The Environment and People

“We stand now where two roads diverge. But . . . they are Introduction: A Guide to not equally fair. The road we have long been traveling is the Environment© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1. EnvironmentalNOT Science: FOR SALE An OR DISTRIBUTIONdeceptively easy, a smooth superhighwayNOT FOR SALE on OR which DISTRIBUTION we Overview progress with great speed, but at its end lies disaster. The 2. Human Population Growth other fork of the road—the one less traveled by—offers our last, our only chance to reach a destination that assures the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONpreservation of theNOT earth.” FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Rachel Carson (1907–1964), environmentalist and author, Silent Spring

Introduction: A Guide to the Environment © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC This text provides an overview of the natural environment and the way people NOT FORare SALE increasingly OR DISTRIBUTION affecting it. Through an understandingNOT of FOR environmental SALE OR sci DISTRIBUTION- ence, you will be in a position to make sound decisions that will affect the future of the entire planet. An important aspect of genuine understanding is the ability to relate seemingly diverse and disparate facts and phenomena to © Jones & Bartlett Learning,one another LLC within a larger picture. ©A Jonestruism in& environmentalBartlett Learning, science LLCis that NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONeverything is related to everything NOTelse. TheFOR environment SALE OR isDISTRIBUTION a finely tuned, grand, and extremely complex system in which if one component is modified or tampered with there will be ramifications in other, often unexpected, portions of the system. Therefore, it is particularly beneficial to use a systems approach in analyzing global environmental issues (discussed in more detail © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLClater in this chapter).© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION figure intro.-1 showsNOT how FOR the SALE text is OR subdivided DISTRIBUTION into the five major sections (each containing a number of chapters). These sections reflect the input– output, or throughput, processes that can be used to describe the global environment, how the environmental system is modified, and solutions to © Jonesenvironmental & Bartlett Learning, problems LLC(such as the depletion of ©resources Jones &or Bartlettpollution Learning, of LLC NOT FORnature) SALE brought OR DISTRIBUTION on by human activities. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Section 1: The Environment and People. The natural environment and the people living on planet Earth form a complex, integrated system, as introduced here. The environmental science overview and discus- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,sion LLC on human population growth© Jones also & describe Bartlett the Learning, explosive growthLLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONof the human population, theNOT development FOR SALE of ORmodern DISTRIBUTION technological and industrial society, and some of the ramifications that these have had for the natural environment. Many environmentalists consider human population growth, or more precisely the impact of people on the environment, to be the single most important issue that the world © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC currently faces.© StudyingJones & Figure Bartlett Intro.-1, Learning, you will LLC see that conceptually NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 2 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

FIGURE Intro.-1 A system can be technically defined as a “set of components functioning together as a whole.” A systems view allows us © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning,to LLCisolate a part of the world and focus on those NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONaspects that interact more closely than others. For example, a cell in the system we call a human body generally interacts much more closely with other cells in the body than with the outside world. By focusing only on the cells that function in digestion, we confine our view further to the digestive system. The key point here is that © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesmost systems & are Bartlett hierarchical: T hLearning,ey are composed LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTof smaller FOR sets SALEof systems madeOR of DISTRIBUTIONsmaller interacting parts. Photos: © Photodisc.

Population Consumption © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

1. The Environment and Humans © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (Chapters© Jones 1–2) & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONHydrosphere AtmosphereNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Lithosphere Biosphere 2. The Environment Lithosphere Biosphere of Life on Planet © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Earth© (Chapters Jones &3–5) Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Hydrosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 3. Resource Use and 4. Dealing with Management Environmental (Chapters 6–13) Degradation Lithosphere Biosphere (Chapters 14–18) © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Hydrosphere Atmosphere © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 5. Environmental Issues: Social Aspects and Solutions 3 (Chapters 19–20) 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE lifeOR and DISTRIBUTION wildlife habitat, and many other resources. To avoid depletion problems, we must learn to manage our resources in a more sustainable manner. Issues surrounding depletion © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and resource© scarcityJones are& Bartlett discussed Learning, in LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Section 3. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Section 4: Dealing with Environmen- tal Degradation. Discharging waste into the environment is the other basic © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonestype of & environmental Bartlett Learning, disturbance. LLC It NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTincludes FOR SALEpollution OR of DISTRIBUTION air, water, land, and biological communities, but there are ways to use resources produc- tively without the levels of pollution FIGURE Intro.-2 Even parts of remote Antarctica, shown here, have become dumping grounds and concomitant environmental dam- © Jonesfor &human Bartlett waste. © William Learning, Larose/Greenpeace. LLC © Jones & Bartlettage Learning,that have been LLC so widespread in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE theOR past. DISTRIBUTION Environmentally friendly op- tions to address problems of pollution the raw elements of the natural envi- are explored in Section 4. ronment pass through human society • Section 5: Social Solutions to Envi- to© produceJones &the Bartlett global environment Learning, inLLC ronmental ©Concerns. Jones & Technological Bartlett Learning, LLC whichNOT weFOR currently SALE live. OR For DISTRIBUTION all practi- solutions areNOT insufficient FOR SALE unless OR soci DISTRIBUTION- cal purposes, there is no pristine wil- ety is willing to use them. Social solu- derness remaining anywhere on Earth tions are interwoven throughout this text, but these final chapters allow us (figure intro.-2). • Section 2: The Environment of Life to focus on specific social institutions © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonesand their & Bartlettlegal and Learning, economic aspects. LLC NOT FOR SALEon Planet OR DISTRIBUTION Earth. Earth and life form NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION an interconnected system based on en- Ultimately, through a combination of ergy flow and matter cycles. Study of scientific analysis, technological ad- these natural systems includes the dis- vances, and the continuing develop- ciplines of biology, chemistry, geology, ment of social institutions, humanity © Jones & Bartlett Learning,climatology, LLC and many other natural© Jones & Bartlettmust Learning, lessen its detrimentalLLC impact on NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsciences. Learning the basic principlesNOT FOR SALE theOR environment DISTRIBUTION if we are to avoid of these fields permits a better under- living on an impoverished planet in a standing of natural systems and how very bleak postindustrial age. they can be used, protected, or dis- The global environment of the future (rep- turbed.© Jones People & Bartlett use, modify, Learning, and are LLC resented in Section ©5; Jonesrefer to Figure& Bartlett Intro.-1) Learning, LLC dependent on these natural systems. will not be the preindustrial environment of NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Section 3: Resource Use and Manage- the past (represented in Section 2) because ment. Simply by using resources, we we (Section 1) have a tremendous impact on run the risk of overusing and deplet- the environment (Sections 1, 3, and 4). Our ing them. Depletion of environmen- actions today will have a profound effect on © Jones & Bartletttal resources Learning, is one LLCof the two basic the ©environment Jones & Bartlettof the future. Learning, By our LLC deeds NOT FOR SALEtypes OR of DISTRIBUTIONenvironmental disturbance. we NOTwill determine FOR SALE whether OR DISTRIBUTIONthe environment It includes depletion of water, miner- of the future will be more or less hospitable als (including fossil fuels), soils, wild- to us and numerous other species.

Much of the world’s land area has been disturbed by humans. In this photo, red indicates land that is greatly altered and yellow shows the partially altered land area. Only the green area remains in a relatively natural state, and it is disappearing rapidly. (Source: Lee Hannah, Conservation International.)

Ancient earth and stonework in the Peruvian © JonesAndes. See & C aseBartlett Study 13-1 Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC (Photo by Robert Schoch). NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

© JonesChapter & O Bartlettbjectives Learning, LLChe critical importance ©of Jonesenvironmental & Bartlett science Learning, and environmental LLC studies can- NOTAfter FOR reading SALE this chapter, OR DISTRIBUTIONnot be disputed. VirtuallyNOT everyone FOR SALE is aware OR ofDISTRIBUTION environmental issues—global you should be able to explain Twarming, the depletion of the ozone layer, the controversy over nuclear power, or describe the following: the global loss of species and biodiversity, the introduction of hormone-altering pollut- • What is meant by ants into the natural environment, the use of and controversy surrounding genetically environmental science engineered crops, or the continuing problem of solid waste disposal. No citizen of the • How the environment ©Earth Jones can & afford Bartlett to be Learning, ignorant of LLC environmental issues. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC works as a system NOTOur FOR planet SALE has OR existed DISTRIBUTION for more than 4 billion years, NOTyet never FOR before SALE has OR one DISTRIBUTION • The key traits of the species dominated the Earth and other species so completely. Humanity now stands environmental system at a unique crossroads: because of human technological capabilities and impacts, the • The concepts of next few decades will witness drastic changes in the Earth and its inhabitants. It is our consumption and exponential growth© Jones & Bartlettindividual Learning, responsibility LLC to try to influence© the Jones outcome & Bartlett of such Learning,changes so thatLLC the welfare of both people and the environment is best served. • A brief historyNOT of FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION environmental movements Although this text presents many important facts, it also has three larger goals. • The concept of a commons One is to help you sort through the huge amount of environmental information avail- • Throughput able and focus on important “core” issues. Today, especially with the widespread • What is meant by true availability of the Internet and the World Wide Web, little bits of information on almost © Jonescosts and & whBartletty people Learning,any LLC environmental issue are readily© Jones available; & Bartlett nevertheless, Learning, even LLC as we become over- NOTavoid FOR them SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONwhelmed with factoids, the biggerNOT FORpicture, SALE a larger OR perspective, DISTRIBUTION is often lost. It often 6 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORcan SALE be difficult OR DISTRIBUTION to distinguish the truly impor- NOTWorld FOR Wide SALE Web bombard OR DISTRIBUTION us daily with data tant from the merely interesting or even the and statistics. Feeling overwhelmed, most downright trivial. As the old saying indicates, people react by “tuning out.” it can be hard to see the forest because all of Rather than quit trying to assimilate all the trees block the view. this information, we might recall Henry David Seeing the big ©picture Jones will & helpBartlett you Learning,to Thoreau’s LLC advice to “simplify! simplify!”© Jones Tho & Bartlett- Learning, LLC understand differingNOT points FOR of SALEview of OR indi DISTRIBUTION- reau has become a hero to manyNOT environmen FOR SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION viduals or groups who have economic, po- talists because he long ago predicted many of litical, or even personal stakes in the possible the problems that we now face. His advice to solutions. Environmental issues are complex. simplify was a response to what he saw as a With© every Jones solution & Bartlett comes Learning,a different setLLC of tendency for civilization© Jones to& Bartlettbecome increasLearning,- LLC potentialNOT advantages FOR SALE and OR disadvantages. DISTRIBUTION The ingly more complexNOT FORand removed SALE OR from DISTRIBUTION the second goal of this text then is to help you natural world. This, he said, led to anxieties understand the problems, evaluate the solu- and spiritual impoverishment despite material tions with all the stakeholders in mind, and wealth. On a pragmatic level, it also leads to a make up your own mind. weakened and damaged natural environment. © Jones & BartlettThe third Learning, goal of this LLC text is to get you, © JonesWe can & heed Bartlett Thoreau’s Learning, advice by LLC mentally NOT FORthe SALE reader, OR seriously DISTRIBUTION thinking about how you NOTstepping FOR back SALE and keeping OR DISTRIBUTION our priorities set on can put an understanding of environmental what we think is important. The systems ap- issues to work to effectively help your house- proach to environmental science greatly heeds hold, community, or nation make the funda- the process. In this way, we can focus on the mental changes needed© Jones to build & aBartlett world that Learning, information LLC that we can use, instead© Jones of trying & Bartlett Learning, LLC can sustain many generationsNOT FOR of SALE people OR with DISTRIBUTION to learn it all (which no one canNOT do). FOR Ideally, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION a decent standard of living, while minimizing we can strive to seek what might be called en- the human impact on the natural environ- vironmental wisdom. Wisdom is the ability to ment. We encourage you to become actively sort through all of the facts and information involved in environmental concerns. to make reasonable decisions and plan sen- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sible long-term ©strategies. Jones &Wisdom Bartlett is Learning,gained LLC WhatNOT Is Envir FORonmental SALE Science? OR DISTRIBUTION through educationNOT and FOR practical SALE experience, OR DISTRIBUTION so Environmental science involves all fields of environmental wisdom takes time to develop. natural science as they bear on the physical Wisdom also means that we take a broad view and biological environment around us. As- in solving problems and weigh all kinds of in- pects of biology, geology, chemistry, physics, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©formation, Jones &social Bartlett and economic Learning, as wellLLC as sci- meteorology, and many other disciplines must entific and technical. Environmental science is NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be considered when studying environmental often called holistic, meaning that it seeks con- science. A major component of modern en- nections among all aspects of a problem. vironmental science involves addressing cur- A lack of environmental wisdom is costly rent environmental problems brought about in many ways. It is costly to other species, to directly by human activity.© Jones Therefore, & Bartlett in ad Learning,- our qualityLLC of life, to future generations,© Jones &and Bartlett Learning, LLC dition to presenting theNOT scientific FOR SALE concepts OR un DISTRIBUTION- often to human happiness itself;NOT however, FOR cur SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION derlying environmental issues, we also discuss rently the most easily measured costs are eco- social aspects of environmental problems. Not nomic. A good example is illustrated in figure only technology and scientific understanding, 1-1, which shows that money spent on environ- but also laws, ethics, economics, and other as- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC mental problems© doesJones not &always Bartlett correlate Learning, di- LLC pects of human behavior will play a key role in rectly to the actual magnitude of the problem. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION solving our current environmental dilemmas. For instance, problems related to land preservation and restoration receive more money Avoiding “Information Overload” than those associated with global change (such One of the challenges we face today is how as fixing the hole in the ozone layer or address- © Jones &to Bartlettcope with Learning, information LLC overload. News ©ing Jones clean air & issuesBartlett related Learning, to the increased LLC in- NOT FORpapers, SALE radio,OR DISTRIBUTION television, and the Internet/ NOTcidence FOR of asthma SALE in OR children DISTRIBUTION living in urban 7 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC lutions. Examples of this approach include NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONClean Water NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION $5,137.00 million cleanup of wastes and pollution after they High (drinking, streams/rivers, are produced (figure 1-2) and trying to save aquifer maintenance) Clean Air/Global Change species only when they are nearly extinct. $1,070.00 million Besides being less effective, such piecemeal, © Jones & Bartlett(air pollution Learning, standards, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC reasearch) late-acting remedial solutions are almost al- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONways the most expensiveNOT FOR way SALEto solve OR envi DISTRIBUTION- Land Preservation and Restoration ronmental problems. $1,761.00 million In the last decade, the rising costs and in- Medium (prevention/remediation of soil and water contamination) efficiencies of cleaning up pollution after it © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC is produced© Jones have & Bartlett led to a Learning, search for LLCbetter Public concernPublic Healthy Community and NOT FOR SALE OREcosystems DISTRIBUTION $1,738.00 million approachesNOT FOR to solvingSALE ORenvironmental DISTRIBUTION prob- (protection of sensitive areas, habitat preservation) lems. Generally, holistic approaches have been able to solve problems more cheaply and Compliance and Environmental Low Stewardship $789 million efficiently. By examining society and the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,(education LLC programs, partnerships, enforcement)© Jones &environment Bartlett Learning, as an interconnected LLC system, we often can solve many problems at once. NOT FOR SALE OR EPADISTRIBUTION spending NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The input of materials and energy through Actual risk society is commonly called throughput. Envi- FIGURE 1-1 The actual risk of a hazard compared to the amount of public concern about the risk. ronmental resources (or inputs) are referred There is not always a direct correlation between the actual magnitude of a problem or its associated risks and the amount of money spent to mitigate the problem. As a result, large amounts of money to as sources of throughput. Environmental (size of dot) are spent on issues with less© direct Jones risks, such &as soil Bartlett remediation projects,Learning, while at the LLC reservoirs that receive© Jones throughput & Bartlett are called Learning, LLC same time problems such as air pollution and global climate change with more immediate consequences receive less money. ( U.S. EnvironmentalNOT Protection FOR Agency SALE and World Water.org.)OR DISTRIBUTION sinks and are the ultimateNOT FOR repository SALE of OR soci DISTRIBUTION- etal output, which could become input and throughput again, as in recycled materials. As areas). Such spending inefficiencies occur be- illustrated in figure 1-3, environmental prob- cause people often lack adequate information lems arise from (1) resource depletion and © Jonesabout & Bartlettthe true risk Learning, of environmental LLC problems. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (2) pollution.NOT FOR Past SALE efforts OR at DISTRIBUTIONpollution control Building a Sustainable World were largely “end-of-pipe” solutions, cleaning up waste after it was produced. Reduc- Many environmentalists point out that past ing the flow of material through society can efforts have tended to focus on short-term also control pollution. Such input reduction, emergency actions rather than long-term so- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &which Bartlett conserves Learning, resources LLC and reduces pollu- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR tionSALE at the OR same DISTRIBUTION time, is now widely accepted by environmental economists and others as a better solution to most environmental problems. Input reduction illustrates the kind of © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC fundamental change© needed Jones to & build Bartlett a society Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthat can be maintainedNOT for FOR many SALE years OR with DISTRIBUTION- out degrading the environment. The works of chemist Michael Braungart and architect and designer William McDonough illustrate this last point. Together they have put to use © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC nature’s© Jones practice & Bartlett that nothing Learning, goes to LLC waste NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION andNOT in the FOR end SALEwaste equalsOR DISTRIBUTION food. Through their “cradle to cradle” certification process, factories and other businesses worldwide are proving that industrial design that promotes sustainability through reduced negative im- © JonesFIG &UR EBartlett 1-2 Cleaning upLearning, toxic waste is an expensiveLLC after-the-fact approach. It is much© cheaper Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORto design SALE methods OR that produce DISTRIBUTION less waste. Courtesy of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. NOT FOR pactSALE on ORthe environmentDISTRIBUTION can occur through 8 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Environmental Problems: NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONResource Depletion Natural Resources or Saturation (pollution)

