Federal Register / Vol. 77, No. 130 / Friday, July 6, 2012 / Proposed Rules 39965

governments, or on the distribution of status review and as the 12-month This action is authorized by the power and responsibilities among the finding on the petition, announces our Endangered Act of 1973, as various levels of government or between finding that listing is warranted for the amended. It affects Part 17, subchapter the Federal Government and Indian hyacinth . If we finalize this rule B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of tribes. Thus, the Agency has determined as proposed, it would extend the Act’s Federal Regulations. The Act and its that Executive Order 13132, entitled protections to this species. We seek implementing regulations set forth a Federalism (64 FR 43255, August 10, information from the public on this series of general prohibitions and 1999) and Executive Order 13175, proposed rule and status review for this exceptions that apply to all endangered entitled Consultation and Coordination species. and threatened wildlife. These with Indian Tribal Governments (65 FR DATES: Comments: We will consider prohibitions make it illegal for any 67249, November 9, 2000) do not apply comments and information received or person subject to the jurisdiction of the to this proposed final rule. In addition, postmarked on or before September 4, United States to ‘‘take’’ (includes harass, this proposed order does not impose 2012. harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, any enforceable duty or contain any Public hearing: We must receive trap, capture, or to attempt any of these) unfunded mandate as described under requests for a public hearing by August within the United States or upon the Title II of the Unfunded Mandates 20, 2012 addressed to the contact high seas; import or export; deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) (Pub. L. specified in FOR FURTHER INFORMATION interstate or foreign commerce in the 104–4). CONTACT. This action does not involve any course of commercial activity; or sell or technical standards that would require ADDRESSES: You may submit comments offer for sale in interstate or foreign Agency consideration of voluntary by one of the following methods: commerce any endangered wildlife consensus standards pursuant to section • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, 12(d) of the National Technology www.regulations.gov. Follow the deliver, carry, transport, or ship any Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 instructions for submitting comments such wildlife that has been taken in (NTTAA), Public Law 104–113, section on Docket No. FWS–R9–ES–2012–0013. violation of the Act. Certain exceptions 12(d) (15 U.S.C. 272 note). • U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public apply to agents of the Service and State Comments Processing, Attn: FWS–R9– conservation agencies. List of Subjects in 40 CFR Part 180 ES–2012–0013, Division of Policy and Permits may be issued to carry out Environmental protection, Directives Management; U.S. Fish and otherwise prohibited activities Administrative practice and procedure, Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, involving endangered and threatened Agricultural commodities, difenzoquat, MS 2042–PDM; Arlington, VA 22203. wildlife species under certain Pesticides and pests, Reporting and We will not accept comments by circumstances. With regard to recordkeeping requirements. email or fax. We will post all comments endangered wildlife, a permit may be issued for the following purposes: for Dated: June 22, 2012. on http://www.regulations.gov. This scientific purposes, to enhance the Michael Goodis, generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us propagation or survival of the species Director, Pesticide Re-evaluation Division, and for incidental take in connection Office of Pesticide Programs. (see the Information Requested section below for more information). with otherwise lawful activities. [FR Doc. 2012–16295 Filed 7–5–12; 8:45 am] This regulatory action is not FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: BILLING CODE 6560–50–P economically significant. Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of Foreign Species, Endangered Species Background DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Endangered 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Species Act (Act) (16 U.S.C. Fish and Wildlife Service Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– 1533(b)(3)(B)) requires that, for any 358–2171. If you use a petition to revise the Federal Lists of 50 CFR Part 17 telecommunications device for the deaf Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (TDD), call the Federal Information [FWS–R9–ES–2012–0013; 4500030115] and Plants that contains substantial Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. scientific or commercial information RIN 1018–AY38 SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: that listing the species may be warranted, we make a finding within 12 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Executive Summary months of the date of receipt of the and Plants; Listing the Hyacinth We were petitioned to list the petition (‘‘12-month finding’’). In this Macaw hyacinth macaw, and 13 other finding, we determine whether the AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, species, under the Endangered Species petitioned action is: (a) Not warranted, Interior. Act of 1973 (Act). During our status (b) warranted, or (c) warranted, but ACTION: Proposed rule; 12-month review, we found threats operating in immediate proposal of a regulation finding. aggregation and contributing to the risk implementing the petitioned action is of of the species. Therefore, precluded by other pending proposals to SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and in this 12-month finding, we announce determine whether species are Wildlife Service, propose to list as that listing the hyacinth macaw is endangered or threatened, and endangered the hyacinth macaw warranted and are publishing a expeditious progress is being made to ( hyacinthinus) under proposed rule to list this species as add qualified species to or remove the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as endangered under the Act. We are species from the Federal Lists of amended (Act). We are taking this undertaking this action pursuant to a Endangered and Threatened Wildlife action in response to a petition to list settlement agreement, and publication and Plants. Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act this species as endangered or threatened of this 12-month finding and proposed requires that we treat a petition for under the Act. This document, which rule will fulfill our obligations under which the requested action is found to also serves as the completion of the that agreement. be warranted but precluded as though

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resubmitted on the date of such finding, review to determine if listing each of the based on the best scientific and that is, requiring a subsequent finding to 12 species is warranted, and initiated a commercial data available. Therefore, be made within 12 months. We must 60-day information collection period to we request comments or information publish these 12-month findings in the allow all interested parties an from other concerned governmental Federal Register. opportunity to provide information on agencies, the scientific community, or The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service the status of these 12 species of . any other interested parties concerning (Service) publishes an annual notice of The public comment period closed on this proposed rule. We particularly seek resubmitted petition findings (annual September 14, 2009. clarifying information concerning: notice) for all foreign species for which On October 24, 2009, and December 2, (1) Information on , listings were previously found to be 2009, the Service received a 60-day distribution, selection and warranted but precluded. notice of intent to sue from Friends of In this document, we announce that and WildEarth Guardians, for trends (especially breeding and foraging listing the hyacinth macaw as failure to issue 12-month findings on ), diet, and population endangered is warranted, and we are the petition. On March 2, 2010, Friends abundance and trends (especially issuing a proposed rule to add that of Animals and WildEarth Guardians current recruitment data) of this species. species as endangered under the Federal filed suit against the Service for failure (2) Information on the effects of Lists of Endangered and Threatened to make timely 12-month findings habitat loss and changing land uses on Wildlife and Plants. within the statutory deadline of the Act the distribution and abundance of this Prior to issuing a final rule on this on the petition to list the 14 species species. (Friends of Animals, et al . v. Salazar, proposed action, we will take into (3) Information on the effects of other consideration all comments and any Case No. 10 CV 00357 D.D.C.). On July 21, 2010, a settlement potential threat factors, including live additional information we receive. Such capture and hunting, domestic and information may lead to a final rule that agreement was approved by the Court international trade, predation by other differs from this proposal. All comments (CV–10–357, D. DC), in which the animals, and any diseases that are and recommendations, including names Service agreed to submit to the Federal known to affect this species or its and addresses of commenters, will Register by July 29, 2011, September 30, principal food sources. become part of the administrative 2011, and November 30, 2011, record. determinations whether the petitioned (4) Information on management action is warranted, not warranted, or programs for parrot conservation, Previous Federal Actions warranted but precluded by other listing including mitigation measures related to Petition History actions for no less than 4 of the conservation programs, and any other petitioned species on each date. On private, nongovernmental, or On January 31, 2008, the Service August 9, 2011, the Service published in received a petition dated January 29, governmental conservation programs the Federal Register a 12-month status that benefit this species. 2008, from Friends of Animals, as review finding and proposed rule for the represented by the Environmental Law following four parrot species: Crimson (5) The potential effects of climate Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm shining parrot, Philippine cockatoo, change on this species and its habitat. College of Law, requesting that we list white cockatoo, and yellow-crested Please include sufficient information 14 parrot species under the Act. The cockatoo (76 FR 49202). On October 6, with your submission (such as full petition clearly identified itself as a 2011, a 12-month status review finding references) to allow us to verify any petition and included the requisite was published for the red-crowned scientific or commercial information information required in the Code of parrot (76 FR 62016). On October 11, you include. Submissions merely stating Federal Regulations (50 CFR 424.14(a)). 2011, a 12-month status review and support for or opposition to the action On July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957), we proposed rule was published for the under consideration without providing published a 90-day finding in which we yellow-billed parrot (76 FR 62740), and supporting information, although noted, determined that the petition presented on October 12, 2011, a 12-month status will not be considered in making a substantial scientific and commercial review was published for the blue- determination. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the information to indicate that listing may headed macaw and grey-cheeked Act directs that determinations as to be warranted for 12 of the 14 parrot parakeet (76 FR 63480). whether any species is an endangered or species. In our 90-day finding on this On September 16, 2011, an extension threatened species must be made petition, we announced the initiation of to the settlement agreement was ‘‘solely on the basis of the best scientific a status review to list as threatened or approved by the Court (CV–10–357, D. and commercial data available.’’ endangered under the Endangered DC), in which the Service agreed to Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act), submit a determination for the Public Hearing the following 12 parrot species: blue- remaining four petitioned species to the headed macaw ( couloni), Federal Register by June 30, 2012. At this time, we do not have a public crimson shining parrot (Prosopeia In this status review we make a hearing scheduled for this proposed splendens), ( determination whether the petitioned rule. The main purpose of most public ambiguus), grey-cheeked parakeet action is warranted, not warranted, or hearings is to obtain public testimony or (Brotogeris pyrrhoptera), hyacinth warranted but precluded by other listing comment. In most cases, it is sufficient macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), actions for one of the remaining species, to submit comments through the Federal (Ara militaris), the hyacinth macaw. This Federal eRulemaking Portal, described above in Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua Register document complies, in part, the ADDRESSES section. If you would like haematuropygia), red-crowned parrot with the last deadline in the court- to request a public hearing for this (Amazona viridigenalis), ordered settlement agreement. proposed rule, you must submit your (Ara macao), white cockatoo (C. alba), request, in writing, to the person listed yellow-billed parrot (Amazona collaria), Information Requested in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION and yellow-crested cockatoo (C. We intend that any final actions CONTACT section by the date specified in sulphurea). We initiated this status resulting from this proposed rule will be DATES.

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Species Information and Factors patches surrounding the base of their in Gerais, and 1,500 in (Collar Affecting the Species lower mandibles, large and hooked grey- et al. 1992, p. 4). In 2003, the population Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) black bills, dark-brown irises, and dark- was estimated at 6,500 individuals; and implementing regulations (50 CFR grey legs. However, older adults have 5,000 of which were located in the part 424) set forth procedures for adding lighter grey or white legs, which are Pantanal region (BLI 2011, unpaginated; species to, removing species from, or short and sturdy to allow the to Brouwer 2004, unpaginated). This reclassifying species on the Federal hang sideways or upside down while population is the stronghold for the foraging. Immature are similar to species and has shown signs of recovery Lists of Endangered and Threatened adults but with shorter tails and paler since 1990, most likely as a response to Wildlife and Plants. Under section yellow bare facial skin (Juniper and Parr conservation projects (BLI 2011, 4(a)(1) of the Act, a species may be 1998, pp. 416–417; Guedes and Harper unpaginated; Antas et al. 2006, p. 128; determined to be endangered or 1995, p. 395; Munn et al. 1989, p. 405; Pinho and Nogueira 2003, p. 30). threatened based on any of the Forshaw 1973, p. 364). The hyacinth macaw has a specialized following five factors: At one time, hyacinth were diet consisting of the of various (A) The present or threatened widely distributed throughout , palm species which are inside an destruction, modification, or , and (Pinho and extremely hard that only the curtailment of its habitat or range; Nogueira 2003, p. 30; Whittingham et al. hyacinth macaw can easily break (B) Overutilization for commercial, 1998, p. 66; Guedes and Harper 1995, p. (Guedes and Harper 1995, p. 400; Collar recreational, scientific, or educational 395). Today, the species is limited to et al. 1992, p. 5). In each of the three purposes; three separate areas, almost exclusively regions where it occurs, this species (C) Disease or predation; within Brazil, that have experienced utilizes only a few specific palm (D) The inadequacy of existing less pressure from trapping, hunting, species. In Para´, hyacinth macaws regulatory mechanisms; or and agriculture: Eastern Amazonia in (hyacinths) have been reported to feed (E) Other natural or manmade factors Para´, Brazil, south of the Amazon River on Maximiliana regia (inaja´), Orbignya affecting its continued existence. along the , Xingu, and Tapajo´s martiana (babassu), Orbignya phalerata In considering whether a species may rivers; the Gerais region of northeastern (babacu´ ) and Astrocaryum sp. warrant listing under any of the five Brazil, including the states of Maranha˜o, (tucuma´n). In the Gerais region, factors, we look beyond the species’ Piauı´, Goia´s, Tocantins, , and hyacinths feed on Attalea funifera exposure to a potential threat or ; and the Pantanal of Mato (piacava), Syagrus coronata (catole´), and aggregation of threats under any of the Grosso and do Sul, Brazil Mauritia vinifera (buriti). In the factors, and evaluate whether the and marginally in Bolivia and Paraguay Pantanal region, hyacinths feed species responds to those potential (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 119; Juniper and exclusively on Scheelea phalerata threats in a way that causes actual Parr 1998, p. 416; Abramson et al. 1995, (acuri) and Acrocromia totai (bocaiu´ va) impact to the species. The identification p. 14; Munn et al. 1989, p. 407). (Antas et al. 2006, p. 128; Schneider et of threats that might impact a species The hyacinth macaw exploits a al. 2006, p. 74; Juniper and Parr 1998, negatively may not be sufficient to variety of habitats in the Para´, Gerais, p. 417; Guedes and Harper 1995, p. 401; compel a finding that the species and Pantanal regions, although the Collar et al. 1992, p. 5; Munn et al. warrants listing. The information must climate within these three regions 1987, pp. 407–408). Although the include evidence indicating that the features a dry season that prevents the hyacinth macaw prefers bocaiu´ va palm threats are operative and, either singly growth of extensive closed-canopy nuts over acuri, bocaiu´ va is only readily or in aggregation, affect the status of the tropical forests. In Para´, the species available from September to December, species. Threats are significant if they prefers palm-rich va´rzea (flooded which coincides with the peak of chick drive, or contribute to, the risk of forests), seasonally moist forests with hatching; however, the acuri is available extinction of the species, such that the clearings, and savannas. In the Gerais throughout the year and constitutes the species warrants listing as endangered region, it is located within the majority of this species’ diet in the or threatened, as those terms are defined biome, where it inhabits dry open Pantanal (Guedes and Harper 1995, p. in the Act. forests in rocky, steep-sided valleys and 400). Species Description plateaus, gallery forests (a stretch of Hyacinths forage for palm nuts and forest along a river in an area of water on the ground. They feed on the The hyacinth macaw is the largest otherwise open country), and Mauritia large quantities of nuts eliminated by bird of the parrot family, Family palm . In the Pantanal region, cattle in the fields and have been , (Guedes and Harper 1995, p. hyacinth macaws frequent gallery forest observed in close proximity to cattle 395; Munn et al. 1989, p. 405). It and palm groves with wet grassy areas ranches where waste piles are measures approximately 100 (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 417; Guedes concentrated. They may also forage centimeters (cm) (3.3 feet (ft)) in length. and Harper 1995, p. 395; Munn et al. directly from the palm tree and drink Average female and male wing lengths 1989, p. 407). fluid from unripe palm fruits (Juniper measure approximately 400 to 407.5 Although there is evidence that and Parr 1998, p. 417; Guedes and millimeters (mm) (1.3 ft), respectively. suggests this species was abundant Harper 1995, pp. 400–401; Collar et al. Average tail lengths for females and before the mid-1980’s (Collar et al. 1992, 1992, pp. 5, 7). Birds often occur in males are 492.4 mm (1.6 ft) and 509.4 p. 4), a very rapid population decline is small family groups except at feeding mm (1.7 ft), respectively (Forshaw 1973, suspected to have taken place over the and roosting sites when large flocks of p. 364). Hyacinth macaws are last 45 years (three generations) based 10–100 have been observed (Abramson characterized by a predominately on large-scale illegal trade, habitat loss, et al. 1995, p. 2). Single birds rotate cobalt-blue plumage, black underside of and hunting (BLI 2011, unpaginated). In responsibility for serving as a lookout. wing and tail, and unlike other macaws, 1986, Munn et al. (1989, p. 413) Birds are most active during the cooler have feathered faces and lores (areas of estimated the total population of parts of the day, foraging in the morning a bird’s face from the base of the bill to hyacinth macaws to be 3,000, with a and late afternoon. Foraging generally the front of the eyes). In addition, they range between 2,500 and 5,000 lasts about 30 minutes followed by a have bare yellow eye rings, bare yellow individuals; 750 occurred in Para´, 1,000 10–20 minute break before feeding

