Water and Sanitation Program: REPORT Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project: Effects in Service Access and Citizen Confidence in Government Institutions

Delivering Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) Services in Fragile States Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project Effects on service access and citizen confidence in government institutions

September 2014 Study lead Chantal Richey (WSP Water and Sanitation Specialist) Lead Researchers, Researchers and Resource support Anuša Pisanec (WSP Water and Sanitation Specialist) and Ngoni Mudege (WSP Water and Sanitation Specialist), Ireen Mangoro (WSP Research Assistant), Christine Ochieng (WSP Program Analyst) and Maximilian Hirn (WSP Economist) Peer reviewers Vivek Srivastava, Lead Public Sector Specialist (GGODR) and Anne-Lise Klausen, Senior Operations Officer (GCFDR)

The key objective of this impact assessment report is to assess the effect (if any) of the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project on WASH access and practices among the population, and whether there were associated changes in citizen perceptions of the municipal council. This report has been prepared under WSP technical assistance program (P131964) led by Dominick De Waal. The Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project (TF098399-ZW) was led by Michael Webster.

WSP is implementing water and sanitation programs in its 23 focus countries across Africa, East Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, South Asia, and in Washington, D.C. For more information, please visit www.wsp.org.

The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) is a multi-donor partnership created in 1978 and administered by the World Bank to support poor people in obtaining affordable, safe, and sustainable access to water and sanitation services. WSP provides technical assistance, facilitates knowledge exchange, and promotes evidence-based advancements in sector dialogue.

WSP reports are published to communicate the results of WSP’s work to the development community. Some sources cited may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or its affiliated organizations, or to members of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to [email protected]. WSP encourages the dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. For more information, please visit www.wsp.org.

Unless otherwise stated, photograph credits: Anuša Pisanec

© 2014 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank Delivering Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) Services in Fragile States Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project Effects on service access and citizen confidence in government institutions

September 2014 Acknowledgments

This Impact Assessment is dedicated to Dr. Sipho Nsingo, at all stages. Beitbridge Ward Councilors are thanked for Beitbridge Town Council Town Secretary, who sadly passed the immense time and effort put into making sure our away in January 2014 prior to the report being finalized enumerators and researchers were welcomed in their wards. and published. Dr. Nsingo was described by many as a Many interviews were held with groups and individuals in remarkably humble and committed leader who was totally Beitbridge and everyone we spoke to was open and honest selfless and dedicated to the improvement of Beitbridge in their feedback and generous with their time, and for this Town. His dedication was evident by the fact that despite we are grateful. We greatly appreciate the lively dialogue at being unwell he specifically asked to meet with the Impact the consultation workshop in January which helped us to Assessment team to share his story about the project and to understand the political economy and enabled the writing passionately advocate for a second phase. of the impact on peace and state building sections.

This Impact Assessment would not have been possible Finally we would like to thank the World Bank Zimbabwe without the support of the entire team at BTC, in particular Country Office for helping in many ways to make sure that Maxwell Karenyi, the Town Engineer, who went out of his the missions to Beitbridge were successful and that the report way to help the study team. Tommy Rosen and Stanley accurately captured the essence and story of the Beitbridge Nazombe from ZINWA are thanked for their tour of the Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project. project sites and for their frank and transparent feedback

ii Impact Assessment Report Executive Summary

Background services were generally seen as having improved, though still Following a decade of economic crisis and corresponding prone to breaks and blockages. Improvements in solid waste deterioration of water supply and sanitation services, management have also been sustained: at least 75 percent Zimbabwe was struck by a major cholera epidemic in 2008. of the population reported using the solid waste collection One of the most severely affected cities was Beitbridge, system, that is, taking their garbage to a collection point Zimbabwe’s main border crossing into South Africa. To rather than disposing of it informally. guard against future outbreaks in this sensitive location, the World Bank’s State and Peace Building Fund financed the At present, 70 percent of the population report satisfaction Beitbridge Emergency Water and Sanitation Project with with solid waste services, 49 percent with water services, and US$2.65 million in 2010–12. 40 percent with sewer services. While there were no baseline data on service satisfaction prior to the project, qualitative The project aimed to improve water supply, sewage evidence suggests a marked perception of improvement, treatment, and solid waste management in Beitbridge, as especially for solid waste, moderately for water, and at least well as to strengthen the capacity of two key institutions, marginally for wastewater services. the Beitbridge Town Council (BTC) and the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA). The project concluded Remaining Challenges and Missed in December 2012. Opportunities The overall very positive project outcomes need, however, to The objective of this Impact Assessment Report is to review be qualified in a number of respects. First, improved water, whether key service improvements have been sustained sanitation, and sewerage services still fall short of universal one year after the project’s conclusion, and whether these access and their distribution is uneven across the town. The have affected citizen confidence in BTC and ZINWA. poorest and most densely populated section of Beitbridge Confidence in shared institutions is crucial to maintain (Ward 6) remains marginalized. In Ward 6, which accounts peaceful social relations and is thus of particular interest for just under a third of the Beitbridge population, access in a fragile state such as Zimbabwe. The term fragile state to piped water is as low as 5 percent, compared with a city- describes a country characterized by weak state capacity wide average of 66 percent; up to 45 percent practice open and/or weak state legitimacy leaving citizens vulnerable to defection, compared with 15 percent citywide; even the use a range of shocks. of Beitbridge Town Council (BTC) solid waste removal is more than 10 percent below average. One Year On: Key Development Objectives Sustained Ward 6 remains a point of public health risk as it could This Impact Assessment Report found that the service be a focal point for a new cholera outbreak. Unequal improvements reported in the official Implementation distribution of services also undermines social cohesion Completion and Results (ICR) Report were, by and large, and divides opinion. Service satisfaction rates in Ward 6 sustained one year after the intervention. Access to improved are—unsurprisingly—the lowest in each subsector, and water was found to be at 89 percent (versus 77.8 percent two-thirds of the Ward 6 population stated they generally reported in the ICR), of which 66 percent was piped access viewed the local authority negatively, compared to less than attributable to the project. a fifth in other Wards.

In terms of access to improved sanitation, the ICR reported Secondly, there remain service quality concerns. Large an increase from 20 percent to 87 percent. This assessment minorities report average water supply regularity of less than found a similar access rate of roughly 80 percent one year 16 hours per day. Large minorities also find it necessary later, with 68 percent using piped sewers. While the volume to treat their water, indicating perceived water quality of wastewater treated was not measured in this assessment, concerns. Moreover, high access to improved sanitation is a survey and in-depth interviews revealed that sewerage www.wsp.org iii Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Executive Summary

undermined by anecdotal evidence that continuing pipe complex series of urban migration and management bursts and blockages often render facilities unusable. events. To maximize a project’s impact on citizen confidence and social cohesion, it is necessary to: A third issue that undermines long-term project sustainability • Understand the reasons for service inequalities and is the deeply entrenched culture of nonpayment of public progressively address them: Equitable interventions service bills, reinforced by a constrained ability to pay due to are particularly important in fragile states where widespread economic hardship and a central government- social bonds are already strained. declared amnesty on arrears. These effects have kept bill • Prioritize sectors in which the public expects or payment rates at less than 50 percent and threaten to demands government action: In Beitbridge WASH undermine service sustainability. was the priority sector cited by citizens and thus, to have an impact on peace and state building, a Finally a missed opportunity: The Water, Sanitation and good target sector for investment. Hygiene (WASH) sector was the most cited among residents’ • Go local: Citizens find it easier to build trust and a priorities for government. While more than 75 percent of sense of participation in projects if implementing residents who did know of the project were able to attribute institutions have a strong and lasting local it to BTC or ZINWA and as a result had an improved presence. opinion of them, only 11 percent of the population was • Identify and realize low-cost high-impact able to fully identify and correctly attribute the project. interventions: Prioritize projects and project This constitutes a missed opportunity to realize a “double components that allow faster and larger public- dividend” in the form of both improved services and perception impacts at lower cost. For example, in improved resident perceptions of the BTC and ZINWA. Beitbridge solid waste was a relatively small cost component but associated with the most positive Key Recommendations feedback due to its direct impact on public spaces On the basis of the above analysis, this Impact Assessment and personal convenience. Report makes a number of general recommendations on how to maximize “state and peace-building dividends” in 4. Sustain state and peace building dividends: World Bank projects, as well as specific recommendations Sustainability of service provision can only be achieved relating to Zimbabwe. The former can be summarized as: if local institutions have secure, long-term revenues. 1. Support clients to brand services and improve If projects build citizen confidence and increase communication: Projects in fragile states should satisfaction with government, these state and peace develop client-branded communication strategies building dividends should be sustained by building in to ensure citizens recognize that it is government cost recovery from the start, thereby using the success institutions that are delivering results and thereby get of the new service to encourage fee and tax payment to credit for doing so. sustain them. 2. Collect baseline data on citizen attitudes and confidence: Standardized baseline indicators of citizen Specific recommendations relating to Zimbabwe, attitudes and confidence should complement service its development partners, BTC and ZINWA can be access baseline measures in fragile states projects. summarized as: 3. Target state and peace building dividends explicitly: 1. Focus on high return, rehabilitation-centric projects: Projects in fragile states should be developed with In the context of Zimbabwe’s strong, yet recently specific state and peace building dividend objectives eroded infrastructure base, projects centered on the in mind. This requires identifying and responding to rehabilitation and extension of existing infrastructure inequalities that may be long-standing or that have may be particularly cost-effective and fast to implement. emerged during crisis. The service inequalities that The example of Beitbridge shows how relatively small emerged in Beitbridge’s Ward 6 were the result of a investments can have big impacts on service access. iv Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Executive Summary

2. Beitbridge Phase II: To address the remaining service • Brand services and communicate costs of service gaps highlighted in this impact assessment, a follow-up provision to residents: Ensure residents are aware ‘Beitbridge Phase II’ project is recommended. A second (a) that the BTC and ZINWA are providing the phase would be an opportunity: to target the neglected water supply, sanitation, and solid waste services; Ward 6; to finance specific infrastructure that would (b) of the costs involved in delivering them, and push Beitbridge towards universal, high quality access (c) of the need to improve rates of bill payment; (possibly through an output based aid model); and to • Local ‘Quick wins’: Specific citizen complaints implement a communications strategy to brand the identified by this assessment could be easily services, compensating for the lack of one in the first resolved giving the BTC further quick wins. For phase. instance, a lack of rubbish bins was a persistent 3. Opportunities for the BTC and ZINWA: Aside from complaint and could be easily remedied. The a possible Phase II project, BTC and ZINWA have BTC should continue to engage the community a number of opportunities to build on the successes to identify and implement such quick wins. already achieved. These include: • Continue to benchmark services: This implies • Carry out WASH orientation for newly elected Ward comparing Beitbridge WASH services to other Councilors: To build a case for maintenance of local authorities and facilitating peer exchanges current infrastructure, cost recovery and need for among urban local authorities. further investment.

www.wsp.org v Abbreviations and Acronyms

AMCOW African Ministerial Council on Water BTC Beitbridge Town Council FGD Focus group discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product GoZ Government of Zimbabwe ICR Implementation Completion and Results GNU Government of National Unity M&E Monitoring and evaluation NGO Nongovernmental organization OBA Output-based aid PPM Prepaid meter RDC Rural District Council SWM Solid waste management UWS Urban water supply WASH Water Sanitation and Hygiene WATSAN Water and Sanitation WSP Water and Sanitation Program WSS Water supply and sanitation ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

vi Impact Assessment Report Contents

Executive Summary...... iii Abbreviations and Acronyms...... vi

Background...... 1 Decline of Urban Governance and Service Standards: Operation ‘Murambatsvina’ and ‘Garikai/ Hlalani Kuhle’...... 1 Institutional Decline in the Water Sector: ZINWA vis-à-vis Local Authorities...... 2 The Cholera Outbreak and the Role of Local Institutions in the Initial Response...... 3 The Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project...... 4 Key Objectives and Research Questions...... 4 Literature Review...... 6 Determinants of Citizen Confidence...... 6 Methodology...... 8 Household Surveys...... 8 Focus Group Discussions ...... 9 Semi-Structured In-Depth Interviews...... 9 Consultations...... 10 Limitations of Data Collection...... 10 Findings and Discussion...... 11 Water Treatment and Supply Rehabilitation...... 11 Sewage Treatment Rehabilitation...... 17 Improving Solid Waste Management...... 21 Strengthening Institutional Capacity...... 24 Impact on State and Peace Building...... 26 Conclusions...... 29 Evidence on Service Outcomes Achieved by the Project...... 29 Evidence on Remaining Service Gaps...... 30 Evidence on Satisfaction, Project Recognition and Attribution...... 30 Recommendations...... 32 Recommendations to Maximize State and Peace Building Dividends of World Bank Projects...... 32 Recommendations for Zimbabwe in General, and Beitbridge Specifically...... 33

