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567 ENKI AND NINHURSAGA, PART ONE: THE STORY OF DILMUN 568
ENKI AND NINHURSAGA, PART ONE: THE STORY OF DILMUN1)
Dina KATZ
A remarkable trend in Sumerian storytelling is the merg- ing of independent plots in order to create a seemingly sin- gle narrative. These are e.g. Enki and Ninmah (ENM), Enki and Ninhursaga (ENH), Gilgames Enkidu and the Nether- world (GEN) and Inana’s Descent (ID).2) Of all the stories which make a part of these compositions, only one is known in an independent version, that is the story about the death of Dumuzi, which is the second part of ID.3) In fact, if not for the independent version, such as Dumuzi’s Dream, we would not have known that ID is a combination of two narratives. The coupled stories must have had something in common, which would make the one story compatible with the other. But we can only guess why individual stories were presented as one. The degree to which the stories were united, and the literary means used for it, differ from one narrative to the other. A primary task is, therefore, to identify the literary units which make up the text and outline its structure. A structural study may elucidate the common properties, the specific relations between the coupled stories, the methods employed to adjust them to one another and, the conse- quences that it had on their meaning. If we consider the case of ID, the combination seems natural because Inana and Dumuzi were a married couple, but it is not obvious why the two narratives were combined. Since ID is the only version which explains the killing of Dumuzi, and since the stories were linked in a causal relation, the merger may have been prompted by the need for a motive, because killing an inno- cent victim is wrong and against the sense of justice. Nev- ertheless, the unexplained version, as Dumuzi’s Dream, remained very popular. In other texts, however, the dispar- ity between the components is more distinct and the combi- nation less natural. This study seeks to learn about the liter- ary perspective and techniques used to couple the stories. A case in point is the text of Enki and Ninhursaga, in which the transition from the first to the second story is rather abrupt.4)
1) Abbreviations are according to the standard list of abbreviations for Assyriology (on-line): http://cdli.ucla.edu/Tools/abbrev.html. For the edi- tions of literary text the reader is referred to the on-line Oxford Electronic Corpus of Sumerian Literature, ETCSL: http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk. 2) Kirk 1970:117-118 already pointed to this trend, but it seems that he did not apply the observation on his interpretation of ENH, perhaps because he was depended on Kramer’s publications. Kramer treated ENH as a lin- ear sequence, which means a single plot story. So did Alster 1978 and Attinger 1984. Attinger divides the text into three parts, the first of which includes our first story and the following first four phrases of the beginning of our second story. Jacobsen 1987: 181-185 divides the text into two indi- vidual stories and, yet, he identifies Ninsikila of the first story with Nintud / Ninhursaga of the second. Römer follows Jaconsen’s division. 3) For the way Inana’s story was linked to the story of Dumuzi’s death see Katz, 2003:265-287. 4) The text was subject to quite a few studies since it was first published in 1915. The latest edition, with new insights, was published by Attinger in 1984 (Attinger 1984, with previous literature). Since then some more translations and commentaries were published: Jacobsen 1987:181-204 has different readings and interpretations of some passages; Bottéro and Kramer 1989: 151-164; Römer 1993:363-386. Streck 2002:204-208 ll. 1-28. In addition there are three comprehensive studies about the goddess Uttu: Vanstiphout 1990:40-44, 45-46; Frymer-Kenskey 1992:22-25 and passim; Tanret 2004:175-197. Note that Kirk 1970:91-98 is based on the transla- tion of Kramer in ANET2. 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 540
569 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXIV N° 5-6, september-december 2007 570
1.1 Enki and Ninhursaga — The sources long repetitive descriptions may account for a truncated version of the second story.9) That the Ur version is shorter The role of Enki in Sumerian and Akkadian mythologi- but has a description of Dilmun thriving trade, as it was in cal narratives demonstrates that he was highly popular Rim-Sin’s time, suggests that the passage was added in Ur, among storytellers. How many narratives focus on Enki replacing the Nippur version of the fulfillment of Enki’s himself, telling his contributions to the world, as well as his promise (ll. 50-61).10) The principle that the shorter version tricks and interferences with other gods is not really known. is earlier probably does not apply here. The fact that the two ENH is one of four true Enki narratives that survived to 5 textually related compositions EWO and EMH were not date. ) The other three are Enki’s journey to Nippur (EJN), attested in Ur, only in Nippur, supports the possibility that Enki and the world order (EWO) and Enki and Ninmah ENH originated in Nippur.11) The unprovenanced source is (NMH). The last three are listed in literary catalogues and significantly different from the Nippur version. It is an several copies of each were found in Nippur. EJN is a clas- excerpt, containing a part of the incest episode of the sic school text, the only one attested in many copies from second story. It may be a block of text, part of another Enki Nippur and elsewhere. ENH is not mentioned in any of the or Uttu narrative, which was taken over and integrated in extant Old Babylonian catalogues. It came down to us in ENH. only three Old Babylonian sources, one from Nippur, one Be that as it may, the variations signify that the tradition from Ur and the third is an unprovenanced excerpt. The of the text was still unstable. This and the small number of source from Ur is worthy of a special introduction. Unlike sources point to the possibility that the text was young. In most of the Sumerian texts, its exact find spot and date are view of the date of the source from Ur, it is not unlikely that known. A copy of ENH was found in Quiet Street no. 7, the 6 the text has been composed earlier in the reign of Rim-Sîn, house of Ku-Ningal, a purification priest of Enki, ) and it or shortly before. The selection of minor deities featuring in was written down on the 24th day of the eleventh month st the second story and the function allotted to them support a (Nippur calendar) of the 21 year of Rim-Sîn I of Larsa, that late date for the