Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

Forum: Security Council ​ Issue: Addressing the implications of the ongoing war in ​ Student Officer: Simone Noorali ​ Position: President Chair of the SC ​ ______Introduction The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked South Asian nation sharing its borders with Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and China. Not only is an immense expanse of its territory covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, others with fertile plants and the remaining with desert, Afghanistan is also strategically situated along with SIlk Road. Historically, the nation has seen involvement with a variety of military campaigns, notable ones including those by the Muslim Arabs, Mongols, Soviets, Alexander the Great and in recent times, the United States and NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) countries. Regardless, it maintains its title as unconquerable, or the “graveyard of empires”. Currently, Afghanistan remains a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a diverse ethnic population of Uzbeks, Tajiks, Pashtuns and Hazaras. Along with being a member state of the United Nations, it is also a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Group of 77, Economic Cooperation Organization and Non-Aligned Movement.

However, in recent times, Afghanistan’s political stability has been plagued by the after effects of their proxy and civil wars between 1989 - 1996. 1998 saw a guerrilla war, alternatively classified as a civil war, instigated by the Mujahideen against the PDPA’s Afghani government. Following the 1979 Soviet Invasion, the Mujahideen took up a self proclaimed fight against what they believed to be the PDPA puppet regime instated by the Soviets. This conflict between a Soviet backed regime and the Mujahideen has run simultaneously alongside an attempt for a governmental shift from socialism to pan-Afghan nationalism, and another to a Mujahideen Islamic government. Between 1993 and 1995, military sub-commanders of groups including the Hezbi Islam, Jamiat, Hizb-i-Wahdat and Junbish descended to crimes against humanity and as such the , a coalition of students from Islamic schools in Pakistan, emerged in 1994 in a proclaimed effort to eradicate warlordism and crime from Afghanistan.

The Taliban grew to prominence in 1996, by when that were in control of Kabul and subsequently most of Afghanistan, implementing a regime identified by the Physicians for Human Rights as “methodological” and “violent”. Between 1996 and 2001, alongside conflicts between the government and non-state actors, al-Qaeda also operated inside Afghanistan, raising concern from nations such as the United States. Following the official overthrow of the Taliban government in 2001, Amid Karzai was instituted as the head of the Afghan Interim Administration which gained support from the UN Security Council backed International Security Assistance Force to provide security. While coalition troops began rebuilding Afghanistan, Taliban forces were attempting to regroup in a neighboring nation, Pakistan. Despite Afghanistan remaining a poor nation due to not only this insurgency but inherent corruption and lack of foreign economic involvement and investment, the government were able to build semblances of democratic structures and attempt to reform healthcare, economy, education,

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

agriculture and transport technologies with support from foreign investors. In light of a Taliban shadow government forming in certain Afghani regions around 2009, the government - under the Karzai administration - sought to hold peace negotiations with these non-state actor leaders which were rebuffed until 2015.

To apprehend the growing power of the Taliban, the United States invasion of Afghanistan occurred and was renamed as the U.S. War in Afghanistan, or otherwise Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan. Spanning from 2001 and currently still in progress, the war began with support from the United Kingdom and Canada, and now bears support from a 40-nation coalition including all member states of NATO. The stated intent of the war was to dismantle al-Qaeda and restore safety to Afghanistan by stripping the Taliban of power. It is speculated that the war originates from the Taliban’s refusal to extradite Bin Laden without evidence after the September 2001 attacks, leading to the declaration of war. The United States and UK were joined by the Northern Alliance and ISAF, eventually with support from NATO. As UN initiated peace talks have occurred between involved parties, the United States announced the end of combat operations in 2014, Nato ended ISAF combat operations and British forces handed over bases to the afghan government. However, till date, nearly 13,000 foreign troops remain in Afghanistan as a fight against the Taliban as a clause of operation Resolute Support, led by NATO. Thousands of soldiers, contractors, national security force members, civilians and non state actors have been killed in the light of this war and the many conflicts that surround it.