Appendix ...... 35 Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire...... 35

References...... 47

www.wsp.org vii Impact Assessment Report I. Background

When Zimbabweans talk about the decade of 2000–10, it To counter this trend, and to reassert control in increasingly is often accompanied by a sigh and a shake of the head. opposition-run towns, the government launched Operation During this time Zimbabwe underwent the worst economic Murambatsvina (‘Restore Order’) in 2005. It was executed crisis in its history. Hyperinflation, unemployment, and with force; bulldozers and other demolition equipment economic contraction prevailed while essential services and were deployed. While originally targeting illegal vendors in institutional governance systems collapsed. Harare’s central districts, it was soon expanded to other areas of the country and the demolition of shanty homes of the At the peak of the economic crisis in 2008–09, a nationwide poor and unauthorized residential extensions. Operation cholera epidemic erupted in which over 100,000 people Murambatsvina cost some 700,000 Zimbabweans their were infected and 4,300 lost their lives.1 The town of homes and livelihoods. Rather than achieving a clean-up Beitbridge was at the epicenter of the cholera crisis with and restoration of standards, however, the repercussions of 5,126 cases and 148 deaths recorded. Cholera outbreaks in Operation Murambatsvina ended up further undermining Beitbridge are particularly threatening to public health due service standards in urban settlements. to the town’s strategic position as a key border crossing with over 10,000 persons passing through every day. The World This occurred through the follow-up Operation ‘Garikai/ Bank’s Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Hlalani Kuhle’. Originally undertaken to counter Project, which is the subject of this impact assessment, was widespread criticism of Operation Murambatsvina, it aimed a direct response to the cholera outbreak. to construct low-cost houses as compensation for those who had been made homeless. However, Operation Garikai/ The novelty of the project’s approach was in its particular Hlalani Kuhle suffered from a lack of resources, proper focus on institution building. To fully understand the planning and local buy-in. It created low-quality housing importance of institutions, and thus the project, it is useful that was not properly connected to urban infrastructure to briefly revisit how institutional decline contributed not and, for a long time, not even under the full jurisdiction only to the cholera outbreak, but more broadly to a decline of local authorities. Thus, it also set a negative precedent in services, urban governance, and state-societal relations in by undermining previously strict official standards for new Zimbabwe. housing construction. In Beitbridge, the Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle settlement, which forms most of Ward 6, is the most Decline of Urban Governance and Service densely populated and worst-serviced area, and continues Standards: Operations ‘Murambatsvina’ and to grow as more people take advantage of the easier terms ‘Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle’ of acquiring and developing property. Unsurprisingly, As the economy deteriorated, informal trading became Ward 6 was one of the hotbeds of the cholera epidemic in rampant and policing of urban development standards Beitbridge. compromised. Corruption spread and communities adopted survival strategies that circumvented formal municipal governance systems. By 2005 many street pavements had become congested with stalls and shacks and urban authorities were losing control of the situation.

1Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Project Appraisal Docu- ment. www.wsp.org 1 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Background

FIGURE 1: TIMELINE

2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013

• Operation • Beitbidge gains • Cholera • Cholera • The start of • Beitbidge • Customer Murambatsvina Town Status. outbreak contained in the Beitbidge Emergency arrears demolishes • Management of occurs in the most cities and Emergency Water and cancelled for urban shacks, Beitbidge Town country. rural areas. Water and Sanitation all urban local leaving transferred from • A national • Over 100,000 Sanitation Project ends. authorities and 700,000 people Rural District Emergency reported cases Project. ZESA. homeless. Council to declared by and over • A national • Operation newly formed government. 4,000 deaths election Garikai/ Hlalani Council • Donors and recorded. conducted on Kuhle initiated • A Town other partners • Zimbabwe dollar July 31. nationally. Secretary respond abandoned and • End of GNU. • Urban Water appointed. with urban replaced by a nd Sanitation rehabilitation multi-currency Services projects, health system. transferred to and hygiene • A GNU formed ZINWA. education and • Water and food handouts. sanitation services returned to local authorities.

Institutional Decline in the Water Sector: the agriculture sector, 91 percent of ZINWA revenues came ZINWA vis-à-vis Local Authorities from the sale of raw water, but this was reduced to only 9 In the water sector, institutional decline and the worsening percent after the land reform (ZINWA data, 2011). of services were not only a result of the economic crisis in general (for example, through the impact of inflation on This shift in ZINWA’s revenue base and de facto mandate, salaries and budgets), but specifically related to developments borne from the land reform crisis, was heightened by in the agricultural sector and resultant conflicts between the political factors. Prior to 2002, local authorities were Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) and local largely controlled by the governing Zimbabwe African governments. National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF). During the years of economic crisis the Movement for Democratic Prior to the land reform of 2000, agriculture was largely Change (MDC)—seeing the decline in urban services— in the hands of white commercial farmers, who not only campaigned for service improvements and engaged actively dominated land ownership but had access to the vast in their improvement. This reversed the balance of power quantities of irrigation water managed by the parastatal at the urban local authority level so that by 2008 nearly 90 ZINWA, which earned significant revenues from selling percent of local authorities were controlled by the MDC. this raw water to farmers. However, with the land reform of 2000, the demand for irrigation water collapsed and In 2005, to counter this move by the MDC, the ZANU-PF– ZINWA’s revenues were significantly reduced, thus forcing dominated central government transferred the responsibility it to depend more on the development and sale of domestic for all urban water supply from local authorities (except water supply to urban settlements and small towns. This Bulawayo and Masvingo who stood their ground) to brought ZINWA into direct competition for this revenue ZINWA. The assumption was that a central government stream with urban local authorities. Prior to the collapse of agency would improve performance and, in so doing,

2 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Background

reinforce support for the ZANU-PF–dominated central Emergency Rehabilitation and Risk Reduction Programme government in councils increasingly controlled by the (see Box 1) through NGOs and private contractors. opposition MDC. However, due to chaotic asset transfers and institutional restructuring, hyper-inflation, financial While every attempt was made to align the program crisis, political interference, and staff losses, services suffered. operations with government processes, the absence of ZINWA was unable to perform as the central government meaningful resources being channeled and controlled by had expected. This meant that in practice Town Councils government meant that (a) government agencies remained had to pick up the responsibility for water supply and weak and were insignificant players in the decision making sanitation service delivery. process; (b) local institutions did not receive citizens’ credit for the service improvements; (c) government’s own In 2009, the new Government of National Unity (GNU) resources and human capacity could not easily be leveraged. reversed the process and transferred responsibilities back to Government departments, which were expected to fully local authorities. However, no formal hand-over or asset support programs, in most cases lacked even basic operating audits were done, and disagreements between local urban inputs such as stationery, computers, chairs, and tables and authorities and ZINWA persisted. ZINWA still provides were poorly paid. drinking water to six urban centers (including Beitbridge) and over 100 small rural settlements. The institutional back While the emergency interventions played a key role in and forth, loss of capacity, and poor maintenance took a stopping the epidemic, they fell short of addressing the heavy toll on infrastructural assets, and contributed to fundamental problem of institutional weaknesses. Thus, a the cholera outbreak of 2008–09 to which the Beitbridge ‘capacity conundrum’ persisted in the Zimbabwe WASH Emergency Water and Sanitation Project was a response.

The Cholera Outbreak and the Role of Local BOX 1: EMERGENCY REHABILITATION AND Institutions in the Initial Response RISK REDUCTION PROGRAMME Following the cholera outbreak, the Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) declared a national emergency. The Emergency Rehabilitation and Risk Reduction International organizations and governments responded (ER&RR) Programme coordinated efforts of more through various emergency interventions including the than 20 partners involved in urban rehabilitation. rehabilitation of urban water infrastructure, the purchase The ER&RR was designed against the backdrop of water purification chemicals for urban water supplies, of the 2008–09 cholera outbreak, to address and the provision of nonfood emergency items such as causes of cholera, but has since evolved into a soaps, buckets, water purification tablets, and information national rehabilitation program and foundation for pamphlets. Interventions focused on saving lives and assets, national sector recovery. Rapid assessments in 20 stopping further decline and restoring services. urban centers were conducted to identify ‘quick win’ solutions. Some 164 new boreholes and 900 However, the institutional decline that was the foundation rehabilitated boreholes benefited approximately of the cholera outbreak was not systematically addressed 500,000 people. The construction of over 3,000 during these emergency interventions. Short-term efficacy latrines benefited approximately 20,000 people. was prioritized over longer-term capacity building. Water treatment chemicals were procured for 20 Reluctance to work through government (which was subject urban councils and 130 towns and growth points, to international sanctions) meant that resources were not resulting in no reported shut downs in 2010 due to channeled to the Ministry of Finance of Zimbabwe, but chemical shortages. instead routed through United Nations (UN) agencies and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The United UNICEF Annual Report, 2010 Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) implemented the www.wsp.org 3 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Background

sector. This refers to a situation in which donors and The post-project implementation mission Aide Memoire NGOs bypass local institutions and deliver aid directly, (February 2013) and the Implementation Completion because state actors lack the ability to respond efficiently. and Results Report (ICR, August 2013) indicated that This leads to a capacity conundrum, because by bypassing the project largely achieved its objectives. According to local institutions their capacity remains low and country the ICR, key success indicators have been an increase in systems are further eroded as non-state actors do the work hours of water supply from three to 17 per day; people with that the government should be doing. This risks future increased access to improved water grew from 0 percent to instability when outside actors withdraw, and undermines 78 percent; people with access to improved sanitation rose the credibility of the state in the eyes of citizens. from 20 percent to 81 percent; and solid waste coverage increased from 30 percent to 82 percent. The ICR argued The Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and this led to improved services to 40,000 people. Sanitation Project In this context, the Beitbridge Emergency Water and This impact assessment complements the initial post-project Sanitation Project was implemented with the specific ICR by providing an in-depth review of the real and perceived aim to work through country systems to simultaneously impact of the project among the population of Beitbridge, improve water and sanitation infrastructure and to rebuild in particular with respect to its effect on citizens’ attitudes long-term institutional capacity. The project was led by towards the government. The WSP’s theory of change is ZINWA and the Beitbridge Town Council (BTC), with to support countries to transition from being recipients of technical and financial assistance from the World Bank. ad hoc emergency WASH interventions to being leaders of The approach differed not only from other emergency policy driven development programs through country-led interventions that relied on non-state actors (NGOs), but systems and processes. This impact assessment responds by also from the common World Bank approach in fragile providing an in-depth analysis regarding whether or not states of establishing a project implementation unit within a a small emergency WASH project, implemented through government entity that then manages the project instead of local institutions, can have an impact on state and peace the client. The funding agreement was signed with the BTC building. cutting out layers of government bureaucracy that would otherwise have slowed down disbursement and expense Key Objectives and Research Questions liquidation process. Assigning the Town Engineer as the The specific objectives of this impact assessment were to lead of the project helped incentivize and build capacity of assess the effect the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply core BTC staff members rather than sideline them with a and Sanitation Project had on WASH access and practices parallel technical assistance-led operation. among the population. Specific attention was paid to whether the project was perceived to have contributed The project started in March 2011 and had three to an improvement in services, and whether any such components: (a) Water treatment and supply rehabilitation; improvements were attributed to government institutions. (b) Sewage treatment rehabilitation and improvement of The research therefore sought to document and understand solid waste management (SWM); and (c) Strengthening (a) the impact of the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply institutional capacity. It was financed with US$2.65 million and Sanitation Project; and (b) how the project contributed from the World Bank’s State and Peace Building Fund. This to state and peace building. The main research question was fund is a financing instrument of the World Bank that tries therefore: Did the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and to put in place measures that improve services with state Sanitation Project improve services and thereby affect citizen and peace building dividends. State and peace building confidence in the municipal council? If so, which aspects of the dividends, in this report are defined as improvements in project were most important in doing so? service delivery and the state’s capacity to manage services.

