some although Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century streetcar company. Twenty years later in Chattanooga, black workingmen organized to defeat a revived Ku Klux Klan at the polls. Th ey also formed a local chapter of the Universal Negro Improvement Association following a visit from Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. By taking industrial jobs at higher wages, serving in the military, or simply leaving the landlord’s farm, African Americans achieved a degree of independence that made them less willing to tolerate second-class citizenship. For the fi rst time since Reconstruction, Tennesseans returned to the national political spotlight in the 1920s. Joseph W. Byrns of Robertson County was Speaker of the United States House of Representatives during the crucial early years of the New Deal. Senator Kenneth D. McKellar of Memphis, who worked closely with the Crump organization, served six consecutive terms, from 1916 to 1952. As powerful chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee, he steered a considerable amount of military spending and industry Tennessee’s way during World War II. Cordell Hull of Celina served in Congress from 1907 to 1933, except for the two years he spent as Democratic National Chairman. Hull authored the 1913 Federal Income Tax bill and guided American foreign policy for twelve years as Secretary of State. Tennesseans, like most Americans, gave a tremendous majority to Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs would have as great an impact in Tennessee as anywhere in the nation. One hundred thousand farmers statewide participated in the crop reduction program of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), while 55,250 young men enlisted Cordell Hull in one of the thirty-fi ve Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in the state. Th e road building projects and public works of the Public Works Administration (PWA) and Works Progress Administration (WPA) put thousands of unemployed Tennesseans to work. New Deal agencies spent large sums of tax dollars in Tennessee ($350 million in 1933–1935 alone) in an eff ort to stimulate the region’s economy through public employment and investment. The Cumberland Homesteads project gave farmland and homes to poor families. Families could use the farm products to meet their basic needs Th e Civilian Conservation Corps preparing a slope for seeding and planting

70 Early Twentieth Century rst project was a was a project rst red power plants to produce produce to plants power red construc- bringing by t the area ment of the Tennessee River Valley. Valley. River the Tennessee of ment by do this primarily to sought TVA dams hydroelectric twenty building 1951. 1933 and between the convert dams Hydroelectric water falling by energy generated several also built TVA electricity. into coal-fi fi TVA’s electricity. Some local River. the Clinch on dam would the dam thought residents benefi jobs in manufacturing jobs and tion 71 the to due in 1933, e agency was created . In one way or another, TVA had an impact impact had an TVA another, or way one . In deral dollars in Tennessee was made through was made through in Tennessee deral dollars eventually County in Cumberland e community Map of the Tennessee Valley Authority’s dams and reservoirs Authority’s Valley the Tennessee of Map Norris Dam near Knoxville, 1946 Norris Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Authority Valley Tennessee By far the greatest expenditure of Fe of expenditure the greatest far By Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter Th income. supplemental provide or a schools and as two as well plumbing indoor electricity and with had 251 homes buildings. community other of variety Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee the the Th all Tennesseans. nearly of the lives on were headquarters TVA’s Nebraska. of Norris George Senator U.S. persistence of develop- the total planning the task of with charged was TVA in Knoxville. located Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century the future. Other residents opposed the project because it would fl ood thousands of acres of farmland and force families off land they had owned for generations. TVA worked with residents to address some concerns. For example, TVA relocated family and community cemeteries from land that would be fl ooded. Some residents attempted to stop the dam through the courts, while others simply stayed on their land until removed. Ultimately, Norris Dam was completed in March 1936. Th e main benefi t of TVA was that it brought inexpensive and abundant electrical power to Tennessee, particularly to rural areas that previously did not have electrical service. TVA electrifi ed some 60,000 farm households across the state. By 1945, TVA was the largest electrical utility in the nation, a supplier of vast amounts of power whose presence in Tennessee attracted large industries to relocate near one of its dams or steam plants. One group of Tennessee-based intellectuals achieved national fame by question- ing the desirability of such industrialization for the South. Th e “Agrarians” at Vanderbilt University celebrated the region’s agricultural history and challenged the wisdom of moving rural people aside to make room for modern development. Donald Davidson, in particular, objected to massive government land acquisitions that displaced communities and fl ooded some of the best farmland in the Valley. TVA, for example, purchased or condemned 1.1 million acres of land, flooded 300,000 acres, and moved the homes of 14,000 families in order to build its first sixteen dams. On a slightly smaller scale, 420,000 acres of forested, mountainous land along the crest of the Appalachian range was set aside during the 1930s for a national President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicates the Great Smoky Mountains National park. Although much of Park, September 1940 this land belonged to timber companies, creation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park displaced some 4,000 mountain people, including long-standing communities like Cades Cove. Th e price of progress was oft en highest for those citizens most directly aff ected by such projects. Despite the millions of dollars that TVA and the Federal government pumped into Tennessee, the Depression ended because of the economic boost that came from going to war. World War II brought relief mainly by employing ten percent of the state’s populace (308,199 men and women) in the armed services. Most of those who remained on farms and in cities worked in war-related production, as