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again. Foraging may be within a few process. Fledglings will continue to be A. Present or Threatened Destruction, meters to several kilometers from the fed by the parents for 6 months, when Modification, or Curtailment of Habitat roost or nest tree (Guedes and Harper they begin to break hard palm nuts or Range 1995, pp. 400–401; Collar et al. 1992, p. themselves, and may remain with the Natural ecosystems across Latin 5). adults for 16 months, after which they America are being transformed due to Hyacinths nest from July to December will join groups of other young birds economic development, international in tree cavities and, in some parts of its (Schneider et al. 2006, pp. 71–72; market demands, and government range, cliff cavities. As a secondary tree Guedes and Harper 1995, pp. 407–411). policies. In Brazil, demand for soybean nester, hyacinth macaws require large, Although hyacinths lay two eggs, oil and meal has increased, causing preexisting tree holes for nesting (Pizo observers have reported that they rarely cultivations to significantly increase et al. 2008, p. 792; Abramson et al. fledge more than one bird (Munn et al. (Barona et al. 2010, pp. 1–2). Brazil has 1995, p. 2). In Para´, the species nests in 1989, p. 409). Given the long period of also risen to become the world’s largest holes of Bertholettia excelsa (Brazil exporter of beef. Over the past decade, nut). In the Gerais region, nesting may chick dependence, hyacinths may not more than 10 million hectares (ha) (24.7 occur in large dead Mauritia vinifera breed every year (Schneider et al. 2006, (buriti), but is most commonly found in pp. 71–72; Guedes and Harper 1995, pp. million acres (ac)) were cleared for natural rock crevices. In studies 407–411). cattle ranching, and the government is aiming to double the country’s share of conducted in the Pantanal region, the species was found to nest almost the beef export market to 60 percent by exclusively (94 percent of nests) in In 1989, the hyacinth macaw was 2018 (Mongabay 2009, unpaginated). Sterculia striata (manduvi); although listed as a species at risk for extinction Much of the recent surge in cropland area expansion is taking place in the nesting has been reported in by the Brazilian Institute of Brazilian Amazon and Cerrado regions Pithecellobium edwalii (angio branco), Environment and Natural Resources (Nepstad et al. 2008, p. 1738). However, Enterolobium contortisiliquum (IBAMA), the government agency that in all of the regions where the hyacinth (ximbuva), and Vitex sp. (taruma´) controls the country’s natural resources (Kuniy et al. 2006, p. 381; Pinho and macaw occurs, the natural vegetation, (Lunardi et al. 2003, p. 283). It is also including food and nesting resources, is Nogueira 2003, p. 30; Juniper and Parr listed as ‘‘critically endangered’’ by the 1998, p. 417; Guedes and Harper 1995, threatened by expansion of agriculture State of Minas Gerais and ‘‘vulnerable’’ and cattle ranching. p. 402; Collar et al. 1992, pp. 5–6; Munn by the State of Para´ (Garcia and Marini et al. 1987, p. 408). 2006, p. 153). This species is also Para´ Hyacinth pairs will defend a nest currently classified as ‘‘endangered’’ by using loud vocalizations and flights Para´ is one of the Brazilian states that around the nest tree when a potential the International Union for the constitute the Amazon biome threat, such as humans, dogs, some Conservation of Nature and is listed as (Greenpeace 2009, p. 2). This biome birds, and mammals, approach. Often Appendix I on the Convention on contains more than just the well-known one or two other pairs will join in these International Trade in Endangered tropical rainforests; it also encompasses nest defense behaviors. However, when Species (CITES) list. Species included other ecosystems, including floodplain displacing other macaw species, in CITES Appendix I are the most forests and savannas. Para´ has long been hyacinths engage in silent behaviors; the endangered CITES-listed species. They known as the epicenter of illegal male and female will cover the nest are considered threatened with deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon opening using their bodies, hook their extinction, and international trade is (Dias and Ramos 2012, unpaginated). bill on the upper rim of the nest permitted only under exceptional Here, the most important cause of opening, and extend their wings. The circumstances, which generally deforestation is the conversion of male may fly to displace the intruding precludes commercial trade. floodplain forests to cattle-ranching, bird while the female remains at the which has expanded significantly over nest opening (Guedes and Harper 1995, Summary of Factors Affecting the the last 15 years (da Silva 2009, p. 3; p. 405). Hyacinth Macaw Lucas 2009, p. 1; Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7). Although the hyacinth macaw’s food In captivity, hyacinths reach This status review focuses primarily reproductive maturity between 4 and 5 and nesting habitat are reasonably on the hyacinth macaw populations in years old (Abramson et al. 1995, p. 2). intact, the continuing rapid expansion Brazil. The species occurs only The hyacinth macaw lays two smooth, of cattle ranching may affect nesting white eggs approximately 48.4 mm (1.9 marginally within Bolivia and Paraguay trees and food resources (Munn et al. inches (in)) long and 36.4 mm (1.4 in) as extensions from the Brazilian 1989, p. 415). wide. Eggs are usually found in the nest Pantanal population, and there is little Cattle ranching has been present in from August until December (Juniper information on the species in those the va´rzea (floodplain forests) of the and Parr 1998, p. 417; Guedes and countries. Most of the information on Amazon for centuries (Arima and Uhl, Harper 1995, p. 406). The female alone the hyacinth macaw is from the 1997, p. 433). However, state subsidies incubates the eggs for approximately Pantanal region, as this is the largest and massive infrastructure development 28–30 days. The male remains near the and most studied population. We found have facilitated large-scale forest nest to protect it from invaders, but may little information on the status of the conversion and colonization for cattle leave 4–6 times a day to forage and Para´ and Gerais populations; therefore, ranching (Barona et al. 2010, p. 1). collect food for the female (Schneider et we evaluated factors for these Additionally, certain factors have led to al. 2006, pp. 72, 79; Guedes and Harper populations by a broader region (e.g., a significant expansion of this land use. 1995, p. 406). Chicks are mostly naked the Amazon biome for Para´ and the The climate of the Brazilian Amazon is with sparse white down feathers at Cerrado biome for Gerais). For particular favorable for cattle ranching; frosts do hatching. Young are fed regurgitated, areas in which we lack information not occur like in the south of Brazil and chopped palm nuts (Munn et al. 1989, about the species, we request additional rainfall is more evenly distributed p. 405). Most chicks fledge at 105–110 information from the public during the throughout the year, increasing pasture days old; however, separation is a slow proposed rule comment period. productivity and reducing the risk of

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fire. In Para´, there is a lower incidence the destruction of nesting trees (Collar et season when fuel is high and humidity of disease, such as hoof-and-mouth al. 1992, p. 5). These crevices will likely low, resulting in extremely hot fires disease, brucellosis, and ectoparasites remain constant and are not a limiting (Klink and Machado 2005, p. 708). than in central and south Brazil. factor. However, deforestation for Cerrado vegetation is resistant to fires, Additionally, the price of land in Para´ agriculture, primarily soy crops, and but frequent burnings cause destruction, has been lower than in central and cattle ranching threaten the remaining affecting tree and shrub establishment, south Brazil, resulting in ranchers native cerrado vegetation, including and resulting in a more herbaceous selling farms, establishing larger farms palm species the hyacinth macaw relies landscape (Klink and Machado 2005, in Para´, and competing in the national on as a food resource. pp. 709–710; Ratter et al. 1997, p. 224). market (Arima and Uhl, 1997, p. 446). Settlement of the Cerrado region by It was estimated that in 2000, 67 percent In the Brazilian North region, nonindigenous people began in the 18th of the area burned in Brazil occurred including Para´, cattle occupy 84 percent Century with the quest for gold and within the Cerrado (Klink and Machado of the total area under agricultural and precious stones. Later, cattle ranching 2005, p. 709). From May to September livestock uses. This area, on average, became the dominant activity until the 2010, there were 60,000 fire outbreaks, has expanded 9 percent per year over 1950’s (WWF–UK 2011b, p. 2). a 350 percent increase over the same the last 10 years causing 70–80 percent However, during this time the Cerrado time period in 2009. Although some of of deforestation (Nepstad et al. 2008, p. was sparsely populated and inhabitants this increase is likely due to the drought 1739). Para´ itself contains two-thirds of practiced little more than subsistence at that time, more can be attributed to the Brazilian Amazonia cattle herd agriculture (Pinto et al. 2007, p. 14; deliberate burning to create farmland, (Arima and Uhl 1997, p. 343). For 7 Ratter et al. 1997, p. 227). Most of the aggravated by a legislative challenge to months of the year, cattle are grazed in settlement and drastic anthropogenic Brazil’s Forest Code (See Factor D) the va´rzea, but are moved to the upper modification to the Cerrado region (WWF 2010, unpaginated). terra firme the other 5 months (Arima began in the 1950’s with the More than 50 percent of the original and Uhl, 1997, p. 440). Intense livestock mechanization of agriculture, new Cerrado vegetation has been lost due to activity can affect seedling recruitment fertilization techniques, and the low conversion to agriculture and pasture, via trampling and grazing. Cattle also cost of land (Pinto et al. 2007, p. 14; although estimates range up to 80 compact the soil such that regeneration WWF 2001, unpaginated; da Silva 1997, percent, and the area currently of forest species is severely reduced p. 446). With the construction of the continues to suffer high rates of habitat (Lucas 2009, pp. 1–2). This type of new Brazilian capital, Brası´lia, in 1960, loss (Pearce 2011, unpaginated; WWF– repeated disturbance can lead to an several highways and railways were UK 2011b, pp. 1–2; Carvalho et al. 2009, ecosystem dominated by invasive trees, built, and during the 1970’s and 1980’s, p. 1393; BLI 2008, unpaginated; Pinto et grasses, bamboo, and ferns (Nepstad et investment programs along with al. 2007, p. 14; Klink and Machado al. 2008, p. 1740). generous government subsidies, tax 2005, p. 708; Marini and Garcia 2005, p. Although the immediate cause of incentives, and low-interest loans 667; WWF 2001, unpaginated; da Silva deforestation in the Amazon was transformed the region to a new 1997, p. 446, da Silva 1995, p. 298). predominantly the expansion of pasture agricultural frontier (WWF–UK 2011b, During 2002–2008, the demand for land during the period 2000–2006 (Barona et p. 2; WWF 2001, unpaginated; Ratter et to be put into production resulted in an al. 2010, p. 8), the underlying cause may al. 1997, pp. 227–228). annual deforestation rate of more than be the expansion of soy cultivation in In the last 15 years, soy production 14,200 km2 (5,483 mi2) (WWF–UK other areas, leading to a displacement of has doubled due to an increasing 2011b, p. 2). At this rate, the vegetation pastures further north into parts of Para´ demand related to an increase in the of the Cerrado region is disappearing causing additional deforestation (Barona consumption of meat (soy is used in the faster than the Amazon rainforest et al. 2010, pp. 6, 8). Para´ has one of the manufacturing of livestock feed), use in (Pearce 2011, unpaginated; WWF–UK highest deforestation rates in the food, and biofuel (WWF 2011, 2001, unpaginated; Klink and Machado Brazilian Amazon (Portal Brasil 2010, unpaginated). In 1980, cattle in the 2005, p. 708; Ratter et al. 1997, p. 228). unpaginated). During 1988–2009, the Cerrado region numbered 48 million, If current rates continue, the remaining state lost 123,527 km2 (47,694 mi2), with and have certainly grown since then. In native habitat may be lost by 2030 annual rates varying between 3,780– 1994, 3.9 million ha (9.6 million ac) of (Marini and Garcia 2005, p. 667). 8,870 km2 (1,460–3,424 mi2) (Butler soy were planted, and far more were Pantanal 2010, unpaginated). Modeled future planted with exotic grasses for pasture deforestation is concentrated in eastern (Ratter et al. 1997, p. 228). Today, the The Pantanal is a 140,000-km2 Amazonia. If current trends in Cerrado produces 70 percent of Brazil’s (54,054-mi2) seasonally flooded wetland agricultural expansion continue, the farm output and constitutes 40 percent interspersed with higher areas, not southeastern tributaries of the Amazon of the national cattle herd (Pearce 2011, subject to inundation, covered with River (Tapajo´s and Xingu) will lose at unpaginated; WWF–UK 2011b, p. 2). cerrado or seasonal forests (Ju´ nior 2008, least two-thirds of their forest cover by The remaining Cerrado continues to be p. 133; Ju´ nior et al. 2007, p. 127; Harris 2050 (Soares-Filho et al. 2006, p. 522). pressured by conversion for soy et al. 2005, p. 715; Mittermeier et al. plantations and extensive cattle 1990, p. 103). Since the 1700’s, the Cerrado ranching. Additionally, the conversion Pantanal region has been subject to The Cerrado is a 2 million km2 to biofuel production is imminent, various economic activities, including (772,204 mi2) biome consisting of creating a market for the expansion and mining, sugar plantations, agriculture, plateaus and depressions with establishment of new areas for soy, and cattle ranching (Harris et al. 2006, vegetation that varies from dense caster beans, other oil-bearing plants, p. 165). Although cattle ranching has grasslands with sparse shrubs and small and sugar cane (WWF–UK 2011a, occurred in this region for more than a trees to an almost closed woodland unpaginated; Carvalho et al. 2009, p. century, transitions during the 1990’s to (Pinto et al. 2007, p. 14; da Silva 1997, 1393; BLI 2008, unpaginated). more intense ranching methods led to p. 437; Ratter et al. 1997, p. 223). In the Fire is frequently used to clear land or the conversion of more forests to pasture Cerrado, hyacinths now mostly nest in stimulate new growth in pastures. and the introduction of nonnative rock crevices, most likely a response to Farmers often burn at the end of the dry grasses. Today, cattle ranching is the