4 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Background

The assessment addresses how inhabitants see the role staff members from the WSP Fragile States team and six of government institutions in relation to the project. enumerators. To answer the research question, a mix of Furthermore, the exercise reviews perceptions by institutions quantitative (a household questionnaire) and qualitative that participated in the project, in particular the BTC and methods were used (semi-structured interviews and focus ZINWA. The research period for this study was October group discussions). and November 2013. The research was undertaken by four

www.wsp.org 5 II.Literature Review

The main objective of this assessment is to examine whether This highlights an important point—the potential fora the Beitbridge Emergency Water and Sanitation Project has virtuous cycle as improved trust and voluntary compliance helped to improve services. If so, how has this influenced reduce the costs of enforcement, and in turn, individuals confidence and trust of residents in the BTC and ZINWA? working within public institutions become more prepared to engage cooperatively with people representing different The reason for focusing not only on project impact in social groups (Putnam 1993: 82–110). terms of access, but also on population perceptions, lies in the effect on social stability that the performance of, Determinants of Citizen Confidence and perceptions about, public institutions can have. A Confidence and trust in institutions such as the BTC and measurable increase of confidence in local institutions as a ZINWA (and for the purpose of this report this simply result of the project would indicate that it has yielded not means citizen trust in the ability of BTC or ZINWA to just improved services, but also a broader state and peace deliver WASH services at satisfactory quality), thus play a building dividend. role in stabilizing society, and their performance is expected to be a key determinant of such trust. This section seeks Modern literature on state fragility places great emphasis to explore this point further due to its importance for the on the role of institutions in enforcing rules and providing conceptual framework underlying this impact assessment. services that create confidence and legitimacy, and thus achieve social order and political stability (Nay 2013: 332). People’s confidence in institutions depends not only Confidence in state institutions is important because “the on actual performance, but on the extent to which an lack of it can lead to feelings of alienation and eventually institution is considered to operate in their interest (Hardin to retreat into smaller worlds of purely local importance” 1999, Warren 1999 in Gönlund and Setälä 2011). Of (Luhmann1988: 103). As Luhmann points out, confidence course, general socioeconomic circumstances can also shape in shared institutions make it possible to maintain peaceful attitudes even if specific institutions such as the BTC do and stable social relations that are the basis for collective not influence these directly. behavior and productive cooperation (1988). For instance, Owens and Cook point towards the important Kenneth Newton purports that the primary manifestation effect of unemployment. Confidence in institutions is of regime legitimacy is an individual’s confidence in cyclical in nature, increasing when the economic situation is government institutions based on perceptions of their good and decreasing when it is bad (2013: 278). To control performance (2007: 343). Research by Newton and Norris for this factor, the research undertaken for this assessment (1999) provides further evidence that trust is not primarily asked respondents to rate their economic situation. a feature of personality, but instead tied to performance of governments and political institutions. Similarly, members of Beyond direct institutional performance and the overall World Bank Development Economics Research Group state economic situation, confidence in service providers is also that “well-functioning public institutions play an important shaped by whether citizens have a sense of participation role in economic development. In turn, a key ingredient in the in, and influence on, institutions and what the institution effectiveness of public institutions is the confidence that they provides and stands for. Hastrup suggests that local inspire among those who they serve” (Clausen et al. 2011: communities are shaped and strengthened by opposition or 212). agreement to a proposed facility, dump, industrial plant, and other infrastructure developments that is portrayed as either threatening or encouraging (2009: 14).

6 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Literature Review Literature Review

One can infer from Merton’s strain theory that communities building is one of the most important things needed when in situations where their needs are not fully met by the it comes to service delivery imperatives and longer term expected provider of a service will devise coping mechanisms institution building. In a report by the Secure Livelihoods to survive. Baietti, Kingdom and Ginneken (2006) note Research Consortium (SLRC) entitled ‘Developing state that some residents dig shallow wells, practice rain water capacity to prevent malnutrition in Sierra Leone: An analysis harvesting, and store water in plastic containers. These of development partner support’, researchers suggest that coping mechanisms are surrogate measures of the trust and capacity building can be related to short term capacity confidence (or the absence thereof) in a service provider. building as well as longer term institution building. They The research undertaken for this impact assessment thus posit that capacity building should be targeted on many also probed specifically for such coping mechanisms (for levels and in many ways: “Resources (who has what); Skills example, whether water is stored). and Knowledge (who knows what); Organization skills (who can manage what) and Politics and Power (who can get what)” Summarizing, Cheema (2006) states that determinants of (2014: VII). The latter, in particular, has to do with longer trust in government can be grouped in five areas: term institution building. • Effective policies and implementation mechanisms yield positive results for society and create an To achieve this, Gillespie et al. (2013: 559) propose that environment of trust in government. one needs to forge strong alliances across government, • Committed and inspiring political leaders’ ability particularly drawing in disengaged departments, with to promote trust in government. civil society and the private sector. Adding to this, • Availability of economic growth and economic SLRC researchers suggest that: “This does require less of a opportunities. preoccupation with tangible, measureable results and indicators • Provision and delivery of services such as water, and a greater focus on facilitating a political process / …/this sanitation, healthcare. kind of political engagement can seem quite amorphous, given • Good governance and effective public the lack of specific inputs and outputs, but engaging in such a administration. way better positions development partners to work at the level of politics and incentives, which is currently being overlooked The framework underlines that while trust in government is by most capacity development support” (2014: 10). a function of several factors, service delivery performance is an important one. Service delivery is predicated on public In designing the methodology for this impact assessment, sector capacity. To enhance trust in government, the public these lessons were taken into account to obtain a clear sector must have the capacity to design and implement picture of whether changes in service levels translated into programs which ultimately ensure the delivery of basic an increase in confidence. Surveys, focus group discussions services. According to the literature, herein lies the key to (FGDs), and in-depth interviews were carefully structured to building citizen confidence in a government. probe systematically for knowledge of the project, opinions about performance, and confidence in institutions. Also explored for this impact assessment was the relationship between short term service delivery and longer term The next section outlines the research methodology in institution building. The literature suggests that capacity greater detail.

www.wsp.org 7 III. Methodology

The methodology was designed to measure the impact that The initial targeted sample size was 300 respondents, the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation representing 300 households or roughly 0.75 percent of Project had on the town’s population, both in terms of service the total population of Beitbridge. However, the team levels and attitudes towards the implementing institutions. eventually collected 337 valid responses. Six enumerators Following the guidance of the project’s Implementation were hired and the sample survey was completed in five Completion and Results Report, particular attention was days. The map here shows Beitbridge and its division into paid to “capture and better understand state-building”. To six Wards. The town’s population, according to the 2012 achieve these objectives, the impact assessment used the Census, is 42,218. following three approaches, including both quantitative and qualitative methods: • A household survey with a sample of 341 respondents to collect quantitative data. • Ten FGDs. As gender, age, occupation, and education determine roles, responsibilities, problems, memories, and perceptions, distinct groups were interviewed: Ward Councilors, members of Engineering Services, Health Services and Financial Services of the Beitbridge Council, of the Beitbridge Business Association, Market Association, groups of 15- to 17-year-old High school students and women’s associations. • Semi-structured in-depth interviews with 13 persons. In addition to the FGDs, key and general informants were interviewed individually. Key informants were a part of the project and had significant knowledge regarding the project, whereas general informants were chosen from each focus group to cover broad social groups.

The initial research was rounded off by a consultation Wards in Beitbridge. workshop based on draft results, which complemented and refined the original results.

Household Surveys The survey questionnaire was structured into three parts. The To achieve a representative sample, a multistage sampling first part collected basic characteristics of the respondents approach was used. In high density Wards (Wards 4, 5, and (age, sex, education, employment, and housing) to enable 6) clusters of 100 houses were drawn from property numbers, classification of responses in gender- and income-sensitive while in the low density areas (Wards 1, 2, and 3) clusters ways. The first part also tested knowledge of cholera and the formed by streets were used. Within the selected clusters in 2008–09 epidemic. The second part of the questionnaire high density Wards, every 10th house was surveyed, while in asked about access to improved water, sanitation, and solid low density Wards samples were taken for every 5thhouse in waste removal using WHO⁄UNICEF definitions.2 Finally, a cluster. In the event that the house was not occupied or the owner was not interested in responding, a neighboring house on either side was used instead. 2 http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/

8 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Methodology Methodology

TABLE 1: WARD POPULATIONS Ward Density Population % of Total Town Population Households Surveyed

1 Low 5,165 12% 43

2 Low 2,173 5% 29

3 Medium 4,198 10% 30

4 High 10,778 26% 80

5 High 7,548 18% 64

6 High 12,356 29% 91

42,218 100% 337

the third part of the survey was to test knowledge about the that the respondent belonged to (determined by gender, Emergency project and inquire about attitudes concerning age, education or employment, and so on). For analysis, it. This yielded a set of quantifiable data on the impact of a comparative content method with an interpretative the project. The final survey questionnaire is reproduced in approach was used. Specifically, this means that the team Appendix A. tried to identify patterns in transcribed interviews and explain the ways informants use or operate in a particular setting and situations, how they understand things, account Focus Group Discussions for things and take action. All interviews were consensually The second component of the impact assessment’s approach recorded. consisted of 10 FGDs. These were aimed at obtaining more in-depth, qualitative information on WASH access and perceptions to better interpret the patterns and results of the survey analysis. The discussions were structured by gender, age, education, and occupation. Common characteristics of participants enabled them to speak more freely, without fear of being judged. In the report, interviewees’ responses are quoted verbatim in italics, and they are left anonymous. Two of the interviewers were Zimbabwean and shared a few characteristics (language and contextual knowledge) with the respondents; one interviewer was South African with a general understanding of the context and basic ability to communicate in Ndebele (a commonly spoken language in Beitbridge), and one was Slovenian with no local language skills or contextual knowledge. English was the main The interview of the BTC Health Department Member. language for interviews.

Semi-Structured In-Depth Interviews The 13 semi-structured interviews aimed to maximize the reliability and comparability of qualitative data. The guidelines consisted of general questions administered to all interviewees, as well as a set of questions tailored to the group

www.wsp.org 9 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Methodology

Consultations of some of the information requested. This mostly related to Once a first draft of the report had been produced a health information. Even though numerous attempts had consultation workshop was held in Beitbridge with been made to receive permission to both interview Ministry representatives from the ZINWA, BTC, Ministry of Health, of Health staff as well as get local statistics on cholera and Business Association, Ministry of Education, and Ward water-borne diseases, this was not possible. Councilors. A presentation of the preliminary findings was made followed by a plenary discussion to follow up on This limited attempts to quantify project impact on disease issues in the draft report that needed further clarification outcomes. However, although not confirmed due to the and explanation. above reason, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) did inform the team that there was at least one case of cholera in March Limitations of Data Collection 2013. The team was not able to conduct a certain number of interviews or obtain certain data due to the sensitive nature Photo credit: Chantal Richey Photo credit:

A consultation workshop with Beitbridge stakeholders.

10 Impact Assessment Report IV. Findings and Discussion

The Zimbabwe Beitbridge Emergency Water and Sanitation three hours (July 14, 2010) to 17.10 hours per day Project had the following three components: (December 31, 2012). • Water treatment and supply rehabilitation. • Sewage treatment rehabilitation and improvement To verify and confirm these figures respondents surveyed of solid waste management. were asked, “What is the main source of drinking water for • Strengthening of institutional capacity. members of your household?” The results are broadly in line with the figures reported in the ICR. A total of 89 percent The impact assessment conducted by the WSP team reported using improved water sources, though only 66 aimed to examine outcomes reported in the project percent of these were piped (see Table 2). The remaining 23 documentation, and to evaluate effects on citizen confidence percent with improved access used tubewells or boreholes, in the implementing institutions to try and understand if a which are generally managed by water point committees small WASH project, implemented by local government, organized by the local community. As some boreholes may can have an impact on state and peace building. predate the intervention, access to improved water was likely above 0 percent even before the intervention. Even Water Treatment and Supply Rehabilitation so, the figures from the survey given in Table 2 lend support Under this component, the project financed the to a situation of considerable improved water access similar rehabilitation of the abstraction system, rehabilitation to estimates quoted in the ICR, though they are lower by of water treatment works, and improvement of the water approximately 12 percent if only piped access is counted. distribution system. According to the ICR report presented in August 2013, the subcomponents increased water Survey statistics are broadly in line with information security, distribution capacity, improved bill accuracy, collected through interviews. The BTC informed the team customer confidence to pay, and revenue collection for that in 2009 even though 3,960 households were metered the Council. To support this, the ICR states the following there was only very limited access to water because “there project development objectives (PDO) and Intermediate was just no water flowing”.The Off River Storage dams were Outcome results (IOs): dry as the pumps needed to lift the water from the Limpopo • People in urban areas provided with access to river were nonfunctional and the water “releases” from the improved water sources under the project increased Zhobe dam upstream were inadequate. By 2012 there from 0 percent (July 14, 2010) to 77.80 percent were 4,187 metered households receiving water regularly. (December 31, 2012). Although the actual growth in metered households is • Average hours of water supply service per day in minimal (227), the project dramatically improved access by utilities targeted by the project increased from putting water into the pipes.