72 Early Twentieth Century e because because Oak e Ridge Corporation during victory gardens witnessed the attack on on witnessed the attack ort was Tennessee’s role in the in the role was Tennessee’s ort works in Nashville and the TVA the TVA and in Nashville works Women workers at the Vultee Aircraft the Vultee at workers Women II War World ries hummed with the labor of a greatly a greatly of labor the with ries hummed Cornelia Fort of food, gasoline, and other items. Th items. other food, and gasoline, of called ey were 73 rst A-bombs were conducted at the huge the huge at conducted were A-bombs rst plant to families encouraged government e c reached the state. For Tennessee, World War II War World Tennessee, For the state. c reached rationing cant for the war eff the war for cant nal, bloody nal, bloody , or limited the amount of goods civilians could purchase, purchase, could goods civilians of the amount limited , or , the military’s top secret project to build an atomic weapon. weapon. atomic an build to project secret top , the military’s h-largest city, with a population of 70,000, four years later. Twice Twice later. years 70,000, four of a population with city, h-largest ft and went on to serve to on went a as and rationed c-industrial installation at Oak Ridge in Anderson County. Th County. Oak in Anderson Ridge at installation c-industrial ll the needs of the military. Th the military. ll the needs of Tennesseans participated in all phases of the war—from combat to civilian civilian to combat the war—from of in all phases participated Tennesseans in 1945, city streets and courthouse squares erupted with celebrations as the news celebrations with erupted squares courthouse and streets in 1945, city the Pacifi and victoryof in Europe land- the physical had transformed the past. TVA with a radical break constituted the economy. changed wartime had irreversibly industrialism and the state, scape of returned in factories who had worked women Soldiers who and had been overseas the future. for new with expectations home victory gardens to produce vegetables. Th vegetables. produce to victory gardens Manhattan Project the fi for work production and Research they ensured that there was enough canned food available for American soldiers soldiers American for food canned available was enough there that they ensured Especially signifi sailors. and scientifi woods in 1941 empty from the war: grew of it a creation was entirely community fi Tennessee’s to government to fulfi projects in East Tennessee, war-based indust war-based in East Tennessee, projects were workers the state’s of thirty-three percent Approximately workforce. enlarged Nashvillian the war. the end of by female Harbor Pearl Ferrying Auxiliary in the Women’s pilot killed in a was Fort WAFS. or Squadron, mili- Tennessee in 1943. collision midair tary personnel served distinction with the fi to Harbor Pearl from and Okinawa, and Jima Iwo at assaults In the war. during 7,000 died in combat residents Tennessee 1942–1943, Middle divisions army twenty-eight host to played on the countryside over swarmed that inva- the D-Day for preparing maneuvers served in Tullahoma Forrest Camp sion. German and for camp war of as a prisoner POWs. Italian as President served years twelve Hull Cordell military research. and administration the United of designers the chief of became one and Secretary State of Roosevelt’s experienced Ordinary citizens Prize. Peace the Nobel which he received for Nations, the through hardships the war’s Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter shell- the giant From to $1.25 billion. amounting orders war received Tennessee Aircraft the Vultee to in Milan plant loading Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century

Cornelia Fort wrote this article describing her experience the day Pearl Harbor was bombed.

74 Early Twentieth Century 75 War ration book issued to Margaret D. Avery in Nashville Avery book ration D. issued Margaret to War Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century Twentieth 8: Early Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 8: Early Twentieth Century

Front page of the Knoxville News-Sentinel on the day of the fi rst nuclear bomb strike on Hiroshima, 1945