Sustainability SOURCES SINKS © Jones &FIG URBartlettE 1-3 People Learning,use resources from theLLC natural environment and deposit wastes© back Jones into the natural & Bartlettenvironment. Materials Learning, and energy thatLLC people draw from are known as “sources,” and environmental reservoirs that receive the products of human society are known as “sinks.” Environmental problems can arise NOT FORfrom SALE resource depletionOR DISTRIBUTION and pollution of sinks. Controlling consumption and reducingNOT the flow FOR of material SALE through societyOR DISTRIBUTIONcan alleviate many environmental problems. Inserts © Photodisc.

creative problem-solving and ingenuity, and the world and focus on those aspects that in- these solutions are ©profitable Jones & forBartlett the com Learning,- teract LLC more closely than others.© For Jones example, & Bartlett Learning, LLC a cell in the system we call a human body pany and society thatNOT commit FOR to SALE them. OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Figure 1-3 also identifies the two basic generally interacts much more closely with causes of most current environmental problems: other cells in the body than with the outside human population pressures and consumption world. By focusing only on the cells that func- of material goods. Increases in population and tion in digestion, we confine our view further consumption© Jones have & Bartlett led to increased Learning, resource LLC de- to the digestive© system. Jones The & Bartlettkey point Learning, here is LLC pletionNOT and FOR pollution. SALE Both OR need DISTRIBUTION to be addressed that most systemsNOT are FOR hierarchical SALE OR: they DISTRIBUTION are if long-term solutions are to be achieved. composed of smaller sets of systems made of smaller interacting parts. 1.1 The Environment as a System: Three Key Traits of the Environmental System © Jones &An Bartlett Overview Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC We can analyze the global environment in NOT FORThe SALE entire OR environment DISTRIBUTION of planet Earth can NOTterms FORof three SALE system OR traits: DISTRIBUTION openness, inte- be divided into four spheres (refer to Figure gration, and complexity. Intro.-1): the biosphere (living organisms of Openness refers to whether a system is Earth), atmosphere (the gaseous envelope sur- isolated from other systems. An open system rounding the planet),© hydrosphereJones & Bartlett (the liquid Learning, is not LLC isolated in that it exchanges© Jones matter & Bartlett Learning, LLC water on the surfaceNOT of FOREarth), SALE and lithoOR DISTRIBUTION- and/or energy with other systems.NOT AFOR closed SALE OR DISTRIBUTION sphere (the stony or rocky matter compos- system is isolated and exchanges nothing. ing the bulk of the surface of Earth). Matter The law of entropy means that energy cycles and energy flows through these spheres cannot be fully recycled; rather, “high-qual- (figure 1-4). A systems approach provides a © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ity” energy is ©degraded Jones &to Bartlett“lower quality” Learning, LLC convenient overview and manner of under- energy (such as waste heat). Therefore, any standingNOT how FOR our SALE environment OR DISTRIBUTION works. system that doesNOT not FORhave aSALE renewing OR supplyDISTRIBUTION of energy from outside eventually will cease What Is a System? to exist. Not surprisingly, the Earth is an open A system can be defined technically as a “set of system in terms of energy. Figure 1-4 shows © Jones &components Bartlett Learning,functioning LLCtogether as a whole.” ©how Jones energy & flowsBartlett from Learning, the sun and LLC is often NOT FORA SALE systems OR view DISTRIBUTION allows us to isolate a part of NOTradiated FOR back SALE into OR space. DISTRIBUTION In contrast, the 1.1 The Environment as a System: An Overview 9 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONPLANET EARTH NOT FOR scientistsSALE OR believe DISTRIBUTION the global environment is less integrated than the Gaia hypothesis argues. Lithosphere Biosphere This does not mean that the environment is “unconnected” or even as weakly connected Sun as a colony of cells. As we describe in future © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC chapters, many kinds© Jonesof matter & cycles Bartlett and Learning,en- LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Matter cycles ergy flows interconnect the spheres and cycle Energy flows within the spheres as well. The true level of

integration in the global system probably is somewhat less than a “superorganism” but © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC considerably© Jones more & Bartlett than a looseLearning, collection LLC of Hydrosphere Atmosphere NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION independentNOT FOR parts. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Complexity is often defined as how many FIGURE 1-4 The Earth is open to energy, which flows into and out of it. However, the kinds of parts a system has. This definition Earth is essentially closed to matter, which cycles over and over through the four spheres. conforms to our intuition: a tiny insect seems Inserts © Photodisc. more complex to us than a large rock because © Jones & Bartlett Earth,Learning, for all LLC practical purposes, is a ©closed Jones &it Bartletthas many Learning, more types LLCof “parts.” The insect NOT FOR SALE ORsystem DISTRIBUTION in terms of matter. If we discountNOT the FOR hasSALE more OR complex DISTRIBUTION molecules, as well as more relatively small amount of matter added from different types of molecules, and these are meteorites and other space debris, the Earth used to construct cells and organs. This ex- contains all of the matter it will ever have. ample also illustrates that complexity is often Driven by© Jonesenergy from& Bartlett the sun, Learning, this matter LLC hierarchical, with smaller© Jones components & Bartlett being Learning, LLC cycles overNOT and FOR over SALEamong ORthe fourDISTRIBUTION spheres, used to construct largerNOT ones. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION often moving back and forth among the gas- As you would expect, the environment is eous, liquid, and solid states and participat- enormously complex. The four spheres, with ing in the metabolism of living things. their matter cycles and energy flows, have Integration refers to the strength of the in- trillions and trillions of different components © Jonesteractions & Bartlett among Learning, the parts ofLLC the system. For operating© Jones at many & Bartlett spatial and Learning, temporal LLCscales. NOT FORinstance, SALE the humanOR DISTRIBUTION body is a highly integrated Organisms,NOT FOR soils, SALE rainwater, OR air, DISTRIBUTION and many other system whose cells are interdependent and in components interact in complicated ways. The close communication. The loss of certain cells, individual spheres themselves are equally com- such as those composing the heart or brain, plex. Even with advanced computers, no one © Jones & Bartlett canLearning, result in deathLLC of all of the other cells© in Jones the &has Bartlett been able Learning, to predict LLC accurately and pre- NOT FOR SALE ORsystem DISTRIBUTION (the whole organism) because theNOT cells FOR ciselySALE the OR weather, DISTRIBUTION or even climate, very far are so interdependent. At the other extreme are into the future because the atmosphere is so systems with very weak integration, such as complex. Indeed, the many interactions make the cells in a colony of single-celled organisms unpredictability a basic characteristic of com- (such as the green algae Volvox). Removal of plex systems. This inability to predict how many cells© Jones(to a point) & Bartlett will have Learning, little effect LLC the environment will© Jones respond & Bartlettto changing Learning, LLC on the remainingNOT FOR cells SALE because OR theyDISTRIBUTION are less conditions (which NOTis why FOR it is SALEso dangerous OR DISTRIBUTION dependent on each other. to tamper) is perhaps the major reason for so The degree of integration of the global much controversy about and inaction with environmental system is a matter of debate. regard to environmental problems. © JonesAt one& Bartlett extreme Learning,are scientists LLC who argue that ©Major Jones Obstacles: & Bartlett Delayed Learning, and UnpreLLC - NOT FORthe global SALE system OR DISTRIBUTION is a superorganism: many dictableNOT Impacts FOR SALE. Social OR responses DISTRIBUTION to environ- complex pathways intimately interconnect the mental problems are greatly hindered by two lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and of the key traits of the environmental system: biosphere. According to this Gaia hypothesis, its moderate integration and high complex- the Earth is similar to an organism, and its ity. Any system that is integrated, such as the © Jones & Bartlett componentLearning, partsLLC are so integrated that© theyJones &environment, Bartlett Learning, can transmit LLC disturbances from NOT FOR SALE ORare DISTRIBUTION like cells in a living body. However,NOT many FOR oneSALE part OR of the DISTRIBUTION system to another. Integration 10 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORresults SALE from OR connectednessDISTRIBUTION so that resource NOT FOR SALE ORLess DISTRIBUTION predictable depletion or pollution of one part of the environment can have cascading, or domino, effects into other parts. For example, burning sulfur-rich coal affects the atmosphere as air pollution, but it also© affectsJones the & hydrosphereBartlett Learning, Disturbance LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC when it falls as acid NOTrain to FOR acidify SALE lakes. OR The DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE ORKinds DISTRIBUTION biosphere is also affected because aquatic or- of ganisms in the lake can die from the more impacts acidic lake water. The burning coal can even affect© theJones lithosphere & Bartlett when Learning, the acid LLC rain © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC dissolvesNOT limestone FOR SALE and ORother DISTRIBUTION alkaline rocks NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to form caves and sinkholes. This example shows how just one activity, burning coal, can affect all four spheres of the environ- Time of impacts ment. Such wide-ranging cascading effects FIGURE 1-5 “We can never do merely one thing.” Whenever we do something, we cause a cascade of impacts. These impacts become less predictable with time. © Jones &are Bartlett anything Learning, but rare, as LLC we see in later chap- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORters. SALE This OR connectedness DISTRIBUTION of the environment NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION means that virtually any action has a number problems. As Figure 1-5 illustrates, the un- of consequences, many of which are unfore- intended cascades we cause not only take a seen and unintended. Such cascades are so long time, but also occur as unexpected, com- important that the ©biologist Jones Garrett & Bartlett Hardin Learning, plicated LLC chains of events. Take© theJones example & Bartlett Learning, LLC has formulated the NOTfirst law FOR of SALEecology :OR “We DISTRIBUTION of global warming and disease.NOT Strong FOR evi SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION can never do merely one thing.” This is often dence has shown for many years that many called the “law of unintended consequences.” tropical diseases are spreading because of That the environment is only moderately global warming. In 1993, an article was pub- integrated (“loosely connected”) greatly hin- lished in The Lancet concluding that a 1991 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ders our ability to observe, predict, and ulti- cholera outbreak in South America was re- matelyNOT correct FOR the SALE unintended OR DISTRIBUTION consequences lated to localizedNOT warming FOR SALE of Pacific OR DISTRIBUTIONOcean of our actions. The indirect connections and waters caused by global climate changes. The interactions in the environment create delays, article argued that the warming had caused or long lag times, before cascading effects the rapid growth of plankton that harbors © Jones &become Bartlett visible Learning, (figure 1-5 LLC). Returning to the ©the Jones cholera & bacterium, Bartlett Learning, leading to LLCthousands NOT FORacid SALE rain ORexample, DISTRIBUTION it may take many years of NOTof deaths FOR (f igSALEure 1-6 OR). Since DISTRIBUTION then, many other coal burning before the trees on mountain- studies have linked global warming with the tops or fish populations in lakes are affected. In other cases, the impacts can be delayed for centuries, millennia, or even longer. Environ- mental impacts on a© global Jones scale & Bartlettusually take Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an especially long timeNOT to FOR occur. SALE Many OR de DISTRIBUTION- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION cades and probably centuries will pass before the full effects of added atmospheric carbon dioxide on global temperature are observ- able.© This Jones lag &time Bartlett is one Learning,of the main LLC rea- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sonsNOT for the FOR debate SALE over OR global DISTRIBUTION warming. To NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION make matters more complicated, corrective measures may themselves have unanticipated consequences. As we have seen, the complexity of the © Jones &environment Bartlett Learning, leads to unpredictability, LLC which ©FIG URJonesE 1-6 In a &hospital Bartlett in Ecuador, Learning,a mother holds her cholera-strickenLLC son. The cholera outbreak occurred in Ecuador in June 1991. © Ricardo NOT FORhinders SALE socialOR DISTRIBUTION responses to environmental NOTMazalan/AP FOR Photos. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.1 The Environment as a System: An Overview 11 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORCASE SALE OR Systems DISTRIBUTION and Chaos NOTTheories: FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION STuDY Ways to Study Complexity 1-1 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION tudying complex systems can be diffi cult be- theory that has received much attention is chaos cause they have many parts that often interact theory. A chaotic system is one in which the work- VISIT Sin different ways. Over the last few decades, ings are sensitive to even the slightest change: this researchers have developed several methods of slight perturbation can become greatly amplifi ed www.environment.jbpub.com© Jonesstudying & Bartlett complexity. Learning, For example, LLC systems theory through© Jones positive & feedback. Bartlett The Learning, classic example LLC is for more information NOT FORand chaos SALE theory OR tryDISTRIBUTION to produce general “laws” the weather,NOT FOR as E. SALE Lorenz, OR who DISTRIBUTION helped establish of complexity. Such laws would not only make chaos theory in the early 1960s, fi rst described. complex systems more understandable, but they Lorenz created a set of equations that precisely also would allow us to predict more accurately described atmospheric conditions and showed how these systems will behave. Think of how im- how even tiny changes in one of the parameters © Jones & Bartlett portantLearning, such predictionsLLC could be for a complex© Jones &could Bartlett cause aLearning, massive alteration LLC of the weather in NOT FOR SALE ORsystem DISTRIBUTION such as the stock market or for weatherNOT FOR aSALE few days. OR This DISTRIBUTION is often called the “butterfl y ef- and climate forecasting! fect,” with the idea that the fl apping of a butterfl y’s None of these theories has been entirely suc- wings in South America could eventually affect the cessful in providing a complete understanding of weather in North America (fIGurE CS-1). By creat- complexity or producing accurate predictions of ing tiny changes in atmospheric turbulence, which how any ©particular Jones complex& Bartlett system Learning, will behave. LLC in turn creates cascading© Jones effects on & largerBartlett airfl Learning,ows, LLC Nevertheless,NOT these FOR theories SALE have OR provided DISTRIBUTION a bet- the butterfl y’s wing NOTfl apping FOR could SALE have OR a majorDISTRIBUTION ter idea of how complex systems will generally impact. (Of course, the chances that it actually will behave under a given set of conditions. Conse- produce such a major impact are extremely low.) quently, we have a general understanding of how Chaos theory’s most important fi nding so far a lake ecosystem will respond to excess nutrients is that even simple systems, such as several atoms, © Joneseven & though Bartlett we cannot Learning, specify LLC every event. often© have Jones chaotic & Bartlett properties. Learning, How can we LLC make NOT FORSystems SALE theory OR DISTRIBUTION(or general systems theory) was predictionsNOT FOR when SALE a minute OR unseen DISTRIBUTION change, as in one of the fi rst widely used attempts to fi nd “laws” the butterfl y effect, can have cascading effects? of complex systems. It traditionally has focused on Many theorists think it will always be impossible how systems are regulated and become unregulated. to predict accurately precise future behaviors in Systems theory treats a complex system as a “black complex systems, which have even more potential © Jones & Bartlett box”Learning, with inputs LLC and outputs. Such a system© is keptJones &for Bartlett chaos than Learning, do simple LLC systems. Nevertheless, NOT FOR SALE ORat DISTRIBUTIONequilibrium by negative feedback processes,NOT de- FOR bySALE applying OR chaos DISTRIBUTION theory, patterns of regularity fi ned as processes that counteract perturbations. An can be discerned and studied. example is a thermostat that turns a furnace on to produce heat when a house is cold and turns on air conditioning when it is hot. In contrast, positive feedback© Jones processes & amplifyBartlett perturbations. Learning, For LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC example, NOTa cooling FOR global SALE climate OR can DISTRIBUTION cause more NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION snow to remain on the ground, which leads to more global cooling because the snow refl ects sunlight back into space. This in turn causes yet more snow, and so on (a snowball effect). © Jones &Systems Bartlett theory Learning, often has been LLC criticized as too © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORgeneral SALE or vague OR because DISTRIBUTION by treating a system as a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION “black box,” the theory omits many of the details of how the system operates. More recent efforts