TABLE 2: ACCESS TO IMPROVED WATER SOURCES IN BEITBRIDGE ICR Sampling Survey Piped water into dwelling 42% Piped water into yard 24% 77.80% Total piped access 66% Tubewell or borehole 23% Total Improved 89% www.wsp.org 11 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

It should be noted that access to piped water varies water such as the motorized systems developed by World dramatically between Wards—in Wards 1 to 5, access Vision Zimbabwe, or private sector resale which is likely to to improved water is above 80 percent, even topping 95 increase as ZINWA avails more water to the town through percent in Ward 4. However, in the largest and most densely the new treatment works. The exceptions are some boreholes populated Ward 6, access to piped water remains below 5 repaired by the BTC because these function as backup percent. during outages. Even so, unless access to the piped system increases in Ward 6, alternative technologies will continue Boreholes and alternative sources are thus mainly an to play an important role. issue in the undersupplied Ward 6. When following up with the BTC it was not clear how many boreholes in Population growth remains an important challenge to town were built by the Council. However, it is currently maintaining and expanding access to improved water. maintaining 35. It is also not clear how many boreholes According to the 2012 Census, Beitbridge’s population was are properly protected against contamination. According a level 42,218 with population growth rates not reflected. to the information obtained from respondents, households One of the respondents stated: “Population is one of the that are not connected to the pipeline system contribute major challenges we are facing in Beitbridge. Local authority around R5 (approximately US$0.50) per month to a water wants town to grow and they have issued people plots and we committee, which uses this money to repair the pump, if it usually call them stands, so they can start building through the breaks down, using private plumbers. In areas where pumps home ownership scheme where a person builds his house. The have broken down, people use other coping mechanisms, local authority, however, doesn’t have the capacity to connect the such as buying water from carts or fetching water from sewer and the water ...” (November 2013, WSP interviews). relatives or friends who are connected to the pipeline system or have a borehole near their house. The BTC produced records which showed that 1,643 stands had been allocated between 2009 and 2013—the majority The BTC tends to discourage the development of between 2011 and 2013. The BTC does not have the technologies that compete with its revenue base of piped resources to provide essential services in line with new stand

(Left) A broken down borehole in Ward 6. (Right) People pumping water to sell from their carts.

12 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

allocation. For this to be possible, the purchase price for a hours of water supply service per day at the end of the stand would have to include the cost of service provision, project on December 31, 2012, were 17.10 hours. The and this revenue would have to be ring fenced by the local survey asked, “How long is piped water available during an authority. While some respondents indicated that a service average day?” fee was included in the stand payment, this seemed far from universal and even if funds are collected, these do not Survey results show that 65 percent of those with piped water translate into service provision, especially in Ward 6. access reported an average availability of 16 hours or more per day, with a minority of 38 percent reporting 24-hour When asked to rate their satisfaction with the quality of supply on average. This is broadly in line with ICR results. water services, 49 percent of respondents ranked it “Not However, regularity too, varies greatly between Wards; satisfactory”, while 49 percent ranked it fully satisfactory Wards 2 and 5, which record relatively high dissatisfaction, or satisfactory with room for improvement. While the have notably lower supply regularity values than Wards 1, percentage of explicit dissatisfaction (49 percent) seems 3, and 4. By contrast, in Ward 6 regularity data are sparse as high, this is strongly driven by the underserved Ward most households are not even connected (Figure 3). 6 where over 80 percent are not satisfied. Surprisingly, however, Wards 2 and 5, both of which enjoy high levels of Furthermore, there may be the variability of a longer cycle piped access, also record relatively high dissatisfaction levels that is not captured in the statistics above. Both survey of 50–60 percent (see Figure 2). respondents and in-depth interview participants stressed on numerous occasions that the problem was that even The answer to this seeming paradox may lie in the regularity when average supply was relatively steady, sometimes there of supply. The ICR PDO Indicator states that the average would be days or even a week with no water at all. Thus, the

FIGURE 2: WATER SERVICE SATISFACTION

www.wsp.org 13 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

relatively positive survey statistics on average supply may A key variable both in terms of institutional sustainability, not capture semi-regular incidences of complete outages. and as an indicator of service satisfaction, is willingness to One of the respondents stated: “I get piped water into the pay. The ICR states that the Project improved willingness house for 24 hours, although at times we can spend about to pay and revenue collection for the Council. The survey three days without water due to faults with the pipe system” found that 64 percent of the population claim that they (November 2013, WSP interview). Notably, 88 percent of pay their water and waste bills regularly, with 28 percent those with piped access still store water in their household, saying they pay “sometimes” while 8 percent admit to not indicating that confidence in the reliability of supply is still paying. These figures are likely biased towards overstating relatively low. willingness to pay, as admitting nonpayment may be seen as embarrassing. BTC staff stated that the percentage of bills There seems to be a good level of trust in the quality of piped paid is actually not much higher compared with before the water, however, a large minority of piped water users (37 Project (Table 3), though overall revenue has increased due percent) treat it at household level to make it safe to drink. to improved supply. This compares with only 27 percent who treat their water among those without access to the piped network. While at The limited success in raising payment morale can be first surprising that those with piped water are more likely explained by a number of factors. One issue is the two to treat it, it may simply reflect that better off and better central government political decisions which had negative educated consumers are both more likely to have piped short- and long-term implications for the performance of water and to be conscious of the safety risks in general. local authorities.

FIGURE 3: AVERAGE HOURLY WATER SUPPLY AVAILABILITY

14 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

The first of these decisions was that customers cannot be the Council had not been providing. Thus, in some areas a disconnected for nonpayment for water supplied. This vicious circle of nonpayment and no services emerged. decision was informally reversed by the new government, but mixed signals persist. Moreover, ZINWA, which is still A final factor contributing to the culture of nonpayment supplying (bulk) water, was also prevented from enforcing may simply be a lack of ability to pay. The survey data bill payments for a long period. The issue was less one of unsurprisingly confirm lower reported payment morale formal rules, rather that the political implications of a among respondents who classified their own economic government parastatal disconnecting a whole Council, situation as a struggle (see Figure 4). including those who pay their bills, would not have been tolerated. Unlike the BTC, ZINWA as the bulk water Irregular payment of Council bills is particularly evident in supplier cannot disconnect individual users, and can only the poorest, least served Ward 6, where it reaches 74 percent pursue the Council in court. of respondents (Figure 5).

Secondly, the central government issued a statement of Interviews with residents and BTC staff reinforced a picture amnesty for unpaid bills before the 2013 elections, writing of widespread inability to pay fully. In many cases people can off water debts incurred between 2009 and June 30, 2013. In only afford to pay part of their monthly bill. Feedback also total, an estimated $360 million of debt was cancelled. Local supports debt cancelation—people felt shortchanged at the authorities are still in the process of recovering from this time of the roll-over from Zim dollar to US$. write off, which has reinforced a culture of nonpayment. • “My parents, they will be paying half of the bill and it’s really hard. They have to pay for school fees and food.’’ Even before these decisions, payment morale suffered during • “I would buy other important things first and pay for the the 2008 dollarization of the Zimbabwean currency system, water later. Maybe the Council should exempt old people a side effect of which were unrealistically valued bills. In from paying water bills as most of them cannot afford to 2012 correction calculations were done and customers’ bills pay.’’ reduced, but trust in the accuracy of bills has been greatly • “Education comes first, then there is the issue of food, then undermined. One of respondents described the connection electricity comes, but I would pay that in installments, between dollarization and failing to pay the bills. “In 2008 only then comes water.’’ things had gone bad and the rate payers were heavily burdened • “School fee is the reason why we couldn’t pay the bills. I with the change over to the multicurrency system, the conversion can’t afford to pay for both school fees and water bills, but part of it which we don’t understand. The bills remained very Council will never harass you for not paying bills.’” high, you will find residents owing the Council $500-1,000’’ (November 13, 2013, WSP interview). Even though people are aware of the importance of using clean water, they will prioritize paying for education, food, In Beitbridge, the local authority uses combined bills and and electricity over water. As argued above, it is a combination uses water as a way to enforce payment for other services. of the users’ poor socioeconomic conditions and political There were, therefore, also issues raised by residents who decisions by the central government authorities. Nonrevenue complained that they were being punished through water water is therefore a major issue, reaching 60–70 percent in disconnections to enforce payment of other services that some months, according to the lead engineer at the BTC.

TABLE 3: WATER BILLING AND RECEIPTS IN BEITBRIDGE (BETWEEN 2009–13) 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Water billing (US$) 885,900 1,262,127 1,858,264 2,383,373 2,326,913

Receipts (US$) 231,480 562,340 748,805 696,051 936,889

Percentage payment 26% 45% 40% 29% 40% www.wsp.org 15 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

FIGURE 4: ANSWERS TO “DO YOU PAY YOUR BILLS REGULARLY” BY SELF-REPORTED ECONOMIC SITUATION

FIGURE 5: REGULAR PAYMENT OF BILLS BY WARD

16 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion Photo credits: Stanley Nazombe Photo credits:

(Left) ORSD2 empty before the Project. (Right) ORSD2 filling up after pumping and grouting.

Overall, the impact assessment finds strong evidence for at least secondary level (m3/day) grew from 350 (July 14, access and regularity of supply statistics that are at least 2010) to 1,161 (December 31, 2013). The third important broadly in line with the ICR report. Clearly, the overall PDO Indicator connected to this subcomponent is the water supply has improved since the time of the cholera number of wastewater/sewer blockages removed. According outbreak in 2008–09, and an impressive demonstration of to the ICR report, the number grew from 50 (July 14, 2010) this is shown in the pictures here which depict the off river to 183 (December 31, 2012). The fourth and the last ICR storage dam 2 (ORSD2) before and after the Project. PDO Indicator indirectly connected to this subcomponent is people in urban areas with access to ‘improved sanitation’. However, substantial service gaps do remain, especially in The PDO Indicator states that the percentage has grown the most populous, severely underserviced Ward 6 where from 20 percent (July 14, 2010) to 80.7 percent (July 14, piped water reaches less than 5 percent of the population. 2012). Results from question 16 of the survey confirm a Regularity of supply, while improved, is also still far from rate of improved sanitation access of 80 percent overall. optimal. These challenges are reflected in ambiguous payment morale, as well as an almost even split between To break this down further, the survey shows that 68 those who are satisfied with water supply overall, and those percent of the population use the piped sewer system, while who are not. Much has been achieved, but much remains to 10 percent have septic tanks and 2 percent other improved be done in Beitbridge’s water supply. facilities. Still, some 15 percent state they lack facilities and use the bush (a figure that rises to 45 percent in Ward 6). Sewage Treatment Rehabilitation Despite the improvements cited in the ICR, this indicates According to the ICR report, the project increased the a considerable service gap, which is reflected in the fact capacity of sewage conveyance and thus the amount of that out of the water services, wastewater services and solid sewage reaching the sewage plant, thereby reducing raw waste services, citizens’ satisfaction with wastewater services sewage spillages (World Bank ICR Report 2013: 3). PDO is lowest. A solid majority of 56 percent are dissatisfied Indicators in the same report state that the volume of (Figure 6). wastewater/sewage reaching the plant and being treated to www.wsp.org 17 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion Photo credits: Maxwell Karenyi Photo credits:

(Left) Typical blockages on trunk sewer mains before any work was done. (Right) Sewer trunk mains after upgrading was carried out.

FIGURE 6: SATISFACTION WITH WASTEWATER SERVICES

18 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

Relative dissatisfaction is clearly driven by remaining service gaps, which is again reflected in high dissatisfaction in Ward 6 (Figure 7).