76 Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition

Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Th e pace of change increased dramatically for Tennesseans aft er 1945, especially for farmers. Ex-servicemen who had earned regular paychecks and seen other parts of the world simply were not willing to return to the backbreaking, mule- powered farm labor of the old days. Less risky, better-paying jobs were now available. Mechanization came late to Tennessee farms, but once it began, the changeover was rapid. Th e number of tractors in the state doubled during the war and increased almost ten times between 1940 and 1960. Soybeans, dairy cattle, and burley tobacco replaced the old regime of cotton, corn, and hogs as Tennessee’s main agricultural products. Technological change was sweeping the countryside, bringing higher productivity but raising the cost of farming. New livestock breeds, fertilizers, better seed, chemical pesticides and herbicides, electricity, Terms & Deﬁ nitions and machinery all combined to increase output, but the costs were more than many small farmers could • Boycott—a boycott is a aff ord. By the 1950s, thousands of Tennesseans had form of protest in which a left the farms for cities. Many local Tennessee papers group refuses to buy goods ran regular news columns from places like Detroit and from certain businesses Chicago. From a farm population that stood at 1.2 mil- • Cold War—the ongoing lion in 1930, only 317,000 remained on farms in 1970. By 1980, fewer than six percent of Tennesseans earned rivalry between the United their main income from farming. States and the Soviet Union As it became harder to earn a living in rural areas, that developed aft er World Tennessee’s cities and towns continued to grow. In War II, characterized 1960, the state had more urban than rural dwellers by intense propaganda for the first time. The postwar baby boom boosted campaigns, espionage or growth in Tennessee’s four major cities. Th e demands spying, and a nuclear arms of military production had brought several large indus- race tries to Tennessee. Th e Atomic Energy Commission • Sit-in—form of protest in facilities at Oak Ridge and the Arnold Engineering which demonstrators refuse Center at Tullahoma remained in operation aft er the to leave a place until their war. Chemicals and apparel led manufacturing growth between 1955 and 1965, a decade in which Tennessee demands are met made greater industrial gains than any other state. Inexpensive electricity, abundant resources, and a workforce no longer tied to the land encouraged rapid industrialization. By 1963, Tennessee ranked as the sixteenth-largest industrial state—a remarkable trans- formation for a state that, not so long ago, had been overwhelmingly agricultural. Th e Tennessee Valley Authority played a major role in the state’s postwar development. TVA supplied power for a number of military projects during the Cold War.

77 Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee

Th e Cold War was the ongoing rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union that developed aft er World War II. Th is period was characterized by intense propaganda campaigns, espionage or spying, and a nuclear arms race. By the time of the Korean War, over half of the power produced by TVA was being used by the government’s uranium enrichment facilities at Oak Ridge. To meet these growing power demands, TVA built eleven coal- fi red, steam-generating plants between 1950 and 1970, including several of the largest steam plants in the world. Feeding these huge plants turned TVA into the nation’s foremost consumer of strip-mined coal, forced a series of electrical rate hikes, and made the agency the target of numerous lawsuits over air pollution. TVA’s venture into nuclear power increased its environ- mental troubles. By 1975, TVA had become the non-communist world’s largest producer of nuclear power. However, cost overruns and safety problems closed down eleven of TVA’s reactors and turned the bulk of the nuclear program into a costly write-off . Although it continues to serve as the Tennessee Valley’s unique public utility, TVA has reduced both the size and the scope of its mission. Returning servicemen and women helped bring about a change of the old Publication issued by the Offi ce of Civil Defense to educate political order in Tennessee. On pri- Americans about the threat of nuclear attack during the Cold mary election day in Athens on August War 1, 1946, a battle occurred between former soldiers and the supporters of the entrenched political machine in McMinn County. For more than six hours, the streets of Athens blazed with gunfi re as armed veterans laid siege to the jail where the sheriff and fi ft y “deputies” were planning to stuff the ballot boxes. Th e sheriff and deputies surrendered aft er the ex-servicemen threw dynamite at the jail. When the votes were counted, the candidates backed by the ex-servicemen had won clear victories. Th e so-called “Battle of Athens” actually represented the beginning of a statewide political cleanup. Local bosses were challenged by reformers who wanted to bring an end to the power of political machines. Th e veterans’ victory demonstrated to Congressman Estes Kefauver and other up- and-coming politicians that the old style of Tennessee politics was about to change. In the 1948 elections, Kefauver won a U.S. Senate seat, and former Governor Gordon Browning returned as Tennessee’s governor with the help of veterans’ votes. Th e men defeated handpicked candidates of Memphis Mayor Ed Crump.