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predominant economic activity in this of the few tree species that grow large This suggests that potential nesting sites region and is the greatest threat to enough to supply cavities that can are rare and will become increasingly habitat loss in the Pantanal (Pizo et al. accommodate the hyacinth’s large size. rare in the future (Ju´ nior et al. 2007, p. 2008, p. 793; Harris et al. 2006, pp. 165, Manduvis occur in forest patches and 128). 175–176; Harris et al. 2005, pp. 715– corridors that cover only 6 percent of Effects of Deforestation on the Hyacinth 716, 718; Pinho and Nogueira 2003, p. the vegetative area of the Pantanal (Pizo Macaw 30; Seidl et al. 2001, p. 414; Guedes and et al. 2008, p. 793). Much of these Harper 1995, p. 396; Mettermeier 1990, patches and corridors are surrounded by The hyacinth macaw is highly pp. 103, 107–108). seasonally flooded grasslands used as specialized in its diet and nest sites Eighty percent of the land in the rangeland for cattle (Johnson et al. 1997, (Faria et al. 2008, p. 766; Guedes and Pantanal is owned by large-ranch p. 186). When forests are cleared, the Harper 1995, p. 400; Collar et al. 1992, owners, some whose tracts exceed 1,000 natural vegetation is replaced with p. 5). The loss of these tree species may km2 (386 mi2) (Seidl et al. 2001, p. 414; exotic grasses (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 136; pose a threat by creating a shortage of Mettermeier et al. 1990, p. 103). Cattle Harris et al. 2005, p. 716). More than 40 suitable nesting sites and increasing ranchers use naturally occurring percent of the forests and savanna competition, and result in lowered grasslands for grazing cattle, but these habitats have already been altered by recruitment and a reduction in areas are subject to seasonal flooding. the introduction of exotic grasses (Harris population size (Lee 2010, pp. 2, 12; During the flooding season (January to et al. 2005, p. 716; Johnson et al. 1997, Ju´ nior et al. 2007, p. 128; Johnson et al. June), the upland forests experience p. 187). Fire is a common method for 1997, p. 188). increased pressure from cattle. These renewing pastures, controlling weeds, The hyacinth macaw has an extremely upland forests are often removed and and controlling pests (e.g., ticks); strong and chiseled beak which allows it to feed on extremely hard palm nuts converted to cultivated pastures (Ju´ nior however, fires frequently become that few, if any, other species can eat et al. 2007, p. 127; Harris et al. 2006, p. uncontrolled and are known to enter the (Guedes and Harper 1995, p. 400; Collar 165; Pinho and Nogueira 2003, p. 30; patches and corridors of manduvi trees et al. 1992, p. 5). Loss of these palm Seidl et al. 2001, p. 414; Johnson et al. during the dry season (Harris et al. 2005, species, especially in Para´ and the 1997, p. 186). Clearing land to establish p. 716; Johnson et al. 1997, p. 186). Cerrado region where food sources are pasture is perceived as the economically Although fire can promote cavity threatened, could lead to reduced optimal land use while land not formation in manduvi trees, frequent fitness, reduced reproduction, and producing beef is often perceived as fires can also prevent trees from extinction. For example, one of the unproductive (Seidl et al. 2001, pp. surviving to a size capable of providing 414–415). Little of the vegetation in this major factors thought to have suitable cavities and can cause a high contributed to the critically endangered region remains undisturbed due to cattle rate of nesting tree loss (Guedes 1993 in ranching and the associated burning of status of the Lear’s macaw Johnson et al. 1997, p. 187). Guedes (Anodorhynchus leari) is the loss of its pastures for maintenance (Mittermeier ´ (1995 in Junior et al. 2006, p. 185) noted food source, licuri palm stands et al. 1990, p. 103). Between 1990 and that 5 percent of hyacinth macaw nests 2000, the annual deforestation rate was (Syagrus), to cattle grazing (Collar et al. are lost each year to deforestation, fire, 1992, p. 257). estimated at 0.46 percent. During the and storms. period 2000–2004, the rate increased to Lack of breeding cavities can be a 2.3 percent per year, an increase of five In addition to the direct removal of limiting factor for cavity-nesting parrot times compared to the previous 10-year trees and the impact of fire on species (Pinho and Noguiera 2003, p. period. If this rate is maintained, the recruitment of manduvi trees, cattle 30). Hyacinths can tolerate a certain original vegetation area of the Pantanal, themselves have impacted the density of degree of human disturbance at their including nesting trees for the hyacinth manduvi seedlings in the Pantanal. breeding sites (Pinho and Noguiera macaw, will be completely destroyed by Cattle forage on and trample manduvi 2003, p. 36); however, the number of approximately 2050 (Harris et al. 2006, seedlings, affecting the recruitment of usable cavities increases with the age of pp. 169, 177). this species to a size large enough to the trees in the forest (Newton 1994, p. When clearing land for pastures, palm accommodate hyacinths (Pizo et al. 266), and clearing land for agriculture trees are often left as the cattle will feed 2008, p. 793; Johnson et al. 1997, p. 187; and cattle ranching, cattle trampling and on the palm nuts (Pinho and Nogueira Mettermeier et al. 1990, p. 107). Only foraging, and burning of forest habitat 2003, p. 36). In fact, hyacinth macaws those manduvi trees 60 years old or result in the loss of mature trees with are known to occur near cattle ranches older are capable of providing these natural cavities of sufficient size and a and feed off the palm nuts eliminated by cavities (Pizo et al. 2008, p. 792; Ju´ nior reduction in recruitment of native the cattle (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 417; et al. 2006, p. 185). The minimum species, which could eventually provide Guedes and Harper 1995, pp. 400–401; diameter at breast height (DBH) for trees nesting cavities. A shortage of nest sites Collar et al. 1992, pp. 5, 7). However, to potentially contain a cavity suitable can threaten the persistence of the other trees, including potential nesting for hyacinth macaws is 50 cm (20 in), hyacinth macaw by constraining trees, are often removed (Snyder et al. while all manduvi trees greater than 100 breeding density, resulting in lower 2000, p. 119). In addition to the direct cm (39 in) DBH contain suitable nest recruitment and a gradual reduction in removal of trees, other activities cavities. Data indicate a low recruitment population size (Ju´ nior et al. 2007, p. associated with cattle ranching, such as in classes greater than 5 cm (2 in) DBH, 128; Johnson et al. 1997, p. 188; Guedes the introduction of exotic foraging a strong reduction in the occurrence of and Harper 1995, p. 405; Newton 1994, grasses, grazing, and burning, are individuals greater than 50 cm (20 in) p. 265). This may lead to long-term serious threats to the nesting trees of the DBH, and very few individuals greater effects on the viability of the hyacinth hyacinth macaw (Ju´ nior et al. 2007, p. than 110 cm (43 in) DBH (Ju´ nior et al. macaw population, especially in Para´ 128; Harris et al. 2006, p. 175; Snyder 2007, p. 128). Only 5 percent of the and the Pantanal where persistence of et al. 2000, p. 119). existing adult manduvi trees in south- nesting trees is threatened (Ju´ nior et al. As stated above, hyacinths in the central Pantanal contain suitable 2007, p. 128; Ju´ nior et al. 2006, p. 181). Pantanal nest almost exclusively in cavities for hyacinth macaws (Guedes Habitat and feeding specializations cavities of the manduvi tree, as it is one 1993 in Johnson et al. 1997, p. 186). are good predictors of the risk of

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extinction of birds. The hyacinth macaw 2010. The purpose of this project is to and Machado 2005, p. 710). Although scores high in both feeding and nest site eliminate illegal deforestation by 2014 these programs demonstrate an urgency specialization (Pizo et al. 2008, pp. 794– across more than 77 municipalities. The and effort in protecting the Cerrado, we 795). Although a species may withstand program aims to show how it is possible have no details on the specific work or the initial shock of deforestation, factors to develop a new model for an activity accomplishments of these programs, or such as the lack of food resources and identified as a major cause of how they would affect, or have affected, breeding sites may reduce the viability deforestation (Dias and Ramos 2012, the hyacinth macaw and its habitat. of the population and make them unpaginated; Vale 2010, unpaginated). If The Brazilian Government, under its vulnerable to extinction (Sodhi et al. these two programs continue to be Action Plan for the Prevention and 2009, p. 517). Given the land-use trends implemented and show success like that Control of Deforestation and Burning in across the range of the hyacinth macaw, experienced in Paragominas, it would the Cerrado—Conservation and the continued existence of food and contribute significantly to the reduction Development (2010), committed to nesting resources is a great concern. of deforestation not only in the Amazon, recuperating at least 8 million ha (20 but throughout Brazil. million ac) of degraded pasture by the Conservation Actions Awareness of the urgency in year 2010. It also plans to expand the Brazil announced in 2009 a plan to protecting the biodiversity of the areas under protection in the Cerrado to cut deforestation rates by 80 percent by Cerrado biome is increasing (Klink and 2.1 million ha (5 million ac) (WWF–UK 2020 with the help of international Machado 2005, p. 710). The Brazilian 2011b, p. 4). However, we do not have funding; Brazil’s plan calls on foreign Ministry of the Environment’s National details on the success of the action plan countries to find $20 billion U.S. dollars Biodiversity Program and other or the progress on expanding protected (USD) (Marengo et al. 2011, p. 8; government-financed institutes such as areas. Moukaddem 2011, unpaginated; Painter the Brazilian Environmental Institute, In 1990, the Hyacinth Macaw Project 2008, unpaginated). If Brazil’s plan is Center for Agriculture Research in the (Projecto Arara Azul) began with implemented and the goal is met, Cerrado, and the National Center for support from the University for the deforestation in Brazil would be Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Development of the State (Mato Grosso significantly reduced. Despite obstacles are working together. Additionally, do Sul) and the Pantanal Region to overcome to reach this goal, nongovernmental organizations such as (Brouwer 2004, unpaginated; Guedes including annual funding, deforestation Fundac¸o Pro´-Natureza, Instituto 2004, p. 28; Pittman 1999, p. 39). This fell by 80 percent in the past 6 years due Sociedade Populac¸a˜o e Natureza, and program works with local landowners, to police raids and other tactics used to World Wildlife Fund have provided communities, and tourists to monitor crack down on illegal deforesters valuable assessments and are pioneering the hyacinth macaw, study the biology (Barrionuevo 2012, unpaginated). work in establishing extractive reserves of this species, manage the population, However, the Brazilian Senate is (Ratter et al. 1997, pp. 228–229). Other and promote its conservation and currently debating reform to Brazil’s organizations are working to increase ensure their protection in the Pantanal Forest Code. We do not know the the area of Federal Conservation Units; (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 135; Harris et al. 2005, current status of the bill, but if the currently they represent only 1.5 p. 719; Brouwer 2004, unpaginated; reform is passed, it would reduce the percent of the biome (Ratter et al. 1997, Guedes 2004, p. 281). Studies have percentage of land a private landowner p. 229). Teams from the University of addressed feeding, reproduction, would be required to maintain as forest Brasilia, Center for Agriculture Research competition, habitat survival, chick (See Factor D). The expectation of the in the Cerrado, and the Royal Botanic mortality, behavior, nests, predation, bill being passed has already resulted in Garden Edinburgh have combined to movement, and threats contributing to a spike in deforestation. If the bill is form the Conservation and Management the reduction in the wild population passed, it would undermine Brazil’s of the Biodiversity of the Cerrado Biome (Guedes 2004, p. 281). Because there are commitment to reduce deforestation initiative. The aim is to survey floristic not enough natural nesting sites in this (Moukaddem 2011, unpaginated; WWF– patterns to determine representative and region, the Hyacinth Macaw Project UK 2011a, unpaginated). biodiversity hot spots (Ratter et al. 1997, began installing artificial nest boxes; In Brazil, the Ministry of Environment p. 229). more than 180 have been installed and The Nature Conservancy have A network of nongovernmental (Guedes 2004, p. 281). Additionally, worked together to implement the organizations, Rede Cerrado, has been wood boards are used to make cavity Farmland Environmental Registry to established to promote local openings too small for predators, while curb illegal deforestation in the sustainable-use practices for natural still allowing hyacinths to enter Amazon. Once all of the country’s rural resources (Klink and Machado 2005, p. (Brouwer 2004, unpaginated). properties are registered in the system, 710). Rede Cerrado provided the In nests with a history of unsuccessful Brazil will be able to more easily Brazilian Ministry of the Environment breeding, the Hyacinth Macaw Project identify and track illegal deforestation recommendations for urgent actions for has also implemented chick through satellite monitoring and the conservation of the Cerrado. As a management, with the approval of the develop land use plans to create result, a conservation program, Program Committee for Hyacinth Macaw alternatives for farmers and ranchers, Cerrado Sustentavel, was established to Conservation coordinated by IBAMA. guaranteeing the protection of Amazon integrate actions for conservation in Hyacinth macaw eggs are replaced with land. This plan helped Paragominas, a regions where agropastoral activities chicken eggs and the hyacinth eggs are municipality in Para´, be the first in were especially intense and damaging incubated in a field laboratory. After Brazil to come off the government’s (Klink and Machado 2005, p. 710). hatching, chicks are fed for a few days, blacklist of top Amazon deforesters. Conservation International, The Nature and then reintroduced to the original After 1 year, 92 percent of rural Conservancy, and World Wildlife Fund nest or to another nest with a chick of properties in Paragominas had been have worked to promote alternative the same age. This began to increase the entered into the registry, and economic activities, such as ecotourism, number of chicks that survived and deforestation was cut by 90 percent. In sustainable use of fauna and flora, and fledged each year (Brouwer 2004, response to this success, Para´ launched medicinal plants, to support the unpaginated; Guedes 2004, p. 281). its Green Municipalities Program in livelihoods of local communities (Klink Awareness has also been raised with