Definition of Key Terms Non State Actor A non state actor is defined as a non-sovereign entity exercising significant proportions of political, economic and social influence in a manner that affects a nation and perhaps has greater international significance. Opposition to the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and their institutionalized land reforms and modernization of tradition islamic law led to rebellion, revolt, and the uprising of insurgent groups such as the mujahideen and Jamie, Junbish, Hezbi Islam and Hizb-i-Wahdat. This instability created the turmoil necessary for the rise of the Taliban to be feasible.

Civil War Civil wars are wars internalized to a nation, otherwise known as being engaged between members of the same nation. The civil war in Afghanistan can arguably range from the time periods known officially as the Afghan Civil Wars from 1989 - 1992, which culminated in the collapse of the Najibullah communist government, and the 1996 - 2001 Civil War which was the period of Taliban’s prevalence, creating the conditions necessary for the War in Afghanistan lasting till today. Along with widespread political implications and the rise of guerrilla groups and non-state actors, these Civil Wars have caused infrastructural damage, sustaining damage to federal organizations and structures, and caused lasting socio-economic effects on the Afghan civilians, leading to a migration crisis.

Proxy War A proxy is defined by an authority designated to represent another party. Thus, a proxy war is “instigated by a major power which does not itself become involved” (Oxford). Afghanistan has traditionally been a “proxy battleground” for parties such as the United States and Soviet Union, notably during the Cold War. This same proxy war without winners and only the imminent threat

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

from Taliban, involved the neighboring nations of India, standing by the Soviet Union, and Pakistan forming a middle ground between the mujahideen and the United States. The political hostility between India and Pakistan, even after the withdrawal of soviet forces, ensures that Afghanistan remains a party to this proxy war.

Guerrilla Warfare Guerrilla warfare is known as a form of irregular warfare involving paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, forming a group of combatants. These paramilitary groups engage in the use of warfare tactics such as raids, mobility, ambushes, sabotage, hit-and-run tactics or raids. The use of these tactics allow the guerrilla groups to more efficiently fight traditional military. Guerrilla groups are recognized as violent non-state actor groups. Such groups have been prevalent in Afghanistan’s history leading to instability and insurgency in the region, contributing to the complications of the war. Notably, the anti-Soviet movement led by the Mujahideen is recognized as use of guerrilla warfare.

Key Issues Casualties and Deaths In accordance to a combined report, ‘Body Count’, submitted by international bodies such as the Physicians for Global Survival, Physicians for Social Responsibility and the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, the casualty count of the conflict in Afghanistan falls within the bracket of 106,000 - 170,000 civilians. As reported by the United Nations in 2009, 70% of the 1,500 casualties were attributed to anti-government elements, or non state actors, but not directly the Taliban, as many websites and news sources quote. Of the total death count in 2010, with over 2,700 civilians killed, the UN reports 75% to be caused by anti-government forces and 450 deaths to pro-government elements. From United Nations reports in the succeeding years, 2011, 2012 and even as far as 2016, the death toll attributed to anti-government forces drops from 74% to 61% in 2016, however the overall reported civilian deaths and injuries numbers rise tremendously. Contributing causes to the death toll alongside the activity of insurgents are the actions of troops from the United States and NATO, Afghan security forces, government militias and airstrikes from both the US and Nato, and the Afghan government.

Damage to Social Infrastructure - Education Reports reflecting research conducted within Afghanistan indicate towards cooperation between the Afghan government and non-state actors in power in certain regions in the country, such as the Taliban in the Khogyani District, towards the cause of education. In this region, the Afghan government is awarded nominal control to implement educational reforms under the provision of providing the wages to Taliban-appointed teachers in these educational facilities. Indicatively, across Afghanistan, while fewer than 50,000 girls made up the school-attending population of 1.2 million children in 2001, they currently account for 3.2 of the 8.2 million Afghan children attending schools in 2013. Specific to the Khogyani District in 2017, the Taliban justifies renouncing its opposition to female education movements in an effort to garner support from the local civilians.