composition, when many Sumerian deities is ca. 1800 BC. At that time Larsa reached the height of its were known from god-lists but their cult was non existent and political power in Babylonia and the reproduction of Sumer- their divine properties were already forgotten. To that end ian literature in schools — its apex. Also about that period also points the use of some Old Babylonian words and syn- Dilmun experienced the apex of its economic affluence, tactical elements.12) which was described at great length in the version from Ur (obv. ii). The Nippur source is a six-column tablet with the com- 1.2 Enki and Ninhursaga — Two stories plete text, of which some passages are broken. The source The modern name of the text, “Enki and Ninhursaga”, is from Ur is also a six columns tablet, but about half of the 7 misleading. It creates the impression that Ninsikila, who acts text is missing. ) The two sources seem to be genetically with Enki in the first story is a name or an epithet of Nin- related. Apart from mainly grammatical variants and an hursaga; that the text is a linear sequence of events, and that additional description of Dilmun’s rich trade (obv. ii), the it constitutes two consecutive, related events of a single plot, preserved text from Ur is very close to the Nippurean ver- rather than two stories with two different plots placed one sion. We note e.g., that Ur col. i with originally 44 lines is after the other. This impression may have been intended as a comparable to Nippur obv. i with originally 45 lines. How- means to fuse the two completely separate stories into seem- ever, according to the count of the scribe, the version from ingly one continuous whole. But Ninsikila is neither a name Ur is 216 lines, compared to some 278 lines of the Nip- nor an epithet of Ninhursaga, nor a mother goddess. An inde- purian version. Since the Ur obv. ii is an additional passage 8 pendent source, EWO: 238-9, tells that Ninsikila received of ca. 30 lines, ) describing Dilmun’s commerce, this ver- Dilmun from Enki, thus she was the goddess of Dilmun. sion is actually about 200 lines of the version from Nippur. Moreover, neither goddess was Enki’s wife. The central fig- A rough calculation indicates that the missing two columns, ure of ENH is Enki, and the focus is on his creativity and cre- with room for around 90 lines, had to cover about 160 lines ations. In the first story Enki acts upon the request of Nin- of the Nippur version. Since the beginning of the first story sikila, the goddess of Dilmun and in the second — against is preserved and also the end of the second (though the last the mother goddess Ninhursaga. Thus, the modern name 16 lines are broken away), each story must have been befits only the second story. rounded off to make sense. Considering that each episode is essential for the development of the given plot, I assume that different line order (as in ll. 252-268) and curtailing of 9) The text is loaded with long repetitious accounts that aim to signify similar, though not necessarily identical situations. Therefore, short-cuts can easily be made to accommodate the size of the text to the tablet. A human cause can also result in short-cuts. Abridged form of long repetitions also 5) Enki is an important participant in more narratives concerning other occur in the Nippur version of the pregnancy scenes. gods, as “Inana and Enki” which is more about Inana than about Enki. 10) A repetition of the promise. The verbal forms with the modal indi- Unidentified incipits in literary catalogues may hide more stories about cator /hu-/ can also signify the affirmative. See Edzard 2002:117 (affirma- Enki. tive 1). Because the tablet is broken at the end of the passage and the fol- 6) Charpin 1986:343 ff. Charpin maintains that this is a family of priests lowing columns are also broken, the question is whether the description of that emigrated from Eridu to Ur. The find of an Enki narrative in a house Dilmun’s prosperous trade was added between Enki’s promise and its ful- of Enki’s purification priest is probably not a coincidence. filment or ended the Dilmun story. The question is treated in section 2.2.3. 7) The lines count is given in a superscript: obv. i: 44 lines of which 11) Presently I will suggest that EWO holds the key to the first story, the first 25 are preserved; obv. ii: 30 lines of which 25 preserved. Obv. iii the Dilmun tale. As for ENM, in addition to the fact that Ninmah is Nin- and rev. i are missing. Rev. ii: 39 lines of which the last 23 are preserved hursaga, a general structural similarity suggests that it served as a model and rev. iii: 16 lines, but only the colophon is preserved for ENH. 8) The superscript gives 30 lines of which 25 (21 phrases) are preserved. 12) The OB elements will be pointed out in the relevant places. 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 541
571 ENKI AND NINHURSAGA, PART ONE: THE STORY OF DILMUN 572
The first story narrates why and how Enki brought sweet 2.0 The first story — Enki enlivens Dilmun or: Enki and water to Dilmun and thereby transformed it from a desert Ninsikila island into an inhabited and prosperous commercial centre. The division line between the two plots is quite clear and Thus, the events of the first story take place in Dilmun and easily discernible. Line 62, “Now, by ama , on this day so the protagonists are Ninsikila its chief goddess and Enki who S s it indeed happened,”17) seals the first story and separates it gave her this desert island.13) It is a compact, linear short tale, from the second. The beginning of the text, however, seems which demonstrates the artistic skills of the author by stylis- to raise two questions: first, where the prologue ends and the tic means, the architecture and texture of the text. story begins. Line 5-6 which describe the protagonists in Dil- The second story, ll. 63-277, is rather complex. An intri- mun, seem to be beginning of the story making ll. 1-4 the pro- cate plot governs the stylistic qualities of the text, this time logue. Streck, however, marks the prologue as ll. 1-28, main- revealing the familiarity of the author with different genres taining that the story begins in l. 29, when Ninsikila talks to of school texts and his talent as a storyteller. The location is Enki.18) The second question is whether the prologue relates not indicated, but we can safely deduce that it took place in to both stories or only the adjacent first story? Further issues the marshes of southern Sumer.14) The protagonists are Enki bear on the narration of the events that make the topic of the and Ninhursaga. At face value the story relates the birth of story, Ninsikila’s complaint and Enki’s