FIGURE 7: SATISFACTION WITH WASTEWATER SERVICES BY WARD

In-depth interviews and FGDs revealed that the main • “We haven’t seen change yet because the sewage is still problem in Beitbridge is not so much the lack of facilities bursting. So I think there is a need for bigger pipes to cater but that the sewage network does not function sufficiently. for the sewage’’ (November 2013, WSP interview). This thus makes many existing facilities unusable dueto sewage pipe bursts or lack of water for flushing: Aside from the lack of convenience, dissatisfaction also • “The thing is that we have a problem with waste not seems motivated by a clear recognition of the possible because we don’t have toilets, but the water is the problem. health consequences of bad sanitation. Nearly 97 percent You cannot go to the toilet where there is no water to flush, of respondents in the survey recognized that cholera is so you are forced to go to the bush and do the waste there. caused by dirty food, water/bacteria in food and water/open As for those who live in the new houses in Garikai they defecation and dirty toilets. This is reinforced by almost 87 don’t have toilets, so they are always forced to go to the percent personally remembering the cholera epidemic of bush’’ (November 2013, WSP interview). 2008—of this number almost a third were directly affected • “We do have toilets but the problem is that we do not (personally or a family member fell ill or died). have the water to flush the toilets, especially here even at school, even if you just check our toilets, they are normally The residents of Beitbridge are thus well aware that proper a big mess because we have a shortage of water to flush and safe disposal of human waste and access to improved and also the issue of sewage, the system it always explodes’’ sanitation that separates human excreta from human (November 2013, WSP interview). contact is necessary to prevent future cholera outbreaks and improve the health of individuals and communities. www.wsp.org 19 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

Unfortunately, there are no statistics to compare the situation. Muzvidziwa (2005) and Natuli (2000) state that number wastewater/sewer blockages from before the the latter two are the main reason for high criminal rates. implementation of the Project to the current situation. However, the interviews testify to a decrease in blockages since the implementation of the Project. • “I would comment and say that there was a great improvement in the sewer since the cholera outbreak. You used to see sewers flowing almost every day and there were some permanent points where you would know that place is always exposed, but I would give a very good positive on the sewer circulation” (November 2013, WSP interview). • “These days the sewer[s] are not extreme, some of them burst but they are being fixed” (November 2013, WSP interview). • “Pipes are still exploding; you can see it all over Beitbridge. Too many of them are still exploding, but it is less then compared to 2008” (November 2013, WSP interview).

Sewer blockage/pipe breaks can happen in private or public lines, that is, in the private line that goes from an individual’s house to the main line and on the main line sewer. However, both can happen outside of a house, in the open, which is very visible, and the smell is persistent and noxious. These two things affect the entire community living around the blockage or pipe break and not just individual households, which may be another reason for relatively widespread dissatisfaction.

Having to use the bush for toilet purposes, either because of a lack of access to public toilets or scarcity of water to flush toilets, is especially hard for vulnerable groups of population such as young girls and the elderly. Beitbridge is one of the busiest border crossings in Southern Africa and the only one open 24 hours per day. Consequently there are more than 10,000 daily migrants passing through the town. Klipin and Harrison (2003: 8–9) tell us that cross-border criminal activities within Southern Africa have greatly increased in the last 20 years. Most common illegal activities in the border regions include human trafficking, drug trafficking, vehicle theft, as well as commercial and economic crimes. According to our informants, crime rates in Beitbridge are Sewage pipe bursts in a Beitbridge house, which affect not high as a consequence of cross-border criminal activities, just individual houses but the entire community. high unemployment rates, and an overall poor economic

20 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

Respondents confirmed this. This applies especially to Ward 6, which has not benefited • “It’s dangerous here in Beitbridge, there is so much criminal much from the Project, yet is one of the most densely activity, many cases of rape so it is really dangerous for populated areas in Beitbridge. Ward 6 is Garikai, which was girls to go and fetch water during the night” (November established by the government in response to Operation 2013, WSP interview). Murambatsvina. The expectation was that the government • “Normally people try and not to use the bush, maybe if would finance these connections, but this did not happen. they can find a sitting space along the Durawall, along the way. During the night, it’s too dangerous to go to the bush Overall, the impact assessment can confirm relatively high for toilets, you risk being sodomized” (November 2013, rates of improved sanitation (~80 percent) and at least WSP interview). anecdotal evidence for a decline in blockages and bursts. However, the subsector remains fraught with problems. A large minority of the population—especially in the densely populated Ward 6—continues to defecate in the open. Moreover, the remaining pipe bursts still create a public nuisance at times. For this reason, overall satisfaction with wastewater services is lower than with water or solid waste management.

Improving Solid Waste Management In the past two years, the BTC has made significant progress in the area of solid waste. Data from the survey show how successful the solid waste component has been. At least 75 percent of the population report using the solid waste collection system, that is, taking their garbage to a collection point rather than disposing of it informally in their yards or streets. A further 13 percent state they are using a combination of burning it themselves and using the collection system. When those using the collection system A place 1 kilometer away from Garikai (Ward 6) where were asked how often garbage is picked up, 94 percent people practice open defecation. stated it was collected at least once per week. Photo credits: Maxwell Karenyi Photo credits:

(Above) At left is an area with a refuse collection backlog. At right is the area after the refuse collection backlog has been cleared.

www.wsp.org 21 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

FIGURE 8: SATISFACTION WITH SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES

As Figure 8 illustrates, these positive service level statistics • “It is now better because since they pick garbage, you can translate into very encouraging satisfaction levels—60 find the waste in one place when it is not collected by those percent reported being fully or mostly satisfied with solid trucks. But then you could find trash everywhere, litter and waste collection services. Overall satisfaction with solid all those plastic bottles lying around everywhere. It is now waste services is thus higher than both with water and clean” (November 2013, WSP). sewerage services.

When respondents were asked if they noticed any particular actions by the local authority to prevent future cholera outbreaks, improved solid waste collection was the most cited improvement (29 percent), followed by water (21 percent), hygiene behavior change (16 percent), and sewerage (12 percent). Interviews confirmed a widespread recognition of the improvement due to designated garbage spots found in different Wards in Beitbridge: • “It was poor before, because they didn’t have enough of those trucks. But now they have a lot, I have seen the one that picks up garbage. Before they had one or two trucks and they came I think like after two weeks. They make it a point in my area to come every Monday’’ (November 2013, WSP interview).

Rubbish bins placed in public areas in Beitbridge.

22 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

FIGURE 9: SATISFACTION WITH SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES BY WARD

Even so, 28 percent of respondents still stated that they are As the photograph here illustrates, so do the donkeys. not satisfied with the quality of solid waste services. This seems—again—partly driven by the poorer service in the dense Ward 6, where dissatisfaction is considerably higher at 45 percent (Figure 9).

Follow-up interviews revealed that even in other Wards, some residual dissatisfaction stems from the BTC’s inability to provide rubbish bins to individual households, forcing people to buy them. In addition, people talked about the BTC’s inability to collect solid waste from certain parts of Beitbridge due to poor road access. Some respondents also said that they wish that the BTC could collect solid waste more than once a week (twice per week for businesses) because a large number of animals roamed around town and pulled trash out of the bins. One humorous point of view on this was: Donkeys foraging in the trash scattered around the • “We don’t have to wait for BTC, the baboons come and carry waste bins in the bus station in Beitbridge. our rubbish off”(November 2013, WSP interview).

www.wsp.org 23 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

Garbage depots can be found all over town. The BTC nursery from where the people can collect free trees for replanting.

A very positive development in Beitbridge which—though it cannot be directly attributed to the Project—is a powerful example of how serious the BTC is about improving public places is the Council’s steps towards ‘greening’ the town. Beitbridge is typically a hot and dusty place with hardly any grass, trees or shade. For the past year, however, the Council has been growing trees in a nursery in the yard of the health department for replanting, together with lawns, at strategic points around the town. The greening of the town reduces the soil erosion and runoff to storm water drains, contributing to the sustainability of the piped systems. The interviewers were informed by the BTC that the public could collect free BTC staff watering plants in the center of Beitbridge. trees from the nursery for replanting within the town areas or residential areas. However, according to the assessments findings, the residents were not aware of this arrangement. Strengthening Institutional Capacity Overall, the impact assessment can confirm high solid waste This third and final component of the Project consisted of collection rates, and a strong satisfaction by the population. three elements to strengthen institutional capacity directly: The solid waste component seems to have been a particularly technical assistance to the Council, a monitoring and visible and well regarded component of the Project. Of evaluation (M&E) consultancy, and procurement of goods course, as in the other subsectors, sociogeographic inequality to support operations. in service access remains, with relatively lower service rates and satisfaction in the most populous and densely settled At the launch of the Project, most of the BTC’s service Ward 6. departments were not fully operational. Engineering Services, for instance, did not have an engineer and was led by the town planner most of the time. According to the

24 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

town secretary, it was at the insistence of the Project that for resources. We already know that ZINWA must collect a town engineer was recruited. A fully-fledged engineering revenue from us and yet at parliamentary level it has been department with appropriate staff was then established to resolved that urban and local authorities must take up the satisfy the engineering requirements for the town. This treatment of water, which is causing a tension” (November provided the BTC with a team capable of interacting 2013, WSP interview). with ZINWA in the areas of design and engineering. The • “The problematic relationship here is the relationship engineering staff is included in the Council budget and will between ZINWA and the local authority and the continue to be so. relationship here does not give a defined entry by any other player to assist. We have had practical examples that at The finance section was equipped with computing facilities one stage ZINWA was saying that their pump had ceased and billing software to enhance the Town Council’s billing and we went out as Business Association on the look for an capacity. Pastel evolution accounting software encompassing identical pump, which we found from one of our members, municipal billing software was acquired; a billing printer, who brought the pump at our own expense, but ZINWA two LaserJet printers, six HP desktop computers (one wouldn’t touch it, saying that a lot of other things could of which went to ZINWA), and five UPS batteries were go wrong and what not and really that relationship is not procured. Training was provided on how to use all this allowing for other player to come in, while it is easy for equipment. us to go to council and say, hey this is our council we are a part of this and we have no argument from council, it The Project provided the Town Council with an opportunity is very difficult with ZINWA” (November 2013, WSP to learn by doing. The exposure to Bank procurement interview). systems, though rigorous, has set a solid platform for future development programs. The consultation workshop implemented as part of this assessment in January 2014 also proved to be a useful Despite the many challenges that the Project team, from exercise. There are six Ward Councilors in Beitbridge who both the ZINWA and BTC, faced, its members were able to are political party elected officials. Beitbridge changed from build a cohesive development team whose experiences can MDC to ZANU-PF after the elections in 2013 and all of be documented and scaled up in other areas of need. This the Ward Councilors are new to their roles. The discussion was an achievement considering the tough choices that had of findings and the general water and hygiene situation to be made on the institutional set-up of the Project due to in Beitbridge provided an opportunity for a variety of the complicated linkages between the Town Council and Beitbridge stakeholders to interact in a way which they ZINWA described in the Background chapter. normally would not. It highlighted the importance of the sector and on a practical level, provided new Councilors The Project was, however, implemented without a service with significant information and data regarding their agreement between the ZINWA and BTC. This affected, Wards. and is still affecting, operations. An example of this is the conflict that arose in the allocation of assets. A key lesson Interviews and discussions carried out for this assessment learned is the need to define roles up-front and ensure confirm a strongly positive impact of the direct capacity clear project leadership. The clarity of roles helps to restore building measures on the BTC. However, they also highlight confidence in all actors and stakeholders. Respondents that not defining the respective roles of BTC and ZINWA shared opinions on this issue as follows: more formally at the start of the project may have been • “[The] MoU between ZINWA and Beitbridge Council an oversight and source of conflict. Moreover, the political was never defined, no asset distribution. When you have dimension that is inherent to the elected council must be two institutions in one, the issue of assets becomes two handled carefully to guarantee the continuity of capacity questions, especially for two institutions that are competing improvements.

www.wsp.org 25 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

Impact on State and Peace Building However, awareness of the full Project or its name was The key objective of this impact assessment was not only much lower. As many as 76 percent of respondents replied to assess whether the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply negatively to a question probing for the Project name (or and Sanitation Project had an effect on WASH access at least awareness of a coherent, at scale, WASH program, and satisfaction therewith, but also if this translated into rather than isolated interventions). Of those who did greater confidence by residents in their local institutions. recognize the existence of the Project (about 22 percent), There are two critical steps in this analysis: firstly, to less than half correctly credited the BTC or ZINWA. examine whether citizens have perceived any changes in service levels. Secondly, if they did perceive changes, who There is thus a double problem in terms of communications— did citizens give credit for it? As the literature review above awareness of the Project as a whole is limited to a fifth of the discussed in detail, recognition by citizens that institutions population, and of that fifth less than half correctly credit provide valuable services may improve confidence and trust the correct institutions. This means that only 11 percent and play a role in stabilizing socioeconomic relations more of the population was able to credit the BTC and ZINWA generally. with the full scale of improvements in the town.

To a generic question of whether any actions on part of This is a wasted opportunity for raising confidence in public the local authority to prevent future cholera outbreaks institutions, because among the fifth of the population were noticed, 53 percent of the population cited one or who did recognize the Project as a whole, 75 percent multiple water, solid waste, sewerage or hygiene behavior stated that it led them to see the responsible institutions interventions. Though this does not imply satisfaction, a more positively, with 21 percent saying their view of the small majority of the population is thus at least aware of responsible institutions stayed the same and less than 4 individual components of the project or actions by the percent reported a negative influence on how they see the BTC. responsible institutions. Indeed, the point that the WASH sector has the potential to strongly influence public opinion

FIGURE 10: “WHAT ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT?”