Refugee Crisis

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

It is well known that the war in Afghanistan has been a contributing factor to the modern day refugee crisis. Aside from the sheer quantity of asylum seekers and refugees fleeing Afghanistan, there also arises the issue of maltreatment of these people. This mistreatment of Afghan refugees and asylum seekers has been documented in states of refuge such as the Netherlands, Australia, the United States, Pakistan, Europe and various NATO countries. Some of these actions have included restrictions on education and attendance to public school, lack of access to institutions and government services, property ownership and freedom of movement, suffrage and job availability wage brackets and exploitation for military purposes, as well as harassment during visa applications processes. This, along with constant bullying, marginalization and ostracizing has led to studies indicating towards Afghan refugees harboring increasingly and abnormally severe mental health issues and suicide rates/tendencies. The UNHCR Refugee Agency identifies there to be approximately 2.5 million registered Afghan refugees as of 2018, “comprising the largest protracted refugee population in Asia,” (UNHCR, 2018). CNN further reports the conflict within Afghanistan and states of refuge such as Pakistan, noting that over 600,000 Afghan refugees were threatened by police crackdown and deportation, and coerced into facing destitution in Afghanistan in late 2016, drawing the concern of the Human Rights Watch.

Flourishing of Crime - Drug Trade The Taliban, controlling approximately 96% of Afghanistan’s poppy fields between 1996 and 1999, used opium and export tax as its largest source of revenue. This money has been identified in by the Finance Minister of the United Front as one of the three main income sources of the Taliban, and entirely put towards the war effort. Despite legal ramifications to the opium market in light of international recognition from the United Nations, prices and sale profits rose due to demands, leading to large crop yield and harvest, and continuous stockpiling and trafficking. Afghanistan, one of the world’s largest opium producers, was sustaining a market with Russia and European nations that not only funded terrorism but was a large contributor to the global mortality count.

War Crimes and International Law War crimes, along with 3 other outlined clauses, are illegal and addressed in the Geneva Convention as a consequential violation of international treaty and customary law. This is under trial jurisdiction of the international criminal court, but also war tribunals or domestic judiciary systems. In the context of the conflict in Afghanistan, war crimes including murder of prisoners of war, terrorism, torture, targeting (bombings and massacres) of civilians have all been conducted by parties endorsed by the state and those not. Other crimes, not necessarily war crimes but a violation of conduct, such as destruction of property and infrastructure, theft and arson, are also notable occurrences during the conflict. Amnesty International, as well as many other global governmental and non-governmental organizations, point towards the Taliban as having conducted extreme crimes of war including mass murder and gang rape in Kunduz. The UN has condemned the Taliban’s rigging of boss along transit routes in the country and the New York Times accuses these non-state actors of being inadvertently responsible for 3/4 of the Afghan War’s civilian casualties.

It is alleged through reports of the 2001 Dasht-i-Leili massacre that anywhere between 250-3,000 surrendered Taliban militants were killed through suffocation or direct shot during a transportation process by Northern Alliance forces. U.S. ground troops are accused of being

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

present and involved at the scene of incidents yet assumedly blocked any further investigations. Further more, coalition or pro-government forces are notable of committing war crimes such as murder of prisoners. One example is he 2003 murder of prisoner Abdul Wali by a CIA contractor, and another case being the torture and murder of unarmed civilian Afghan prisoners at the Bagram Collection Point in 2002. These charges of acts akin to genocide fell towards 15 soldiers. Furthermore, ISAF charged 5 US army personnel with murder during the in 2010, with more charged with drug use, attacking of civilians and impeding investigations. With many other cases similar to these including the Kandahar massacre, it serves as a notable point to make that war crimes that are in serious breach and/or violation of international law are committed by not only anti-government actors and groups but also pro-government forces such as members of the American and British armies, falling under the greater Coalition.