to study complex systems have focused on more CS 1-1 fIGurE 1 can a butterfl y in the rain forest affect the weather in mathematical, rigorous descriptions of them. One north America? © Photodisc. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 12 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORspread SALE of OR diseases. DISTRIBUTION In a 2007 article in the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONPLANET EARTH Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, Brenda Afzal indicated that not only is insect-borne Lithosphere Biosphere illness a challenge, but warming trends leading to migration of insects into new habi- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tats and other factors such as daily air Sun quality caused by intensifiedNOT FOR SALEpollution OR also DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are becoming increasingly urgent issues for Matter cycles global health as Earth’s climate continues Energy flows to change. The World Health Organization and ©the Jones National & Bartlett Institutes Learning, of Health LLCindi- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC cate NOTthat these FOR trends SALE are OR not DISTRIBUTION found only in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Hydrosphere Atmosphere developing nations: West Nile virus, which made its comeback in the United States in 1994, is now found in 44 states, and more © Jones &alarming Bartlett is Learning, the fact that LLC the mosquitoes © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC that carry dengue fever are found in counties NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION within the United States where 173.5 million Americans live. Along with safe food, water scarcity, and the impact of extreme weather on communi- Sun cation and transportation© Jones systems, & Bartlett U.S. intel Learning,- LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ligence officials listNOT the spreadFOR SALE of disease OR DISTRIBUTIONas NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION one of their top four climate-change–related Energy flows security concerns. In addition to having many interactions, SOCIETY complex© Jones systems & Bartlettare unpredictable Learning, because LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC someNOT of the FOR interactions SALE ORexhibit DISTRIBUTION positive feed- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION back. Positive feedback occurs when part

of a system responds to change in a way that FIGURE 1-7 Society accelerates the cycling of matter through the four spheres, which depletes magnifies the initial change. For example, evi- resources (matter inputs to society) and causes pollution (matter outputs by society). This acceleration is increasing because of increasing population (P) and consumption (C). Slowing dence indicates that a slight increase in average population growth and reducing personal consumption will reduce this acceleration. Inserts © © Jones &global Bartlett temperature Learning, can cause LLC a further increase ©Photodisc. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORby SALE melting OR some DISTRIBUTION of the glaciers and snow that NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION reflect sunlight back into space. Instead of reflecting light, more of the Earth’s surface matter and the flow of energy through itself becomes available to absorb heat. Another ex- and the four spheres. ample is poverty in ©developing Jones & countries Bartlett that Learning, Fundamentally, LLC all environmental© Jones prob & Bartlett- Learning, LLC results from overpopulation;NOT FOR the SALEpoverty OR leads DISTRIBUTION lems involve either depletion ofNOT sources FOR (con SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION to high reproductive rates and thus still more sumption) or pollution of sinks (production overpopulation. In nontechnical terms, posi- of waste). Therefore, these two processes can tive feedback is often referred to as a “snow- help us measure the net environmental im- ball effect” or “vicious circle.” © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC pact of society.© DepletionJones & occursBartlett when Learning, the LLC accelerated cycling and flow remove matter NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Society in the Environmental System and energy faster than natural processes are figure 1-7 illustrates how modern society is em- renewing them. Conversely, pollution occurs bedded within the environment, being depen- when the accelerated cycling and flow are dent on it for the materials and energy needed discharged into the environment, overwhelm- © Jones &to Bartlettmaintain civilization.Learning, ItLLC also shows how in- ©ing Jones the local & Bartlett natural Learning,purification LLC processes NOT FORdustrialized SALE OR society DISTRIBUTION accelerates the cycling of NOT(figur eFOR 1-8). SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.1 The Environment as a System: An Overview 13 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR and/orSALE tooOR muchDISTRIBUTION output (pollution). Input reduction seeks to slow both depletion and pollution, whereas output reduction slows only pollution. Population and consumption are two main © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC forces accelerating© resource Jones &depletion Bartlett andLearning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONpollution. The followingNOT FOR equation SALE is ORa sim DISTRIBUTION- ple way to remember this:

Impact = Population × Consumption © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlettor I = P × Learning,C LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION It isNOT easy FORto see SALE why the OR number DISTRIBUTION of people affects impact (figure 1-9). Consumption historically has tended to increase the effect of each person. For example, a baby born in the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &United Bartlett States Learning, has many LLCtimes the impact of a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR babySALE born OR in DISTRIBUTION a developing country because over a lifetime the U.S. resident consumes many more resources, close to 20 times more, such as fossil fuels, and produces much more pollution. Although the United States accounts © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC for only about 5% ©of Jonesthe world’ & sBartlett population, Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONresearchers have pointedNOT FORout that SALE the UnitedOR DISTRIBUTION States consumes nearly a quarter of all the energy used worldwide. Current research indicates that popula- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tion© growth Jones rates & Bartlett remain high Learning, but have LLCbegun NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to decreaseNOT FOR slightly SALE for OR most DISTRIBUTION industrialized countries, while continuing to rise extremely rapidly in many developing nations. Today (2011), 95% of all population growth occurs in areas most challenged by poverty, civil un- FIGURE 1-8 Pollution occurs when natural purification processes are overwhelmed, such as © Jonesby &large Bartlett amounts of nutrients Learning, or poisons. Shown LLC here is acid rain damage. Courtesy of N©OAA Jones &rest, Bartlett malnutrition, Learning, and LLCthe lack of resources NOT FORRestorati SALEon Center OR and Damage DISTRIBUTION Assessment and Restoration Program. NOT FOR neededSALE to OR disrupt DISTRIBUTION the cycle. Despite differences in growth rate, consumption of nonrenewable Problems of environmental depletion and pollution both exhibit the delayed and unpredictable ©impacts Jones we & have Bartlett discussed. Learning, Much ofLLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the remainder of this text is concerned with NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION High input NOT FOR SALEHigh outputOR DISTRIBUTION these issues (Figure Intro.-1).