response. several minor deities of Enki’s uncontrollable sexual drive. Essentially, however, it is the story of the dialectic relation- 2.1 ship of Enki and Ninhursaga. The coupled narrative ends with Lines 1-28 — Is the prologue really that long? the standard doxology Enki zà-mí. Lines 1-28 is a block of text about the natural conditions The nature of each story and the correlation between them in Dilmun. The passage consists of three literary units, asso- are reminiscent of ENM, in which the first story tells why ciated thematically, syntactically and verbatim. This complex and how Enki created man, and the second is a creative con- linkage seems to separate ll. 1-28 from the rest, which may test between him and Ninmah. Considering that Ninmah is have led e.g. Streck to the assumption that the story begins Ninhursaga,15) ENM may have served as a the model for in l. 29. The first unit, ll. 1-4, with an address to audience ENH. and a general statement about the natural conditions in Dil- Since religious and mythological reasons preclude the pos- mun has indeed the quality of a prologue. The second, ll. 5- sibility that Ninsikila is Ninhursaga and since the events dif- 10, describes the protagonists of the first story within this fer in location as well as subject matter and tenor, each story background and the third, ll. 11-28, illustrates in detailed has a life of its own, and their merger occurs on a literary examples the nature of Dilmun as described in ll. 1-4. level only. The skilful manner by which the author con- Bringing life into Dilmun is the theme of the first story. Albeit structed each tale as an engaging self-contained story and yet the three-fold linkage, the clear division into three units raises linked the two together deserve much attention. A detailed doubt that ll. 1-28, a third of the tale, are the prologue. The fol- structural analysis would expose the literary properties of lowing analysis will establish the relationship of these units to each story, the means that were employed to adjust and bind one another and to the two stories and try to fix the borderline the stories to one another, and establish the nature of the rela- between the prologue and the body of the story. tionship between them. It must be stressed that this study is not about the island 2.1.1 The 1st literary unit: ll. 1-419) of Dilmun. This, and the fact that the plot begins with the 1. iriki kug-kug-ga- àm Pure is the city20) prehistory of the island, when it was not yet inhabited, make e-ne ba-àm-me-en-zé-en21) You are the ones who share it. the historical reality, uncovered by the archaeological exca- kur dilmunki kug-ga-àm Pure is Dilmun land vations, irrelevant to the study of the text. This study is about 2. ki-en-gi kug-ga Pure is Sumer a storyteller who was working somewhere in southern Sumer, e-ne ba-àm-me-en-zé-en You are the ones who share it. probably in Nippur or Ur, writing a story about Enki. There- kur dilmunki kug-ga- àm Pure is Dilmun land. fore, literariness is here the issue, not the historical reality 3. kur dilmunki kug-ga-àm Pure is Dilmun land and the archaeological finds. kur dilmun sikil-àm Virginal is Dilmun land 4. kur dilmunki sikil-àm Virginal is Dilmun land The fundamentally independent nature of each story allows ki a separate study for each. The present article concentrates on kur dilmun dadag-ga-àm Pristine is Dilmun land. the first story, but the binding elements from the second story will be treated in the relevant context. The study of the sec- ond story will be published as a separate article.16) 17) It is a stock phrase but the reading and translations remain difficult and unsatisfactory. Some attestations are cited in fn. 53, and the problem discussed in fn 62. 18) Streck 2002:204-208. 13) Ninsikila is Meskilak/Mesikila, the spouse of Inzak, the chief god of 19) The arrangement of the lines as a list of separated clauses demon- Dilmun see RlA 8, p. 93b. In her complaint against Enki that Dilmun is strates the literary structure of complex parallelisms. lifeless she states that he gave Dilmun to her (l. 29). It is not related in this 20) /-àm/ indicates that the subject is a single city, therefore I understand, text, but it is described in EWO:238-9 in phrasing which strongly suggests with Jacobsen1987:185, the reduplication as an emphasis on the continuum that EWO was the basis for ENH. of kug. 14) In each scene Enki was emerging from his place in the marsh, and 21) e-ne — 3 p. sg. — “you are he/she who shares it” as distributive. I in ll. 235-246 the fox tells Ninhursaga that he visited Nippur, Ur, Larsa and analyse the verb as participle with the enclitic copula: ba-a-menzen = base Uruk. + /a/ + enclitic copula 2nd p.pl. (see more in Edzard, 2003:82-83 and 132- 15)Rim-Sîn II year name b states that he was elevated to kingship by 33). Attinger 1984, 32 and Streck 2002:204 preferred the imperative. As Ninmah in her city Kes. See M. Stol, Studies in Old Babylonian History far as meaning is concerned the imperative apply to the context a sense of (1976), p. 54. See also van Soldt, AbB 13, 53:7-9. unyielding command, in disagreement with the tenor of the story. Gram- 16) Text translations are usually based on Jacobsen 1987:185-204 and matically it is also difficult, in view of the singular forms /e-ne/ and /–àm/ ETCSL 1.1.1, but differ in points of disagreement. The line numbering fol- it requires an emendation of the verbal forms in the Nippur: ba-àm-me-en- lows ETCSL which is the same as the source from Ur, UET 6/1, 1 ze-en and Ur: ba-me-en-ze-en, 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 542
573 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXIV N° 5-6, september-december 2007 574