Economic Implications Greater economic implications are one stated large cause of the majority of troop withdrawals in 2011 from Afghanistan by the United States officials. Reports from the Congressional Research Service identify the Defense Department spending quota on Afghanistan increasing by 50% after 2009 to approximately $6.7 billion per month. These investments were made on assumptions that troop sizes would peak at 102,000 in 2011 and that the total cost from inception to 2011 would be $468 billion. Economist Frank Ledwidge approximates the summations for British contributions to this war effort to reach $56.5 billion. However this was met with immense criticism from the Commission on Wartime Contracting in 2011. They reported anywhere from $31 - $60 billion to be expended in waste or fraud and the destruction of over 77,000 tons of equipment worth over $7 billion.

Question of National and International Stability Unquestionably, the Taliban have been gaining immense strength and socio-economic and/or political power at various times and places during the war in Afghanistan as well as during the dates of the larger conflict. Alongside this internal instability of power between non-state actors and governmental forces, external observers from the international community advocate that the western world’s mission in Afghanistan is limited in many ways due to its lack of consensus on mission objectives, too broad a focus on the country instead of depth in the regions and focus on a central as opposed to provincial governments.

Other Other issues, briefly outlined here to best guide further research into this topic, include strength and capacity of Afghan forces such as the National Police and National Army. Some others are insider attacks and unconventional guerrilla warfare, as well as the tactics used by anti-government forces such as the ISAF and British/American troops. Some more are the ​ various human rights abuses by the Taliban as alleged by NATO, use of chemical weapons such as white phosphorus, internal social unrest manifested through demonstrations, rallies and protests and conflict between the national and international public’s opinion as well as a shift in governments’ mindsets on their involvement and troop placement in Afghanistan.

Major Parties Involved The People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

The PDPA was formed and elected in a time period during which parliamentary elections and the organization of political parties were promoted, otherwise known as the period of constitutional reform. THe party came into being in 1965 under the secretary general Mohammad Taraki. The PDPA’s political ideology saw a shift from national democratic and progressive to Marxist-Leninist. The two factions of the PDPA - Khalaq and Parcham - united in 1978 to stage a coup, successfully taking control of Afghanistan. Once in power, they institutionalized radical social reforms in light with their non-religious and anti-clerical ideologies. REforms such as land tenure, women’s rights and education were too progressive for the religious Afghan society and thus tensions mounted in 1979 to a guerrilla war, causing the rise of non-state actors and the major conflict in Afghanistan.

Mujahideen The mujahideen were categorized as a diverse group of non-state actors in Afghanistan, their ethnic following made up of “Pashtuns, Uzbeks, Tajiks… Shi’a Muslims, Sunni Muslims,” (Szczepanski, 2018). Their primary purpose was to fight the Soviet invasion of and presence in Afghanistan, which is why the mujahideen rose to prominence in the late 1970s. The manner in which they operated was best described as a combination guerrilla and warlordism, and they arose as independent groups out of local militias with minimal coordination due to a variety of geopolitical and demographical barriers. However, the longevity of the Soviet occupation united non-state actors in their fight, many mujahideen groups united under the Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen, also known as the Peshawar Seven. Foreign governments, including the United States, Saudi Arabia and the People’s Republic of China, all supported the Mujahideen through direct or intermediary means such as arms and funds supply through neighbouring nations including Pakistan.

Taliban The emergence of the predominantly Pashtun Taliban occurred in northern Pakistan during the early 1990s, the same time as Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. Their objectives upon formation were to restore Sharia law, as well as peace and security, in Afghanistan. When in power, they instituted radical reforms such as the banning of media, certain physical or appearance standards, educational reforms that oppressed girls and public executions. While Pakistan denies being involved in the formation of the Taliban, it is also noteworthy that they were the last nation to officially break diplomatic ties with the group. The Afghan Taliban were accused, in the months following the September 11 attacks in New York, of providing sanctuary to al-Qaeda; they were quickly apprehended and stripped of power however quickly regrouped and re-emerged. By 1998, the Taliban were in control of approximately 90% of Afghanistan, including Kabul and Herat. Not only did the regime engage in violations of international human rights, they also engaged in various cultural abuses and damage to Afghanistan’s heritage and cultural infrastructure. Despite the Taliban facing threat from lower troop numbers compared to foreign powers and the rising strength of the Islamic State militants, they remain in the news today, wreaking havoc in a conflicted Afghan society. The first official negotiations between the Taliban and the Afghan government was during July 2015 after Afghan women met Taliban representatives in Oslo.