26 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

about government institutions is reinforced by the fact that perception that the then MDC-controlled Beitbridge Town Beitbridge residents clearly recognize WASH as one of the Council deliberately chose a low-key approach to avoid the most important functions of government, as it is recognized Project attracting the attention of hostile or opportunistic among the most important functions of government.3 politicians. The BTC tends to implement with a low profile and report on a need-to-know basis. It was also mentioned The fact that just 11 percent of the population fully that mass gatherings in MDC-controlled towns were recognized and correctly attributed the Project is thus a major strongly restricted during the period in question, thus further communications failure that has limited the potential state undermining opportunities for Project promotion. Police and peace building dividend of the Beitbridge Emergency used the Public Order and Security Act (POSA) to prevent Water Supply and Sanitation Project. public meetings, especially if they were called by Councilors who were seen to be belonging to the opposition. While an official launch of the Project was organized by the BTC and an announcement was published in local Moreover, the lack of publicity was also interpreted as a newspapers, the fact that 76 percent of citizens didn’t virtue by some who highlighted the Town Secretary’s even know about the Project as a whole, much less credit effective, humble attitude and his reluctance to pursue the BTC or ZINWA, indicates the insufficient scope of “accolades”. This reportedly humble ethos of key staff of the communications. There was little post-launch publicity BTC may have worked against a strong communications such as billboards, not least because the BTC’s public policy in this instance. relations department (mainly focused on a news bulletin) was only recently resurrected. Partial exceptions were These factors are reinforced by certain inherent Project tractors and trucks collecting solid waste, which were at characteristics that pose a communications challenge. For least BTC branded. It is perhaps not a coincidence that the instance, some core components of the Project, such as dam single most well recognized individual intervention of the renovations outside the town or work on the distribution BTC in the survey was solid waste collection. network, are not particularly visible per se (unlike, for instance, garbage collections) and effective communications While communications …..clearly constituted and “state would therefore require considerable effort and sufficient and peace building dividend bottleneck”, the interviews budget. during the assessment and the later consultation workshop also highlighted that effective communications is not Despite the many challenges, a more proactive an easy task in the social and political environment of communications policy is clearly needed to turn the positive contemporary Zimbabwe. impact of such projects into recognition and support for the responsible state institutions To begin with, any communications effort will run up against a culture of governmental intransparency. There is Some finer points about the project attribution also a perception that information is withheld in general “like it emerged from the survey. Among the minority who knew is kept in the altar and only the Holy people can see it”. More about the Project and correctly identified at least one of the specifically, political power struggles have interfered with responsible institutions, almost six times as many named the communications at multiple levels. At the institutional BTC rather than ZINWA. This is in spite of the fact that level, there was competition and disagreement between the ZINWA was heavily involved in the implementation of the ZINWA and BTC, which reportedly made each party the Project and still plays a vital role in Beitbridge ZINWA reluctant to market a Project partly owned by the other. is in charge of bulk water abstraction, storage, treatment At a more formally political level, there was at least a and supply to the BTC, which is then responsible for distribution to consumers). 3 Note that this question was deliberately asked at the start of the questionnaire, prior to any questions about cholera or WASH. The overall WASH focus of the question- naire is thus not expected to have significantly influenced this result. www.wsp.org 27 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Findings and Discussion

A possible reason may be that only the BTC has permanent This suggests that people do have a fair degree of confidence staff in town and is better known to the community in its in the BTC and in its capabilities for service provision. role as local government. This supports the suggestion in Whether or not that is realistic is disputed, but at least the literature review chapter that it is a belief that one can one capacity assessment report by the Urban Councils influence a member of one’s own community more than Association of Zimbabwe (UCAZ) claims that the BTC those coming from the outside. The ZINWA does not have would be able to take over more responsibility from the permanent staff stationed in Beitbridge and is seen as an ZINWA. outsider. This may contribute to an expressed preference by many interviewed citizens for the BTC to be fully in charge The flipside of this closeness to the BTC is that in response of water provision and services in the town. to the question of who has the duty to provide safe water in Beitbridge, two-thirds of the respondents also named the In fact, there are two main perceptions that stand out with BTC, with ZINWA a distant second (20 percent), followed respect to the BTC and ZINWA: by the Ministry of Water Resources/Central Government • Residents of Beitbridge tend to blame the ZINWA for (7 percent). This popular emphasis on the BTC role is a “too high” prices of water. Multiple respondents were somewhat double-edged sword—good for its focus on of the opinion that if the BTC alone was in charge of local government and accountability, but dangerous if the water, prices would be more affordable. This is because BTC took over and then failed to live up to the technical the ZINWA uses a tariff structure that is a national challenge of WASH services. blend price, whereas local authorities prefer pricing water supply to reflect actual local costs. Where water Overall, this assessment finds a strongly positive impact of is readily available, such as from the Limpopo River in the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Beitbridge, one can (realistically) expect lower prices. Project on confidence—but only among the small minority who were informed about the Project and able to • Residents tend to think the BTC has sufficient capacity correctly attribute it. This constitutes a potentially missed to take over the ZINWA’s role in water provision. This is opportunity for the state and peace building dividends that less rooted in a realistic assessment of the BTC’s technical one could expect in light of the links between institutional capacity than in a perception of relative closeness of the performance, citizen confidence, and state stability outlined BTC officials. Citizens can make themselves heard to in the literature. the Council with a complaint, whereas ZINWA refers to more senior offices in faraway Bulawayo or Harare.

28 Impact Assessment Report V. Conclusions

The aim of this research was to understand the impact of Results from question 16 of the survey confirm a rate of the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation improved sanitation access of 80 percent overall. To break Project on WASH service access, and whether it affected this down further, the survey shows that 68 percent of the citizen confidence in the municipal council. The underlying population use the piped sewer system, while 10 percent assumption, outlined in detail in the literature review, was have septic tanks and 2 percent other improved facilities. that evidence for a positive change of citizen confidence At least 75 percent of the population report using the solid in the BTC and ZINWA would point towards a “double waste collection system, that is, taking their garbage to a dividend”, that of both improved services and building collection point rather than disposing of it informally in confidence in state institutions. their yards or streets. A further 13 percent state they are using a combination of burning it themselves and using the The lack of a comprehensive, pre-Project baseline dataset, collection system. When those using the collection system especially on indicators of confidence, undermined this were asked how often garbage is picked up, 94 percent assessment’s ability to clearly compare the before and after stated it was collected at least once per week. perceptions. However, a number of clear results were still obtained, not least by complementing the quantitative Qualitative evidence on wastewater confirms improvements survey with qualitative information obtained through in- compared with 2008–09, though these appear to be more depth interviews and FGDs. muted than in the other subsectors. An area in which qualitative results suggest exemplary progress by the BTC The evidence obtained by this impact assessment can be is solid waste collection. Residents stated on numerous grouped into three categories. First, evidence on the service occasions that Beitbridge is much cleaner than it used to outcomes that were cited as successes in the official Project be; residents are very happy with the BTC adhering to documentation. Most outcomes were broadly confirmed. the schedule of picking up solid waste from individual Secondly, the assessment highlights a number of areas that households. Interviews also confirmed a significant qualify these successes, that is, remaining service gaps in improvement of technical capacity in the BTC, for instance, terms of both coverage and quality. Finally, the assessment in the form of its engineering department. yielded evidence on satisfaction with service levels, Project recognition and attribution by citizens, and whether and The ICR report states that the project improved willingness how this influenced attitudes towards the BTC and ZINWA, to pay, resulting in improved revenue collection for the and thus the likelihood of a “double dividend”. Council. While the survey does indicate relatively high regular bill payment (64 percent), this figure is self- Evidence on Service Outcomes Achieved by reported and thus subject to bias. Indeed, it is undermined the Project by contrary evidence from actual receipts by the BTC that Based on a representative population survey and in-depth show no significant improvement of the percentage of bills interviews, the impact assessment finds that access to piped paid although this could have been affected by the arrears water is now at 66 percent (78 percent including nonpiped correction and payment of bills amnesty. Interviews seem improved), piped sanitation is accessible to approximately to confirm that citizens give priority to education and food 68 percent of the population, and at least 75 percent benefit costs, not least because Zimbabwean political developments from solid waste collection services. Among piped water have repeatedly undermined payment morale by outlawing users, 65 percent reported an average availability of 16 sanctions for nonpayment and cancelling old debts. hours or more per day, which is also in the proximity of the 17-hour average reported by the official ICR report. The overall positive picture of service outcome improvements, however, has to be qualified in a number of respects. www.wsp.org 29 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Conclusions

Evidence on Remaining Service Gaps population stated they generally viewed the local authority The most serious remaining service gap that can be seen negatively, compared with less than a fifth in other Wards. across subsectors is geographic and concerns the most populous and densely settled Ward 6. Self-reported poverty Aside from this main sociogeographic service gap, a number is highest in Ward 6, less than 5 percent of its population of other issues persist that should be addressed in the future. have access to piped water, up to 45 percent practice open First, all subsectors fall short of universal coverage even in defecation, and even the use of BTC solid waste removal is the better serviced Wards. Secondly, even where coverage is more than 10 percent below average. high, service quality often lags behind. In water supply, large minorities in all Wards still report a service regularity of less As has been explained in the Background section than 16 hours per day (see Figure 3). Large minorities find of this report, Ward 6 was shaped by insufficiently it necessary to treat their water at point of use, indicating planned, unregulated settlements that arose in reaction at least perceived water quality concerns. In the wastewater to the displacements of the controversial operation subsector, the high average access to improved sanitation Murambatsvina (Restore Order) in the mid-2000s. Once of approximately 80 percent is undermined by anecdotal Ward 6 had assumed its current sprawling, unregulated, evidence that pipe bursts and blockages continue to render and underserviced form, the BTC was long reluctant to many facilities useless in practice. intervene. Qualitative evidence suggests that Ward 6 has been regarded as a “ZANU Problem” by the then opposition Even in the exemplary solid waste removal subsector, MDC town council, and in any case, was not formally part some sore points remain. Residents have complained that of urban Beitbridge until 2012. collection frequency should be increased to avoid spillovers onto the street and animal infestations. It was also noted While this historical background explains how this that garbage cans have not been provided by the Council. geographic service gap came into existence, its persistence poses the greatest remaining threat to public health in Finally, a deeply entrenched nonpayment culture, Beitbridge. MSF staff stated that the chances of another combined with real economic difficulties, keep bill payment cholera outbreak in Beitbridge remain high (the last rates at around 40 percent and undermine the long-term confirmed case of cholera in Beitbridge was in March 2013) sustainability of water services in Beitbridge. While much and residents interviewed expressed a fear of what the rainy has been achieved in the WASH sector of Beitbridge, much season might bring. A new outbreak centered on Ward 6 still remains to be done. is a real possibility absent of further interventions to raise service levels. Evidence on Satisfaction, Project Recognition and Attribution Avoiding a renewed health crisis emanating from Ward At present, 70 percent of the population state satisfaction 6 is particularly critical as Beitbridge has an important (fully, or “with room for improvement”) with solid waste strategic position in Zimbabwe. It hosts the only border services, 49 percent with water services, and 40 percent with crossing in Zimbabwe that is open 24 hours every day and sewer services. While there was no baseline data on service is the gateway to South Africa in the south and to East and satisfaction prior to the Project, qualitative evidence does Central Africa in the north. The transit population in town suggest a marked perception of improvement, especially exceeds 10,000 people per day. for solid waste, moderately for water supply, and at least marginally for wastewater services. It should be noted that in addition to the threat to public health, the extent of service differences between Wards may The potential of functional water supply, sanitation, and also contribute to undermining social cohesion in Beitbridge. solid waste services to influence opinions on municipal Service satisfaction rates in Ward 6 are—unsurprisingly— council performance is clear. This is illustrated by the result the lowest in each subsector, and two-thirds of the Ward 6 that Beitbridge residents cited these services as the highest