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local cattle ranchers. Attitudes have mainly nests in rock crevices in this B. Overutilization for Commercial, begun to shift, and ranchers are proud region, the palm species the hyacinth Recreational, Scientific, or Educational of having macaw nests on the property. macaw utilizes as food sources are Purposes Local inhabitants also served as project threatened by direct clearing of land and For centuries, parrots and macaws collaborators (Guedes 2004, p. 282). the reduced recruitment of native forests have been trapped for the pet bird trade This shift in attitude has also by the grazing and trampling of cattle and captured for use of their feathers in diminished the threat of illegal trade in and the burning of pastures for local handicrafts (Guedes 2004, p. 279; the Hyacinth Macaw Project area (See maintenance. Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 98–99). Factor B) (Brouwer 2004, unpaginated). The greatest threat to the habitat of Additionally, hunting of parrots is The activities of the Hyacinth Macaw the Pantanal is the expansion of cattle widespread and large species of macaws Project have certainly contributed to the ranching. If current rates of have been known to be targeted by increase of the hyacinth population in deforestation continue, the original hunters as a food source (Tobias or the Pantanal since the 1990’s (Harris et vegetation could be lost by Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). It is likely al. 2005, p. 719). Nest boxes can have approximately 2050. In this region, the that hunting and a marked effect on breeding numbers of palm species that the hyacinths utilize were the main causes of the hyacinth many species on a local scale (Newton as food sources are usually left as cattle macaw’s decline until the 1960’s and 1994, p. 274), and having local cattle also feed on the palm nuts. However, early 1970’s. At that time, a major ranchers appreciate the presence of the the manduvi trees, which contain the hyacinth macaw on their land helps increase in international trade in live majority of hyacinth nests, are already macaws may have had a greater effect diminish the effects of habitat limited. Cattle affect the recruitment of destruction and illegal trade. However, on the decline of the species than either native seedlings through grazing and habitat loss or hunting (Munn et al. the Hyacinth Macaw Project area does trampling. Fire, for pasture maintenance not encompass the entire Pantanal 1989, p. 412). or clearing, has been known to enter Trade can have a particularly region. Although active management stands of manduvi trees during the dry devastating effect on parrot species (installation of artificial nest boxes and season. Five percent of hyacinth macaw chick management) has contributed to given their long life span, low nests are lost each year to deforestation, reproductive rate, and slow recovery the increase in the hyacinth population, fire, and storms, and there is evidence and farmers have begun to protect from harvesting pressures (Lee 2010, p. of severely reduced recruitment of 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1121; Wright et al. hyacinth macaws on their property, the manduvi trees, suggesting that not only Pantanal is still threatened with the 2001, p. 711; Munn et al. 1989, p. 410). are these nesting trees scarce now, but expansion of cattle-ranching. The Because of the difficulty in keeping they are likely to become increasingly recruitment (entry of new trees into a young birds alive, adults are often the scarce in the future. population) of the manduvi tree is main target for trade; as this practice severely reduced and is expected to As discussed above, the regions where removes reproductive individuals, the become increasingly rare in the future, the hyacinth macaw occurs have population is depleted more rapidly due to ongoing damage caused by suffered high rates of deforestation. The (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 6). Certain grazing and trampling of cattle as well growing demand for soy and Brazil’s trapping methods can also lead to rapid as the burning of pastures for plan to increase their export of beef extirpation of extremely site-faithful maintenance. If this continues, the suggest that the current trends are likely species, like the hyacinth macaw (Collar hyacinth’s preferred natural cavities to continue and may even increase. et al. 1992a, p. 7). Additionally, once a will be severely limited and the species There are conservation programs that species becomes rare in the wild, will completely rely on the installation aim to curb the deforestation rate. If demand and price often increase, of artificial nest boxes, which is these programs are implemented and creating a greater demand for the currently limited to the Hyacinth goals are reached, deforestation in Brazil species and increasing harvesting Macaw Project area. could be significantly reduced; pressure (Herrera and Hennessey 2009, however, the effects of these programs p. 234; Wright et al. 2001, p. 717). Summary of Factor A are yet to be seen. The Hyacinth Macaw Species priced above $500 USD are Although the hyacinth macaw is Project has contributed much to the more likely to be imported illegally, and found is three different biomes of Brazil, knowledge of the biology of the higher prices often drive poaching rates they are all threatened with the hyacinth macaw. Management, such as (Wright et al. 2001, p. 718). The expansion of agriculture, mainly soy the installation of artificial nests and hyacinth macaw is a larger and more and cattle ranching. Para´ has long been chick management have contributed to expensive species; prices may reach known as the epicenter of illegal the increased hyacinth population in over $12,000 USD (Basile 2009, p. 4). deforestation and has one of the highest the Pantanal. However, the Pantanal Harvesting pressure can cause smaller deforestation rates of the Amazon. population, as well as the Para´ and populations than habitat degradation Rapid expansion of cattle ranching is Cerrado populations, continues to be where some level of reproduction could leading to the conversion of floodplain threatened by the loss of essential food be supported (Wright et al. 2001, p. forests, threatening the food and nesting and nesting resources. Given the 718). resources of the hyacinth macaw. If specialized nature of the hyacinth In 1981, the hyacinth macaw was current trends in agricultural expansion macaw, the loss of these resources could listed in Appendix II of the Convention continue, the southeastern tributaries of have a particularly devastating effect on on International Trade in Endangered the Amazon River (Tapajo´s and Xingu) the viability of the population. Species of Wild Fauna and Flora will lose at least two-thirds of their Therefore, based on the best available (CITES). CITES is an international forest cover by 2050. The Cerrado region scientific and commercial information, agreement between governments to is disappearing faster than the Amazon we find that the present or threatened ensure that the international trade of forest due to soy cultivation and cattle destruction, modification, or CITES-listed plant and species ranching. If current rates continue, the curtailment of habitat or range is a does not threaten species’ survival in remaining native vegetation could be threat to the hyacinth macaw now and the wild. There are currently 175 CITES lost by 2030. Although the hyacinth in the future. Parties (member countries or signatories

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to the Convention). Under this treaty, through 2010, only 24 of the 1,669 live significantly greater given the amount of CITES Parties regulate the import, hyacinth macaws reported in trade were smuggling, routing of birds through export, and reexport of specimens, reported as wild-sourced, 1,537 were countries not parties to CITES, and parts, and products of CITES-listed reported as captive bred or captive born, internal consumption in plant and animal species. Trade must be 35 were reported as pre-Convention, (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 6; Munn et al. authorized through a system of permits and 73 were reported with the source as 1989, pp. 412–413). One report stated and certificates that are provided by the unknown. that 2,500 hyacinths were flown out of designated CITES Scientific and Through Resolution Conf. 8.4 (Rev. Bahı´a Negra, Paraguay from 1983 Management Authorities of each CITES CoP15), the Parties to CITES adopted a through 1984, (BLI 2011 unpaginated). Party. process, termed the National Legislation From 1987 through 1988, 700 hyacinths In October 1987, the hyacinth macaw Project, to evaluate whether Parties have were reportedly trapped and traded was uplisted to Appendix I of CITES. adequate domestic legislation to (Munn et al. 1989, p. 416). In the late An Appendix-I listing includes species successfully implement the Treaty 1980’s and early 1990’s, reports of threatened with extinction whose trade (CITES 2010b, pp. 1–5). In reviewing a hyacinth trapping included one trapper is permitted only under exceptional country’s national legislation, the CITES that worked an area for 3 years circumstances, which generally Secretariat evaluates factors such as removing 200–300 wild hyacinths a precludes commercial trade. The import whether a Party’s domestic laws month during certain seasons and of an Appendix-I species generally designate the responsible Scientific and another trapper who caught 1,000 requires the issuance of both an import Management Authorities, prohibit trade hyacinths in 1 year and knew of other and export permit. Import permits for contrary to the requirements of the teams operating at similar levels (Silva Appendix-I species are issued only if Convention, have penalty provisions in (1989a) and Smith (1991c) in Collar et findings are made that the import would place for illegal trade, and provide for al. 1992a, p. 6). Smith (1991c, in Collar be for purposes that are not detrimental seizure of specimens that are illegally et al. 1992a, p. 6) estimated a minimum to the survival of the species in the wild traded or possessed. The Brazilian of 10,000 hyacinths were taken from the and that the specimen will not be used Government was determined to be in wild in the 1980’s. for primarily commercial purposes Category 1, which means they meet all Trade in parrots was particularly high (CITES Article III(3)). Export permits for the requirements to implement CITES. in the 1980’s due to a huge demand Appendix-I species are issued only if Bolivia and Paraguay were determined from developed countries, including the findings are made that the specimen to be in Category 2, meaning legislation United States, which was the main was legally acquired and trade is not meets some but not all the requirements consumer of parrot species at that time detrimental to the survival of the to implement CITES; however, both (Rosales et al. 2007, pp. 85, 94; Best et species in the wild, and if the issuing countries have submitted a CITES al. 1995, p. 234). In the years following authority is satisfied that an import Legislation Plan, and Bolivia has also the enactment of the Wild Bird permit has been granted for the submitted draft legislation to the Conservation Act in 1992 (WBCA; see specimen (CITES Article III(2)). Secretariat for comments Factor D), studies found lower poaching Based on CITES trade data obtained (www..org, SC59 Document 11, levels than in prior years, suggesting from United Nations Environment Annex p. 1). Generally this means that that import bans in developed countries Programme—World Conservation Bolivia and Paraguay have not reduced poaching levels in exporting Monitoring Center (UNEP–WCMC) completed all the requirements to countries (Wright et al. 2001, pp. 715, CITES Trade Database, from October effectively implement CITES. However, 718). Although illegal trapping for the 1987 through 2010, the time the since the hyacinth macaw is listed as an pet trade occurred at high levels during hyacinth macaw was uplisted to CITES Appendix-I species under CITES, legal the 1980’s, there is no information to Appendix I, 2,092 specimens of this commercial international trade is very suggest that illegal trapping for the pet species were reported in international limited. Because very few of the 1,669 trade is currently occurring at levels that trade: 1,887 live birds, 116 feathers, 82 live hyacinth macaws reported in trade are affecting the populations of the scientific specimens, 2 bodies, 1 skin are wild-sourced (less than 2 percent), hyacinth macaw in its 3 regions. piece, and 4 unspecified specimens, we believe that international trade In Para´, Indians aggressively defend plus an additional 124 milliliters, 2 controlled via valid CITES permits is their land and macaws from outsiders, grams, and 49 flasks of scientific not a threat to the species. In addition, preventing traders from operating specimens. In analyzing these reported Bolivia and Paraguay’s Category 2 status successfully (Zimmerman et al. 2001, p. data, several records appear to be under the National Legislation Project 18; Munn et al. 1989, p. 415). Munn et overcounts due to slight differences in does not appear to be impacting the al. (1989, p. 414) noted that a well- the manner in which the importing and hyacinth macaw. organized professional bird-trading ring exporting countries reported their trade, The capture of hyacinth macaws is was a threat to the species in the Gerais and it is likely that the actual number illegal in Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay region; however, the attitudes of the of specimens of hyacinth macaws (Munn et al. 1989, p. 415) (See Factor ranchers in this region were beginning reported in international trade to D); however, despite this and CITES to shift in favor of the macaw and UNEP–WCMC from 1987 through 2010 protection, bird catchers are known to against trappers on their property was 1,873, including 1,669 live birds, have illegally harvested entire (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 8; Munn et al. 115 feathers, 82 scientific specimens, 2 populations of hyacinths for both 1989, p. 415). Thousands of hyacinths bodies, 1 skin piece, and 4 unspecified national and international trade (Munn were trapped in the Pantanal for the pet specimens, plus an additional 124 et al. 1989, pp. 412–413), devastating trade during the 1980’s, stripping many milliliters, 2 grams, and 49 flasks of many large populations and proving to areas of this species (Antas et al. 2006, scientific specimens. Of these be the cause of substantial declines in pp. 128–129; Munn et al. 1989, p. 414). specimens, 86 (4.6 percent) were hyacinth macaws in parts of Brazil, However, ranch owners in the Pantanal exported from Bolivia, Brazil, or Bolivia, and Paraguay (Munn et al. were unhappy with the decline of Paraguay (the range countries of the 1989, p. 410). In the 1970’s and 1980’s, hyacinth macaws on their land and species). With the information given in substantial trade in hyacinth macaws began to deny bird catchers access to the UNEP–WCMC database, from 1987 was reported, but actual trade was likely their land (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 8;