The composition begins with a direct address of the story- tagonists of the first story, Enki and Ninsikila. However, the teller to listeners in attendance. The address is highly styl- two units are linked literally and syntactically. ized, consisting of two pairs of synonymic parallelisms, one pair of three members (ll. 1-2), and the other pair of two (ll. 2.1.2 The 2nd unit: lines 5-10 3-4). Each member is linked with the following, creating a 5. dili-ni-ne24) dilmunki-a ù-bí-in-nú chain of intertwined statements: After all alone he had lain down in Dilmun, a-b-c (a=c) → d-b-c → c=e → e=f. 6. ki den-ki dam-a-ni-da ba-an-da-nú-a-ba The place where Enki had lain down with his spouse, The message of the members /a-c-e-f/ is identical, a seven- 7. ki-bi sikil-àm ki-bi dadag-ga-àm time repeated statement that Dilmun is a pure, virginal place. That place is virginal, that place is pristine. The opening statement, “pure is the city”, with reduplication 8. dili-ni-ne dilmunki-a ù-bí-in-nú form of the base kug for emphasis, signifies an absolute After he had lain down all alone in Dilmun, purity. Later in the third literary unit (ll. 11-28) we learn that 9. ki den-ki dnin-sikil-la ba-an-da-nú-a-ba sikil and dadag, signify pure and virginal in the sense of bar- The place where Enki had lain down with Ninsikila, 10. ki-bi sikil-àm ki-bi dadag-ga-àm ren and lifeless. That place is virginal, that place is pristine. The clean landscape signifies that the story will begin at the earliest history of Dilmun. Thus, the statement made by The highly stylized structure also characterizes the second lit- the first lines put the narrative in a geographical as well as erary unit. Divided in a pair of triplets, ll. 5-7 // 8-10 consti- chronological framework. In order to make these points, how- tute a synonymic parallelism and each triplet contains a net- ever, one set of parallelisms would suffice. So what is the work of parallelisms: function of the extra repetitions? We note that while the ll. 5-6 // 8-9: (1) dili-ni-ne = → Enki structure of the phrases remains the same, the verbs are grad- (2) dam-a-ni = → Ninsikila ually changing. This feature acquires the passage with a sense (3) Dilmunki = → ki of dynamism, a progress towards a climax. Expanding par- (4) nú = → nú — different verbal forms = allelisms are prevalent in Sumerian literature, aiming to (4) progress in time; increase the feeling of anticipation among the addressees. All ll. 6-7 and 9-10: (1) ki = → ki-bi; the more here, in a direct speech address to present audience, (2) 7a / 10a = 7b / 10b. so one may wonder if it was not intended for reciting to an Lines 7 / 10 quote l. 4 of the 1st unit. The quotation of l. 4 actual audience. encloses the second unit as an island within the first unit: One exception in this list of similar statements is the one ki ki about Sumer (l. 2, marked as member /d/). Jacobsen sug- l. 4. kur dilmun sikil-àm kur dilmun dadag-ga-àm gested that the listeners were visitors from Dilmun and mem- l. 7/10. ki-bi sikil-àm ki-bi dadag-ga-àm bers of the court.22) Whether this was the case we do not The second literary unit turns the focus abruptly from Dilmun know. The single mention of Sumer, in an identical phrase to the protagonists. The first couplet describes Enki and Nin- about Dilmun, in a passage that mentions Dilmun six times, sikila as husband and wife (ll. 5-6/8-9). But the closure of the suggests that it is an insertion.23) Since this unit marks the triplets, its main clause, moves the focus back to Dilmun: ll. geographical and chronological framework of the first story, 7/10 is a modified version of l. 4. The secondary use of l. 4 the mention of Sumer seems to forecast the geographical set- attaches the second literary unit to the first. The modification ting of the second story, which takes place in southern Sumer. of ll. 7/10, replacing the name Dilmun with ki-bi, adjusts ll. In that case, ll. 1-2 would be relevant to the whole text. If so, 7/10 to ll. 5-6 and 8-9, binding the scene with Enki (ki-bi) to perhaps for reasons of symmetry Ninsikila and her spouse the description of Dilmun. This outwardly minor modification Enzag (who was listed at the ends the second story, l. 280) is actually significant because it keeps the focus on Enki, the are the ones alluded to in these lines. subject of the subordinate clauses, while Dilmun is the sub- The compound kur-Dilmunki is used only in this unit, and ject of this composite sentence. Thus, the introduction of Enki so is iriki. Afterwards it is Dilmunki and iri alone. A brief ref- and Ninsikila into the story was syntactically blended into the erence to kur-Dilmun in EWO:238-9, telling that Enki puri- texture. Thematically, though, it remained isolated. fied it and gave it to Ninsikila, suggests that the limited attes- The artful architecture of the passage, however, does not tations of kur-Dilmunki depend on EWO. The single hide the textual problems. The shift of focus to Enki is too attestation of iriki is consistent with kur-Dilmunki., probably abrupt and his two-lines episode is too contracted. Embed- adapted to its form. ded in the description of Dilmun it floats detached from the The general character of the first literary unit separates it context. Presumably, for that reason Streck regarded it as a from the second, where the focus shifts abruptly to the pro- part of the prologue, rather than the beginning of the story. More problematic is the triple connection “his wife” = Ninsikila = Enki’s daughter (l. 29). The father — daugh- Römer 1993:365 followed Attinger’s translation, and suggests that the ter relationship, surely a part of the first story, is reason- /e-ne/ refers to the deities that play a role in the plot. That Enki gave Dil- able and probable. However, nin-sikil-lá was neither mun to Ninsikila in EWO and to Enzak at the very end of the second story the name nor an epithet of Enki’s spouse.25) Since most of suggests that /e-ne/ refers to each of these two. Jacobsen envisioned the audience as visitors from Dilmun. This raises the question of the language: given the period, who understood Sumerian except for scribes? Neverthe- 24) dili-ni-ne- Edzard, 2003:62, 141. less whether one accepts his scenario or not, Jacobsen’s translation seems 25) Some possible explanations for the mention of Ninsikila were sug- to me preferable. gested by Jacobsen, ibid. 185 and fn. 7. The miraculous way in which Dil- 22) Ibid., p. 185 fns. 11-12. mun received fresh water suits Enki’s divine properties, so I would suggest 23) Note that the passage counts ten members of which six mention Dil- that the father-daughter relations reflect the original story (and that water mun by name and one as “city”. is the issue of the first story whereas its absence of the second story). 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 543