78 Modern Tennessee uence Columbia Race Riot involved in the Columbia Race Riot for the fair treatment of African of Americans the fair treatment for An appeal to the governor and people of Tennessee and people the governor Tennessee to of appeal An Governor same at year, Browning 79 ve-year-old Kenneth D. McKellar for the Senate seat seat the Senate for McKellar D. Kenneth ve-year-old a further dealt convention constitutional e 1953 limited from term the governor’s had changed revision e constitutional were African defendants American ve he never again called the shots Democratic County the Party, Shelby airs of the African through whites by a rampage Round two of the changing of the political guard came in 1952, when Albert came guard the political of the changing of two Round While veterans inwere Athens helping over- e Kefauver and Browning victories spelled the end of “Boss” Crump’s twenty-year twenty-year Crump’s “Boss” spelled victories the end of Browning and e Kefauver Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter Th exert a powerful infl to continued Crump Although politics. state of control Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee in the aff Th elections. in statewide in politicians’ poll tax, element a key the state repealing by politics machine to blow the vote. manipulate and limit to ability eighty-fi defeated Sr., Gore, Th thirty-six years. had held for McKellar that Frank County, Dickson from star political young a rising by was defeated himself Th Goad Clement. Buford manager, his friend campaign or and Clement Either years. four to two Clement, years. the next twenty for mansion the governor’s occupy would Ellington, the Southern For Democrats. of wing a moderate represented Kefauver and Gore, Southern Manifesto sign the segregationist refused to Gore and Kefauver example, was 1954, Kefauver In McCarthy. Joseph also Senator opposed 1956. Kefauver of the Communist to a crime belong to it making against vote to senator the only the Democratic at address the keynote delivered Clement 1956, Governor In Party. that convention the same Convention, National vice presidential as the party’s Kefauver named candidate. newly returned order, political the old throw began Columbia in African veterans American for rights civil improved for a movement in a downtown A fight African Americans. 1946 in February store department Columbia set off district. business American African American their com- defend determined to were veterans the racial attacks against themselves and munity had occurred in the past. that lynchings and wide- prevented Guardsmen the State Although ransacked patrolmen highway riots, spread African two and businesses, and homes killed. were custody men taken into American Twenty-fi These the violence. accused encouraging of Z. attorney Nashville by represented men were for Association National and Looby Alexander (NAACP) People Colored of the Advancement The men were Marshall. Thurgood counsel the importantly, More the charges. of acquitted eventually and African citizens American against violence on attention focused national protect to government the Federal from commitment least a verbal at prompted Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee the civil rights of all Southerners. Th e aft ermath of the Columbia events created a precedent, or example, that organizations like the NAACP could use to push for further government protection of civil rights during the following decade. The growing assertiveness of African Americans aft er 1945 was not an accidental development. The sacrifices of African American soldiers during World War II had made discrimination back home less tolera- ble. Favorable Supreme Court rulings and the willingness of President Roosevelt to reach out to African American leaders had encouraged government protection of civil rights. By 1960, two-thirds of Tennessee’s African American population lived in towns or cities, which made it easier to organize for collective actions such as boycotts or sit-ins. A boycott is a form of protest in which a group refuses to buy goods from certain businesses. A sit-in is a form of protest in which demonstrators refuse to leave a place until their demands are met. Signed by Eleanor Roosevelt, this letter advocated for funds to provide legal aid for African Americans Organization and discipline were nurtured involved in the Columbia Race Riot. in places like the Highlander Folk School in Grundy County. Founded by Myles Horton and Don West, Highlander became an important training center during the 1950s for community activists and civil rights leaders. Th e school was shut down by state offi cials at the height of the deseg- regation crisis, but it soon reopened to continue its work. Governor Clement was less harsh than other Southern governors in his opposition to the 1954 Supreme Court’s decision on Brown v. Board of Education, which ordered an end to segregated schools. He did not use his offi ce to “block the schoolhouse door,” and he pledged to abide by the law of the land with regard to civil rights. In 1950, four years before the land- mark Brown decision, African American parents in Clinton fi led suit in Federal district court to give their children the right to attend the local high school instead of being bused to an African American school in Knoxville. Early in Highlander Folk School’s offi cial statement of policy

80 Modern Tennessee deci- ort to to ort Brown er school to opened e African teenagers American proceeded smoothly until agita- until smoothly proceeded Jersey New of Kasper John tors the Carter of Asa and Citizens’ White Birmingham to in Clinton Council arrived integra- to resistance organize had to Clement Governor tion. Guardsmen 600 National call out aft days a few atmosphere. defuse the violent Th of months endured courageously while attend- threats and taunts 1957, of May the school. In ing 81 integrate Clinton High School High Clinton integrate Newspaper coverage of John Kasper’s speech the eff during Kasper’s Newspaper coverage John of Folk SchoolFolk Photograph of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr., at Highlander at Jr., King, Luther and Martin Parks Rosa of Photograph sion. Twelve African American students registered for classes that fall, and matters matters and fall, classes that for registered African students American Twelve sion. Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter schools based orders its on desegregate to Clinton ordered Robert Taylor 1956, Judge the with rule to in accordance Court Appeals of Circuit the U.S. from Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee