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Munn et al. 1989, p. 415). The would have a negative effect on on the best available scientific and population of hyacinths in this region reproduction and the ability of the commercial information, we find that has continued to increase since the species to recover. Hunting, for either overutilization for commercial, 1990’s (BLI 2011, unpaginated; Antas et meat or the sale of feather art, combined recreational, scientific, or educational al. 2006, p. 128; Pinho and Nogueira with habitat conversion, will continue purposes is a threat to the hyacinth 2003, p. 30). to contribute to the decline of the macaw in the Para´ and Gerais regions We found little information on illegal hyacinth macaw in these regions. now and in the future. trade of this species in international Hyacinths in the Pantanal are not C. Disease or Predation markets. One study found that illegal hunted for meat or feathers (Munn et al. pet trade in Bolivia continues to involve 1989, p. 413); therefore, these activities Infectious diseases can pose many CITES-listed species; the authors do not pose a threat to hyacinths in this direct threats to individual birds, as speculated that similar problems exist region. well as entire flocks (Abramson et al. in Peru and Brazil (Herrera and 1995, p. 287). Most of the available Hennessey 2007, p. 298). In that same Summary of Factor B research on diseases in psittacines, study, 11 hyacinths were found for sale Although trapping for the pet bird however, addresses captive-held birds, in a Santa Cruz market from 2004 to trade may have occurred in large while information on the health of 2007 (10 in 2004 and 1 in 2006) (Herrera numbers, especially in the 1980’s, and psittacines, including the hyacinth and Hennessey 2009, pp. 233–234). was the cause of a drastic decline in macaw, in the wild is scarce (Allgayer Larger species, like the hyacinth, were hyacinth macaws, we have no et al. 2009, pp. 972–973; Raso et al. frequently sold for transport outside of information that trade is a current threat 2006, p. 236). Captive-held birds may the country, mostly to Peru, Chile, and to the hyacinth macaw. Based on the have a higher incidence of disease than Brazil (Herrera and Hennessey 2009, pp. WCMC Trade Database, less than 2 wild birds due to their exposure to sick 233–234). We found no other data on percent of the live hyacinth macaws birds, unsanitary conditions, and the presence of hyacinths in illegal reported in trade from 1987 to 2010 improper husbandry methods; therefore, trade. During a study conducted from were wild-sourced. Therefore, we it is not always clear how prevalent 2007 to 2008, no hyacinth macaws were believe that international trade diseases may be in the wild and how recorded in 20 surveyed Peruvian controlled via valid CITES permits is they affect wild populations of birds. wildlife markets, (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, not a threat to this species. We found no Some of the common diseases known in pp. 2, 9–10). information suggesting that illegal macaws are discussed below. It is possible, given the high price of trapping and trade are current threats to Pacheco’s Parrot Disease hyacinth macaws that illegal domestic the hyacinth macaw. In each of the trade is occurring; however, we found regions of its range, the hyacinths are Pacheco’s parrot disease is a systemic no information to support this. defended by the owners of the land (e.g., disease caused by a psittacid Certainly, trapping for trade has Indians in Para´ and cattle ranchers in herpesvirus (PsHV–1) (Tomaszewski et decreased significantly from levels Gerais and Pantanal). Recent studies of al. 2006, p. 536; Abramson et al. 1995, reported in the 1980’s. Additionally, we wildlife markets in Bolivia and Peru p. 293; Panigrahy and Grumbles 1984, found no information identifying trade found a very limited number of pp. 808, 811). It is an acute, rapidly fatal as a current threat to the hyacinth hyacinths for sale; the largest disease of parrots, and sudden death is macaw. In the absence of data indicating occurrence was in 2004 and consisted of sometimes the only sign of the disease; otherwise, we find that illegal domestic only 10 hyacinth macaws. Furthermore, however, in some cases birds may show and international trade is not a threat to the population in the Pantanal has been symptoms and may recover to become the hyacinth macaw. increasing since the 1990’s, suggesting carriers (Tomaszewski et al. 2006, p. Hunting of hyacinths is illegal in that trapping is either no longer 536; Abramson et al. 1995, p. 293; Brazil, Bolivia, and Paraguay (Munn et occurring or is not occurring such that Panigrahy and Grumbles 1984, p. 811). al. 1989, p. 415) (See Factor D); it is impacting the hyacinth macaw at The outcome of the infection depends however, hyacinths in Para´ are most the population level in the wild. upon which of the four genotypes of threatened by subsistence hunters and Population and threats data is lacking PsHV–1 the individual is infected with, the feather trade by some Indian groups for the hyacinth in the Para´ and Gerais the species infected, and other unknown (Brouwer 2004, unpaginated; Munn et regions. We did not find any factors. For example, only genotype 4 is al. 1989, p. 414). Because the hyacinth information indicating that trapping for known to cause mortality in macaws is the largest species of macaw, it may the pet trade was a threat in these (Tomaszewski et al. 2006, p. 536). be targeted by subsistence hunters, regions, but we found some information If clinical signs of Pacheco’s disease especially by settlers along roadways indicating that the hunting of hyacinths are exhibited, they may include (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7). Additionally, as a source of protein and for feathers anorexia, depression, regurgitation, increased commercial sale of feather art to be used in local handicrafts may diarrhea, nasal discharge, central by Indians of Gorotire may be of remain as threats. Although we do not nervous system signs, and conjunctivitis concern given that 10 hyacinths are have information on the numbers of (Abramson et al. 1995, p. 293; Panigrahy required to make a single headdress macaws taken for these purposes, given and Grumbles 1984, pp. 809–810). (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7). The Gerais the small populations in these two Death may occur 8 hours to 6 days after region is poor and animal protein, such regions, any loss of potentially the onset of signs (Panigrahy and as cattle, is not as abundant as in other reproducing individuals could have a Grumbles 1984, p. 810). Potential regions; therefore, meat of any kind, devastating effect on the ability of the sources may be an unapparent carrier or including macaws, is sought as a protein populations to increase. Therefore, we a recovered bird that is shedding the source (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7; Munn find that hunting is a threat to the virus in its droppings (Tomaszewski et et al. 1989, p. 414). hyacinth macaw in the Para´ and Gerais al. 2006, p. 536; Panigrahy and Because the populations of hyacinth regions. In addition, we are not aware of Grumbles 1984, p. 811). macaws that occur in Para´ and the any information currently available that Outbreaks of Pacheco’s disease have Gerais region are small, the removal of indicates the use of this species for any resulted in massive die offs of captive any individuals from the population scientific or educational purpose. Based parrots and is known to have caused

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high mortality in endangered species of and are, therefore, more susceptible to developed diagnostic tests, methods of parrots in the United States the disease due to transmission of the treating or preventing bornavirus (Tomaszewski et al. 2006, p. 536; disease during feeding and through infection, and methods for screening for Panigrahy and Grumbles 1984, p. 808). dried feces (Raso et al. 2006, p. 239). In the anti-bornaviral compounds (Kistler This disease and the presence of PsHV– a study conducted on wild hyacinth et al. 2008, pp. 1–15). We found no 1 have been known in captive and wild- nestlings in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso information on this disease in hyacinth caught hyacinth macaws (Tomaszewski do Sul, Brazil, C. psittaci was detected macaws. et al. 2006, pp. 538, 540, 543; Panigrahy in some nestlings; however, no evidence Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease and Grumbles 1984, p. 809); however, of clinical disease or death due to we found no information indicating that psittacosis was found. We found no Psittacine beak and feather disease this disease is impacting the hyacinth information indicating this disease is (PBFD) is a common viral disease that macaw at the population level in the impacting the hyacinth macaw at the has been documented in more than 60 wild. population level in the wild. psittacine species, but all psittacines should be regarded as potentially Psittacosis Papillomatosis susceptible (Rahaus et al. 2008, p. 53; Psittacosis (Chlamydiosis), also Papillomas are pink to white fleshy or Abramson et al. 1995, p. 296). The known as parrot fever, is an infectious granular growths, or lesions, commonly causative agent is a virus belonging to disease caused by the bacteria encountered in macaw species the Circovirus (Rahaus et al. Chlamydophila psittaci. An estimated 1 (Abramson et al. 1995, pp. 297–298). 2008, p. 53). This viral disease, which percent of all birds in the wild are The cause of this disease is thought to originated in Australia, affects both wild infected and act as carriers (Jones 2007, be an infectious agent; however, this and captive birds, causing chronic unpaginated). C. psittaci is transmitted theory has not been confirmed. The infections resulting in either feather loss through carriers who often show no onset of this disease may occur or deformities of the beak and feathers signs of the disease. It is often spread following major stressors, such as (Rahaus et al. 2008, p. 53; Cameron through the inhaling of the organism transporting, Pacheco’s disease, or 2007, p. 82). PBFD causes from dried feces (Michigan Department psittacosis (Abramson et al. 1995, p. immunodeficiency and affects organs of Agriculture 2002, p. 1), but may also 297). such as the liver and brain, and the pass orally from adults to nestlings Most of the birds with papillomas immune system. Suppression of the when feeding via regurgitation or from exhibit no clinical signs, however, immune system can result in secondary the adult male to the adult female when cloacal lesions may cause straining, infections due to other viruses, bacteria, feeding during incubation (Raso et al. malodorous droppings, reduced fertility, or fungi. The disease can occur without 2006, p. 239). Clinical signs of secondary bacterial infections, bloody obvious signs (de Kloet and de Kloet psittacosis may include ruffled feathers, droppings, or anemia. Oral lesions may 2004, p. 2,394). Birds usually become depression, anorexia, respiratory cause wheezing, secondary bacterial infected in the nest by ingesting or problems, dehydration, diarrhea, weight infections, sinusitis, excessive inhaling viral particles. Infected birds loss, conjunctivitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, salivation, and difficulty swallowing. develop immunity, die within a couple and even death (Raso et al. 2006, pp. Lesions in the esophagus, crop, or of weeks, or become chronically 235–236; Michigan Department of proventriculus (the gizzard) may infected. No vaccine exists to immunize Agriculture 2002, p. 1). This disease can experience vomiting and weight loss populations (Cameron 2007, p. 82). We be treated with a tetracycline antibiotic (Abramson et al. 1995, pp. 297–298). found no information on this disease in (Michigan Department of Agriculture Although this disease is common in hyacinth macaws. 2002, p. 1). macaw species, it has not been Although there are many diseases that Wild birds living in a stable documented in the hyacinth macaw could negatively affect macaws, environment appear to have few (Abramson et al. 1995, p. 297). including the hyacinth macaw, in complications from this disease and captivity and in the wild, we are Proventricular Dilatation Disease may not show clinical signs. This may unaware of any information indicating be explained by a naturally occurring Proventricular dilatation disease that any of those diseases are impacting balanced host-parasite relationship (PDD), also known as avian bornavirus the hyacinth macaw at a level that may (Jones 2007, unpaginated; Raso et al. (ABV) or macaw wasting disease, is a affect the status of the species as a 2006, pp. 236, 239–240). However, serious disease reported to infect whole and to the extent that it is stress, including removal from its psittacines. Macaws are among those considered a threat to the species. natural habitat or disturbance to its commonly affected by PPD (Abramson natural habitat or population, may et al. 1995, p. 288), although it is a fatal Predation disturb the host-parasite balance and the disease that poses a serious threat to all In a study conducted in the Brazilian latency of C. psittaci may be changed, domesticated and wild parrots Pantanal from 2002 through 2005, invoking the disease (Jones 2007, worldwide, particularly those with very researchers identified several predators unpaginated; Raso et al. 2006, pp. 236, small populations (Kistler et al. 2008, p. of hyacinth macaw eggs. These 239–240). There are few reports of 1; Abramson et al. 1995, p. 288). This predators included toco mortality from C. psittaci in natural contagious disease causes damage to the (Ramphastos toco), purplish jays habitats, but recently captured wild nerves of the upper digestive tract, so (Cyanocorax cyanomelas), white-eared birds may experience high mortality that food digestion and absorption are (Didelphis albiventris), and rates due to stress stemming from negatively affected. The disease has a (Nasua nasua). Of 582 eggs inadequate hygiene conditions, feeding, 100-percent mortality rate in affected monitored over 3 years, 23.7 percent and overpopulation. In captivity, birds birds, although the exact manner of (approximately 138) were lost to are more susceptible to infection, and transmission between birds is unclear. predators. The toco was the main latent infections become more apparent In 2008, researchers discovered a predator, responsible for 12.4 percent of (Raso et al. 2006, pp. 239–240). genetically diverse set of novel ABVs the eggs lost and 53.5 percent of the eggs Hyacinth macaw nestlings stay in the that are thought to be the cause (Kistler lost annually (Pizo et al. 2008, p. 795). nest longer than other parrot species et al. 2008, p. 1). The researchers Although most predators leave some