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the divine names in the narrative are plot-related puns, and 14. ur-bar-ra-ke4 sila4 nu-ub-kar-re the text seems to be governed by literary and poetic a wolf did not carry off lambs. 15. ur-gir15 más gam-gam nu-ub-zu reasons rather than by a theological reality, the case of 29 Ninsikila is best explained along these lines. Ninsikila A dog did not know how to watch over ) goats, 16. sáÌ se gu7-gu7-e nu-ub-zu was the deity of Dilmun, so she is a natural protagonist a pig had not learnt that grain was to be eaten. in a story about Dilmun. Also, the literary descriptions of 17. nu-mu-un-sú munu4 ùr-ra bárag-ga-ba the island is consistent with the component sikil in her When a widow spreads malt on the roof, name, thus blending the second literary unit with the issue 18. musen-e an-na munu4-bi na-an-gu7-e of untainted Dilmun. The goddess of Dilmun may have birds did not (yet) eat that malt up there. musen been Enki’s daughter, as in l. 29. The question is why 19. tum12 -e sag nu-mu-un-da-RU-e the text says that Ninsikila is Enki’s wife, particularly A pigeon did not tuck the head under its wing. since the scribe knew that Enki’s wife is Damgalnuna (l. 20. igi-gig-e igi-gig-me-en nu-mu-ni-bé 72)?26) Eye-disease did not say there: “I am the eye disease.” 21. sag-gig-e sag-gig-me-en nu-mu-ni-bé For the answer we have to look at the beginning of the headache did not say there: “I am the headache.” next story (l. 63), which starts off with the same word as 22. um-ma-bi um-ma-me-en nu-mu-ni-bé the second literary unit and mentions the real wife of Enki Its old woman did not say there: “I am an old woman.” by name. Both the second story and the second literary 23. ab-ba-bi ab-a-me-en nu-mu-ni-bé unit begin with — dili-ni, and in both dili-ni defines Enki’s Its old man did not say there: “I am an old man.” personal status as a single (ll. 5/8 and 63). In the second 24. ki-sikil a nu-tu5-a-ni iri-a nu-mu-ni-ib-sig10-ge story, however, it is the beginning of a complicated long An unwashed maiden was not (yet) treated with disrespect in episode (ll. 63-71), in which Enki makes advances and even- the city30) tually marries Nintud = Ninhursaga (and therefore also = 25. lú íd-da bal-e gi6-dè nu-mu-ni-bé A man dredging a canal did not say there: “It is getting Damgaknuna) and copulates with her. The account of ll. 5- dark.” 6/8-9, however, is merely a faint reflection of this episode, 26. nigir-e zag-ga-na nu-um-nígin-nígin first Enki lies alone, i.e. as a single, and then with his wife. A herald did not make his rounds in his district, Outside ll. 5-6/8-9 the relations of Enki and his “wife” are 27. nar-e e-lu-lam nu-mu-ni-bé not mentioned in the Dilmun tale. Thus, thematically, the A singer did not sing elulam there. couplet is hanging completely detached from the context. 28. zag iri-ka i-lu nu-mu-ni-bé Therefore, one should ask what is its function here, in this In the outskirts of the city no wailing was wailed. particular place. Since its theme corresponds to the begin- ning of the second story it may have had the same function, The third literary unit illustrates in detail the character of namely to mark the beginning of the Dilmun story and Dilmun, which the previous two units stated in general thereby to present the protagonists. A similar beginning, the terms. The choice of words and the structural design show use of the same materials, creates a thematic link. So, for a great care for the textual fabric of the unit. Lines 11-28 the sake of the symmetry Ninsikila was presented as Enki’s consist of a series of statements grouped in categories. wife. Line 29 where she appears as his daughter confirms These were already listed in a table and discussed by 27 Attinger, with reference to previous observations and inter- that she was not his wife. ) Thus, the statement that Nin- 31 sikila is Enki’s wife intended to adjust the first story to the pretations. ) The categories, however, are not completely second. independent as they may seem from the table of Attinger. Some groups end with a statement that leads to the theme of the next category, thereby structuring this unit as a chain 2.1.3 The 3rd unit: lines 11-2828) of thematically organized statements that covers all the 11. dilmunki-a ugamusen gù-gù nu-mu-ni-bé facets of living existence. Lines 11-12 focus on birds, wild In Dilmun a raven was not (yet) cawing, and domestic, linked by their cry. Lines 13-15 relate to ani- 12. darmusen-e gù darmusen-re nu-mu-ni-ib-bé mals of the acronym group ur-, a lion,32 a wolf and a dog. a partridge — not cackling. The wolf catching a lamb in l. 14 links the theme of the wild 13. ur-gu-la saggis nu-ub-ra-ra with the domestic animals of ll. 15-16. Lines 16-18 focus A lion did not (yet) slay, on grain, so the pig of l. 16 connects the domestic animals with farming, and ll. 17-18 combine farming with the pro- cessing of its products. The image of birds pecking malt on 26) That ll. 72-73 equate Damgalnuna with Ninhursaga proves the point. the roof links up with the typical image of the pigeon The spouse of Ninursaga was Sulpae, and her city Kes, so she could not have a matrimonial relationship with Enki. The plot of the second story described in l. 19. Living under houses’ roofs, the pigeon demands a goddess of equal rank to Enki. The abortion of Enki’s semen, the need to save him from death and his process of healing were designed for the participation of Ninhursaga, just as the creation of human beings in 29) e-PSD: http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/, s.v. gurum 30 ENM. The single mention of Damgalnuna suggests that the interest of the ) e-PSD s.v. sì or sig10 — to treat with injustice, with disrespect, Akka- plot was that Enki would first copulate with a wife, therefore the name dian dâÒu. There is no other Sumerian reference to that meaning, but it Damgalnuna had to be mentioned as well. Incidentally it indicates the seems the most suitable for the context. This line is probably based on the importance of marriage. value of cleanliness, particularly of ritual bathing. Since, however, bathing 27) I assume that l. 29 is a part of an original version, reflecting the spec- was not particular duty of young women, perhaps it was inspired by sound ulation that Ninsikila is a daughter of Enki. My suggestion that the couplet similarities: maiden = ki-sikil, Dilmun = ki sikil and its goddess = Nin- was created according to the model of the second story and inserted into sikil-la. the sequence is explained under 2.1.4. 31) Attinger 1984:33-4. 28) The translation adheres, more or less, to the phrasing which is a com- 32) One more attestation of ur-gu-la in Sumerian text is Ninurta G l. 178 mon literary means used to signify “none existence” in Sumerian litera- (ETCSL 4.27.7). The usual term for lion is ur-mah, which literally means ture. More details are cited below. the same. But compare BWL p. 190:r. 8-10. 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 544