1.2 What Is Environmental © JonesImpact? & Bartlett Learning, LLC Low© input Jones & Bartlett Learning,Low outputLLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Environmental impact refers to the alteration SOCIETY of the natural environment by human activity. Growth in Growth in X= Impact (I) We have already identified two basic types Population (P) Consumption (C) of environmental impact: resource depletion FIGURE 1-9 Personal consumption (C) has increased the throughput per © Jones & Bartlett andLearning, pollution LLC (Figure 1-3). In other words,© Jones &person. Bartlett This is m ultipliedLearning, by the number LLC of people (population or P) to obtain the total resource depletion and pollution produced by society. NOT FOR SALE ORthere DISTRIBUTION is either too much input (resources)NOT FOR ISALEnserts © Photodisc. OR DISTRIBUTION 14 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORresources SALE ORcontinues DISTRIBUTION to increase at alarming NOTbased FORon several SALE factors, OR DISTRIBUTION including increas- rates. This worldwide trend has led to a rapid ing access to education and birth control for increase in environmental impact. This section women in developing nations, increasing fi- briefly examines both of these factors. nancial assistance and programs promoting more sustainable ways of life, and natural Exponential Growth © Jones & Bartlett Learning,causes LLC such as diseases assisting© Jonesin the stabi & Bartlett- Learning, LLC Multiplicative processesNOT FORcause SALE exponential OR DISTRIBUTION lization of the population. BecauseNOT FORpopula SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION growth of any kind. It occurs in population tion growth is most dramatic in the most growth because biological reproduction is in- politically unstable regions of the world, herently multiplicative: most organisms have there is disagreement about the accuracy of the ability© Jones to produce & Bartlett more Learning,offspring than LLC are stability models.© JonesOne fact & remains,Bartlett Earth’sLearning, LLC necessaryNOT toFOR simply SALE replace OR theDISTRIBUTION parental gen- resources are beingNOT consumed FOR SALE at rates OR DISTRIBUTIONnever eration. If conditions allow, the population of before seen with consequences that are hard each successive generation will be larger than to predict. the previous generation. Consider, for exam- How long will human population growth ple, a pond where the algae cover starts from continue before it encounters environmen- © Jones &a singleBartlett algal Learning, cell and doublesLLC in size each ©tal Jones limitations? & Bartlett The answer Learning, depends LLC on how NOT FORday. SALE For ORa long DISTRIBUTION time, you would see nothing NOTmany FORpeople SALE the Earth OR DISTRIBUTIONcan support, a ques- happening. However, after larger areas were tion that is much debated, in part because covered, the algae would spread quickly: one the answer depends on how high a standard day, the pond would be only half covered; the of living one assumes. However, many esti- next day, it would be© completelyJones & Bartlettcovered. Learning,mates LLC predict that the Earth can© Jones adequately & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONand sustainably support betweenNOT 6 and FOR 8 bil SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION Exponential Growth of the Human Population lion people at a reasonable standard of liv- The current world population (2011) stands ing. If this is true, population growth clearly at approximately 7 billion people. For mil- must decline very soon if overshoot is to be lions of years, relatively few people were on avoided. Almost all of the United Nations, Earth© atJones any given& Bartlett time. TheLearning, total human LLC the World Bank,© Jones and other & Bartlett organizations’ Learning, LLC populationNOT FOR on SALEEarth remainedOR DISTRIBUTION quite low population projectionsNOT FOR indicate SALE that OR worldDISTRIBUTION until the development of agriculture. Even population probably will not stabilize until it then, population growth did not become ex- reaches 9 billion, sometime in the middle to plosive until the 1900s, when it was aided late 21st century. by the global spread of industry and mod- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Expon Jonesential & Growth Bartlett of C onLearning,sumption LLC NOT FORern SALE medicine. OR DISTRIBUTION Currently, each year the world NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION population experiences a net gain of approx- The second basic factor in our impact equa- imately 77 million people, the equivalent of tion, I = P × C, is consumption. Here, we nearly one-third of the population of the use the term consumption in the economic United States. Since 1960, the world popula- sense to refer to the purchase and use of mation has more than ©doubled. Jones At& Bartlettthe current Learning, terial LLC goods, energy, and services© Jonesin our daily & Bartlett Learning, LLC world population growthNOT FOR rate (estimatedSALE OR to DISTRIBUTION lives. Consumption includes allNOT of the FOR things SALE OR DISTRIBUTION be approximately 1.2%), the world popula- we do and buy to meet our wants and needs. tion will double again in less than 60 years. Consumption has increased the overall envi- In the last 50 years, there has been more ronmental impact by increasing the impact per person: population© Jones growth & Bartlett than inLearning, the entire LLC his- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tory NOTof human FOR existence. SALE OR Even DISTRIBUTION if population Overall impactNOT = population FOR SALE × consumption OR DISTRIBUTION growth rates stabilize around the year 2050, = number of individuals as many scientists predict they might, world × (impact/individual) population would still be about 9 billion people, an increase of approximately 30% This impact per person occurs through an © Jones &over Bartlett the 2011 Learning, population. LLC The stabilization ©increase Jones in & both Bartlett resource Learning, depletion LLC and pol- NOT FORof SALE population OR DISTRIBUTION growth rates is speculative, NOTlution. FOR Because SALE natural OR resourcesDISTRIBUTION are used to 1.2 What Is Environmental Impact? 15 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR 280SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR ESALExponential OR Growth DISTRIBUTION of Environmental Impact 260 The exponential increases of population and traditional industrial technology (which corre- 240 late with increasing consumption) have caused 220 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC an exponential increase© Jones in environmental & Bartlett Learning,im- LLC pact. The increase in total solid waste shown 200 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION in Figure 1-10 is typical of the pattern seen in 180 many other kinds of pollution. A society that 160 produces such waste is likely to be consuming

140 many resources that ultimately generate the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC waste.© JonesFor example, & Bartlett global Learning, consumption LLC of Percent increase, based on 1960 levels increase, Percent 120 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION fossilNOT fuel FORhas risen SALE exponentially OR DISTRIBUTION because of 100 the growing world population and the spread 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year of technologies that use fossil fuels (increasing per capita use of fuels). As consumptive tech- Population in 1960 = ~200,000,000 nology and population grow, more materials © Jones & BartlettPopulation Learning, in 2010 = ~300,000,000LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and energy move through society. This acceler- NOT FOR SALE ORper capita DISTRIBUTION waste output in 1960 = 2.68 lbs/person/day NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 2009 = 4.3 lbs/person/day ates the depletion of environmental resources. total municipal solid waste 1960 = 88.1 million tons 2009 = 243 million tons In addition, the materials and energy that move through society must have somewhere FIGURE 1-10 Trends in U.S. total solid waste production, output per person, and population. to go when society is finished with them. Solid The background photo shows Greenpeace protesters on a New York garbage barge. (Sources: The chart is based on data from the U.S.© Envir Jonesonmental Protection & Bartlett Agency and Learning, the U.S. Bureau of LLC waste, air and water© pollution, Jones & and Bartlett other out Learning,- LLC the Census.) NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONputs ultimately end NOTup in FORthe environment. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION In summary, there are two basic kinds of environmental impacts: depletion and pollu- make the increasing amount of things we buy, tion. Both have increased because growing consumption has tended to increase per cap- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC consumption© Jones of& resourcesBartlett Learning,increases pollution LLC ita resource use and pollution. figure 1-10 as throughput is accelerated. The main causes NOT FORillustrates SALE that OR solid-waste DISTRIBUTION output has grown of increasedNOT FOR throughput SALE OR have DISTRIBUTION been the growth dramatically in the United States in the last of (1) population and (2) consumption. few decades. However, personal consumption in wealthy nations could be reduced easily with no reduc- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &1.3 Bartlett A Brief Learning, History LLC of tion in quality of life. For example, many new NOT FOR SALE ORsustainable DISTRIBUTION or “green” technologies areNOT being FOR EnvirSALEonmental OR DISTRIBUTION Impact developed that can greatly reduce individual Considering that our human species (Homo impact. More efficient technologies, such as sapiens) has inhabited Earth for 100,000 or fuel-efficient cars, use fewer resources and pro- more years, the current massive global envi- duce less© pollution Jones &when Bartlett an individual Learning, uses LLC ronmental impact of© Jonespeople is& aBartlett very recent Learning, LLC them. AlternativeNOT FOR technologies SALE OR can DISTRIBUTION eliminate development. Indeed,NOT our FOR relationship SALE OR with DISTRIBUTION many impacts altogether. For example, replac- the environment has changed dramatically as ing coal-burning machines with solar-powered we and our technology have evolved. machines conserves nonrenewable fossil fuels Conceptually, we can distinguish five and eliminates many air pollutants that burn- basic developmental stages in the relationship © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ing coal releases. Other current trends include between people and their environment (fig- NOT FORencouraging SALE ORpharmaceutical DISTRIBUTION plants to recycle ure NOT1-11). TheFOR economic SALE ORactivity DISTRIBUTION people engage solvents instead of incinerating them and fast in using the technologies available to them at food restaurants to use completely compo the time largely determines these stages. In stable dining ware made from potato starch turn, this activity affects how people have an © Jones & Bartlett andLearning, the increased LLC use of home energy ©audits Jones &impact Bartlett on theLearning, environment. LLC At any one time NOT FOR SALE ORto DISTRIBUTION reduce waste and energy consumption.NOT FOR onSALE Earth, OR different DISTRIBUTION human populations may 16 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

Sustainable © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Economic activity Gathering and Agriculture Industry Transition Postindustrial hunting

Perception of Adversary Resource Dumping ground Awareness Spaceship environment of limits or wasteland © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Environmental Minimal Vanishing Pollution Widespread Minimal impactNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONwilderness NOT FOR degradationSALE OR DISTRIBUTIONor massive

Environmentalist — Conservation Environmental Sustainability — response movement movement movement