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sort of evidence behind, toco toucans and trade of animal species without destroying nests or shelters; selling, are able to swallow hyacinth macaw authorization. Hunting and trade are offering, exporting, purchasing, keeping, eggs whole, leaving no evidence behind. punishable by imprisonment of 2–5 utilizing, or transporting eggs, as well as This may lead to an underestimate of years. Article 35 of this law also products derived from fauna species nest predation by toucans (Pizo et al. requires that textbooks include text on without authorization; and introducing 2008, p. 793). Toco toucans may also the protection of wildlife, primary and species into the country without license. take over nest holes occupied by middle school educational programs Although this law provides protection hyacinth macaws, killing nestlings. include 2 hours per year on the matter, to the fauna species of Brazil, it is more The loss of eggs, nestlings, and adults and radio and television programs permissive than the prior law, the Fauna can have a direct impact on the include 5 minutes per week on wildlife Protection Act (Law No. 5.197/1967), recruitment of hyacinth macaws and the protection. The hyacinth macaw is also which provided more severe ability of a population to increase. listed under the Official List of Brazilian punishments (Clayton 2011, p. 4). We Despite the information on lost eggs in Endangered Animal Species (Order No. found that the loss of nesting trees in the Pantanal due to predation, most 1.522/1989). As described under Factor Para´ and the Pantanal and hunting in notably by the toco toucan, this B, hunting and trade of hyacinth the Para´ and Cerrado regions were population has been increasing, macaws has decreased significantly threats to the hyacinth macaw (Factors suggesting that predation is not since the 1980’s. Brazil’s campaigns to A and B); therefore, it appears that this occurring at a level that is affecting the protect wildlife and other outreach regulation does not adequately protect status of the population. We found no programs, which have contributed to the this species or its nests. information on potential predators or shift in attitudes, have contributed to Section II of the Environmental information indicating that predation this decline. The hyacinth is still Crimes Law details the crimes against may be a threat in the other parts of the threatened with some hunting in parts flora, which include the destruction and hyacinth macaw’s range. Therefore, we of its range, but given the drastic damaging of forest reserves; cutting trees find that predation is not impacting the declines in both trade and hunting since in forest reserves, causing fire in forests; hyacinth macaw at a level that may the 1980’s, these laws may be extracting minerals from public forests affect the status of the species as a contributing to the protection of the or reserves without authorization; whole and to the extent that it is hyacinth macaw. However, as discussed receipt of wood or vegetable products considered a threat to the species. under Factor A, the food and nesting for commercial or industrial purposes resources of the hyacinth macaw are without requesting a copy of the Summary of Factor C threatened by deforestation for supplier’s license; polluting the Although there are many diseases that agriculture and cattle ranching. environment at levels that may cause could affect the hyacinth macaw, we Deforestation and programs that damage to the health of human beings, found no evidence of adverse impacts to encourage the expansion of economic or death of animals or significant the species such that it rises to the level activities, and the subsequent destruction of plants; and research or of a threat. Predation is a normal conversion of land, conflicts with the extraction of mineral resources without occurrence in wild populations, and stated priority for protection (Seidl et al. authorization. Penalties vary according there is information indicating that 2001, p. 414); therefore, these laws do to the crime and may be increased hyacinth eggs are lost due to predation not appear to provide adequate under certain circumstances; for example, the penalty may be increased by toco toucans as well as other protection to the habitat of the hyacinth by one sixth to one third if the crime predators; however, we found no macaw. information indicating that this is results in a decrease of natural waters, In 1998, Brazil passed the soil erosion, or modification of climatic occurring such that it rises to the level Environmental Crimes Law (Law No. of a threat to the hyacinth macaw. As a regime (Clayton 2011, p. 5; UNEP, n.d., 9605/98). Section I of this law details unpaginated). As described under result, we find that disease and crimes against wild fauna, which predation are not threats to the hyacinth Factor A, we found forest destruction include: The killing, harassment, and the use of fire to clear land and macaw in any portion of its range now hunting, capturing, or use of any fauna or in the future. maintain pastures were threats to the species without authorization (Clayton habitat of the hyacinth macaw; D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory 2011, p. 4; UNEP, n.d., unpaginated). therefore, it appears that this regulation Mechanisms Additionally, except for the State of Rio does not adequately protect native Grande do Sul, commercial, sport, and National Laws habitat. recreational hunting are prohibited in Brazil’s Forest Code, passed in 1965, The hyacinth macaw is protected Brazil. Penalties include a jail sentence is a central piece in the nation’s under Brazilian law (Snyder et al. 2000, of 6 months to 1 year, and/or a fine; the environmental legislation (Barrionuevo p. 119; Stattersfield and Capper 1992, p. penalty is increased by half if the crime 2012, unpaginated). It requires 257). Article 225 of the Brazilian is committed under certain landowners in the Amazon to maintain Constitution (Title VIII, Chapter VI, circumstances, including against rare 80 percent of their land in a natural 1988) states the right to an ecologically species or those considered endangered, state as a legal reserve; in the rest of balanced environment for all people, or within a protected area. However, it Brazil, including the Cerrado and including future generations, and gives is not considered a crime to kill an Pantanal, only 20 percent is required to the federal, state, and municipality animal when it is to satisfy hunger; to be maintained in a natural state (Pearce governments the responsibility of protect agriculture, orchards, and herds 2011, unpaginated; Klink and Machado protecting the environment and the if authorized; or if the animal has been 2005, p. 708; Ratter et al. 1997, p. 228). fauna and flora of Brazil (Michigan State characterized as dangerous. This law This law was widely ignored by University, College of Law 2012, also protects against other crimes landowners and not enforced by the unpaginated). Wildlife species and their involving the fauna species of Brazil. government, as evidenced by the high nests, shelters, and breeding grounds are With respect to bird species, this law deforestation rates (Financial Times protected according to Law No. 5197/ prohibits inhibiting reproduction 2011, unpaginated; Pearce 2011, 1967. This law prohibits the hunting without authorization; modifying or unpaginated; Ratter et al. 1997, p. 228).

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However, in the last 6 years, Brazil area; however, since the Pantanal is a reserves) that allow for different types began cracking down on illegal plain that is subject to annual variation, and levels of human use with deforesters, and deforestation rates much of the area remained outside of conservation of biodiversity as a began to fall (Barrionuevo 2012, the realm of the law (Ju´ nior 2008, p. secondary objective. As of 2005, there unpaginated). 136). Therefore, this legislation did not were 478 Federal and State strictly Changes to the Forest Code are now contribute to hyacinth macaw protected areas totaling 37,019,697 ha being debated. In May 2011, Brazil’s conservation (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 136). (14,981,340 ac) in Brazil (Rylands and House of Representatives voted in favor To protect the main breeding habitat Brandon 2005, pp. 615–616). There are of relaxing this Forest Code. Some of the of the hyacinth macaw, Mato Grosso other types of areas that contribute to proposed changes include: (1) State Senate passed State Act 8.317 in the Brazilian Protected Areas System, Exemption of owners with plots under 2005, which prohibits the cutting of including indigenous reserves and areas 405 ha (1,000 ac) from having to restore manduvi trees, but not others. Although managed and owned by municipal illegally deforested land; (2) amnesty for this protects nesting trees, other trees governments, nongovernmental those who illegally deforested land prior around it are cut, exposing the manduvi organizations, academic institutions, to July 2008, meaning they would not tree to winds and storms that otherwise and private sectors (Rylands and have to restore lands or pay fines; and provide shelter. Manduvi trees end up Brandon 2005, p. 616). (3) cancellation of outstanding fines for falling or breaking, rendering them Within the states where the hyacinth environmental crimes if the violator useless for the hyacinths to nest in macaw occurs, there are a total of 53 joins a government-run program, (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 135; Ju´ nior et al. 2006, protected areas; however, it only occurs however, strict timeframes for p. 186). Five percent of hyacinth macaw in two (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7). In the complying with the program were not nests in manduvi trees are lost each year Amazon, there is a balance of strictly included. In December 2011, Brazil’s to deforestation, fire, and storms in the prohibited protected areas (49 percent of Senate approved a revised version Pantanal. Given the continuing protected areas) and sustainable use (Barrionuevo 2012, unpaginated). This deforestation in the Pantanal and the areas (51 percent) (Rylands and Brandon version would require 24 million ha (59 evidence of reduced recruitment of 2005, p. 616). We found no information million ac) to be reforested, although 55 manduvi trees, it appears this legislation on the occurrence of the hyacinth million ha (136 million ac) would have does not provide adequate protection to macaw in any protected areas in Para´. been required under the original code. the nesting trees of the hyacinth macaw The Cerrado biome is one of the most Additionally, those who illegally in the Pantanal. threatened biomes and is deforested before July 2008 would be underrepresented among Brazilian Protected Areas required to replant areas that should protected areas. Only 2.25 percent of the have vegetation in order to avoid fines. The main biodiversity protection original extent of the Cerrado is The House is expected to debate this strategy in Brazil is the creation of protected, (Marini et al. 2009, p. 1559; version in March 2012, after which it Protected Areas (National Protected Klink and Machado 2005, p. 709; goes to the President who has veto Areas System (Federal Act 9.985/00) Siqueira and Peterson 2003, p. 11). power (Barrionuevo 2012, unpaginated; (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 134). There are various Within the Cerrado, the hyacinth macaw Financial Times 2011, unpaginated; regulatory mechanisms (Law No. is found only within the Araguaia WWF–UK 2011a, unpaginated). 11.516, Act No. 7.735, Decree No. 78, National Park in Goia´s (Collar et al If this latest version is passed, it Order No. 1, and Act No. 6.938) in 1992a, p. 7). In 2000, the Pantanal was would be the greatest reforestation Brazil that direct Federal and State designated as a Biosphere Reserve by program in the world (Financial Times agencies to promote the protection of UNESCO (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 134). 2011, unpaginated). However, it will lands and that govern the formal According to the State Department of only be effective if it is properly establishment and management of Environment of and enforced and adequately financed, protected areas to promote conservation IBAMA, only 4.5 percent of the Pantanal which is questionable (Barrionuevo of the country’s natural resources is categorized as protected areas (Harris 2012, unpaginated). The original code (ECOLEX 2007, pp. 5–7). These et al. 2006, pp. 166–167), including was largely ignored by landowners and mechanisms generally aim to protect strictly protected areas and indigenous not enforced, leading to Brazil’s high endangered wildlife and plant species, areas (Klink and Machado 2005, p. 709). rates of deforestation. Although rates genetic resources, overall biodiversity, This includes the Taiama˜ Ecological began to decrease, deforestation has and native ecosystems on Federal, State, Station and the Pantanal National Park spiked again in anticipation of the new and privately owned lands (e.g., Law (Mittermeier et al. 1990, p. 104), but the reform (WWF–UK 2011a, unpaginated; No. 9.985, Law No. 11.132, Resolution hyacinth macaw occurs only within the WWF 2010, unpaginated). Given the No. 4, and Decree No. 1.922). Brazil’s Pantanal National Park (Collar et al ongoing and increasing deforestation formally established protection areas 1992a, p. 7). The distribution of Federal rates in the Amazon, Cerrado, and were developed in 2000, after a series of and State protected areas are uneven Pantanal (See Factor A), it appears that priority-setting workshops, and are across biomes, yet all biomes need this regulation does not adequately categorized based on their overall substantially more area to be protected protect the forest resources of Brazil. management objectives. These include to meet the recommendations strictly protected areas (national parks, established in the priority-setting State Laws biological reserves, ecological stations, workshops (Rylands and Brandon 2005, The Mato Grosso do Sul State Senate natural monuments, and wildlife pp. 615–616). passed State Act 3.348 in 2006, which refuges) for educational and recreational There are many challenges and forbids deforestation in the Pantanal’s purposes and scientific research. There limitations to the effectiveness of the floodplains. However, it only prohibited are also protected areas of sustainable protected areas system. Brazil is faced deforestation for 1 year (2007), and use (national forests, environmental with competing priorities of licenses previously granted for cutting protection areas, areas of relevant encouraging development for economic trees were allowed to be executed ecological interest, extractive reserves, growth and resource protection. In the (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 136). This law also set fauna reserves, sustainable development past, the Brazilian government, through a limit for what constituted the flooding reserves, and private natural heritage various regulations, policies, incentives,

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and subsidies, has actively encouraged Endangered Species Act of 1973, as museum specimens. The Service may settlement of previously undeveloped amended. The Act designates the approve cooperative breeding programs lands, which helped facilitate the large- Secretary of the Interior as lead and subsequently issue import permits scale habitat conversions for agriculture responsibility to implement CITES on under such programs. Wild-caught birds and cattle-ranching that have occurred behalf of the United States, with the may be imported into the United States throughout the Amazon, Cerrado, and functions of the Management and if certain standards are met and they are Pantanal biomes (WWF–UK 2011b, p. 2; Scientific Authorities to be carried out subject to a management plans that WWF 2001, unpaginated; Arima and by the Service. Under this treaty, provides for sustainable use. At this Uhl, 1997, p. 446; Ratter et al. 1997, pp. member countries work together to time, the hyacinth macaw is not part of ensure that international trade in animal 227–228). Although conservation a Service-approved cooperative strategies in the have and plant species is not detrimental to breeding program and has not been focused on protected areas, they are the survival of wild populations by insufficient for conservation (Soares- regulating the import, export, and approved for importation of wild-caught Filho et al. 2006, pp. 520, 522). reexport of CITES-listed animal and birds. The Ministry of Environment is plant species. International trade of parrots was working to increase the amount of Through Resolution Conf. 8.4 (Rev. significantly reduced during the 1990s protected areas in the Pantanal and CoP15), the Parties to CITES adopted a as a result of tighter enforcement of Cerrado regions, however, the Ministry process, termed the National Legislation CITES regulations, stricter measures of Agriculture is looking at using an Project, to evaluate whether Parties have under EU legislation, and adoption of additional 1 million km2 (386,102 mi2) adequate domestic legislation to the WBCA, along with adoption of for agricultural expansion, which will successfully implement the Treaty national legislation in various countries speed up deforestation (Harris et al. (CITES 2010b, pp. 1–5). In reviewing a (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 99). As discussed 2006, p. 175). These competing country’s national legislation, the CITES under Factor B, we found that priorities make it difficult to enforce Secretariat evaluates factors such as international trade is not a threat to this regulations that protect the habitat of whether a Party’s domestic laws species; therefore, we believe that this species. Additionally, there is often designate the responsible Scientific and a delay in implementation or a lack of Management Authorities, prohibit trade regulations are adequately protecting local management commitment after the contrary to the requirements of the the species from international trade. creation of protected areas, staff Convention, have penalty provisions in Summary of Factor D limitations make it difficult to monitor place for illegal trade, and provide for actions, and the lack of acceptance by seizure of specimens that are illegally Although there are laws intended to society or the lack of funding make traded or possessed. As discussed under protect the forests of Brazil and the administration and management of the Factor B, it has been determined that the hyacinth macaw, deforestation for area difficult (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 135; Harris Brazilian Government has met all the agricultural expansion and cattle et al. 2006, p. 175). The designation of requirements to implement CITES ranching and hunting continue to be the Pantanal as a Biosphere Reserve is (www.cites.org, SC59 Document 11, threats to this species. Conflicting almost worthless because of few strong Annex p. 1). Bolivia and Paraguay have priorities of encouraging development actions for its conservation from public not completed all the requirements to for economic growth and resource officials (Ju´ nior 2008, p. 134), and effectively implement CITES, although protection make enforcement of neither of the national parks in which both countries have submitted a CITES environmental laws intended to protect the hyacinth macaw is found is entirely Legislation Plan and Bolivia has also the environment and Brazil’s natural secure (Collar et al. 1992a, p. 7). submitted draft legislation to the resources difficult. Deforestation has Despite the designation of numerous Secretariat for comments protected areas throughout Brazil, these (www.cites.org, SC59 Document 11, long been a problem in Brazil leading to designations are not adequate enough to Annex p. 1). some of the highest deforestation rates meet the recommendations established As discussed under Factor B, we do in the world. In recent years, in the priority-setting workshops. not consider international trade to be a deforestation rates began to decline with Additionally, of 53 designated protected threat impacting this species. Therefore, greater enforcement of laws; however, areas within the states the hyacinth protection under this treaty against deforestation rates have increased again, macaw occurs, it is only found in the unsustainable international trade is a result of an anticipated reform in the Araguaia and Pantanal National Parks; adequate to address unlawful Forest Code. Despite laws to protect the neither of which is secure. Additionally, commercialization of the species. environment and plans to significantly the hyacinth macaw continues to be The import of hyacinth macaws into reduce deforestation, expansion of threatened in Para´ and the Gerais region the United States is also regulated by agriculture and cattle ranching continue by hunting and habitat loss due to the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) and are threats to the recruitment of the agricultural expansion and cattle (16 U.S.C. 4901 et seq.), which was food and nesting resources in which the ranching in all three regions. Therefore, enacted on October 23, 1992. The hyacinth macaw is specialized. Without it appears that Brazil’s protected areas purpose of the WBCA is to promote the greater enforcement of laws, conservation of exotic birds by ensuring system does not adequately protect the deforestation will continue to be a that all imports to the United States of hyacinth macaw or its habitat. problem in Brazil. Trade of this species exotic birds are biologically sustainable International Laws and not detrimental to the species in the has decreased significantly since the The hyacinth macaw is listed in wild. The WBCA generally restricts the 1980’s, but hunting remains a threat to Appendix I of CITES. CITES is an importation of most CITES-listed live or the small populations remaining in Para´ international treaty among 175 nations, dead exotic birds except for certain and the Gerais region. Therefore, we including Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and limited purposes such as zoological find that inadequate regulatory the United States, that entered into force display or cooperative breeding mechanisms are a threat to the hyacinth in 1975. In the United States, CITES is programs. Import of dead specimens is macaw now and in the future. implemented through the U.S. allowed for scientific specimens and