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shares its habitat with people.33) The pigeon frames the ani- there was no water and also no agriculture.39) Lines 26 and mal’s section that began with birds metaphor, and leads to 27 about the herald and the singer mean that there were no the second section which deals with the human landscape. government and no cultic activities. Line 28 wraps up the unit The quality of the statements that illustrate the conditions and points at its essence: “No wailing was wailed” which in Dilmun is gained by making use of stereotypes. Some of plints means that there are no dead people and, therefore, not these statements make allusions to proverbs34) and popular a living soul.40) literary motifs. Using pre-existing material is typical to the The purpose of this passage is to justify Ninsikila’s com- Sumerian literary texts of all genres. The list begins with the plaint in the immediately following unit, and to explain the raven, a popular literary figure. According to Inana and change that Enki made in the nature of Dilmun. If it was Sukaletuda ll. 59-72 the raven is the cultivator of the date indeed paradise, Ninsikila would have no reason to complain palm, the famous export product of Dilmun. Presumably for and Enki to comply! Thus, the idea that this unit describes that reason the raven was listed as first. A lion, written ur- paradise is first of all in conflict with the plot. Indeed, gu-la is rare in Sumerian texts, but not in Akkadian.35) The Attinger contested the idea of paradise in 1984, correctly Urgula appears to be a threat in a late bilingual fable of the translating “Aucune.” Fox.36) The statement about the wolf is close to the phrasing The principal requirement for any interpretation of this unit of SP 5 B 75, and the eating habits of the pig are the subject is that the statements would make a homogenous group of of SP 1.117, 2.111 and 3.144. The guarding dog is the sub- signifiers, serving a similar meaning and the same purpose, ject of SP 5.110, 5.56 and 2.118. Lines 17-18 are suggestive and that this purpose would serve the plot. A common gram- of a proverbial origin, though no parallel was found. The matical feature unites all the statements into a homogenous widow is a popular symbol of poverty and misfortune, and group, that is the negative form of the verbs. Since the nega- birds picking malt is reminiscent of SP UET 6/2 249. The tion was the source of the misunderstanding, it should be image of birds eating the last malt of the poor ill-fated widow stressed that negation is a common literary device that Sume- is a typical theme for proverbs about bad luck. All the state- rians used to depict a certain reality, that of nothingness. ments demonstrate the usual common features of an urban None existence has a meaning only against the back- society and, therefore, employ literary conventions and ground of existing actual matters. Accordingly, by negating stereotypes as the reference to a pigeon, a widow, and a pre- a typical, known, or characteristic feature of his environ- dictable selection of animals.37) The human landscape is also ment, the Sumerian narrators described a situation before a characterized by the most typical concerns of a Sumerian cit- reality came into existence. A close parallel to our passage izen: health, age (old and young), work (canal digging), gov- is found in the lament Ningiszida’s journey to the nether- ernment (herald), religious festivals and cult (singer) and world, ll. 29-31. A stanza of three lines signifies that the death (wail). The only obscure statement concerns the netherworld lacks any basic means for existence: “The river unwashed girl (l. 24). Considering its place in the sequence of the netherworld carries no water, its water you cannot I would suggest that it illustrates the absence of young peo- drink. The fields of the netherworld produce no grain, flour ple, typified by the customary ritual bathing, playing on the is not [milled/eaten] from it. The sheep of the netherworld word sikil, which rings so often in the text: Dilmun = ki-sikil produce no wool, cloth is not woven from it.”41) The nega- >> its goddess = nin-sikil-lá >> maiden = ki-sikil. tion is prevalent in the cosmological introductions of sto- When Kramer published the text in 1945 he maintained ries. Thus, the primordial world in the introduction to the that this passage describes paradise. A few statements indeed debate between the grain and the sheep is exemplified by suggest a wonderful world, free of violence and sickness: ll. the negated forms, for instance ll. 6-9 “The ewe had not 13-14 about the harmless lion and wolf and ll. 20-21 about appeared (so) there were no numerous lambs, there was no the absence of diseases. But the rest of the statements are goat (so) there were no numerous kids, the sheep did not immaterial to life in paradise.38) Line 15 is about the domes- give birth to her twin lambs, and the goat did not give birth tication of animals, rather than the need to guard the herd, to her triplet kids”42) The most interesting example, also and l. 25 means that no irrigation canals were dug, therefore relevant to our Dilmun tale, is the introduction to Enmerkar and the lord of Aratta, ll. 6-21,43) indicating the chronolog- ical framework of the tale “In those days, when destinies 33) Probably that is the reason why the pigeon’s behaviour is a familiar were decided,” when the city of Uruk-Kulaba was estab- metaphor in Sumerian literature. The association of the pigeon with human lished and flourished. At that time: “The land of Dilmun dwelling is used to depict ruin and destruction in several Sumerian texts, did not yet exist (l. 12)…[ ] not yet carried, barter was not e.g. The curse of Agade:219+221; The lament over Sumer and Ur:208; practiced, [ ] not brought, sea trade did not fare, [ g]old, sil- The Nippur lament:82 and the balag a-se-er gi6-ta, J. Black, ASJ 7 (1985)11-83 and Cohen, 1988: 717, ll. 259-60. The image of the pigeon in Inana and Bilulu:139, taking counsel with itself is probably related to the gesture described here. 39) Rather than literally that in Dilmun the sun never sets or that the dig- 34) This was pointed out to me by Bendt Alster who made some useful ging teams worked enthusiastically after nightfall. This is supported by the remarks for which I am grateful. fact that the lack of water is the central issue in this tale of Dilmun. 35) See AHw 15, p. 1429 s.v. urgulû. The statistic relationship between 40) Immortality was the prerogative of the gods. Even in the biblical the attestations in Sumerian and Akkadian suggest a later date to the text. Garden of Eden man was mortal, banished from paradise lest he would try 36) BWL 190-1, rev:8-10. Note that the obverse concerns the fox com- the Tree of Life. plaining to Enlil about a drought, as in the episode of the Fox in the sec- 41) Jacobsen and Alster 2000, ETCSL 1.7.3. For the meaning of the ond story, ENH ll. 223-4. negation in this passage see Katz 2003:219-20. A theoretical analysis of 37) Compare with the metaphors of animal in Hymn to Hendursaga the negation with more examples is Michalowski 1991. A:78-82 among the animals chosen are: fox, dog, raven, buzzard(?) and 42) ETCSL 5.3.2 (with references to translations and commentaries). wolf. 43) ETCSL 1.8.2.3. The relevant lines are too fragmentary, but the 38) Taken literally, ll. 22-23 would mean that the elderly do not admit negated verbal forms were preserved. Note that this passage about the their old age. Therefore the only way to make sense out of this couplet is beginning of the world uses Dilmun’s trade as an example, quite befitting by means of the negation device. our Dilmun tale! 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 545