Examples — Game preserves, parks Clean Air, Water, Market-based — Waste Acts of 1970s incentives © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Time NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION FIGURE 1-11 Population and personal consumption have increased the human impact on the environment in an exponential fashion. Environmentalists have responded with the conservation movement, the environmental movement, and the sustainability movement. Many people believe that we are in a transition stage and that people have no more than 50 years to prevent “overshoot” and attain sustainability. (Photo) UN Photo Library.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC be in different stagesNOT simultaneously, FOR SALE yet OR the DISTRIBUTION Population levels typicallyNOT remained FOR low, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION general global trend has been to progress and any human-induced effects on the through these stages. environment (such as purposefully setting forest fires) were relatively localized. 1.© Gathering Jones & and Bartlett hunting. Learning, Early humans LLC 2. Agriculture© Jonesand conservationism. & Bartlett Learning, The LLC were largely at the mercy of their envi- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION shift fromNOT hunting FOR and SALE gathering OR toDISTRIBUTION cul- ronment, so they might have viewed it tivating food is one of the most profound in adversarial terms. Weather, predators, milestones in human evolution. It allowed food shortages, and disease were con- a great increase in population size and stant threats. However, during this stage, permitted people to settle in large towns © Jones & Bartletthumans Learning, also had a LLC familiarity with the © Jonesand cities; & Bartlett however, Learning, agriculture LLCalso had a NOT FOR SALEenvironment OR DISTRIBUTION that in general has been lost. NOTmajor FOR impactSALE on OR the DISTRIBUTION environment. People 1.3 A Brief History of Environmental Impact 17 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONbegan to view land as a resourceNOT to be FOR SALEin history.OR DISTRIBUTION Among other challenges we exploited as needed. As land was cleared face are groundwater contamination, in- and cultivated, the wilderness vanished. cluding endocrine-altering by-products 3. Industry and environmentalism. As na- from pharmaceutical waste that inter- tions industrialize, population grows rupt normal adolescent development and faster,© Jones and the & environmentBartlett Learning, is increas LLC- the presence of© manyJones thousands & Bartlett of haz Learning,- LLC inglyNOT perceived FOR SALEas both OR a source DISTRIBUTION of raw ardous and radioactiveNOT FOR waste SALE sites OR that DISTRIBUTION materials and a place to dispose of the likely will not be cleaned up for cen- concentrated waste by-products of in- turies. Despite efforts in recycling and dustry. The result is a rapid increase in air precycling (the reduction of packaging © Jones &and Bartlett water pollution,Learning, as LLCwell as problems ©material Jones by& Bartlettmanufacturers), Learning, the amount LLC NOT FOR withSALE solid OR and DISTRIBUTION hazardous waste disposal. NOTof solid FOR waste SALE produced OR DISTRIBUTION per person re- Toward the end of this stage, pollution mains high. Globally, the Environmen- becomes so widespread that antipollu- tal Protection Agency has cited global tion social movements emerge. In the warming, ozone depletion, and increas- United States, these social movements ing species extinction as the greatest © Jones & Bartlett Learning,began in LLC the early 1960s and peaked© Jones in & Bartlettenvironmental Learning, threats LLC to future genera- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONthe 1970s. When people talk aboutNOT clas -FOR SALEtions. OR As DISTRIBUTION developing nations grow, it is sic “environmentalism,” this antipollu- important for them to look beyond the tion movement may be what they mean. often-inadequate example of developed 4. Transition and sustainability. Today we nations’ use of the environment. Current live© in Jones a time &of Bartlettrapid change Learning, and tech LLC- models for sustainable© Jones development & Bartlett Learning,in- LLC nologicalNOT FORadvancement. SALE OR The DISTRIBUTION decisions clude technologicalNOT FOR advances SALE that OR are DISTRIBUTION we as a global community make over sustainable by design. Both the rapidly the next few decades almost certainly increasing populations in developing will determine the long-term fate of the countries and the increasing demands environment for many future genera- for goods and services by the popula- © Jones &tions. Bartlett For thisLearning, reason, we LLC can refer to the ©tions Jones of developed & Bartlett countries Learning, cause LLC these NOT FOR currentSALE ORstage DISTRIBUTION of many developed coun- NOTproblems. FOR SALENo single OR DISTRIBUTIONgroup or nation tries as a “transition” stage. Although carries all of the blame. In their book some forms of pollution have been re- New World, New Mind (1989), Robert duced, many other environmental prob- Ornstein and Paul Ehrlich argue that © Jones & Bartlett Learning,lems have LLC increased. For example,© in Jones the & Bartlettpeople Learning, generally had LLC a short-term, “put- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONUnited States, species of wildlife areNOT im -FOR SALEting OR out DISTRIBUTION fires” approach to problems; periled as habitat is destroyed unneces- another term might be a “band-aid” sarily. Recently released reports indicate approach. Only recently, with the sus- that the catastrophic events surrounding tainability movement, has there been the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon rig widespread interest in addressing the explosion© Jones and & oil Bartlett well blowout Learning, in the LLC systematic causes© Jones that &underlie Bartlett these Learning, LLC GulfNOT of MexicoFOR SALE that ORkilled DISTRIBUTION 11 people problems. SustainabilityNOT FOR SALEmeans ORmeet DISTRIBUTION- were preventable and caused primarily ing the needs of today without reducing by lack of communication, poor man- the quality of life for future generations. agement, and profit-driven greed. Such This includes not reducing the quality © Jones &reports Bartlett underscore Learning, the LLC urgency for sus- ©of Jones the future& Bartlett environment. Learning, Sustain LLC - NOT FOR SALEtainable OR industry DISTRIBUTION practices grounded in NOTability FOR can SALE be achieved OR DISTRIBUTION in many ways, policies, decisions, and practices that such as through the use of sustainable hold stewardship for the environment (“green”) technologies that use renew- in higher regard. The actions we under- able resources (for instance, solar power) take in the first part of the 21st century and recycling or upcycling (converting © Jones & Bartlett Learning,will affect LLC subsequent generations’© susJones- & Bartlettwaste Learning,materials or LLC useless products into NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtainability in ways seen at no otherNOT time FOR SALEusable OR materialsDISTRIBUTION or better products) of 18 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEmaterial OR DISTRIBUTIONcomponents. These technologies NOTexample FOR of aSALE pasture OR where DISTRIBUTION each herdsman in allow a sustainable economy that pro- the village can keep his cattle. The herdsman duces wealth and provides jobs for many who overgrazes the most will also benefit the human generations without degrading the most. Each cow that a herdsman adds will ben- environment. An example of the practical efit the owner, but the community as a whole application of sustainable© Jones &design Bartlett is look Learning,- will bearLLC the cost of overgrazing.© JonesBecause & the Bartlett Learning, LLC ing at materialsNOT as natural FOR components SALE OR of DISTRIBUTION benefit of adding another cowNOT goes FORto the SALEin- OR DISTRIBUTION an ecosystem. Nature recycles and does dividual and the cost of overgrazing goes to not waste. Waste in nature ends up as the community, the “rational” choice of each the basic components of food, achieved individual is to add cows. Thus, the commons ©by Jones natural & decomposition Bartlett Learning, of biological LLC rewards behaviors© Jones that lead & Bartlettto deterioration, Learning, LLC NOTby-products. FOR SALE Industry OR thatDISTRIBUTION commits to such as overgrazing,NOT andFOR punishes SALE individualsOR DISTRIBUTION material reuse, renewable energy use, who show restraint. Those who add fewer water stewardship, and social respon- cows will simply obtain fewer benefits while sibility can qualify for the “Cradle to the commons itself deteriorates because of the Cradle” recognition, which means that individuals who continue to add cows. This © Jones & Bartlettthe manufacturer Learning, commitsLLC to safe ma- ©problem Jones with & Bartlett common Learning, property was LLC known NOT FOR SALEterials OR that DISTRIBUTION can be reused or composted NOTlong before FOR SALEHardin’s OR eloquent DISTRIBUTION essay. For in- and accepts the responsibility of business- stance, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle as-stewards in the use of environmental noted, “What is common to the greatest num- materials. Not only does this model make ber has the least care bestowed upon it.” sense for future© generations,Jones & Bartlett but it also Learning, Hardin’sLLC pasture exemplifies© Jones the prob& Bartlett- Learning, LLC is profitable forNOT business FOR owners.SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONlems that arise when any part NOTof our FOR natural SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 5. Postindustrial stage—sustainability or environment is treated as common property. overshoot? The next (future) stage of so- However, privatization can lead to private ciety has been called the “postindustrial” exploitation of resources as well, and the key stage. Just what form postindustrial so- is well-managed property, whether private or ©ciety Jones will take& Bartlett is open toLearning, speculation LLC and public. Public space© Jones is important & Bartlett but mustLearning, be LLC NOTdebate, FOR but SALE two possibleOR DISTRIBUTION alternatives taken care of. NOTUnless FOR there SALE is some OR kind DISTRIBUTION of have been proposed. One is a sustain- regulation, overexploitation will likely occur able future, where the human popula- via both input and output impacts. tion stabilizes and technology becomes 1. Commonly held resources, such as the less environmentally harmful. The sec- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jonespasture, & Bartlettwill become Learning, depleted LLC through ond alternative is overshoot, where NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTexcessive FOR SALE consumption. OR DISTRIBUTION population climbs so high and technol- 2. Commonly held environmental sinks ogy is so harmful that the environment is will be overwhelmed by pollution. degraded to the point that relatively few people can be supported, at least with Many local, regional, and global environ- a decent standard© Jones of living. & WhichBartlett alter Learning,- mental LLC problems illustrate this© viewJones of &the Bartlett Learning, LLC native comes intoNOT being FOR could SALE depend OR on DISTRIBUTION commons as a source or a sink:NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the collective actions of humanity during this first half of the 21st century. Problem Atmosphere as global Global warming, ozone loss 1.4© The Jones Environment & Bartlett Learning, LLC common sink © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Atmosphere as regional Acid rain as aNOT Commons FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION common sink NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION In 1968, the biologist Garrett Hardin wrote Atmosphere as local common sink Urban smog Ocean as global common sink Ocean pollution the famous essay “The Tragedy of the Com- Ocean as global common resource Many fish species overfished mons.” He argued that property that many Rain forest as common resources Global warming promoted by © Jones &people Bartlett hold inLearning, common willLLC be destroyed or at © Jones & Bartlett Learning,deforestation, biodiversity LLC NOT FORleast SALE overused OR DISTRIBUTION until it deteriorates. He gave the NOT FOR SALE OR reducedDISTRIBUTION by deforestation 1.4 The Environment as a Commons 19 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR emergedSALE OR to tryDISTRIBUTION to deal with these problems. Unlike the conservation and antipollution movements of the past, which emphasized specific problems rather than a global approach, the sustainability movement seeks long-term © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC coexistence with the© Jonesenvironment. & Bartlett As men Learning,- LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONtioned, sustainabilityNOT means FOR meeting SALE the OR needs DISTRIBUTION of today without reducing the quality of life for future generations. The sustainability movement uses three © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC approaches© Jones not & attemptedBartlett Learning,by previous LLC envi- FIGURE 1-12 A computer-enhanced image of pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. Red, yellow, and ronmental movements. First, it focuses ex- orange areasNOT are concentrations FOR SALE of plankton OR growth DISTRIBUTION promoted by discharge of raw sewage. (Blue NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION indicates clear water.) Many coastal cities lack sewage treatment. Courtesy of Gene Carl Feldman/ plicitly on trying to reduce society’s use of all NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. resources; therefore, emphasis is on input reduction, as opposed to end-of-pipe solutions. Waste is viewed as a symptom, not a cause, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &of Bartlett the environmental Learning, crisis. LLC NOT FOR SALE ORMany DISTRIBUTION nations share some of these commons.NOT FOR SALESecond, OR DISTRIBUTIONthe sustainability movement is The international nature of many environ- more holistic. It realizes the necessity of ad- mental problems adds greatly to the com- dressing the social, and especially economic, plexity of solving them because international causes of environmental degradation. This has agreements© Jones are required. & Bartlett Consider Learning, the Medi LLC- led to an increasing© appreciationJones & Bartlett of the roleLearning, LLC terranean Sea. A confined shallow ocean basin NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONof poverty and otherNOT economic FOR SALE factors OR that DISTRIBUTION surrounded by many nations, this sea is one encourage people to deplete resources and of the most over fished and polluted large pollute. Market-based solutions are becoming bodies of water on Earth (figure 1-12). more popular, and less emphasis is placed on the legal solutions used in the past. For exam- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1.5 Saving the Commons ple, many experts now agree that it is often NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION moreNOT effective FOR and SALE cheaper OR DISTRIBUTIONfor society to tax If we are to save the environmental commons, coal, gasoline, and other polluting substances the throughput of matter and energy through than to pass laws specifying how much pol- all societies must be reduced. This will slow lution may be emitted. For instance, higher © Jones & Bartlett bothLearning, depletion LLC and pollution. Increasing© pop Jones- &gasoline Bartlett prices Learning, encourage LLC people to drive less ulation (P) and consumption (C) have driven NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR orSALE buy fuel-efficient OR DISTRIBUTION cars. increased impact (I), so their growth must be Third, the sustainability movement has reduced. encouraged the growth of thousands of local We are in the transition stage (as previ- community action groups, as opposed to the ously discussed). Environmental problems national groups that dominated the conserva- have become© Jones so widespread & Bartlett thatLearning, they de LLC- tionism and environmentalism© Jones & periods. Bartlett Many Learning, LLC mand large-scaleNOT FOR regional SALE ORand DISTRIBUTION global so- of the national and NOTinternational FOR SALE environmen OR DISTRIBUTION- lutions involving many aspects of society. tal organizations arose well before 1980. For Furthermore, countries such as China and instance, the Sierra Club was founded in 1892, India are in the process of rapid industrial- the National Audubon Society in 1905, the © Jonesization & Bartlett that consumes Learning, a tremendous LLC amount National© Jones Wildlife & Bartlett Federation Learning, in 1936, andLLC the of Earth’s resources. It is important that these NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION WorldNOT Wildlife FOR FundSALE in OR1961. DISTRIBUTION Since the expo- economies learn to work in a sustainable sure of the toxic dump at Love Canal, New manner instead of using their resources in York (1978), and the Three Mile Island nuclear a wasteful and inefficient manner, as do the accident in Pennsylvania (1979), residents of United States and other countries. Likewise, communities have become increasingly active © Jones & Bartlett theLearning, United States LLC must improve. Beginning© Jones in &in Bartlett addressing Learning, local environmental LLC problems. NOT FOR SALE ORthe DISTRIBUTION early 1980s, a sustainability movementNOT FOR VocalSALE debates OR DISTRIBUTION over incinerators, landfills, land 20 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORdevelopment, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mountain top removal, water NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION contamination, and many other environmental issues now often dominate the local news (figure 1-13). Such local participation is often called grassroots activism. Recently, grassroots groups with common© interestsJones &have Bartlett begun Learning,to LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC network by establishingNOT regional FOR SALE and national OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION newsletters and computer nets. By the mid- 1990s, many of the national organizations had begun to experience a decline in membership. Although© Jones some &people Bartlett suggest Learning, that this decline LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC meansNOT environmental FOR SALE interest OR DISTRIBUTIONis waning in the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION United States, others argue that it simply reflects the transfer of environmental allegiance from national to grassroots organizations. FIGURE 1-13 Citizen protest is an effective and growing way to promote local environmental All three characteristics of the sustain- sustainability. © UPI Photo/Roger L. Wollenberg/Landov. © Jones &ability Bartlett movement Learning, historically LLC arose from the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORdesire SALE to ORfind DISTRIBUTION better ways to solve widespread NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION environmental problems. Grassroots activ- resource consumption developed during a time ism is often the best way to deal with local of abundant resources. Consumption may be issues. The rise of input reduction and eco- viewed as the environmental “time bomb” of nomic approaches reflects© Jones the & need Bartlett to reduce Learning, the North. LLC The solution is to reduce© Jones consump & Bartlett- Learning, LLC social costs. AlthoughNOT litigation FOR SALE and lobby OR DISTRIBUTION- tion or C in the impact equationNOT I = P FOR × C. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ing are still used, the sustainability movement There are three basic ways to reduce con- also uses direct action and lifestyle changes. sumption. None of these ways needs to involve In keeping with its more holistic approach, painful self-sacrifice or a lowered quality of many members of the sustainability move- life. In contrast, reducing consumption can ment© are Jones also ecocentric& Bartlett (“environment Learning, LLC cen- improve the quality© Jones of life & inBartlett many ways Learning, by LLC tered”)NOT instead FOR ofSALE anthropocentric OR DISTRIBUTION (“human improving humanNOT health FOR and SALE the environment. OR DISTRIBUTION centered”). In other words, they seek to pre- • Reduce material needs. Psychologi- serve nature for reasons beyond simply im- cal studies have statistically docu- proving the quality of human life. Nature mented what many religions have long © Jones &is viewedBartlett as Learning, having a high LLC “intrinsic” value © Jonestaught: & Bartlett increasing Learning, a person’s LLC material NOT FORthat SALE is not OR related DISTRIBUTION to human needs. Nature is NOT FORwealth SALE will OR rarely DISTRIBUTION produce an in- worth protecting for its own sake. As the sus- crease in happiness or contentment. tainability movement spreads, addressing the The “treadmill of wealth” says that needs of the 21st century, it will continue to the more we accumulate, the more develop many new strategies and approaches we want. When Americans are sur- to further the goal of© sustainingJones & theBartlett environ Learning,- LLCveyed, most respond that© Jones they have & Bartlett Learning, LLC ment for the generationsNOT that FOR follow. SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONfar too much “stuff.” NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Use less technology to meet our needs. Reducing Consumption: Defusing the Bomb Long before Thoreau, many people of the North observed that some machines might Rapid© Jonespopulation & Bartlett growth Learning,is often described LLC have detrimental© Jones &effects Bartlett on people.Learning, LLC as a NOT“time FOR bomb” SALE that ORwill DISTRIBUTION greatly degrade Riding NOTbicycles FOR to SALEwork (insteadOR DISTRIBUTION of the environment in coming years. Although driving cars), buying products with population growth is especially rapid in the fewer artificial chemicals and less su- Southern Hemisphere, the industrialized perfluous packaging, and using fewer nations of the Northern Hemisphere are also unnecessary convenience appliances © Jones &contributing Bartlett Learning, to environmental LLC degradation © Jonesare & but Bartlett a few waysLearning, that people LLC have NOT FORthrough SALE theirOR DISTRIBUTIONhabit of excessive and wasteful NOT FORreduced SALE their OR reliance DISTRIBUTION on technology. 1.5 Saving the Commons 21 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION• Use sustainable technology toNOT meet FOR theSALE road. OR Recent DISTRIBUTION discussion about the use of our needs. Another way to reduce tech- compact fluorescent bulbs often mentions that nology’s impact is to use technologies the bulbs contain mercury. Although it is true that are much more “environmentally that the bulbs contain a small amount of mer- friendly” than the fossil fuel-based, cury (5 grams; a little less than the weight of industrial© Jones technologies& Bartlett Learning,of the past. LLC a modern quarter),© The Jones Union & ofBartlett Concerned Learning, LLC SustainableNOT FOR technology SALE OR permits DISTRIBUTION people Scientists points outNOT that FORthe bulbs SALE can OR be re DISTRIBUTION- to meet their needs with minimum im- cycled and that the energy savings must take pact on the environment. It produces into account that “the average coal-fired a sustainable economy that provides power plant emits only 3.2 milligrams of mer- © Jones & Bartlettjobs for manyLearning, generations LLC without de- cury© for Jones each CFL& Bartlett running Learning, six hours per LLC day NOT FOR SALEgrading OR the DISTRIBUTION environment. for fiveNOT years,FOR butSALE emits OR nearly DISTRIBUTION 15 milligrams of mercury for an incandescent bulb running There are many kinds of sustainable technolo- the same amount of time” (www.ucsusa.org/ gies, ranging from direct solar and wind power publications/greentips/let-there-be-fluorescent to recycling. Although advances in pollution .html December 13, 2011). Even more efficient cleanup technologies are often heralded, true © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &are Bartlett light-emitting Learning, diode LLC(LED) lights that are sustainability results from input reduction: NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR becomingSALE OR more DISTRIBUTION readily available as costs de- slowing resource depletion also slows pollu- crease, making them more attractive to con- tion. The three basic ways that sustainable sumers. LEDs can last as long as 50,000 hours, technologies achieve input reduction, or con- more than eight times as long as CFLs, and servation, are (1) efficiency improvements, also contain no mercury, making this evolution (2) reuse© and Jones recycle, & Bartlettand (3) substitution. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC of technology a promising answer to home en- EfficiencyNOT FORimprovements SALE OR reduce DISTRIBUTION the flow NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ergy efficiency challenges. of throughput by decreasing the per capita In addition to reducing environmental resource use. The United States, more than al- damage, efficiency improvements have two im- most any other country, uses technologies de- mediate economic advantages. First, as noted, veloped during times of abundant resources. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the ©improvement Jones & Bartlett usually paysLearning, for itself. LLC The As a result, it generates much waste, pro- cost of a technological change that increases NOT FORviding SALE enormous OR DISTRIBUTIONopportunities to save many NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION efficiency is usually recovered within a few resources by relatively simple changes in ex- years and sometimes almost immediately. For isting technologies. The amount of waste is instance, a study by a major beverage com- so great that, in many cases, the large amount pany found that each reduction of one thou- of resources saved will more than compensate © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &sandth Bartlett of an Learning, inch (0.001) LLC reduces aluminum for the cost of investment to make the change. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR costsSALE by OR$1 million. DISTRIBUTION (Of course, there is a limit Let us use the example of energy, which to how thin aluminum cans can be and remain drives all economies. It is estimated that structurally sound.) In addition, increased ef- changes in U.S. technology, ranging from high- ficiency tends to produce many more jobs than mileage cars to superefficient heating and cool- do wasteful technologies. The traditional en- ing systems© Jonesto new lighting& Bartlett technologies, Learning, could LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ergy industries, such as oil, coal, and nuclear reduce overallNOT energyFOR SALEconsumption OR DISTRIBUTION by as much NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION power, are much less labor intensive than the as 80%. For example, the incandescent light energy-conservation industry that designs and bulb converts 95% of the electricity it uses maintains many kinds of energy-conservation to waste heat instead of light. Compact flu- equipment. orescent bulbs (CFLs) generate 70% less heat © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©Many Jones other & resourcesBartlett inLearning, the United LLC States and use between 50% and 80% less energy to NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION couldNOT be usedFOR much SALE more OR efficiently. DISTRIBUTION Here are produce light. According to the Environmen- just a couple of examples: tal Protection Agency, if every household in the United States replaced incandescent lights 1. Wood. The United States converts only with compact fluorescent lights, the society about 50% of raw timber (compared © Jones & Bartlett wouldLearning, benefit LLC by a reduction of greenhouse© Jones & Bartlettwith 70% Learning, in Japan) LLC directly into furni- NOT FOR SALE ORgas DISTRIBUTION equivalent to removing 800,000 carsNOT from FOR SALEture OR and DISTRIBUTION other refined timber products. 22 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE2. Water. OR The DISTRIBUTION United States uses more than NOTsubstitution FOR SALE often yieldsOR DISTRIBUTION economic benefits. twice as much water per person as most Studies routinely show that substitution of other nations on Earth. The average solar and wind power technologies for the U.S. farmer typically could cut water use fossil fuel energy now consumed in the United by more than half by adopting water- States would produce three to five times as © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC conservation measures, such as micro many jobs as now exist in fossil fuel industries. irrigation that pipesNOT water FOR directly SALE to OR crops DISTRIBUTION Some people are surprisedNOT to learn FOR that SALE OR DISTRIBUTION instead of using evaporation-prone irriga- many sustainable technologies were invented tion ditches. In the home, installing a low- centuries ago. Wind power and water power flow toilet can save a family of four more are examples. The solar cell was invented in ©than Jones 1,350 & gallons Bartlett of water Learning, per month. LLC the 1950s. These© Jones technologies & Bartlett have Learning, failed LLC ReuseNOT FORand recycling SALE OR are DISTRIBUTIONthe second best to become widespreadNOT FOR largely SALE for socialOR DISTRIBUTION and ways to accomplish input reduction. Reuse economic reasons, not technical ones. When refers to using the same resource over and nonrenewable resources are cheap, they will over in the same form. An example would be be wasted because people have no incentive to © Jones &soda Bartlett bottles Learning, that are returned, LLC sanitized, and ©increase Jones efficiency, & Bartlett recycle/reuse, Learning, LLCand substi- tute renewable resources. The current inter- NOT FORrefilled. SALERecycling OR DISTRIBUTION refers to using the same re- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION source over and over but in modified form. est in solar energy has reached record highs, For instance, the soda bottles could be melted with industry journals indicating a 26% in- to produce new soda bottles. Wastewater, crease in jobs in the solar industry throughout paper, plastics, and many other resources can 2011. This is particularly impressive when © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC be recycled. In general, reuse is less costly than considering the current average unemploy- recycling because theNOT resource FOR SALEis not modiOR DISTRIBUTION- ment rate (2011) is as great asNOT 10% FOR in some SALE OR DISTRIBUTION fied. Both measures are often less costly than states. Combining other renewable energy extracting “virgin” resources, such as alumi- industry data results in trends predicting ap- num ore or cutting trees for paper, because proximately 2.5 million people by 2025 will they ©usually Jones consume & Bartlett less Learning,energy and LLCfewer have jobs related© Jonesto renewable & Bartlett energy Learning,. Cost LLC of installation is becoming more attractive to naturalNOT resources FOR SALE than does OR makingDISTRIBUTION products NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION consumers, as are incentive plans and infra- from virgin materials. For example, recycling structure improvements. For instance, more aluminum cans saves as much as 95% of the than 42 states and the District of Columbia energy cost of cans made from newly mined now have net metering rules that allow an aluminum. Recycling and reuse are less costly individual owner of a solar energy system to © Jones &in Bartlettboth economic Learning, and environmentalLLC terms © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC sell excess electricity back to the grid. In other NOT FORthan SALE is using OR naturalDISTRIBUTION raw materials. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION nations such as Germany and Japan where Substitution of one resource for another governmental and private incentive plans are can benefit the environment in a number of in place, growth in renewable energy soared ways. A renewable resource can be substituted in recent years. for a nonrenewable© one, Jones or a & less-polluting Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC resource can substituteNOT for FOR a highly SALE polluting OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION resource. Often the newly substituted resource 1.6 Promoting Sustainability provides both benefits. Substituting renew- by Paying the True Costs of able, cleaner alternative fuels, such as solar Nature’s Benefits and wind© Jones energy, & forBartlett fossil fuels Learning, is an example. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Another example is making products from The economic forces that promote popu- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION paper instead of plastics, which are gener- lation growth and overconsumption have ally made from fossil fuels and last longer arisen because the goods and services that in the environment (although there are now the environment provides, such as water biodegradable plastics, and plastics produced purification, erosion control, and carbon se- © Jones &from Bartlett plants Learning, have been LLCdeveloped recently). ©questration, Jones & Bartletthave been Learning, undervalued LLC in the NOT FORLike SALE conservation, OR DISTRIBUTION reuse, and recycling, NOTpast. FORThese SALEand other OR DISTRIBUTIONbenefits collectively 1.6 Promoting Sustainability by Paying the True Costs of Nature’s Benefits 23 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORare DISTRIBUTION known as ecosystem services. Essentially,NOT FOR marketSALE ORfailure DISTRIBUTION (or “externality”) by econo- the true costs of using the environment as mists. Most ecosystem services are either both a source and a sink have not been in- undervalued or considered free in our cur- corporated into global economic activity. rent economic system. Many environmental This trend, according to the Millennium problems ultimately can be traced to market Ecosystem© JonesAssessment & Bartlett (a 2005 Learning, United Na LLC- failures. A few examples© Jones are listed:& Bartlett Learning, LLC tions-sponsoredNOT FOR report SALE designed OR DISTRIBUTIONto assess the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. The cost of gasoline does not include the state of the world’s ecosystems), has led to a cost of smog and other urban air pollut- degradation of more than 60% of the eco- ants, contamination of groundwater by system services that were evaluated degraded leaking underground oil tanks, oil spills, over the last 50 years. figure 1-14a shows the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ©and Jones many & other Bartlett well-known Learning, impacts LLC of situation when resources are cheap and sinks NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOTgasoline FOR use. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are free and treated as “commons.” There 2. Electricity from nuclear energy does not is much throughput, which leads to high include the cost of disposing of nuclear rates of resource depletion and pollution. It waste; electricity produced by coal burn- also contributes greatly to the rapid popula- ing omits the cost of most air pollution. © Jones & Bartlett tionLearning, growth LLCof developing nations. Poverty© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 3. Water used by many U.S. farmers does NOT FOR SALE ORis DISTRIBUTIONstrongly correlated with high populationNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION not reflect the fact that in many regions growth rates, and people in resource-rich the groundwater is being depleted much tropical developing nations are often under- faster than it is being replenished by paid for their resources (as compared with rainfall. prices in© many Jones developed & Bartlett nations). Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC MarketNOT prices FOR that SALE do notOR reflect DISTRIBUTION all the Many economists suggestNOT FOR society SALE can correctOR DISTRIBUTION true costs of a product or service are called market failures by imposing green fees that adjust the costs of products and services to