Bobby Cain became the fi rst African American to graduate from an integrated public high school in the South. A year and a half later, three bomb blasts ripped apart the Clinton High School building. In the fall of 1957, Kasper was back in the spotlight, this time in Nashville where the school board planned to integrate fi rst grade in response to lawsuits brought by African American parents. Thirteen African American students registered at fi ve formerly all-white schools, while as many as fi ft y percent of the white students stayed home. On September 9, Newspaper coverage of John Kasper’s speech during the eff ort to integrate Hattie Cotton School, where Clinton High School one African American child was enrolled, was dynamited and partially destroyed. Two years later, the Supreme Court approved Nashville’s grade-a-year integration plan. Memphis and many smaller towns, meanwhile, adopted an even slower pace in desegregating their schools. By 1960, only 169 of Tennessee’s 146,700 African American students attended integrated schools. From 1960 to 1963, a series of demonstrations took place in Nashville that would have a national impact on the civil rights movement. Nashville’s African American community was uniquely situated to host these historic events due to the concentration of African American leaders in local universi- ties and churches. African Young African American woman protests lunch counter segregation American doctors and lawyers also in Chattanooga gave considerable support to the demonstrators. Kelly Miller Smith of the First Baptist Church, along with C.T. Vivian and James Lawson, who had studied Ghandi’s tactics of nonviolent resistance, provided leadership and training

82 Modern Tennessee 83 Newspaper coverage of Nashville’s lunch counter sit-ins, 1960 lunch counter Newspaper coverage Nashville’s of Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee

for young activists who were determined to confront segregation in downtown businesses.

Civil rights attorney Z. Alexander Looby’s home is bombed on April 19, 1960 in Nashville.

Th e fi rst Nashville sit-in took place on February 13, 1960. Students from Fisk University, Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State University, and the American Baptist Th eological Seminary attempted, in peaceful fashion, to be served at whites- only downtown luncheon counters. Two months went by, hundreds of students were arrested, and some were beaten, but still they kept taking their places at the segregated counters. A consumer boycott of downtown stores spread through the African American community and put additional pressure on merchants. On April 19, an early-morning bombing destroyed Z. Alexander Looby’s home. In response, Diane Nash organized several thousand protesters to silently march to the courthouse to confront city offi cials. Th e public was horrifi ed by the violent tactics of the extreme segregationists. Th e next day, Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke to a large audience at Fisk. On May 10, 1960, a handful of downtown stores opened their lunch counters on an integrated basis as Nashville became the fi rst major city in the South to begin desegregating its public facilities. Th e Nashville sit-in movement and the students’ disciplined use of nonviolent tactics served as a model for future action against segregation. Activists in several Tennessee cities kept the pressure on restaurants, hotels, and transportation facilities that refused to drop the color barrier. High school and college students in Nashville were instrumental in organizing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which trained many civil rights leaders during the 1960s. Diane Nash was one of the few women to hold a leadership position

84 Modern Tennessee ” where evicted ” where , in which groups groups , in which tent city Freedom Rides Freedom In 1965, A. W. Willis, Jr., of of Jr., Willis, 1965, A. W. In when they regis- tried the land to within civil rights organizations such such organizations rights civil within in participated Tennesseans as SNCC. the tried passengers white and black of the terminals across bus integrate to South. became the African first Memphis elected to representative American in sixty-five the General Assembly 1963, the strug- to 1959 From years. rural on centered rights voting gle for 700 African where County, Fayette forced were families tenant American off such activists, Community vote. to ter helped McFerren, John and as Viola a “ organize despite fed were and sheltered tenants 85 in Nashville Newspaper coverage of the bombing of Z. Alexander Looby’s home home Z. Alexander of Looby’s Newspaper coverage the bombing of an ended on e 1960s thus the Clement-Ellington e end of Th harassment and a trade ban by local by a trade ban and harassment 1968, Memphis In merchants. white the broadened workers sanitation strike against on struggle going by rules. work and discriminatory pay King the Dr. strike, of support In 4, April on and Memphis, to came as he a sniper by he was assassinated the Lorraine of stood the balcony on Th Motel. strides historic with note, ominous been made in race relations, having be to done. yet much with but single-party the demise of era saw politics. in Tennessee domination Beginning Howard in 1966 with Senate, the U.S. to election Baker’s increasingly turned Tennesseans Party. the Republican toward Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee

Between 1968 and 1972, Tennessee voted for Richard Nixon twice and elected Winfi eld Dunn—the fi rst Republican governor since 1921—and two Republican senators, Baker and William Brock. Th e Watergate scandal temporarily halted this trend. In the mid-1970s, Democrat Ray Blanton defeated Maryville attorney Lamar Alexander for governor, James Sasser won a Republican-held Senate seat, and Jimmy Carter carried the state’s vote for President. Howard Baker became a leader in the Senate and was eventually named White House Chief of Staff in the Reagan White House. In