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E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors (Pizo et al. 2008, p. 792; Ju´ nior et al. hyacinth macaw, and numerous species Affecting the Species’ Continued 2006, p. 185). looking to use this tree, competition will Existence The reproductive biology of the certainly be increased and further limit hyacinth macaw can result in low the cavities available to the hyacinth Specialization recruitment of juveniles and may macaw for nesting. One of the main threats to the decrease the ability to recover from The lack of suitable sites far enough hyacinth macaw, in combination with reductions in population size caused by from existing pairs may also limit human-related factors, is a low anthropogenic disturbances (Wright et breeding pairs of birds (Newton 1994, reproductive rate and the highly al. 2001, p. 711). Hyacinths may not pp. 267, 273). Removal of manduvi specialized nature of the have a high enough reproduction rate seeds from the vicinity of the parent Anodorhynchus genus (Faria et al. 2008, and may not survive in areas where nest plant is necessary for the recruitment of p. 777). Parrots, in general, have traits sites are destroyed (Munn et al. 1998, p. the manduvi tree as seeds deposited that predisposed them to extinction and 409). Additionally, habitat and feeding beneath adult trees are preyed upon by make them particularly sensitive to specializations are good predictors of a peccaries (Tayassuidae) and agoutis changes in resources and increased bird species’ risk of extinction, and the (Dasyprocta spp.). Spreading also avoids mortality. These traits include a large hyacinth macaw scores high in both the clumping of adults; this is beneficial body size, low rates of reproduction, food and nest site specialization (Pizo et to hyacinths as they do not nest close low survival of chicks and fledglings, a al. 2008, p. 795). In Para´ and Gerais, to one another (Pizo et al. 2008, late age at first reproduction, large food resources are threatened by land pp. 794–795). A study found that the proportion of nonbreeding adults, and conversion. This is cause for concern as best manduvi seed disperser is the toco restrictive nesting requirements (Lee another Anodorhynchus species, the toucan. The toco toucan, however, is 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1121; Lear’s macaw, is nearly extinct in part also known to prey on hyacinth eggs, Guedes 2004, p. 280; Wright et al. 2001, due to a shortage in its specialized food take over hyacinth cavities, and kill p. 711; Munn et al. 1998, p. 409). The source (Guedes 2004, p. 781). In Gerais, nestlings (Pizo et al. 2008, p. 795; low reproductive rate of the hyacinth a shortage of nesting trees has likely led Hatfield and Leland 2003, p. 14). macaw is due, in part, to asynchronous the hyacinth macaw to utilize cliff Climate Change hatching, which usually results in only cavities. The large, mature trees with one chick surviving (Faria et al. 2008, p. preexisting holes that hyacinths require Consideration of climate change is a 766; Kuniy et al. 2006, p. 381; Munn et are often in shortage; given the land use component of our analyses under the al. 1989, p. 409). Additionally, trends in Para´ and the Pantanal and Endangered Species Act. The term observers in Brazil have reported that evidence of significantly reduced ‘‘climate change’’ refers to a change in not all hyacinth nests fledge young and, recruitment of nesting trees in the the state of the climate that can be due to the long period of chick Pantanal, the continued existence of identified by changes in the mean or dependence, hyacinths only breed every nesting trees in these regions is a great variability of its properties (e.g., 2 years (Faria et al. 2008, p. 766; concern. The effects of the low temperature, precipitation) and that Schneider et al. 2006, pp. 71–72; reproductive output of the hyacinth persists for an extended period, Guedes and Harper 1995, pp. 407–411; macaw and its high specialization are typically decades or longer, whether the Munn et al. 1989, p. 409). In a study of exacerbated by the pressure on the change occurs due to natural variability the Pantanal, the largest population of hyacinth macaw and its food and or as a result of human activity hyacinth macaws, it was suggested that nesting resources due to hunting, and (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate only 15–30 percent of adults attempt to land conversion, making this species Change (IPCC) 2007a, p. 30). breed; it may be that a small or even particularly vulnerable to extinction. Scientific measurements taken over smaller percentage in Para´ and Gerais several decades demonstrate that attempt to breed (Munn et al. 1998, Competition changes in climate are occurring. p. 409). In the Pantanal, competition for Examples include warming of the global The hyacinth macaw is highly nesting sites is intense. The hyacinth climate system over recent decades, and specialized in both diet and nest sites, nests almost exclusively in manduvi substantial increases in precipitation in which makes it particularly vulnerable trees; however, there are 17 other birds some regions of the world and decreases to extinction (Faria et al. 2008, p. 766; species, small mammals, and honey in other regions (for these and other Pizo 2008, p. 795; Munn et al. 1998, bees that also utilize manduvi cavities examples see IPCC 2007a, p. 30; pp. 404, 409; Johnson et al. 1997, p. (Pizo et al 2008, p. 792; Pinho and Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 35–54, 82–85). 186). As discussed under Species Nogueira 2003, p. 36). Bees (Apis Scientific analyses show that most of Description, the hyacinth utilizes only a melifera) are even known to occupy the observed increase in global average few species for food and nesting in the artificial nests (Pinho and Nogueira temperature since the mid-20th century different regions of occurrence. 2003, p. 33; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 120). cannot be explained by natural Anodorhynchus macaws are highly Manduvi is a key species for the variability in climate, and is ‘‘very selective in choice of palm nut; they hyacinth and, as discussed under Factor likely’’ (defined by the IPCC as 90 have to be the right size and shape, as A, these cavities are already limited and percent or higher probability) due to the well as have an extractable kernel with there is evidence of decreased observed increase in greenhouse gas the right lignin pattern (Pittman 1993, recruitment of this species of tree (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere unpaginated). Hyacinth macaws require (Ju´ nior et al. 2006, p. 181). Competition as a result of human activities, large, mature trees with preexisting among breeding hyacinth macaws is particularly carbon dioxide emissions holes to provide nesting cavities large exacerbated because only trees older from fossil fuel use (IPCC 2007a, p. 5 enough to accommodate them (Pizo et than 60 years produce cavities large and Figure SPM.3; Solomon et al. 2007, al. 2008, p. 792; Abramson et al. 1995, enough to be used by the large hyacinth pp. 21–35). Therefore, scientists use a p. 2). For example, in the Pantanal, macaw (Pizo et al. 2008, p. 792). With variety of climate models (which hyacinths nest almost exclusively in the a limited number of manduvi trees, and include consideration of natural manduvi tree which must be at least 60 a further limited number of adequate processes and variability) in years old to provide adequate cavities size trees capable of accommodating the conjunction with various scenarios of

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potential levels and timing of GHG to help devise appropriate strategies for becomes longer. Previous work has emissions in order to project future its recovery. suggested that, under these conditions, changes in temperature and other Factors that threaten the hyacinth the rainforest of the Amazon could die climate conditions (e.g., Meehl et al. macaw, such as habitat loss, may be back and be replaced with different 2007, entire; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. exacerbated by changes in Brazil’s vegetation. Although there are 11555, 15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, climate and associated changes to the uncertainties in the modeling, some 529). landscape. Climate change scenarios models have predicted a change from The projected magnitude of average project significant temperature changes forests to savanna-type vegetation over global warming for this century (as well for most of South America (Marini et al. parts, or perhaps the entire, Amazon in as the range of projected values, which 2009, p. 1559). Across Brazil, the next several decades (Marengo et al. reflects uncertainty) is very similar temperatures are projected to increase 2011, pp. 11, 18, 29, 43). In the regions under all combinations of models and and precipitation to decrease (Siqueira where the hyacinth macaw occurs, the emissions scenarios until about 2030. and Peterson 2003, p. 2). At a national climate features a dry season, which Thereafter, despite the projections level, simulation results suggest that prevents the growth of an extensive showing greater divergence in projected climate change may induce significant closed-canopy tropical forest. Therefore, magnitude, the overall trajectory is one reductions in forestland in all Brazilian the transition of the Amazon rainforests of increased warming under all regions (Fe´res et al. 2009, pp. 12, 15). could provide additional suitable scenarios, including those which Temperature increases in Brazil are habitat for the hyacinth macaw. assume a reduction of GHG emissions expected to be greatest over the Amazon However, there are uncertainties in this (Meehl et al. 2007, pp. 760–764; rainforest with models indicating a modeling, and projections are not Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555–15558; strong warming and drying of this definitive outcomes. In fact, some Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527, 529). (See region during the 21st Century, models indicate that conditions are IPCC 2007b, p. 8, for other global particularly after 2040 (Marengo et al. likely to get wetter in Amazonia in the ´ climate projections.) 2011, pp. 8, 15, 27, 39, 48; Feres et al. future (Marengo et al. 2011, pp. 28–29). 2009, p. 2). IPCC’s best estimate of Various types of changes in climate Furthermore, we do not know if the temperature changes by the end of the may have direct or indirect effects, and specific food and nesting resources the 21st Century (2090–2099) is 2.2 °C (4 °F) hyacinth macaw utilizes would spread these may be positive or negative under a low greenhouse gas emission depending on the species and other with an increase in the dry season. scenario and 4.5 °C (8 °F) under a high Temperatures in the Cerrado are also relevant considerations, such as emission scenario (Marengo et al. 2011, predicted to increase; the maximum interactions of climate with nonclimate p. 27). temperature in the hottest month may variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation). Some leading global circulation increase by 4 °C (7.2 °F) and by 2100 Identifying likely effects often involves models suggest extreme weather events, may increase to approximately 40 °C climate change vulnerability analysis. such as droughts, will increase in (104 °F) (Marini et al. 2009, p. 1563). Vulnerability refers to the degree to frequency or severity due to global Along with changes in temperature, which a species (or system) is warming. As a result, droughts in other models have predicted a decrease susceptible to, and unable to cope with, Amazonian forests could become more in tree diversity and range sizes for adverse effects of climate change, severe in the future (Marengo et al. birds in the Cerrado. including variability and extremes; it is 2011, p. 48; Laurance et al. 2001, p. Projections based on a 30-year average a function of the type, magnitude, and 782). For example, the 2005 drought in (2040–2069) indicate serious effects of rate of climate change and variation to Amazonia was a 1-in-20-year event; Cerrado tree diversity in coming which a species is exposed, its however, those conditions may become decades (Marini et al. 2009, p. 1559; sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity a 1-in-2-year event by 2025 and a 9-in- Siqueira and Peterson 2003, p. 4). In a (IPCC 2007a, p. 89; see also Glick et al. 10-year event by 2060 (Marengo et al. study of 162 broad-range tree species, 2011, pp. 19–22). Because exposure, 2011, p. 28). Impacts of deforestation are the potential distributional area of most sensitivity, and adaptive capacity can greater under drought conditions as fires trees was projected to decline by more vary by species and situation, there is set for forest clearances burn larger areas than 50 percent. Using two climate no single method for conducting such (Marengo et al. 2011, p. 16). change scenarios, 18–56 species were analyses (Glick et al. 2011, p. 3). We use Additionally, the seasonal forests of the predicted to go extinct in the Cerrado, our expert judgment and appropriate Amazon, such as those found in eastern while 91–23 species were predicted to analytical approaches to weigh relevant Amazonia, are more strongly affected by decline by more than 90 percent in information, including uncertainty, in drought due to high rates of potential distributional area (Siqueira our consideration of various aspects of deforestation, which increases the and Peterson 2003, p. 4). climate change that are relevant to the vulnerability of forests to wildfires Extreme temperatures seemed to be hyacinth macaw. during droughts (Laurance et al. 2001, the most important factor limiting bird As is the case with all influences that p. 782). distribution, revealing their we assess, if we conclude that a species Direct deforestation is an immediate physiological tolerances (Marini et al. is currently affected or is likely to be threat to the Amazon and could alter 2009, p. 1563). In a study on changes in affected in a negative way by one or climate conditions in this region. When range sizes for 26 broad-range birds in more climate-related impacts, this does 40 percent of the original extent of the the Cerrado, range sizes are expected to not necessarily mean the species meets Amazon is lost, rainfall is expected to decrease over time, and significantly so the definition of a ‘‘threatened species’’ significantly decrease across Amazonia as soon as 2030 (Marini et al. 2009, p. or an ‘‘endangered species’’ under the and the rainforests may not generate 1564). Changes ranged from a 5 percent Act. If a species is listed as threatened enough rainfall to sustain itself increase to an 80 percent decrease under or endangered, knowledge regarding the (Marengo et al. 2011, pp. 45, 48). This two dispersal scenarios for 2011–2030, vulnerability of the species to, and can be explained by an increase in 2046–2065, and 2080–2099 (Marini et known or anticipated impacts from, carbon dioxide concentrations, al. 2009, p. 1561). The largest potential climate-associated changes in increased temperatures, and decreased loss in range size is predicted to occur environmental conditions can be used rainfall such that the dry season among grassland and forest-dependent