Society include environmental costs (Figure 1-14b). Population and CHEAP RESOURCES Consumption FREE SINKS Fees that increase the price of a resource are Examples:© Jonessubsidized timber, & Bartlett Learning,Ai LLCr, water, land, or ecosystems © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ores, and water particularly effective because they promote NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION conservationNOT FOR of SALEthe resource OR DISTRIBUTION and also reduce pollution by reducing throughput. For example, a “gas tax” or “carbon tax” covering High throughput all fossil fuels would encourage reduced and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &more Bartlett efficient Learning, use of these LLC fuels. Charging for garbage by the bag motivates people to re- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION duce the waste they produce.

(a) Cheap natural resources Another emerging solution to address

Society market failures is known collectively as pay- Population and EXPENSIVE RESOURCES Consumption EXPENSIVE SINKS ments for ecosystem services (PES), which Higher user fees on Landfill "tipping" fees, hazardous timber, ores, and water © Jones & Bartlettwaste cleanup Learning,, oil spill cleanup LLC involve offering incentives© Jones to& Bartlettlandowners Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONin exchange for managingNOT FOR their SALE land to OR pro DISTRIBUTION- vide an ecological service, such as carbon sequestration and storage, water quality, en- Low throughput dangered species habitat, and wetlands. PES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC programs© Jones are & contracts Bartlett Learning,between the LLC consumers of ecosystem services and the suppli- NOT FORReuse SALE and recycle, OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION deposit fees on Substitution ers of these services. The beneficiaries of the cans and bottles ecosystem services are willing to pay a price (b) Environmental costs included that is lower than their welfare gain because FIGURE 1-14 (a) Excluding environmental costs by allowing cheap resources and free sinks of these services, whereas the providers of © Jonespromotes & Bartlett high throughput Learning, (and thus much depletionLLC and pollution). (b) Including environmental© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC costs by imposing user fees and deposit fees promotes an increase in efficiency, recycling, and the service are willing to accept a payment NOT FORall other SALE forms of inputOR reduction. DISTRIBUTION Inserts © Photodisc. NOT FOR thatSALE is greater OR DISTRIBUTION than the cost of providing the 24 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORservice. SALE SomeOR DISTRIBUTION examples of these programs NOTAlthough FOR SALE the United OR DISTRIBUTION States is the world’s include: largest resource consumer and polluter (by most measures), it unfortunately lags far be- • The Conservation Reserve Program: hind most of the industrialized world in the A U.S. federal government program in which landowners are paid to retire use of green fees and other economic incentives © Jones & Bartlett Learning,to conserve LLC resources and reduce© Jones pollution. & Bartlett Learning, LLC portions of NOTland thatFOR are SALE considered OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION “environmentally sensitive.” Land- The general trend has been the continuation owners agree to plant cover crops to of cheap resources and free sinks. In fact, in help improve water quality, control many cases, the United States actively discour- soil erosion, and enhance habitat for ages conservation and encourages pollution © Joneswildlife. & Bartlett Learning, LLC by subsidies that© reward Jones harmful & Bartlett activities Learning, (as LLC • NOT Quito, FOR Ecuador, SALE ORestablished DISTRIBUTION a water opposed to greenNOT taxes FOR that SALEdiscourage OR them).DISTRIBUTION fund in the early 2000s to restore up- figure 1-15 shows an example of great im- stream forests and better protect na- portance, the historically relatively cheap cost tional parks to reduce sedimentation of oil (affecting retail prices of gasoline at the pump) in the United States between the © Jones & Bartlettof the Learning, city’s water LLC supply. The fund’s © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC principal was raised by the city’s water early 1980s and the beginning of the 21st cen- NOT FOR SALEutility OR DISTRIBUTION (via a water user levy), a local NOTtury. The FOR cheap SALE costs OR led DISTRIBUTION to a reversal of the brewer, a bottler, and a hydroelectric previous trend toward more fuel-efficient company. The principal was invested cars. However, with the terrorist attacks of in stocks and other financial instru- September 11, 2001, and the subsequent wars ments and ©allowed Jones to & growBartlett before Learning, in Afghanistan LLC and Iraq, along© withJones natural & Bartlett Learning, LLC interest earningsNOT were FOR used SALE to finance OR DISTRIBUTION disasters such as Hurricane Katrina,NOT theFOR 2010 SALE OR DISTRIBUTION forest restoration projects. An inde- BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, and the un- pendent governing body selects the rest in Libya and the Middle East more gen- conservation projects. By late 2010, erally, the price of oil surged. Many observers more than 2 million trees had been think that a “greener” economy is inevitable, © Jonesplanted & and Bartlett more than Learning, 5,000 acres LLC of not only because© Jones of the &increasing Bartlett Learning,cost of LLC NOTland FOR have SALE been restored. OR DISTRIBUTION oil, but also becauseNOT FOR of consumer SALE OR demand DISTRIBUTION

100 Gulf oil spill April 20, 2010 © Jones & Bartlett90 Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 80

60 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 50

Iraq 40 Gulf War Price per barrel (2004 dollars) Price per barrel © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC War © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 30 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