30 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Conclusions

priority functions of government (26 percent) when asked As was outlined earlier in the section on State and for their top three priorities. Furthermore, at least two-thirds Peace building, a number of reasons can explain this indicated that they view the provision of safe water as the communication bottleneck that constrained the potential duty of the BTC, with 20 percent citing the ZINWA, and “double dividend”. less than 1 percent viewing it as a household responsibility. There is also a thorough understanding that lack of WASH The reasons range from relatively straightforward factors services and dirty food can cause cholera (96 percent) and such as the absence of a well-planned and funded most respondents (87 percent) remembered the severe 2008 communication effort to more complicated ones like outbreak. political tensions that may have led the Town Council to take a deliberately low-key approach to avoid unwanted A key question that precedes that of whether the BTC attention by political opponents. and ZINWA received residents’ credit for the Project outcomes is whether the Project was even recognized by the On a broader scale it is necessary to understand that service population. delivery can become severely compromised when it becomes hostage to politics. In fragile states, an important aspect The impact assessment has shown that a slight majority of should be building civic capacity and helping councils to the population (53 percent) recognized at least one of the know who to partner with. three interventions (water supply, sanitation, solid waste) by the local authority to prevent future cholera outbreaks. These political factors are difficult to navigate, however, However, awareness of the actual Emergency Project was and need to be kept in mind when interpreting assessments much lower. As many as 76 percent of respondents did not such as this. As issues of trust and confidence in Zimbabwe recognize the Project name, nor recognized it as a coherent, are explored, many responses will be coded and cautious, at scale, intervention. Of those who did recognize the especially when issues to do with government bodies or existence of the Project—barely a fifth of the population— local authorities are concerned. Expressed dissatisfaction less than half correctly credited the BTC or ZINWA. can also be muted due to familiarity with dysfunction. Some respondents simply said, “Well this is Zimbabwe you This is a big missed opportunity, because among the small know—this is just how it is.” minority who did know about the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project and correctly attributed But it does not have to be. The Beitbridge Emergency Water it, more than 75 percent stated that it led them to view the Supply and Sanitation Project has shown the potential for responsible institutions more positively. Thus, even though infrastructure projects to be implemented through local the Project has demonstrated strong potential to influence institutions even in fragile environments. Not only can such views of government institutions positively, only around 10 an approach make a real difference in service improvements, percent of the population of Beitbridge clearly recognized it also has the potential to durably strengthen capacity of the Project and attributed it correctly. Most of these then had and confidence in these institutions so delivering a double an improved view of the BTC and ZINWA. Another way dividend. The recommendations outlined in the next of putting this is that approximately 7 percent of the surveyed section build on the insights this assessment has drawn population had an improved view of and increased trust and from examining the Project and suggest a pro-active way confidence in the BTC and ZINWA due to the intervention. forward.

www.wsp.org 31 VI. Recommendations

This assessment has confirmed that the Beitbridge project documentation similar to physical and service Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project has had access measures. a very positive impact on access to water and sanitation services, and at least a marginally positive effect on restoring 3. Target state and peace building dividends explicitly: confidence in local institutions. In fragile states, projects should be chosen and developed with specific objectives relating to state and At the same time, it is clear that significant gaps remain in peace building dividends in mind. This may require terms of service access and equality, as well as in other areas identifying and responding to deeply entrenched such as project communications. inequalities. To maximize projects’ impact on citizen confidence and social cohesion, it is necessary to: Drawing on the above analysis, this chapter spells out a • Understand the reasons for service inequalities and number of recommendations on how to maximize “state progressively address them: Equitable interventions and peace-building dividends” in World Bank projects, as are particularly important in fragile states where well as recommendations relating to Zimbabwe generally, social bonds are already strained. This is also in line and Beitbridge specifically. with World Bank policy to target the bottom 40 percent in terms of income. If Ward 6 had been Recommendations to Maximize State and included in the Beitbridge Project, the impact on Peace Building Dividends of World Bank service access and citizen satisfaction could have Projects been larger and more broadly shared across the 1. Improve branding and communications: Projects in city. fragile states should develop effective client-branded • Prioritize sectors in which the public expects communication strategies to ensure citizens recognize government action: In Beitbridge, WASH was the that it is government institutions that are delivering most-cited sector the government was expected to results and thereby get credit for doing so. In Beitbridge, take responsibility for. It was thus a good target for only 10 percent of the population fully recognized and investments from the perspective of influencing correctly attributed the project, but 75 percent of these public opinion about the state. In fragile states, reported an improved opinion of the implementing investments should be directed to those sectors in institutions. The low recognition is a missed opportunity which the public particularly expects government that should be avoided through better communications action. in the future. • Go local: Citizens find it easier to build trust and a sense of participation in project outcomes 2. Collect baseline indicators on citizen attitudes: Future if implementing institutions have a strong and projects interested in measuring state and peace building permanent local presence. This may have been one effects should collect quantitative baseline indicators of the reasons the BTC received better recognition on citizen attitudes and confidence at the beginning of for the project in Beitbridge than the ZINWA. a project. Project impacts in terms of state and peace Whenever possible, projects should choose partner building dividends cannot be effectively quantified entities with a local presence and/or build capacity without baseline indicators. To allow comparing the locally. effect of projects in different sectors or with different • Identify and realize low-cost high-impact approaches, consideration should be given to developing interventions: Prioritize projects and project standardized indicators and promote their inclusion in components that allow faster and larger public-

32 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Recommendations Recommendations

perception impacts at lower cost. For instance, service gaps highlighted in this report, especially in the improvement of solid waste management in view of the recent reported cholera case. The strategic Beitbridge was a relatively minor project component location of Beitbridge as a heavily frequented border in terms of cost, yet was associated with the most crossing, and the already established partnerships and positive citizen feedback due to its immediate and incurred costs for partial service improvements, suggest highly visible impact on public spaces and personal a follow-up Phase II may be a worthwhile investment convenience. Projects should identify and prioritize to the World Bank and its partners. The following such “quick win” components. This is also true at suggestions are given for the project components of a the project level—fragile states programs should Phase II: target quick win projects whenever feasible, for • Prioritize Ward 6: If resources are limited and areas example, rehabilitations over new construction for support need to be prioritized, then Ward 6, (see below). in particular Garikai, should be prioritized due to the high need and elevated risk of another health 4. Sustain state and peace building dividends: emergency. Sustainability of service provision can only be achieved • Target known infrastructure gaps: The ZINWA if implementing institutions have secure, long-term and BTC have clear ideas for further work which revenues. If projects build citizen confidence and could be developed into a structured proposal. increase satisfaction with government, these state These include: and peace building dividends should be sustained by a. Further strengthening of water security (access building in cost-recovery from the start, thereby using and reliability of supply). the success of the new service to encourage fee and b. Replacement of pump at raw water abstraction tax payment to sustain them. This is already practiced point. in some locations (for instance, “Your taxes at work” c. Extension of water pipes. billboards in Liberia displaying recent infrastructure d. 3.2 kilometers of sewage lines. construction), but may be extended to project level, e. Three refuse trucks. for example, to encourage Beitbridge citizens to pay f. Environmental Management Agency local service fees and utility bills. compliant landfill. g. Five new reservoirs. Recommendations for Zimbabwe in General, h. Increased water supply and storage at schools and Beitbridge Specifically and other public institutions. 1. Focus on high return, rehabilitation-centric projects: The Beitbridge Project had a relatively small budget • Consider connection subsidies using output-based relative to the achieved improvements in service access. aid: Infrastructure financing could be supported This was partly due to carrying out cost-effective with an output-based aid (OBA) project to raise repairs of existing infrastructure (for instance, two off- the connection rate and increase access to the piped river storage reservoirs had leaking sections repaired, water system for the poor. This could be achieved or the repair of the treatment plant). Choosing quick by providing a connection subsidy to low-income win, high-return, rehabilitation projects over new and households, for instance in the relatively poor expensive infrastructure may make particular sense Ward 6. in Zimbabwe with its strong, yet recently eroded, • Strengthen communications campaign: A Phase II infrastructure base. project would be an opportunity to compensate for the communications failure of the first project. 2. Beitbridge Phase II: To improve and sustain services A branding campaign could be coupled with bill- in the years ahead, a Phase II follow-up project in payment sensitization to sustain services and the Beitbridge is recommended to address the remaining state and peace building dividend in Beitbridge. A

www.wsp.org 33 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Recommendations

further idea to reinforce such a campaign would be rubbish bins was a persistent complaint by citizens an open learning site, where different stakeholders and could be easily relieved by negotiating a good (including residents) can raise project-related deal using the Beitbridge Resident Association to issues, and seek clarifications and answers to procure and supply more rubbish bins. At present, any questions they might have. This can bring the bins are too few and too small, leading to greater local ownership and greater transparency, rubbish being thrown onto the street as bins fill up understanding, and knowledge. before the day scheduled for collection. The cost • Promote and formalize institutional relationships: could be recovered through charging for a second A Phase II project in Beitbridge should promote collection day. The BTC should build the cost of the partnership between the BTC and ZINWA black rubbish bags into its services and enforce and formalize their relationship. Evidence from their use by only collecting rubbish in bags. this assessment suggests both institutions struggled • Continue to benchmark services: Continued to maintain a harmonious relationship during the benchmarking of WASH services—for instance, Project. To improve relations, formal contracts using key statistics highlighted in this assessment— or memorandums of understanding may help to is essential to compare Beitbridge WASH services define responsibilities and asset ownership issues to other local authorities and to facilitate peer better, and could be reinforced by initiatives such exchanges among urban local authorities. as staff exchanges. • Research pre-pay meter options: Current WSP research based on several case studies in Southern 3. Opportunities for the BTC and ZINWA: Aside from and Eastern Africa has found that prepayment could a possible Phase II project, the BTC and ZINWA have offer benefits to customers and service providers, a number of opportunities to build on the successes but that there are distinct risks and conditions already achieved. These include: that need to be considered and mitigated against. • Orientation for newly elected Ward Councilors: The research showed that under the right policy The BTC should use the impetus of this impact conditions and with sound management, prepaid assessment to take newly elected Councilors to meters could contribute to service extensions and the water abstraction site, the dams and the water improvements, however their very high hardware treatment plant to demonstrate first-hand what is and maintenance costs and high breakdown rates being done to help with water supply, and to start leave ambiguous cost-benefit ratios. This therefore building a case for further works. requires sound planning, good operational • Brand services and mobilize community: Even and financial management, and a very strong without another externally funded project, the communication campaign. The WSP research BTC and ZINWA could improve on branding the report should be shared with the BTC and ZINWA services they provide, for instance, with inexpensive to guide both institutions’ thinking with regard to public posters. Such branding efforts could be prepaid meters. The report and other documents are extended to a broader community campaign to included in this link: http://wsp.org/prepaidwater. explain service provision, encourage payment, and • Build on the greening of the town by providing grass to cooperatively engage with civil society and the seed: Procure seedlings/plants/grass to continue business community. greening the town and make an announcement • Local quick wins: Specific citizen complaints that citizens can get tree seedlings and grass seed identified by this assessment could be easily resolved, for free from the BTC. giving the BTC further quick wins. A lack of

34 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire

1. Location / Type of respondent (tick)

1.1 Residential 1.2 Institutional 1.3 Commercial /Industrial

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 High Medium Low School Clinic Hospital Government Other Hotel Shops Industry Density Density Density

2. Sex of respondent:

a Male

b Female

3. Age range of respondent (tick):

Age range (in years) Tick Below 18 18 – 25 26 – 31 32 – 40 41 – 45 46 – 50 Above 65+

4. What is the highest level of schooling of the respondent?

a Never went to a formal school

b Primary school attended or currently attending

c Primary school completed

d Secondary school (= High School) attended or currently attending

e Secondary school (= High School) completed

f Tertiary education (= University) attended or currently attending

g Tertiary education (= University) completed www.wsp.org 35 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

5. What do you consider the three most important functions of government? Mark the circles 1, 2 and 3 in the order that the respondent first says them

a Security and safety of citizens / Border control / Policing / Justice

b Electricity supply that is steady and affordable

c Economic development / No inflation / Jobs / Social security & equality

d Good Roads and Transport links

e Water, Sanitation and Hygiene / Garbage removal

f Education / Schooling

g Health / Hospitals / Health Insurance

g Support to agriculture & fishery

h Other (specify):

6. What causes the disease Cholera in your opinion? If person is unfamiliar with Cholera, describe it to them: “strong diarrhea and vomiting that doesn’t stop on its own, makes one very weak & requires going to a doctor to not die” Multiple answers allowed

a Sneezing and coughing from an infected person

b Dirty food and water / Bacteria in Food and Water / Open Defecation & Dirty Toilets

c Unprotected Sex

d Air Pollution

e Mosquito Bites

f Toxic chemicals

g Other[but make sure any responses plausibly similar to (b) are recorded there]

36 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

7. Do you remember the big cholera epidemic in Beitbridge 2008-9 (four years ago)?

a Yes

b No

Ask Question 8 only if answer to Question 7 is (a) Yes. Otherwise skip to question 9.