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species in all time frames (Marini et al. are a threat to the hyacinth macaw now changes to reforestation requirements 2009, p. 1564). These species will likely and in the future. under Brazil’s Forest Code have sparked have the worst future conservation increases in deforestation once again. Finding scenarios because these habitat types are Without effective implementation and the least common (Marini et al. 2009, p. As required by the Act, we conducted enforcement of environmental laws, 1559). Although this study focused on a review of the status of the species and deforestation will continue. Parrots in broad-range bird species, geographically considered the five factors in assessing general have traits that predispose them restricted birds are predicted to become whether the hyacinth macaw is to extinction, but the hyacinth macaw is rarer (Marini et al. 2009, p. 1564). endangered or threatened throughout all highly specialized in diet and nesting It is difficult to predict whether or a significant portion of its range. We requirements and the loss of these species will or will not adapt to new examined the best scientific and resources makes it particularly conditions; synergistic effects of climate commercial information available vulnerable to extinction. Lastly, climate change and habitat fragmentation, or regarding the past, present, and future change models have predicted other factors, such as biotic interactions, threats faced by the hyacinth macaw. increasing temperatures and decreasing may hasten the need for conservation We reviewed the petition, information rainfall throughout most of Brazil, even more (Marini et al. 2009, p. 1565). available in our files, and other potentially causing landscape changes Although there are uncertainties in the available published and unpublished and affecting the distribution of the climate change modeling discussed information. hyacinth macaw’s food and nesting above, the overall trajectory is one of The hyacinth macaw is found in three resources. increased warming under all scenarios. populations in the Para´, Gerais, and Section 3 of the Act defines an We do not know how the habitat of the Pantanal regions. The Para´ and Gerais ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species hyacinth macaw may change under populations combined, according the which is in danger of extinction these conditions, but we can assume most recent estimate in 2003, number throughout all or a significant portion of there will be some change. The hyacinth 1,500 individuals. These small its range,’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as macaw, as discussed under Factor A, is populations are threatened by high ‘‘any species which is likely to become threatened with habitat loss due to deforestation rates due to expanding an endangered species within the widespread expansion of agriculture agriculture and cattle ranching. In Para´, foreseeable future throughout all or a and cattle ranching. Climate change has deforestation threatens both the food significant portion of its range.’’ The the potential to further decrease the and nesting resources. In the Gerais magnitude of the threats the hyacinth specialized habitat needed by the region, deforestation threatens food macaw is facing is high. Existing laws hyacinth macaw. Furthermore, the resources as hyacinths in this and regulations in Brazil are not being ability of the hyacinth macaw to cope population have utilized cliff crevices adequately enforced to significantly with landscape changes due to climate for nesting due to the loss of nesting reduce deforestation rates. If current change is questionable given the trees. Additionally, we found some rates continue, two-thirds of the forest specialized needs of the species. information indicating that the hunting cover along the Tapajo´s and Xingu of hyacinths as a source of protein and rivers will be lost by 2050; the Summary of Factor E for feathers to be used in local remaining native habitat of the Cerrado Traits common to parrot species, and handicrafts may remain as threats in region will be lost by 2030; and the the particularly specialized nature of the these regions. The Pantanal population original vegetation of the Pantanal will hyacinth macaw, make it a species is the stronghold for this species and be destroyed by approximately 2050. vulnerable to extinction. This is further numbers 5,000 according to the most Predicted changes in Brazil’s climate exacerbated by the pressure on the recent estimate. This population is may exacerbate the effects of habitat hyacinth macaw and its food and threatened by limited and decreasing loss. Under drought conditions, as nesting resources due to hunting and nesting sites due to expanding cattle predicted by some climate change land conversion. Competition for ranching. Competition for nesting sites models, the forests of eastern Amazonia nesting sites in the Pantanal is intense in the Pantanal has been documented. will be more vulnerable to deforestation given the number of other species that The occurrence of the hyacinth’s nesting as fires set to clear land burn a larger also use the manduvi tree and the tree is limited by deforestation and area. Additionally, climate change is reduced recruitment of this tree due to cattle ranching. Data indicates predicted to significantly decrease tree cattle grazing. As the number of suitable significantly reduced recruitment, distribution and ranges of bird species trees is further limited, competition for suggesting this species of tree, of in the Cerrado region. adequate cavities to accommodate the adequate size to accommodate the The hyacinth macaw has a low hyacinth macaw will certainly increase. hyacinth macaw, will become reproductive rate and, in a study of the There are many uncertainties when increasingly rare in the future. As this Pantanal, where the largest population modeling future climate change; resource is limited, competition with of hyacinth macaws is found, it was however, overall, the trajectory is one of the other 17 species known to utilize suggested that only 15–30 percent of increased warming. We do not know this nesting tree will increase. adults attempt to breed, and a small or how the habitat of the hyacinth macaw Brazil has various laws to protect its even smaller percentage in Para´ and will change, but we can assume there natural resources. However, conflicting Gerais may attempt to breed. will be a change to which the hyacinth priorities of encouraging development Reproduction of hyacinth macaws may macaw may be particularly vulnerable, for economic growth and resource be further reduced due to the loss of the given its specialized nature. Any loss of protection make enforcement difficult. already-limited nesting sites in the its food and/or nesting resources, via Despite these laws and plans to Pantanal and an increase in the either competition or climate change, significantly reduce deforestation, competition for this resource. Although could have devastating effects on the expanding agriculture and cattle we do not have data on the number of recruitment of the species. Therefore, ranching continue to contribute to high hyacinths lost to hunting, because these based on the best available scientific deforestation rates. Although the populations are so small, the removal of and commercial information, we find deforestation rate began to decrease over any individuals from the population that other natural or manmade factors the last 6 years, recent anticipated would have a negative effect on

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reproduction and the ability of the permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for rule, your comments should be as species to recover. Long-term survival of endangered species and 17.32 for specific as possible. For example, you this species is a concern. Lastly, because threatened species. With regard to should tell us the names of the sections the hyacinth macaw is specialized in its endangered wildlife, a permit may be or paragraphs that are unclearly written, food and nesting resources, the loss of issued for the following purposes: For which sections or sentences are too these resources makes it particularly scientific purposes, to enhance the long, the sections where you feel lists or vulnerable to extinction. Impacts from propagation or survival of the species, tables would be useful, etc. habitat loss, hunting, competition, and and for incidental take in connection National Environmental Policy Act climate change exacerbate the effects of with otherwise lawful activities. For (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) specialization. Any loss of vital food threatened species, a permit may be and nesting resources or the loss of issued for the same activities, as well as We have determined that we do not individuals from the population from zoological exhibition, education, and need to prepare an environmental current or future threats further reduces special purposes consistent with the assessment, as defined under the the already-limited habitat and is likely Act. authority of the National Environmental to affect the reproductive success of this Policy Act of 1969, in connection with Peer Review species. We do not find that the factors regulations adopted under section 4(a) affecting the species are likely to be In accordance with our policy, of the Endangered Species Act. We sufficiently ameliorated in the ‘‘Notice of Interagency Cooperative published a notice outlining our reasons foreseeable future. Therefore, on the Policy for Peer Review in Endangered for this determination in the Federal basis of the best scientific and Species Act Activities,’’ that was Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR commercial information, we find that published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 49244). the hyacinth macaw meets the 34270), we will seek the expert opinion References Cited definition of an ‘‘endangered species’’ of at least three appropriate under the Act, and we are proposing to independent specialists regarding this A list of all references cited in this list the hyacinth macaw as endangered proposed rule. The purpose of such document is available at http:// throughout its range. review is to ensure listing decisions are www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS– based on scientifically sound data, R9–ES–2012–0013, or upon request Available Conservation Measures assumptions, and analysis. We will send from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Conservation measures provided to copies of this proposed rule to the peer Endangered Species Program, Branch of species listed as endangered or reviewers immediately following Foreign Species (see FOR FURTHER threatened under the Act include publication in the Federal Register. We INFORMATION CONTACT section). recognition, requirements for Federal will invite these peer reviewers to protection, and prohibitions against comment, during the public comment Author certain practices. Recognition through period, on the specific assumptions and The primary authors of this notice are listing results in public awareness, and the data that are the basis for our staff members of the Branch of Foreign encourages and results in conservation conclusions regarding the proposal to Species, Endangered Species Program, actions by Federal and State list as endangered the hyacinth macaw U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. governments, private agencies and (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) under interest groups, and individuals. the Act. List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 The Act and its implementing We will consider all comments and Endangered and threatened species, regulations set forth a series of general information we receive during the Exports, Imports, Reporting and prohibitions and exceptions that apply comment period on this proposed rule recordkeeping requirements, to all endangered and threatened during preparation of a final Transportation. wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR rulemaking. Accordingly, our final 17.21 and 17.31, in part, make it illegal decision may differ from this proposal. Proposed Regulation Promulgation for any person subject to the jurisdiction Required Determinations Accordingly, we propose to amend of the United States to ‘‘take’’ (includes part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, Clarity of Rule 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, wound, kill, trap, capture, or to attempt We are required by Executive Orders as set forth below: any of these) within the United States or 12866 and 12988 and by the upon the high seas; import or export; Presidential Memorandum of June 1, PART 17—[AMENDED] deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship 1998, to write all rules in plain in interstate or foreign commerce in the 1. The authority citation for part 17 language. This means that each rule we continues to read as follows: course of commercial activity; or sell or publish must: offer for sale in interstate or foreign (a) Be logically organized; Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 16 U.S.C. commerce any endangered wildlife (b) Use the active voice to address 1531–1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201–4245; Pub. L. 99– 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, readers directly; deliver, carry, transport, or ship any (c) Use clear language rather than 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding a new such wildlife that has been taken in jargon; entry for ‘‘Macaw, hyacinth’’ in violation of the Act. Certain exceptions (d) Be divided into short sections and alphabetical order under Birds to the apply to agents of the Service and State sentences; and List of Endangered and Threatened conservation agencies. (e) Use lists and tables wherever Wildlife, as follows: Permits may be issued to carry out possible. otherwise prohibited activities If you feel that we have not met these § 17.11 Endangered and threatened involving endangered and threatened requirements, send us comments by one wildlife. wildlife species under certain of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES * * * * * circumstances. Regulations governing section. To better help us revise the (h) * * *

VerDate Mar<15>2010 15:48 Jul 05, 2012 Jkt 226001 PO 00000 Frm 00030 Fmt 4702 Sfmt 4702 E:\FR\FM\06JYP1.SGM 06JYP1 sroberts on DSK5SPTVN1PROD with PROPOSALS Federal Register / Vol. 77, No. 130 / Friday, July 6, 2012 / Proposed Rules 39983

Species Vertebrate popu- Historic range lation where endan- Status When listed Critical Special Common name Scientific name gered or threatened habitat rules

******* BIRDS

******* Macaw, hyacinth ...... Anodorhynchus Bolivia, Brazil, Para- Entire ...... E ...... NA NA hyacinthinus. guay.

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Dated: June 26, 2012. ADDRESSES: If we conclude that the We will continue to review all shot Gregory E. Siekaniec, application warrants a regulations types submitted for approval as Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife change, you will be able to view the nontoxic. Service. application and supporting materials by Current Application [FR Doc. 2012–16461 Filed 7–5–12; 8:45 am] one of the following methods: • BILLING CODE 4310–55–P Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// Spectra Shot, LLC, has submitted its www.regulations.gov. Search for Docket application to us with the counsel that No. FWS–R9–MB–2012–0038. it contains all of the specified • DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Request a copy by contacting the information required by 50 CFR 20.134 person listed under FOR FURTHER for a complete Tier 1 submittal, and has Fish and Wildlife Service INFORMATION CONTACT. requested unconditional approval FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: pursuant to the Tier 1 timeframe. 50 CFR Part 20 George Allen, at 703–358–1825. Having determined that the application [Docket No. FWS–R9–MB–2012–0038; SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: is complete, we have initiated a FF09M21200–123–FXMB1231099BPP0L2] comprehensive review of the Tier 1 Background RIN 1018–AY66 information under 50 CFR 20.134. After The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 review, we will either publish a notice Migratory Bird Hunting; Application for (Act) (16 U.S.C. 703–712 and 16 U.S.C. of review to inform the public that the Approval of Fluoropolymeric Shot 742 a–j) implements migratory bird Tier 1 test results are inconclusive, or Coatings as Nontoxic for Waterfowl treaties between the United States and we will publish a proposed rule to Hunting Great Britain for Canada (1916 and 1996 approve the candidate shot coating. as amended), Mexico (1936 and 1972 as If the Tier 1 tests are inconclusive, the AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, amended), Japan (1972 and 1974 as notice of review will indicate what Interior. amended), and Russia (then the Soviet other tests we will require before we ACTION: Notice of application for Union, 1978). These treaties protect will again consider approval of the shot nontoxic shot approval. most migratory bird species from take, coating as nontoxic. If the Tier 1 data except as permitted under the Act, SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and review results in a preliminary which authorizes the Secretary of the determination that the coating does not Wildlife Service, announce that Spectra Interior to regulate take of migratory Shot, LLC, of Lafayette, Louisiana, has pose a significant toxicity hazard to birds in the United States. Under this migratory birds, other wildlife, or their applied for approval of steel shot with authority, we control the hunting of fluoropolymeric coatings as nontoxic for habitats, the Service will commence migratory game birds through with a rulemaking proposing to approve waterfowl hunting in the United States. regulations in 50 CFR part 20. We Steel shot has long been approved for the coating and add it to our list at 50 prohibit the use of shot types other than CFR 20.21(j). waterfowl hunting. The coatings will those listed in the Code of Federal add less than 2 mg to the mass of a shot Regulations (CFR) at 50 CFR 20.21(j) for Authority: We publish this notice under pellet. We have initiated review of the hunting waterfowl and coots and any the authority of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act shot coatings under the criteria we have species that make up aggregate bag (16 U.S.C. 703–712 and 16 U.S.C. 742 a–j) set out in our nontoxic shot approval and in accordance with the regulations at 50 limits. CFR 20.134(b)(2)(i)(D)(3). procedures in our regulations. Since the mid-1970s, we have sought DATES: This notice announces the to identify types of shot for waterfowl Dated: June 27, 2012. initiation of our review of a Tier 1 hunting that are not toxic to migratory Michael J. Bean, application submitted in accordance birds or other wildlife when ingested. Acting Assistant Secretary for Fish and with 50 CFR 20.134. We will complete We have approved nontoxic shot types Wildlife and Parks. the review of the application by and added them to the migratory bird [FR Doc. 2012–16543 Filed 7–5–12; 8:45 am] September 4, 2012. hunting regulations in 50 CFR 20.21(j). BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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