10 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Year© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEFIGUR ORE 1-15 DISTRIBUTION Price of oil per barrel. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy.)NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1.6 Promoting Sustainability by Paying the True Costs of Nature’s Benefits 25 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORfor DISTRIBUTION environmental quality and the economicNOT FOR “viciousSALE ORcircle” DISTRIBUTION in which population growth benefits of sustainable technologies, such as leads to poverty because increasing numbers increased efficiency, reduced resource imports, of people reduce the standard of living. Impov- and more jobs. There are signs that U.S. busi- erished people tend not to focus on environ- ness is responding to “green” pressures. More mental concerns but must turn their attention companies© Jonesare advertising & Bartlett that Learning,their products LLC to simply surviving ©from Jones one day& Bartlett to the next. Learning, LLC are madeNOT from FOR reused SALE or recycled OR DISTRIBUTION materials or Can this “poverty–population–environmentNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are “environmentally friendly.” The rapid in- cycle” of human misery and environmental crease in gasoline costs in 2005 led to a dra- destruction be broken? Many people still sub- matic decline in sales of large vehicles, such scribe to the fallacy of enlightenment, or the © Jonesas sport & Bartlett utility vehiclesLearning, (SUVs), LLC so that auto- idea© that Jones education & Bartlett will solveLearning, the problem. LLC NOT FORmobile SALE makers OR became DISTRIBUTION much more interested EducationNOT FOR is very SALE important, OR DISTRIBUTION but often it is in producing smaller and more fuel-efficient ve- not enough; realistic solutions that remove the hicles, such as those with hybrid engines. This root causes of the problem must be found. At- trend has been accompanied by increased dis- tempting to protect the environment by legal cussion of green fees and the removal of gov- means, such as creating game reserves, is often © Jones & Bartlett ernmentLearning, subsidies LLC on timber, grazing lands,© Jones ore ¬ Bartlett effective Learning, either because LLC desperate people NOT FOR SALE ORdeposits, DISTRIBUTION and oil companies. NOT FOR willSALE break OR laws. DISTRIBUTION Decades of experience show that the economic causes of this cycle must be Reducing Population: Defusing the Bomb addressed. Eliminating poverty will not only of the South reduce many causes of population growth, but More than© Jones90% of & world Bartlett population Learning, growth LLC it also will reduce environmental© Jones & Bartlettdegradation. Learning, LLC occurs inNOT developing FOR SALE nations. OR Most DISTRIBUTION develop- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ing nations are in the Southern Hemisphere; Reducing Population Growth thus the cause of throughput is especially im- by Paying True Costs portant there. To defuse this so-called popula- The gap in wealth between the developed tion bomb, we must address its central causes, and developing nations has widened at an in- © Joneswhich & Bartlettoften are Learning, economic. LLCfigure 1-16 illus- creasing© Jones rate. &Between Bartlett 1961 Learning, and 1999, LLC the NOT FORtrates SALE how population OR DISTRIBUTION growth is often driven grossNOT economic FOR SALEproduct OR per DISTRIBUTION capita increased by poverty. Poor people tend to have more off- $15,000 for industrial countries. Africa’s gross spring for a variety of reasons, including lack economic product per capita increased by ap- of education about and easy access to birth proximately $600. © Jones & Bartlett control,Learning, lack LLC of economic opportunities© Jonesfor & BartlettThis gap Learning, continues LLCto grow because de- NOT FOR SALE ORwomen, DISTRIBUTION and the need for children to performNOT FOR velopingSALE OR countries DISTRIBUTION now pay a huge amount chores and care for the aged. The result is a of interest on money that was lent to them many years ago; they now owe more than $2 trillion. As a result of interest on this debt, Rapid the net flow of money has been from South to population ©growth Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC North since 1982. Rich© Jones countries & Bartlett now receive Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmore money from NOTpoor countriesFOR SALE (variously OR DISTRIBUTION estimated at more than $50 billion per year) Increased throughput than they transfer to them. This is sometimes and called the debt bomb. environmental Some economists argue that foreign aid to © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC degradation © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION poorNOT countries FOR shouldSALE notOR be DISTRIBUTION viewed as charity. They note that these poor but resource-rich nations would not need charity if they were Poverty paid the true value for their resources. They maintain that if people in the developed North- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Population LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC FIGURE 1-16 Poverty and population growth feed on each other, and both produce ern Hemisphere wish to save rain forests, they NOT FOR SALEenvironmental OR DISTRIBUTION degradation. Inserts © Photodisc. NOT FOR shouldSALE payOR for DISTRIBUTION the environmental goods and 26 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORservices SALE theOR forestsDISTRIBUTION produce. Although it is NOTmostly FOR because SALE they OR are notDISTRIBUTION fully valued in the often difficult to estimate the true environmen- current economic system. For instance, cheap tal costs and values in most cases, nearly all gasoline and minerals lead to rapid deple- estimates indicate that developing nations are tion of these nonrenewable resources, making greatly underpaid for their resources. As pay- them unavailable to future generations. These ments for ecosystem© service Jones markets & Bartlett develop Learning, resources LLC are cheap because their© Jonescurrent &cost Bartlett Learning, LLC (discussed in the sectionNOT on FOR promoting SALE sustain OR DISTRIBUTION- does not include the future effectsNOT of theirFOR use, SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ability by paying the true costs of nature’s bene- such as global warming or other pollution fits), the true costs of environmental goods and hazards. Discounting by distance results from services will be better valued in the economic focusing on the “here”: environmental costs system.© JonesPrograms & Bartlettsuch as the Learning, United Nations LLC of our actions on© peopleJones living & Bartlett in another Learning, area LLC CollaborativeNOT FOR Program SALE on OR Reducing DISTRIBUTION Emissions are not fully paid.NOT For FOR instance, SALE cheap OR ivory,DISTRIBUTION from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in imported animals, and tropical timber lead Developing Countries (REDD) are structured to rapid depletion of those tropical resources, to help alleviate the debt bomb issue. thereby degrading the environment for the Appropriate payment for ecosystem ser- people who live there. These resources are so © Jones &vices Bartlett could helpLearning, eliminate LLC poverty, probably ©cheap Jones because & Bartlett their cost Learning, does not incorporate LLC NOT FORmuch SALE more OR effectivelyDISTRIBUTION than foreign aid do- NOTtheir full FOR value SALE to their OR local DISTRIBUTION environment. nations. These payments would break the vicious poverty–population growth cycle and A Solution: Values Beyond the Self and reduce population growth. A key necessity is Recognizing the True Value of that this increased wealth© Jones be used & Bartlett to buy sus Learning,- Ecosystem LLC Services © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC tainable technologiesNOT that FORfocus SALEon efficiency, OR DISTRIBUTION It can be argued that the singleNOT greatest FOR ob SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION recycling/reuse, and renewable resources. stacle to building a sustainable society is this tendency of the human mind to focus on the here and now. It limits our ability to make the 1.7 The Role of the Individual systemic social changes needed to solve re- The ©environmentalist Jones & Bartlett Wendell Learning, Berry said LLC that gional and global© problems.Jones & ThisBartlett is why Learning, David LLC the rootsNOT of FOR all environmental SALE OR DISTRIBUTION problems ulti- Ehrenfeld, in TheNOT Arrogance FOR SALE of Humanism OR DISTRIBUTION mately lie in the values of the individuals who (1981), warns that history shows that people comprise society. As the writer Paul Hawken have never successfully managed anything for put it, “The environment is not being de- very long. How can we expect to solve global © Jones &graded Bartlett by corporateLearning, presidents; LLC it is being ©environmental Jones & Bartlett problems Learning, with such limitations? LLC NOT FORdegraded SALE OR by DISTRIBUTIONpopular demand.” By this, he NOTfig FORure 1-17 SALE illustrates OR DISTRIBUTION how people can ex- means that companies produce only things tend their sphere of concern, beginning with that people buy, and they cause depletion and close relatives and progressing through other pollution only as long as society permits such social groupings to include all people. Ulti- behavior to be profitable. mately, all living things can be included, as in © Jones & Bartlett Learning,the philosophyLLC of “deep ecology© .”Jones If we &are Bartlett Learning, LLC Values on the Here andNOT Now: FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONto place a higher value on theNOT environment FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Why We Avoid True Costs of the future and in other parts of the world, Why do individuals have values that lead to such extended spheres of concern are needed. environmental degradation by “popular de- If many people adopt this view, society will be mand?”© Jones Many &writers Bartlett have Learning, argued that LLC most more willing to© pay Jones green &taxes, Bartlett vote forLearning, poli- LLC large-scaleNOT FOR problems SALE arise OR because DISTRIBUTION individu- ticians who favorNOT sustainable FOR SALE lifestyles, OR andDISTRIBUTION in als are not good at dealing with problems be- general, promote solutions that require look- yond their own immediate situation. We tend ing beyond the here and now. to focus on the “here and now.” Most sociologists believe that the trend has Discounting the future results from focus- been in the opposite direction until now. The © Jones &ing Bartlett on the “now”: Learning, Environmental LLC costs of our ©growth Jones of &modern Bartlett civilization Learning, has LLCpromoted NOT FORactions SALE on OR future DISTRIBUTION generations are not fully paid, NOTindividualism FOR SALE that hasOR progressivelyDISTRIBUTION shrunk 1.7 The Role of the Individual 27 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR suchSALE as ORgenetic DISTRIBUTION engineering could make agri- Universe culture more productive so that the planet will