8. Were you or your immediate family affected by the cholera epidemic in 2008-9? By family are meant grandparents, parents, aunts and uncles, siblings and cousins Multiple answers allowed

a No, no one in my family was affected

b Yes, I was ill with cholera myself

c Yes, at least one of my family members was ill

d Yes, a family member died

e I don’t remember

9. Does your family do any of the following to avoid getting Cholera/diarrhea? Multiple answers allowed / Exception: Read answer options out

a I/We wash our hands with soap or ash before eating and/or after toilet

b I/We keep our food covered and/or keep flies out

c I/We filter or boil or otherwise treat our water to make it safe

d I/We are using improved sanitation facilities

e I/We use water from a protected source for drinking

f No, I/We do none of the above

g I don’t know

www.wsp.org Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

10. Are you aware of anything the local authority has done to prevent Cholera / diarrhoeal outbreaks? Multiple answers allowed

a Yes, the local authority has improved the water supply

b Yes, the local authority has improved solid waste (=garbage) collection

c Yes, the local authority has improved sewerage treatment & removal

d Yes, the local authority has helped with programs for better hygiene behavior

e Yes, other improvements (describe briefly):

f No, I am not aware of anything the local authority has done

11. What is the main source of drinking water for members of your household?

a Piped water into dwelling

b Piped water to yard/plot

c Public tap/standpipe

d Tubewell/borehole

e Protected dug well

f Unprotected dug well

g Rainwater collection

h Bottled water

i Cart with small tank/drum

j Tanker-truck

k Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channel)

l Other (specify):

Ask Questions 12 and 13 only if answer to question 11 was (a), (b) or (c) i.e. piped water. Otherwise skip to Question 14

38 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

12. Do you store water in your house or yard (e.g., in bottles, containers or a tank)?

a Yes

b No

c I don’t know

13. How long is piped tap-water available during an average day?

a Less than 2 hours per day

b Between 2 and 4 hours

c Between 4 and 6 hours

d Between 6 and 8 hours

e Between 8 and 12 hours

f Between 12 and 16 hours

g Between 16 and 20 hours

h Between 20 and 24 hours

i 24 hours per day

j I don’t know

14. Do you further treat your water in any way to make it safer to drink? You can fill in YES without asking if option (c) of question 9 was ticked!

a Yes

b No

c I don’t know

Ask Question 15 only if answer to Question 14 is (a) Yes. Otherwise skip to Question 16.

www.wsp.org 39 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

15. What do you usually do to water to make it safer to drink?

a Boil

b Add bleach/chlorine

c Strain through a cloth

d Use a water filter (ceramic, sand, composite, etc.)

e Solar disinfection

f Let it stand and settle

g Other (specify):

h I don’t know

16. What kind of toilet facility do members of your household usually use? Flush/pour flush to:

a Piped sewer system

b Septic tank

c Pit latrine

d Elsewhere

e Unknown place / not sure / don’t know where

Other options:

f Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP)

g Pit latrine with slab

h Pit latrine without slab/open pit

i Composting toilet

j Bucket

k Hanging toilet / hanging latrine

40 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

l No facilities or bush or field

m Other (specify):

17. Do you share this toilet facility with other households?

a Yes

b No

18. What do you do with your solid waste (=garbage) in your household? Multiple answers allowed

a Burn it in our yard

b Bury it in our yard

c Throw it onto the street (don’t know if someone collects it)

d Take it to a collection point / Collected from the front door

e Other (specify):

Ask Question 19 only if the answer to 18 was option (d). Otherwise skip to 20.

19. How often is the garbage picked up?

a More than once a week

b Once per week

c Once every two weeks

d Once per month

d Never

e Other (specify):

www.wsp.org 41 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

20. In your view, who has the duty to provide safe water in Beitbridge?

a Private persons/families are themselves responsible to organize safe water

b Beitbridge Town Council (BTC)

c Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA)

d Ministry of Water Resources / “The national government”

e NGOs and development agencies (e.g. “World Vision”, UN etc.)

f Other (specify):

21. How would you rate the quality of water services in this city at present?

a Fully satisfactory

b Satisfactory, but room for improvement

c Not satisfactory

d I don’t know

22. How would you rate the quality of sewage services in this city at present?

a Fully satisfactory

b Satisfactory, but room for improvement

c Not satisfactory

d I don’t know

23. How would you rate the quality of solid waste services in this city at present?

a Fully satisfactory

b Satisfactory, but room for improvement

c Not satisfactory

42 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

d I don’t know

24. Do you know about the ‘Beitbridge Emergency Water and Sanitation Project’? If a respondent does not recognize the project name, you may ask him if he was aware of any substantial work done on the water network, sewage network, garbage collection and hygiene promotion. Do not mention that these were by BTC or World Bank.

a Yes, respondent recognized the full scale of the project / knew the project by its name

b the respondent did not recognize the project explicitly, or may not have recognize it by its name, but was aware of at least one of its major components

c No, the respondent never heard of the project or any of its major components

Ask questions 25-27 only if the answer to Question 24 is (a) or (b)! Otherwise skip to 28

25. Have you personally seen or experienced any changes due to the project / these project components? Multiple answers allowed

a Yes, more regular tap water

b Yes, better solid waste (=garbage collection) / Cleaner streets

c Yes, better sewage system

d Yes, fewer cases of disease

e No, I have not seen or experienced any changes due to the project / project components

26. To your knowledge, who was responsible for this project / project components? Multiple answers allowed, except when (f) is selected

a Beitbridge Town Council (BTC)

b Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA)

c Ministry of Water Resources

d NGOs and development agencies (e.g. “World Vision”, UN, World Bank etc.)

e Other (specify):

f I don’t know www.wsp.org 43 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

Ask Questions 27 only if the answer to 26 was (a), (b),(c),(d) and/or (e), but not if (f)

27. Has the project influenced how you see this institution / these institutions?

a Yes, I see it / them more positively

b No, I see it / them the same way

c I see it / them more negatively

28. How do you view the quality of local authority services in Beitbridge generally?

a Positively

b Neutral

c Negatively

29. How would you describe your own economic situation?

a It is a struggle to afford food and housing expenses / I have no savings

b I am doing ok / I can pay all my bills on time, but I cannot save much

c I am well off and have savings, and own expensive items (car, etc.)

30. Do you pay your water and waste service bills regularly?

a Yes

b No

c Sometimes

44 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

QUESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC GROUPS TO BE INTERVIEWED

3.1. INDIVIDUALS 1. How do you get water in your house? How often (per day)? 2. Who is in charge of water management in your house? 3. Do different members of the family have specific roles when it comes to water? (describe the roles) 4. Do you pay for water and other service charges? If so how much per month? If not why not? Is this expensive or affordable? 5. Is access to clean water a right of a citizen? 6. Is the local authority doing a good job when it comes to providing safe drinking water to its citizens? (describe) 7. If water infrastructure breaks down, who do you contact? 8. Do they come and fix the breakage? 9. What do you do with solid waste (rubbish) in your household? 10. Does the local utility come and pick up waste? 11. What are the most noticeable changes since the end of the implementation of the project? 12. According to your opinion what are the weakest and the strongest points of the implemented Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project and why?

3.2. ZINWA & BTC What kind of change has the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project brought to your institution? (if any, describe) 1. What are the most obvious changes that can be seen in Beitbridge since the end of implementation of the project? • On the infrastructure level/and by walking on the street • For individual households and local private companies 2. According to your opinion what are the weakest and the strongest links of the implemented Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project and why? 3. How would you describe the level of trust from the side of the citizens towards your institution before the implementation of the project and how it is today? 4. Has the project in any way influenced old and new partnerships? 5. Has there been an increase/decrease in revenue streams? 6. Do users participate in budget setting and project prioritization?

3.3. PRIVATE SECTOR 1. Was your company in anyway involved in the implementation of Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project? (if so, describe) 2. Has the implementation of the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project in any way influenced your business or businesses in town in general? 3. According to your opinion what are the weakest and the strongest links of the implemented Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project and why?

3.4 WORLD BANK STAFF 1. We understand that the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project was implemented directly through ZINWA and BTC and that this way of implementing through country systems was a move away from the traditional way the bank implements (for example through a PIU). a. What was the driving factor behind choosing this route for implementation? www.wsp.org 45 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | Apendix A: Survey Questionnaire

b. What were the main challenges and main advantages? c. Would you recommend that the bank does it again? d. If yes – what areas would the bank need to address?

2. Have you noticed any change in citizens’ confidence in ZINWA or BTC? 3. Do you think that this model of delivery can be scaled up in Zim?

46 Impact Assessment Report Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | References

References

Baietti, A., W. Kingdom, and M. Ginneken. 2006. Klipin, J., and K. Harrison. 2003. The Future for Policing Characteristics of Well-Performing Public Water Utilities. and Crime Prevention in SADC. Montreal: International Water Supply and Sanitation Working Note Report Crime Prevention Centre. No. 9. Washington D.C.: The World Bank Group. Luhmann, Niklas. 1988. “Familiarity, Confidence, Trust: Barth, F. 2002. “An Anthropology of Knowledge.”Current Problems and Alternatives.” In Trust: Making and Anthropology 43 (1): 1–18. breaking Cooperative Relations, edited by D. Gambeta, 95–107. Oxford: Blackwell. Bayliss, T., and S. Owens. 1994. “The Environmental Challenge.”In Human Geography: Society, Space and Muzvidziwa, V.N. 2005. Women without Borders: Informal Social Science, edited by D. Gregory, R. Martin and G. Cross-border Trade among Women in the Southern African Smith. University of Minnesota Press. Development Community. Addis Ababa: Organisation for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Cheema, Shabakar G. 2006. “Building trust in Africa. government: An Introduction.” In Building Trust in Government: Innovations in Governance in Asia, edited Ntuli, T.G. 2000. Impact of Crime on Socio-economic by Shabakar G. Cheema and Veselin Popovski, 1–22. Development at Somopho, South Africa. Department of United Nations University Press. Social Work, University of Zululand. January 2000. http://www.business2.com/articles.com. Clausen, Bianca, Aart Kraay, and Zsolt Nyiri. 2011. “Corruption and Confidence in Public Institutions: Nay, Olivier. 2013. “Fragile and failed states: Critical Evidence from a Global Survey.” The World Bank perspectives on conceptual hybrids.” International Economic Review 25 (2): 212–249. Political Science Review 34 (3): 326–341. Cohen, A. 1985. The Social Construction of Community. Newton, Kenneth. 2007. Social and Political trust. In London: Tailstock. Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior, edited by Russell J. Dalton and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 342–361. Dalby, S., and F. Mackenzie. 1997. “Reconceptualising New York: Oxford University Press. local community: environment, identity and threat.”Area 29: 99–108. Newton, Kenneth, and Pippa Norris. 1999. Confidence in Public Institutions: Faith, Culture or Performance? Paper Duncan, J.S. 1994. “The Politics of Landscape and for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Nature, 1992–93.”Progress in Human Geography 18: Political Science Association, Atlanta, September 1–5. 361–70. Orlove, B. and Steven C. Caton. 2010. “Water Fukuyama, F. 1995.Trust: The Social Virtues and the Sustainability: Anthropological Approaches and Creation of Prosperity. The Free Press. Prospects.” Annual Review of Anthropology 39: 401– Gillespie, S. 2001. Strengthening capacity to improve 415. nutrition. FCND Discussion Paper 106. Washington, Owens, Lindsay A., and Karen S. Cook. 2013. “The D.C.: IFPRI. Effects of Local Economic Conditions on Confidence Hardin, Russell. 1999. “Do We Want Trust in in Key Institutions and Interpersonal Trust after the Government?” In Democracy and Trust, edited by Mark Great Recession.” Annals of the American Academy of Warren, 22–41.Cambridge University Press. Political and Social Science 650 (1): 274–298. Hastrup, K. 2009. Water worlds: framing the question of social resilience. www.wsp.org 47 Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project | References

Putnam, Robert. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civic UNICEF. 2010. Annual Report. Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton Warren, M.E. 1999. “Democratic theory and trust.” In University Press. Democracy & trust, edited by M.E. Warren, 310: 345. Robson, C. 2002. Real World Research. Second edition. UK: Cambridge University Press. Oxford: Blackwell. World Bank. 2013. Implementation Completion and Sachs, A. 1995. “Eco-Justice: Linking Human Rights and Results (ICR) Report to the Beitbridge Town Council the Environment.” WorldwatchPaper 127, Washington. for the Beitbridge Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Zimbabwe. Sillitoe, P. 1998. “The development of indigenous knowledge.”Current Anthropology 39: 223–53. ZINWA data. 2011. Unpublished. SLRC (Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium). 2014. Developing state capacity to prevent malnutrition in Sierra Leone: An analysis of development partner support. http://www.securelivelihoods.org/ publications_details.aspx?resourceid=290

48 Impact Assessment Report www.wsp.org 49 September 2014

Water and Sanitation Program The World Bank Delta Centre, Upper Hill P.O. Box 30577 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya

Phone: +254 20 293-6334 Fax: +254 20 293-6386 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.wsp.org

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