The Soviet Union The Soviet Union’s involvement in Afghanistan was limited to its involvement in the Soviet War in Afghanistan which spanned between 1979 - 1989. They first supplied troops to support the

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

pro-Soviet Kabul regime and quickly had 100,000 troops take over the city. The Soviets apprehended the Mujahideen harshly, often destroying entire cities. This harsh activity causing the death of not only Mujahideen fighters but also Afghan troops and Soviet soldiers paved the path for insurgent groups, supported by numerous foreign powers, to gain strength and support to begin the insurgency and the civil war. The successor state to the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation, has limited its involvement in Afghanistan to diplomacy missions, with Afghanistan becoming a prime nation to engage in since the end of the cold war. Russian activity in 2017 included a diplomatic mission to invest in transport, agriculture, military and mining to increase economic trade and maintain bilateral relations.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) NATO, in 2003, took over the United Nations’ International Security Assistance Force whose purpose was to “enable the Afghan government to provide effective security across the country and develop new Afghan security forces to ensure Afghanistan would never again become a safe haven for terrorists,” (NATO, 2015). Originally intended to secure Kabul, it gradually expanded to span over all of Afghanistan and had 130,000 deployed troops at its peak. As the conflict progressed, ISAF’s presence became engaged in the counter-insurgency fight as well as a national reform and rebuilding effort. Being a pro-government force, ISAF provided assistance to the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) to conduct security operation and reduce the spread and power of insurgent forces. Post 2011, NATO and ISAF transferred security responsibilities to the ANSF which was fully completed in 2014. Their responsibilities changed from combat to training and advisory roles. Currently, ISAF runs a smaller mission called Resolute Support to provide training, advice and reforms in governance and socio-economic development. ISAF was arguably one of history’s largest coalition; it was a combination of troops from over 51 NATO members and other partner nations.

The Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) The Afghan National Security Forces, also abbreviated to the ANDSF, currently comprising of the Afghan Armed Forces, the National Army, Air Force, National Police, Local Police and National Directorate of Security, are a security force authorised with autonomy and full power to conduct security operations and minimize threats of insurgent forces in 2014. Their power transcended from support provided by the International Security Assistance Force which was regulated by a NATO coalition. While theoretically a power to curb the impacts of non-state actors in Afghanistan, recent reports bring to light flaws in the transitory process and cracks in the ANSF’s facade. Business Insider draws upon conclusions made from a SIGAR report that the $70 billion that the US have invested in the ANSF have been futile. SIGAR chief John Spoko states that “the US government was ill-prepared to conduct [security-sector assistance] programs of the size and scope required in Afghanistan.” Enough has not been done to support the security sector, build trust in soldiers and has instead created dependency issues between trainers and troops. Additionally, transparency and corruption issues in Afghanistan add to the complication, with nearly 200,000 of the alleged 350,000 ANDSF troops are ghost soldiers. These issues, among others, weaken the defense force at the forefront of the fight against non-state actors and the insurgency and conflict in Afghanistan.

United States and The Northern Alliance

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

Otherwise known as the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan, the Afghan Northern Alliance were a united military front formed in 1996 following the Taliban’s capture of Kabul. It constituted of key leaders of the Islamic State of Afghanistan and leaders of other ethnic groups, and fought a defensive war against the Taliban’s regime with support from nations such as Tajikistan, Iran, Russia, India and Turkey. Upon the US invasion of Afghanistan, the Northern Alliance were cornered and only were in control of 10% of Afghanistan, thus they benefited from the American troop provision in the ground war which was won in 2001. At that period in time with the rise of the Taliban not foreseen, the Northern Alliance were disbanded and members joined the Karzai administration.

Timeline 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, tensions rise between government and non-state actors. Leads to the rise of extremists who oppose the presence of a western power.