579 ENKI AND NINHURSAGA, PART ONE: THE STORY OF DILMUN 580
ver, copper, tin, blocks of lapis lazuli, and mountain stones Atrahasis, and was probably based on the Akkadian ver- were not yet brought down together from their mountains, sion.48) In both versions the purpose of mankind was to work [ ] did not bath for the festival (ll. 16-21).”44) In ENH the the land, but, the Biblical story differs significantly from the negation is used to describe a lifeless world, empty and Mesopotamian on the place of man in the creation and on the void. concept of god, the creator. According to the Mesopotamian Since it was water that Enki brought to Dilmun and tradition, in the beginning the gods were like man, i.e. they thereby changed its nature, obviously the island was dry, worked hard. Mankind was created in order relieve the work- and with no water there is no form of life. Thus, it is not ing gods of their toil. Therefore, the meaning of human life paradise, neither “a bud”, nor a sort of an embryonic real- is only duties and hard work in the service of the gods. It fol- ity as Jacobsen maintained, but a lifeless place with no liv- lows that the purpose of humanity in the Babylonian and the ing creatures and no civilization.45) This interpretation joins Sumerian traditions is in conflict with the idea of paradise, the series of varied statements into a homogeneous group, and that there has never been a paradise for man. The which demonstrates by examples the statements in ll. 1-4 monotheist editor of the Bible could not include in his story that Dilmun is a virginal place. Above all it accounts for the the essential elements of the Mesopotamian story, neither the keystone of the narrative, Ninsikila’s complaint to Enki and rebellion of the toiling gods, which was the reason for the the reason why he created the sweet water sources that creation of man, nor the slaughter of the rebellious god.49) brought about the change in Dilmun’s nature. Thus, the Moreover, his concept of God is fundamentally different from third unit is linked with the coming events in causal rela- the Babylonian concept.50) The biblical book of Genesis sub- tions.46) mits two distinct accounts about the creation of man, but in both man was created last, when everything else was in place, 2.1.3.1 Some thoughts about paradise to rule, work, maintain, benefit and enjoy the creation of a gracious God. So first was paradise. Hard life became the lot The quest for paradise entered the Sumerian studies as a of humanity only after man was banished from the Garden consequence of the recognition that the accounts in the first of Eden. Thus, the purpose of man according to the eleven chapters of Genesis are based on Mesopotamian ori- Mesopotamian traditions was turned in the Hebrew Bible into gins. The Sumerian version of the flood story tells that as a punishment.51) a reward for saving animal and human seed Ziusudra was The concept of paradise, however, serves an important granted with eternal life and settled in Dilmun, an overseas function in the Bible, becouse it replaces the elements omit- country where the sun rises.47) In the Akkadian version of ted from the Babylonian tradition and thereby the biblical the flood story, Utanapistim, was settled at “the mouth of version regains a logical sequence as well as instructive the rivers”, which brings to mind the description of par- value. The institution of paradise gave man’s life a purpose adise in Genesis 2:10-14. These, and the misinterpretation and the expulsion from paradise justified the harsh life. Thus, of ll. 11-28 led to the conclusion that the Sumerians it closes the gap between the purpose of the creation of man believed in paradise and that it was located in Dilmun. and his life in actual reality. Although Noah, the Biblical hero of the flood story was not The image of paradise (Genesis 2:8-14), the garden in bestowed with eternal life like Ziusudra nor settled in par- Eden, out of which flows a river that then splits in four, is adise; although Adam and Eve were mortals all along; and suggestive of pi-naratim, literally “mouth of the rivers”, the although most Sumerologists abandoned the view that ll. residence of Utanapistim, the hero of the Akkadian version 11-28 describe paradise long ago, the idea of a Sumerian of the flood story, after he was granted eternal life.52) paradise in Dilmun is still alive with us (Kramer & Maier, 1989:160). Admittedly, the essence of life in paradise is ambiguous and may have different meanings for different 48) W.G. Lambert and A.R. Millard, Atra-Îasis, the Babylonian Story people, either as an abstract concept or a real geographical of the Flood, Oxford 1969. The Old Babylonian Akkadian version of the reality; but the very idea of Sumerian paradise is debatable. creation of man is fundamentally different from the Sumerian in that man If not for the biblical source, would we look for a Sumer- was created not of clay alone but of clay mixed with divine substance. The ian paradise? combination of clay and divine element is common to the Babylonian and biblical version, which replaced the flesh and blood of the slain god with The biblical accounts of paradise and the creation of man the breath of god. Thus, the biblical story cannot depend on the Sumerian. are interrelated. The description of the creation of man bears It stands to reason that the Hebrew scholar learned the Babylonian narra- an obvious likeness to the Mesopotamian story of creation in tive during the Babylonian exile in the sixth century BC. 49) The concept of divine element in the human constitution was taken over, but the corporal remains of the slaughter Akkadian god were replaced by the breath of god. Both versions give a concrete meaning to the human 44) Compare l. 24. The inclusion of bathing in this list points at its soul. importance and maybe similar to the obscure l. 24. 