Tents and residents from Tent City in Fayette County, 1963 1978, Alexander won the governor’s race; he then took office early because of questionable acts by the outgoing Blanton administration. State government services had grown signifi cantly since the New Deal and World War II, but particularly since the passage of the fi rst sales tax in 1947. Governor McCord’s two percent tax, initially passed for schools and teachers, was raised to three percent in 1955. By the late 1950s, sales tax revenue had become the chief means of Squad members David Brock and Robert Borders with a machine gun during the Korean War financing state government. In order to fund Governor Alexander’s school reform package in 1985, the Legislature raised the state sales tax to 5.5 percent. Local governments had the option to add to this percentage making Tennessee’s sales tax one of the highest in the nation. In the late twentieth century, Tennessee carried on its long tradition of military service. From 1950 to 1953, more than 10,500 Tennesseans served in the Korean War, with 843 losing their lives in combat. Th e long Vietnam War of the 1960s and early 1970s cost 1,289 Tennessee lives and caused student unrest on campuses across Soldiers departing for patrol in Vietnam, 1968

86 Modern Tennessee in , the , the Roots ying on three space space three on ying Sun Records Studio Records Sun his return. er gures in science and the arts. the arts. in science and gures rst centuries, Tennessee has enjoyed a has enjoyed Tennessee centuries, rst agribusiness and manufacturing base to manufacturing and agribusiness 87 than other single-industry states. Tourism single-industry Tourism other than states. ections on his native state produced what the what produced state his native on ections cial poem aft shortly icts in Afghanistan and Iraq. As of October of 2017, 148 As Iraq. icts and Afghanistan in rst Tennessean in space, eventually fl eventually in space, Tennessean rst of 1990–1991 generated considerable excitement and sup- and excitement considerable 1990–1991 generated of . Presley’s recordings for Memphis’s Memphis’s for recordings . Presley’s of Henning was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for for Prize the Pulitzer was awarded Henning of Alex Haley Elvis Presley Persian Gulf War Persian rst automobiles rolled out of the factory in 2011. Tennessee’s reputation as an as an reputation the factory of in 2011. Tennessee’s out rolled automobiles rst nement. Captain Lawrence’s refl Lawrence’s Captain nement. e e Few Americans have ever matched the personal popularity of the “King of Rock of the “King of popularity the personal matched ever have Americans Few Th In the late twentieth and early twenty-fi early and twentieth the late In individuals many attract to continues income earned a tax on of lack Tennessee’s Tennessee continues to produce distinguished fi distinguished produce to continues Tennessee shuttle missions. shuttle Roll,” ’n’ Legislature adopted as the state’s offi as the state’s adopted Legislature Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter Admiral) Vice later (and Captain was Navy participant One outstanding the state. in 1967. Vietnam North over down who was shot Nashville, of Lawrence P. William the time in solitary part of spent and six years for captive was held Lawrence Captain confi Edition Book: Blue Student Operation Tennessee for mobilized units the twenty-four rallied around port, as Tennesseans have Tennesseans recently, Base. More Army Campbell Fort the Desert at Storm thousands to addition In Terror. on Global War the to contributions made major air- and sailors, soldiers, Tennessee 14,000 than more personnel, army regular of Guard) National Tennessee the entire of percent eighty-four than men (more the confl to deployed have Terror. on War in the their lives given have in service nation our of Tennesseans Tokyo of Corporation 1980, Nissan In growth. and period expansion business of in Smyrna. in the world plant truck assembly the largest build to plans announced County. Williamson in located is now headquarters corporate American Nissan’s $4 bil- of in excess investments with manufacturers sixty-nine Japanese 1994, By in Tennessee. operations had established 27,000 employees than more and lion the $2.1 billion on construction plant; the General also Motors landed Tennessee in 2008 announced in 1987. Volkswagen was completed Hill Spring near facility and in Chattanooga, facility production automobile a major was building it that the fi to new plants of further was the announcement with center enhanced innovation projects billion-dollar three state the giving Cleveland, and Clarksville in be built year. in a single the low- among rank Tennesseans expand. and relocate to looking businesses and $43,326, as of income a per capita enjoy and States in the United est taxed citizens diversity, its by has been strengthened economy the 1960s, the state Since 2016. of recessions to less vulnerable it making and banking and industry, hospital medical and a growing entertainment, and a strong with combined have insurance turn Tennessee into a major player in the nation’s economy. in the nation’s player a major into Tennessee turn 1977, In responsible largely one and a Tennessean most successful by book ever written the Vanderbilt of members Two history. in family interest popular reviving for Nobel CohenStanley in 1987, won in 1971 and Earl Sutherland faculty, University was awarded Jr., Albert Gore, and medical research, their pioneering for Prizes Margaret 1985, Dr. In global warming. on his work for Prize Peace the 2008 Nobel Rhea Seddon became the fi Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee the mid-1950s launched a new era in popular music. Memphis was also home to Stax Records, which focused on the rhythm and blues “Memphis sound.” Singer and guitarist B. B. King helped popularize rhythm and blues with wider audiences. B. B. King, Elvis Presley, and other artists helped Memphis gain global recognition. Th e Nashville-based country music industry, a multi- billion-dollar business employing a large community of professional songwriters, pro- ducers, and engineers, in addition to musicians and singers has also had a global impact. Country music attractions, particularly live music and the Country Music Hall of Fame in Nashville, are Elvis Presley addresses Governor Buford Ellington and the Tennessee General Assembly in important to March 1961. Tennessee’s $16 billion-a-year tourism industry. Graceland, Elvis’s Memphis home, is the most visited celebrity museum in the country. A new generation of Tennessee public servants rose to importance during the 1980s and 1990s. Women carved out a more prominent role, with Jane Eskind becoming the fi rst woman to be elected to statewide political offi ce as Public Service Commissioner in 1986. Martha Craig Daughtrey became the fi rst woman on the Tennessee Supreme Court. Albert Gore, Jr.’s, 1976 election to the U.S. House of Representatives began a political career that would carry him to the vice presidency of the United States in 1992 and a run for the presidency in 2000. Gore lost that election by a handful of electoral votes and failed to carry his home state, although he won a majority of the nation’s popular vote. In 1982, Lamar Alexander won his second term as governor, becoming the fi rst executive to serve consecutive four-year terms. His “Better Schools” program was one of the earliest and most signifi cant attempts at fundamental school reform in the country. As a result of the program, Alexander was appointed by President Bush as Secretary of Education in 1990. He was succeeded as governor by Ned Ray McWherter of Dresden. Th e past two decades have witnessed the rise to power of the Republican Party in Tennessee. William Frist defeated three-term U.S. Senator James Sasser, and Fred Th ompson won election to the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Albert Gore, Jr., as Republicans swept both Senate seats. Don Sundquist defeated Nashville Mayor