1989 - 1996 Proxy and civil wars in Afghanistan Contributes to unstable and fragile political and social situation, creating necessary conditions for relevant non-state actors to take beginning measures for insurgency.

October 15, 1999 UNSC Adopts resolution 1267 and creates al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions committee; non-state actors are officially listed as terrorists and sanctioned (funds, travel, arms shipments)

September 9, 2001 Commander of the Northern Alliance assassinated.

September 11, 2001 Terrorist attacks at the World Trade Center Twin Towers New York, in Washington, D.C. and Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Increases tensions between Afghanistan and America, leads to series of disputes - diplomatic and combat - between American government and troops, and non-state actors in Afghanistan, notably leaders of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

September 18, 2001 President George W Bush legislates the use of force against personnel involved in the 9/11 attacks, declaring a war on terrorism.

December 9, 2001 Official collapse of the Taliban Assumed peace in Afghanistan marked by the ‘end’ of insurgents’ regime.

April 17, 2002 President Bush calls for the reconstruction of Afghanistan

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

June, 2002 Afghan transitional government named with at the head.

2003 NATO takes over the UN’s International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) ISAF flourishes as a military force with a strong defense, powerful as a combat force but also engaged in rebuilding Afghanistan and supporting the Afghan National Security Forces.

February 17, 2009 Obama recommits to Afghanistan, announcing his plans to send 17,000 troops to the war zone

2014 ISAF disbanded, number of troops reduced and role of the ISAF changes Power transitioned to ANDSF who arguably struggle under the new burden and lack of proper training and support from the United States.

2018 Taliban launches major attacks in Kabul killing 115, president Trump signals prolongation of Afghan war. Indication that despite all efforts, international support, aid and past military coalitions, Afghanistan still remains volatile, highly engaged in conflict and at constant risk of attack from non-state actors.

Evaluations of Previous Attempts

International Security Assistance Force The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), as outlined above, was a key stakeholder in the war in Afghanistan and had a transitionary role from counter-insurgency and engagement in warfare to deterrance, to eventually training and development for the Afghan national security forces. At their peak, the ISAF boasted a proud 130,000 engaged troops as one of the world’s largest coalitions of over 51 nations including all NATO members. The ISAF was originally a group instituted by the United Nations Security Council in December 2001 which is when the is known to have begun, and since then they changed hands to the NATO coalition and afterwards the Afghan government. While deemed successful in their mission to support the Afghan military and minimize the impacts of the Taliban, the ISAF is also regarded as having been marginally unsuccessful as their military actions resulted in numerous civilian casualties.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1868 (2009) Unanimously adopted in March 2009, UNSC Resolution 1868 extends the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Afghanistan by a year, condemns attacks on civilians and coalition forces as well as the Taliban’s war crimes of using human shields and child soldiers. The resolution further promotes international cooperation and support (aid) to contain and absolve the conflict in Afghanistan and implement the Development and Drug Control strategies. Resolution 1868 also extends jurisdiction over IDPs, humanitarian assistance delivery, national legislation, combating corruption and facilitating the upcoming elections. Resolution 1868 took a

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

more humanitarian aspect towards rehabilitating Afghan society, recognizing the interconnectedness of the various issues that plagued it as well as the need for intervention in a form that wasn't military oriented. To a certain degree, it can be said that the efforts taken by the United Nations in cooperation with Afghan institutions bought some reform to society however at large, the Taliban were at prominence and education standards continued to remain low.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 2344 (2017) Resolution 2344 extends the mandate of UNAMA outlined above to March 2018, recognizing the support of Afghanistan’s leadership, governance and development and security. It further decided that the Secretary General’s Special Representative would continue within their mandate to “lead and coordinate civilian efforts… in cooperation with the Afghan government,” (UN, 2017) through reform policies, resource mobilization, international donors, election organization, infrastructural capacity, security and national and international cooperation. It can be argued that similar to the aforementioned resolution, the effects of Res/2344 are minimal considering the extent to which corruption is still present in Afghanistan's government and how it now extends to the military. Furthermore, UN reports place the Afghan refugee crisis as one of the largest in the world and other sources report dire situations for unwelcome refugees in states of refuge such as Pakistan.