Ecosystems be able to support many more people at a high and the Earth standard of living. At the other extreme are cassandras (also known as neomalthusians), © JonesAll species & Bartlett on Earth Learning, LLC who argue that people© Jones have always & Bartlett altered Learning,the LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONenvironment and managedNOT FOR things SALE poorly; OR they DISTRIBUTION All animal life insist that exponential growth of populations and consumptive technology will finally de- All people grade the environment so much that it will © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC lead© to Jones overshoot & Bartlett (see Figure Learning, 1-11). Cornu LLC - copian and cassandran views have been com- NOT FOR SALE OR OwnDISTRIBUTION race, nation, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION religious group mon, in various forms, throughout history. Social As is often the case, extreme views can be group, tribe Kin counterproductive. Too much optimism, such as a cornucopian view, can lull people into in- Self © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones &activity Bartlett because Learning, they think LLC that the future will NOT FOR SALE ORFIG URDISTRIBUTIONE 1-17 An ethical sequence in which the individual concernsNOT extend FOR takeSALE care OR of itself.DISTRIBUTION Too much pessimism, such outward beyond the self to progressively more inclusive levels. (Source: as a cassandran view, can cause despair, which Adapted from R. Noss, 1992.) leads to inaction because people think that the future is bleak no matter what they do. Thus, the sphere of concern. Large cities have fos- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC many writers suggest© Jonesa more &moderate Bartlett view Learning, LLC tered a loss of community and the fragmenta- that acknowledges that urgent environmental tion of socialNOT groups,FOR SALE including OR evenDISTRIBUTION families. problems exist. TheseNOT problems FOR SALEneed to ORbe ad DISTRIBUTION- Can this trend be reversed? No one knows, but dressed within the next few years, or at least some encouraging signs have appeared. For ex- decades, or they may lead to large-scale envi- ample, the grassroots activism of the current ronmental degradation and overshoot. This © Jonessustainability & Bartlett movement Learning, is basedLLC on commu- moderate© Jones view & reliesBartlett on Learning,the precautionary LLC NOT FORnity concerns.SALE OR There DISTRIBUTION are also many examples principleNOT, FORwhich SALE says that OR in DISTRIBUTIONthe face of uncer- of exceptional unselfishness in individuals. tainty the best course of action is to assume Payments for ecosystem service markets, that a potential problem is real and should be whereby the true cost of an environmental ser- addressed. In other words, we are “better safe vice or benefit is incorporated into the costs of than sorry.” The worst that can happen with © Jones & Bartlett decision-making,Learning, LLC can help people realize© more Jones &this Bartlett approach Learning, is that society LLC will become more NOT FOR SALE ORdirectly DISTRIBUTION the value of environmental services.NOT FOR efficient,SALE OR less DISTRIBUTION wasteful, and less polluting, even Other initiatives, such as fair trade labeling, if environmental problems prove to be not as organic food, and green products, are also bad as some people argue. On the other hand, making it easier for people to become more the results can be disastrous if the precaution- environmentally literate and make choices © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ary principle is not ©used Jones and problems & Bartlett are Learning,in- LLC that result in less environmental harm. deed as urgent as some people believe. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Assuming that a person wishes to rely on 1.8 Toward a Sustainable World the precautionary principle, which specific environmental problems should be of most con- Although no one knows if sustainability will be cern? A good starting place is the following © Jonesattained, & Bartlett there isLearning, certainly no LLC shortage of de- priority© Jones list based & Bartlett on material Learning, published LLC by NOT FORbate andSALE speculation. OR DISTRIBUTION Historically, two schools the NOTU.S. Environmental FOR SALE ORProtection DISTRIBUTION Agency and of thought have existed on the urgency of over- other sources (table 1-1): population and resource limitation, and they tend to be polarized. At one extreme are cornu- Highest Priority: Species extinction, eco- copians, who argue that human ingenuity has logical disruption and habitat destruc- © Jones & Bartlett alwaysLearning, overcome LLC environmental limitations.© Jones & Bartletttion, stratospheric Learning, LLCozone depletion, and NOT FOR SALE ORThey DISTRIBUTION suggest, for example, that inventionsNOT FOR SALEglobal OR climate DISTRIBUTION change. 28 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORWhat SALE OR Are DISTRIBUTION Your Values? WouldNOT FOR You SALE DeclineOR DISTRIBUTION CASE $600,000 to Save a Rain Forest? STuDY © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett1-2 Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION lthough many of us say that we are “pro blazing tropical sun; however, he is reluctant to environment,” we never really know how talk about his decision. Hundreds of other farm- Astrong our values are until we are asked to ers and fi shermen in his area feel the same way VISIT make personal sacrifi ces for them. For example, in and are fi ghting development. (Source: Adapted this chapter© Jones we have & Bartlett asserted that Learning, the environment LLC from A. Carothers,© Jones“Letters &from Bartlett Costa Rica,” Learning, E www.environment.jbpub.com LLC of futureNOT generations FOR SALE is often OR discounted DISTRIBUTION or deval- Magazine, SeptemberNOT 1993.) FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION for more information ued. Most of us would like to change that situation, but just how much are we willing to sacrifi ce? Questions Consider the case of Miguel Sanchez, a subsis- tence farmer in Costa Rica. He was offered $600,000 1. How does Miguel’s sacrifi ce compare with © Jones &for Bartlett a piece of landLearning, that he and LLC his family have tended © Jonessacrifi &ces Bartlett that you Learning, have made LLCto promote NOT FORfor SALE many years.OR DISTRIBUTION This land consists of a spectacular NOTlong-term FOR SALE environmental OR DISTRIBUTION health? What would old-growth rain forest and a beautiful black sand you do if you were in Miguel’s position? beach in an area where land is rapidly being devel- 2. Comment on this statement from writer oped. A hotel developer offered the money. Sanchez Andre Carothers: America has “a skewed declined, knowing that this was more money than moral universe, where people regularly he, his children, and all© of Jones his grandchildren & Bartlett would Learning, LLCswoon over each other’s negligible© Jones acts & of Bartlett Learning, LLC ever accumulate. SanchezNOT explained FOR SALEhis decision: OR “IDISTRIBUTION charity.” The writer’s point isNOT that we FOR make SALE a OR DISTRIBUTION have no desire to live anywhere else. Money can be big deal about recycling cans, buying organic evil. People will ask me for money.” foods, and giving tiny donations to environ- Miguel knows that cleared forest means less mental funds. Is this a fair criticism or unjus- rain, less water in the rivers, less escape from the tifi ed cynicism? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Middle Priority: Problems associated with these changes are discussed later in the text, pesticides and herbicides, lake and river but for now, some major points can be noted. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC pollution, acid rain, and airborne toxics. First, many aspects of our society are affected: NOT FOR SALELowest OR Priority:DISTRIBUTION Oil spills, groundwater NOTscientifi FOR c paradigms, SALE OR role DISTRIBUTION of the human, and pollution and depletion, airborne radia- values toward nature, land, and people. Sec- tion, waste dumping, thermal pollution ond, many of our social institutions are af- to water bodies, and acid runoff. fected: religion, education, political systems, © Jones & Bartlett Learning,and economicLLC systems. Third, technology© Jones &and Bartlett Learning, LLC The highest priority problems are global and NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONagriculture are affected. Fourth,NOT many FOR of these SALE OR DISTRIBUTION are very long term in their scope. Lower prior- changes ultimately are based on increasing the ity problems tend to be geographically more importance of our communities, from encour- localized and can (in theory) be solved within aging community values among individuals shorter time spans. to creating decentralized, community-based © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC economies and political systems. VisualizingNOT FORa Sustainable SALE ORWorld DISTRIBUTION The need forNOT such FOR pervasive SALE ORchanges DISTRIBUTION is Recall that sustainability means meeting the refl ected in academic disciplines such as the needs of today without degrading the envi- social sciences and humanities, which tradi- ronment for future generations. Table 1-1 tionally have studied society as an entity dis- © Jones &summarizes Bartlett Learning,many of the LLCchanges that are nec- ©tinct Jones from the& Bartlett natural environment Learning, LLCor at most NOT FORessary SALE to ORcreate DISTRIBUTION a sustainable society. Most of NOTonly moderatelyFOR SALE infl OR uenced DISTRIBUTION by the natural 1.8 toward a Sustainable World 29 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR TDISTRIBUTIONable 1-1 Transition From the IndustrialNOT toFOR the EcologicalSALE OR Age* DISTRIBUTION Industrial Age Sustainability or Ecological Age Scientific paradigms Mechanistic Organismic Earth as inert matter Gaia: Earth as a superorganism © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Determinism LLC Indeterminancy,© Jones probability & Bartlett Learning, LLC Atomism Holism/systems theory Role of theNOT human FOR SALE OR CDISTRIBUTIONonquest of nature Living as partNOT of nature FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Individual versus world Extended sense of self Resource management Ecological stewardship Values in relationship to nature Nature as resource Preserve biodiversity Exploit or conserve Protect ecosystem integrity Anthropocentric/humanist Biocentric/ecocentric © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCNature has instrumental value © JonesNature & Bartletthas intrinsic value Learning, LLC NOT FORRelation SALE to land OR DISTRIBUTIONLand use; farming, herding NOT FORLand ethic:SALE think likeOR mountain DISTRIBUTION Competing for territory Dwelling in place Owning “real estate” Reinhabiting the bioregion Human/social values Sexism, patriarchy Ecofeminism, partnership Racism, ethnocentrism Respect and value differences © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Hierarchies© of classJones and caste & Bartlett Learning,Social ecology, egalitarianism LLC Theology and religion Nature as background Animism: everything lives NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Nature as dNOTemonic/frightening FOR SALE OR NDISTRIBUTIONature as sacred Transcendent divinity Immanent divinity Monotheism and atheism Pantheism and panentheism Education and research Specialized disciplines Multidisciplinary, integrative Political systems Nation-state sovereignty Multinational federations Centralized national authority Decentralized bioregions © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Cultural homogeneity LLC Pluralistic ©societies Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR NDISTRIBUTIONational security focus Humans andNOT environment FOR focus SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Militarism Commitment to nonviolence Economic systems Multinational corporations Community-based economies Competition Cooperation Limitless progress Limits to growth “Economic development” Steady state, sustainability © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCNo accounting of nature © JonesEcon &omics Bartlett based on ecology Learning, LLC Technology Addiction to fossil fuels Reliance on renewables NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONProfit-driven technologies NOT FORAppropriate SALE technologies OR DISTRIBUTION Waste overload Recycling, reusing Exploitation/consumerism Protect and restore ecosystems Agriculture Monoculture farming Polyculture and permaculture Agribusiness, factory farms Community and family farms Chemical fertilizers and pesticides Biological pest control © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Vulnerable ©high-yield Jones hybrids & Bartlett Learning,Preservation of genetic LLC diversity NOT FOR SALE OR *SomeDISTRIBUTION of these may be considered speculative attempts to understandNOT theFOR personal SALE and humanistic OR aspectsDISTRIBUTION of sustainable living. Source: Adapted from R. Metzner, “The Emerging Ecological World View,” in M. Tucker and J. Grim, eds. World Views and Ecology. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1993, pp. 170–171. Reprinted with the permission from Associated University Presses.

world. For© Jonesexample, & economics Bartlett Learning,once (and still LLC an effort to value the© Jonestrue costs & Bartlettof ecosystem Learning, LLC largely does)NOT focused FOR SALEalmost exclusivelyOR DISTRIBUTION on the services. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION flow of goods through society, ignoring the Other socially oriented disciplines are costs of depletion and pollution that the flows also rapidly developing an interest in studies impose on the environment. Similarly, other that incorporate the environment. Findings disciplines such as ecology studied the environ- from such fields are included throughout this © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ment as a largely separate entity. The new field text and are emphasized in the section on NOT FORof environmental SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONeconomics is a more holistic socialNOT solutions FOR SALEto environmental OR DISTRIBUTION concerns). discipline that includes both society and the environment. It incorporates externalities into Supporting Services the overall profit or loss of the product. It stud- Supporting services are those that are necessary © Jones & Bartlett iesLearning, not just the LLC flow of goods within society© Jones but &for Bartlett the production Learning, of all LLC other ecosystem ser- NOT FOR SALE ORalso DISTRIBUTION the effects on the environment and NOTmakes FOR vicesSALE. They OR differ DISTRIBUTION from provisioning, regulating, 30 Chapter 1 Environmental Science: An Overview 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORand SALE cultural OR services DISTRIBUTION in that their impacts on NOT• FORPrimary SALE production. OR DISTRIBUTION The assimilation people are often indirect or occur over a long or accumulation of energy and nutri- time, whereas changes in the other categories ents by organisms. have relatively direct and short-term impacts • Nutrient cycling. Approximately 20 nu- on people. (Some services, such as erosion regu- trients essential for life, including ni- © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC lation, can be categorized as both a supporting trogen and phosphorus, cycle through and a regulating service,NOT depending FOR SALE on the OR time DISTRIBUTION ecosystems and are maintainedNOT FOR at dif- SALE OR DISTRIBUTION scale and immediacy of their impact on people). ferent concentrations in different parts • Soil formation. Because many provi- of ecosystems. sioning services depend on soil fertil- • Water cycling. Water cycles through © Jonesity, the rate & Bartlett of soil formation Learning, infl LLCuences ecosystems© Jones and is &essential Bartlett for Learning, living LLC NOThuman FOR well-being SALE OR in manyDISTRIBUTION ways. organisms.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • Photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces oxygen necessary for most living Source: http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosys organisms. tems/toolboxes/box2-1-services.htm © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

I study guide SUMMARY© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC • Environmental science uses a holistic approach NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION• The postindustrial stage will likely witness ei-NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to realize the interconnected aspects of envi- ther sustainability or catastrophic overshoot of ronmental problems and apply solutions. human civilization. • Human–environmental interactions evolve • Environmental impact, the alteration of the through fi ve basic stages: gathering and hunt- natural environment by human activity, in- ing,© agricultureJones & andBartlett conservationism, Learning, industry LLC volves either resource© Jones depletion & Bartlett or pollution. Learning, LLC andNOT environmentalism, FOR SALE ORtransition DISTRIBUTION and sustain- • Impact is promoted NOT FOR by population SALE OR and DISTRIBUTION con- ability, and the postindustrial stage. sumption: I = P × C. • We are in the transition phase, which has pro- • The world’s population continues to increase duced the sustainability movement. by about 77 million people a year. • The sustainability movement • Traditionally, resource-intensive industrial © Jones & Bartlett• focuses on reducing societal consumption Learning, LLC © Jonestechnology & Bartlettand consumption Learning, have LLC increased NOT FOR SALEof resources. OR DISTRIBUTION NOTexponentially. FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION • seeks to solve holistically the structural • Impact is often measured as throughput—the social causes of environmental problems movement of materials and energy through such as poverty. society. • relies on grassroots activism. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION KEY TERMS anthropocentric ecosystem services input cassandras effi ciency improvements input reduction closed system environmental science integration complexity© Jones & Bartlett Learning,environmental LLC wisdom ©market Jones failure & Bartlett Learning, LLC consumptionNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONexponential growth NOTopen system FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION cornucopians fallacy of enlightenment openness debt bomb fi rst law of ecology output deep ecology Gaia hypothesis overshoot discounting by distance grassroots activism population bomb © Jones &discounting Bartlett the Learning, future LLC green fees © Jones & Bartlettpositive feedbackLearning, LLC NOT FORecocentric SALE OR DISTRIBUTION holistic NOT FOR SALEprecautionary OR DISTRIBUTION principle Study Guide 31 2ND PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE ORrecycling DISTRIBUTION substitutionNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONsystem reuse sustainability systems approach sinks sustainable economy throughput sources sustainable technology

STUDY© Jones QUESTIONS & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1. WhatNOT are theFOR major SALE goals OR of this DISTRIBUTION text? 12. What are the fi NOTve basic FOR developmental SALE OR stages DISTRIBUTION 2. Defi ne environmental science. What relevance in the relationship between people and the does it have to people? environment? Briefl y describe each. 3. Name several costs of a lack of environmen- 13. Defi ne sustainable technology and a sustain- tal wisdom. able economy. Defi ne “ecosystem services” © Jones 4. & What Bartlett is often Learning, the most LLCexpensive way to ©and Jones name &a Bartlettfew examples Learning, and which LLC cate- NOT FOR solveSALE environmental OR DISTRIBUTION problems? NOTgory FORthey fall SALE under OR according DISTRIBUTION to the Mil- 5. What is the throughput model and the sys- lennium Ecosystem Assessment. Read over tems approach as applied to environmental Case Study 1-2 and think about the eco- science? system services that landowners provide to 6. Why is input reduction a good solution to you and your family. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,many environmental LLC problems? © Jones & 14.Bartlett Explain Learning, the concept LLCof “The Tragedy of the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION7. Name the two basic causes of environmen-NOT FOR SALECommons” OR DISTRIBUTION and how it applies to environ- tal problems. mental issues. 8. What are the key traits of the environmental 15. What are some basic ways that have been system? suggested to reduce consumption? Does a 9. State and explain the “fi rst law of ecology.” reduction in consumption need to entail a 10. What© isJones environmental & Bartlett impact? Learning, Identify two LLC decreased quality© ofJones life? & Bartlett Learning, LLC basicNOT types FOR of environmental SALE OR impact DISTRIBUTION and ex- 16. What is a greenNOT fee? FOR What SALE does “market OR DISTRIBUTION plain their causes. failure” refer to? 11. Why was the cultivation of food such an im- 17. What is “discounting the future?” portant development in human technologi- 18. What is the “precautionary principle,” and cal evolution? how can it be applied to environmental issues? © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORWHAT’S SALE OR THE DISTRIBUTION EVIDENCE? NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. The authors contend that many people suf- 2. The authors suggest in the context of the his- fer from information overload and thus tory of environmental impact that the United “tune out.” Do you really believe that this States and other developed nations are in a is true? Isn’t it better to have more infor- transition stage and that the decisions we © Jones & Bartlett Learning,mation ratherLLC than less? Cite examples© Jonesthat & Bartlettmake duringLearning, the next LLC few decades (in your NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONeither support or contradict the authors’NOT as- FOR SALElifetime) OR DISTRIBUTIONwill determine the long-term fate sertion relative to information overload and of the environment. Do you believe this as- a lack of environmental wisdom on the part sertion? Is it simply alarmist rhetoric on the of some people. part of the authors? Cite specifi c and general examples to support your position. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ILLUSTRATIONNOT FOR SALE ANDOR DISTRIBUTION TABLE REVIEW NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 1. Study Figure 1-10. Which of the three statis- 2. Using Figure 1-15, determine the approxi- tics shown (total solid waste, per capita solid mate price per barrel of oil in 1980. waste output, population) has increased most 3. Using Figure 1-15, determine the approximate quickly during the last few decades? Why? price per barrel of oil in 2000. How does this © Jones &How Bartlett are these Learning, factors related LLC to one another? ©compare Jones with & Bartlett the price 20Learning, years earlier? LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION www.environment.jbpub.com Connect to this text’s website at http://www.environment.jbpub.com/. This site features eLearning, an online review area that provides quizzes, chapter outlines, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and other tools to help© Jones you study & Bartlettfor your class. Learning, You can LLCalso follow useful links NOT FOR SALE OR www.environment.jbpub.com DISTRIBUTIONfor more in-depth information.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 32 CHAPTEr 1 environmental Science: An overview 2ND PAGES