88 Modern Tennessee rst time rst cant role in role cant ort to pass a to ort ompson. Senator Senator ompson. e eff e rmed Tennessee’s place in the place rmed Tennessee’s African candidate American rst now Corker Senator er his reelection, 89 a tumultuous summer session of the 102nd of summer session a tumultuous ce was marked by the passage of a compre- the passage of by ce was marked confi e 2002 election rst female Speaker of the House of Representatives. Representatives. of the House of Speaker female rst rst time in the state’s history. Two years later, Nashvillian Nashvillian later, years Two history. time in the state’s rst rst year in offi year rst proved tax ultimately income the proposed defeat to e battle uential voices in the United States Senate. States in the United voices uential ce in Tennessee history. Aft history. ce in Tennessee cers were appointed by joint vote of the General Assembly for the fi for the General Assembly of vote joint by appointed were cers ough reelected by a landslide victory in 1998, Governor Sundquist will be Sundquist victory a landslide in 1998, Governor by reelected ough At the state level in 2007, State Senator Ron Ramsey Ron was elected the first Senator in 2007, State level the state At During McWherter’s eight-year administration, the state saw an increase in in increase an saw the state administration, eight-year McWherter’s During Th Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee Tennessee Modern 9: Chapter Th governor. for Bredesen Phil Edition Book: Blue Student Tennessee state income tax proved unsuccessful in unsuccessful tax proved income state penny another adding ended up the Legislature deadlocked and General Assembly, sales tax. Th the state’s to history; a signifi political played it in Tennessee point beto a turning control. Republican to majority a Democratic from changing Legislature the state Phil Bredesen Mayor Nashville elected former 2002, Tennesseans November In shortfall and budget a seemingly severe with grapple him to leaving as governor, dollars. of millions of hundreds was losing that plan Medicaid the state TennCare, law signed into and TennCare of reform enacted a sweeping Bredesen Governor was Bredesen Governor Lottery lottery-funded scholarships. and the Tennessee in 2006. a wide margin by reelected for statewide offi statewide for remain Alexander Senator and He committee. Relations Foreign the Senate chairs infl increasingly John Democrat Ramsey in 140 years. defeated Governor Lieutenant Republican Ramsey thirty-six Speaker years. would a record who had held the post for Wilder, history. in Tennessee Governor Lieutenant become the longest-serving Republican the in both of houses a majority Party the Republican gave 2008, voters November In thefi for General Assembly Republican column, with Lamar Alexander succeeding Senator Th Senator succeeding Alexander Lamar with column, Republican Leader the Senate. of Majority serve was selected in 2003 to Frist as the Republican in place Frist’s take Dr. to the election won Chattanooga Bob of Corker 2006, In the fi Jr., Ford, Harold defeated Corker the Senate. Beth Harwell became the fi constitu- Republican the 2008 elections, from majority theBecause Republican of offi tional Wilson P. Justin elected was Secretary State; of Hargett Tre since Reconstruction. was elected State Jr., H. Lillard, David and the Treasury; of was elected Comptroller further in the in both were strengthened houses majorities Republican Treasurer. 2014 elections. his through funding education of as equalization as well standards education the replaced plan TennCare McWherter’s program. 21st Century Schools reform national complementing the poor, to care health provided and program Medicaid Tennesseans a close, to drew administration McWherter the As reforms. health care the state. of as the 47th governor Germantown of Sundquist Don Republican chose fi Sundquist’s Governor the death of restoration and rights victims’ on focusing package, anti-crime hensive penalty. the reducing tax by structure Tennessee’s change to his attempt for remembered tax. income-based Th an a sales introducing tax on and reliance Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition Chapter 9: Modern Tennessee