Possible Solutions

Educational Reforms As Afghanistan has traditionally been a zone with constant conflict, this has come at the high cost of often forgone education. Recent efforts, including those outlined at various instances above, have indicated towards not only a national but an international push towards educational reforms and a push for higher education standards across the nation. Often violence that is of a national significance begins at the grassroots with resource, class or equity disputes. Similar to the actions taken by the United States Institute of Peace in cooperation with Kabul’s Institute of Higher Education, it is essential that conflict resolution be integrated into the Afghan curriculum in efforts to educate the youth on resolving small disputes at a local mediation level, disallowing these youth-led communities to be exploited or involved in a more consequential conflict of national level.

Resolution of Land Related Disputes The United States Institute of Peace is currently working towards what will become a significant change to conflict in Afghanistan if implemented at a greater level, which is in cooperation with the Afghan government’s independent land authority ARAZI. This system is a means of registering land disputes through various tribunals and/or customary law, not necessarily under treaty jurisdiction. This effort is a collaborative movement to ramify the impacts of land grabs, usurped land and corruption.

Strengthening of Afghanistan’s Legislation An effective way to address the greater implications of the conflict is to strengthen national and regional legislation and enforce these through powerful and operational state judiciaries and departments. Researchers identify sustainable peace as achievable through judiciary systems that are “capable, accessible, fair, and credible,” (USIP) which ties into a potential resolution

Emirates International School Jumeirah Model United Nations 2018 | 3rd Annual Session

effort that finds a benevolent, cooperative and efficient middle ground between state institutions and tribunal systems in dispute resolution. These efforts, through increasing accountability, transparency and civilian participation in the legislative process, promotes a greater awareness and applicability of Afghanistan’s laws, creating a wider sense of accountability in the conflicts.

Better Government Policies through Research and Discussion As is an issue with numerous governments around the world, including policy makers and implementers of some of the world’s leading nations and powers, conflict often arises in situations where bad, weak or poor policies are implemented as cause of misinformed officials. The withdrawal of the international community’s support, in terms of military forces and field programs, from Afghanistan has greatly hindered their smart policy data and information. A means to address this is by creating a broader and international platform of Afghan government officials and international experts, researchers, policy makers and peace-building practitioners to address issues such as land ownership, radicalization, disarmament and Afghanistan’s fiscal crisis. This forum of international cooperation would inevitably assist Afghanistan in implementing more informed and secure governmental policies that would be able to apprehend the conflict and provide stability to society.

Engagement of Local Communities An important aspect of countering the conflict in Afghanistan is to mobilize members of the local community so they may take actions themselves to counter all forms of violent extremism that inevitably have the greatest impact on their own towns and people. A considerable amount of civil society work can be conducted to develop anti-extremism ideologies and bridge communal divides caused by lack of dialogue and harboring of grudges within communities. This can easily be facilitated through grants, pilot projects, educational programs, entertainment programs and more.

Others By no means are the solutions to apprehending or addressing repercussions of the conflict in Afghanistan limited to the solutions outlined above. There exist numerous other factors that must be addressed in detail in a forum with the jurisdiction of the Security Council. Among these ​ considerations are: ● UN peacekeeping troop allocations ● International cooperation towards maintaining peace and providing humanitarian aid as well as wartime support - troops, monetary aid, arms, etc. ● Apprehending non-state actors by cutting off their means of employment, which would mean addressing the greater issue of arms trade, international support and the drug supply and trade chain ● The question of whether Afghanistan needs a more permanent or less permanent presence of troops such as the American troops currently stationed in the country as deterrence and/or preventative measures

Bibliography

I. “The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security - Report of the Secretary-General” (A/72/768–S/2018/165) ​ https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-afghanistan-and-its-implications-internati

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II. UNSC Resolution 1868 (2009) ​ https://undocs.org/S/RES/1868(2009)

III. UNSC Resolution 2344 (2017) ​ https://undocs.org/S/RES/2344(2017)