Four years later, William “Bill” Haslam of Knoxville won the Governor’s Offi ce in a landslide victory. His administration has already teamed with Republican majorities in both chambers of the General Assembly to enact changes in tort liability reform, teacher tenure laws, and teacher collective bargaining rights. Bill Haslam was reelected to his second term as Tennessee’s governor with the largest victory in modern Tennessee history. He is committed to education and has launched the Tennessee Promise to give graduating high school seniors a chance to earn a certifi - cate or degree beyond high school free of charge and the FOCUS Act, reorganizing postsecondary education. He has focused on making Tennessee the number one location in the Southeast for high-quality jobs, championing the Rural Economic Opportunity Act to encourage economic growth in rural communities, as well as implementing the Select Tennessee Certifi ed Sites Program, elevating Tennessee’s level of preparedness for corporate investment. During Haslam’s administration, Tennessee has experienced historically low unemployment rates. Sports have long been a popular entertainment and source of pride for Tennesseans. Th e University of Tennessee’s Lady Vols, under Coach Pat Head Summitt, set the standard of excellence for women’s collegiate basketball by winning eight national championships between 1987 and 2008. Th e football team of the University of Tennessee reached the peak of college football in 1998 by going unde- feated and being crowned National Champions. In 2014, Vanderbilt University’s men’s baseball team won the NCAA Championship. Professional sports have come to Tennessee in a big way, with the NBA’s Memphis Grizzlies, the NHL’s Nashville Predators, and the NFL’s Tennessee Titans. Th e Titans went to the Super Bowl and two AFC Championships between 1998 and 2003, during which time they were the winningest team in the NFL. Th e Predators and Grizzlies are consistent playoff contenders. In 2017, the Nashville Predators hockey team made headlines with a historic run through the Stanley Cup Playoff s before being edged out in the fi nals. Tennessee has continued to experience strong economic growth and record low unemployment. Nashville has become a booming real estate market and nationally recognized travel destination. Tennessee’s low taxes and welcoming business climate have resulted in a signifi cant revenue surplus. Politically, the state is strongly Republican, with the Republicans now holding supermajorities, or more than two- thirds of the seats, in both houses of the General Assembly. Tennesseans draw great strength from their heritage, not only of great deeds and events, but of the more enduring legacy of community ties and respect for tradition. One does not have to look hard for Tennessee’s signifi cance in American history. Th e state played a key role in winning the fi rst frontier west of the Appalachian Mountains and provided the young nation with much of its political and military leadership, including the dominant fi gure of Andrew Jackson. Divided in loyalties and occupied for much of the Civil War, Tennessee was the main battleground in the western theater of that confl ict. Th e early twentieth century witnessed clashes over cultural issues such as Prohibition, Women’s Suff rage, and school reform. World War II accelerated the changeover from an agricultural to an industrial and predominantly urban state. As older cultural byways fade, Tennessee has become home to some of the most advanced sectors of American business and technology.

90 Acknowledgments Tennessee Blue Book: Student Edition

Our state’s mix of forward-looking innovation, great natural beauty, and a people solidly grounded in tradition and community has proven an irresistible allure for the rest of the country. Acknowledgments A History of Tennessee was predominantly researched and written by Dr. Wayne C. Moore of the Tennessee State Library and Archives (TSLA) for publication in the Tennessee Blue Book.

Th is revised student edition was written by educator Rebecca Byrd of New Center Elementary in Sevier County.

Unless noted, images were provided by the TSLA.