50) Although the beginning of Artahasis “When the gods like man” sug- 45) Jacobsen’s interpretation (1987:181) is difficult because it signifies gests that later gods were like gods, the difference is not just a matter of a beginning of an ongoing process, whereas Ninsikila’s complaint implies quantity. The crowded irritable community of gods, and their depiction as a static, permanent situation. Streck 2002:207 holds a view which combines individuals is the image of human beings, diametrically opposed to the Jacobsen’s view with the idea of paradise. I cannot see how such combi- monotheist concept of a remote superior but basically sympathetic god. nation is possible. If paradise is a complete and finished existing reality 51) The problematic of the two accounts and a comparison between the (even if mythological) it cannot exist as an unfinished beginning. Mesopotamian sources and the version of Genesis are not the issue of this 46) Jacobsen 1987:182 that “everything is still in the bud,… nothing has article. Note only that Genesis 1 does not mention the need to work. But yet settled into its final being or behaviour” cuts this passage off the fol- according to Genesis 2:5-15 god created man to work and keep the Garden lowing episodes, the account of Ninsikila’s complaint and Enki’s magical of Eden. The borderline between life in the Garden of Eden and outside it transformation of the Dilmun’s nature. But he is right in his remark that is marked by the curse upon man in Genesis 3:19, the point when working nowhere is said that Enki gave Ninsikila the city. This information, how- the land became a toil and harsh life. ever, is stated in EWO:238-9, so it seems unnecessary to repeat it. 52) Gilgamesh XI:204-206 (online text: http://www.soas.ac.uk/nmefiles/ 47) ETCSL 1.7.4. Translation: Jacobsen 1987:145-150. gilgamesh). 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 546
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Dwelling in pi-naratim was the privilege of Utanapistim and towards a written authorship.53) And yet, despite the skillfully his wife alone. Apparently, the later Akkadian version of the designed structure, the relationship between the units lacks flood story omitted the name Dilmun “where the sun rises”, balance. and for good reason. Dilmun existed in actual reality, whereas The weakest part is the second unit. On the one hand it “the mouth of the rivers” is a vague geographical term, out binds the three units together thematically and literally: it of reach for human being, real though mythological, and repeats verbatim the closure of the first unit and leads therefore it provides the story with plausibility. This was not smoothly to the theme of the following third unit. The prob- the problem of the biblical story because man was banished lem is in the opening couplet that separates the second unit from paradise forever, and indeed the flood story was not from the first and shifts the focus briefly from Dilmun to related to paradise. Thus, there is no symmetry between the Enki and his spouse (ll. 5-6/8-9). The transition from the first narration in Genesis and its Mesopotamian sources, neither unit to the second is too abrupt and, in addition, the syntax in sequence, nor in function and therefore not in purpose and and thematic relations within the couplet are vague. Thus, it meaning. is a two-lines island, squeezed between the first and the third A famous passage which some would like to read as a ref- units. And since the closure of the first unit is the same as erence to paradise is Enmerkar and the lord of Aratta ll. 136- the closure of the second, the third unit is also a natural devel- 155. The passage is a spell of Enki, concerning peace on earth opment of the first literary unit. and fraternity. Considering that by definition spells are The brief remark about Enki (2 out of 28 lines) interrupts directed to the future, a reading as past or as a current situa- a well structured long description of Dilmun. It may, there- tion is difficult. Whether one conceives paradise as life with fore, be an insertion, which was then integrated into the con- no danger of snakes and scorpions, free of hardship and toil, text by repeating l. 4, and thereby the second unit was cre- the crucial point is that rather than an existing reality, the ated. With Dilmun as its subject the second unit harmonizes spell works for the future. Therefore, the function of the pas- with the first and the third units, while the brief shift of focus sage in the plot is to forecast a future, expressing a wishful to Enki introduces a new element that anticipates the coming thinking, reflecting the fears of the Sumerian. The Sumerian events. However, Enki and Ninsikila will return to the scene may have perceived Dilmun literally as a garden in the only after the detailed long description of Dilmun and as steppe, the source of dates and luxury goods, but he could father and daughter. Thus, what follows has nothing to do only dream of a world free of dangers. Hardship would not with this scene, nor with the relationship of Enki and his wife be alleviated as long as man’s purpose in life remains — the pivot of the second story. unchanged. One, who opts for a prologue could argue that in a chi- astic manner “wife” in l. 6 represents the second story and 2.1.4 Stringing three units Ninsikila in l. 9 — the first, and hence the second unit is a part of the prologue. But excluding line 2b the scope of ll. Jacobsen argued that the storyteller combined discon- 1-28 is limited to the first 62 lines that deal with the nat- nected blocks of text. The three literary units are blocks of ural conditions in Dilmun.54) The remaining 218 lines have texts, as is the detailed description of Dilmun in the version nothing to do with the island: the events take place in from Ur. The different version of the incest episode in the Sumer, they relate at great detail the dialectic relationship source TCL 16, 62 is also such a block, and perhaps also of Enki and Ninhursaga, their downs and ups and implica- the list of plants that grew of Enki’s semen and the scene tions to other deities. A detailed description of Dilmun that describes him eating them. But having only three sources to compare, the history of these units is shrouded with uncertainty. We cannot tell whether the text was com- 53) Some elements, however, suggest an oral origin, particularly the posed as it is, in blocks (as aide-mémoire) and if it was address to audience in the prologue and the conclusion in l. 62. Yet, it is not conclusive because typicaly to a written text, l. 62 with l. 50, create a composed in blocks, whether these blocks were cut out of literary framework for Enki’s reaction. the same tale and rearranged, or compiled from different Line 62 is a stock phrase, it either ends or begins a description of Enki (or Uttu) tales. Be that as it may, in order to combine changes caused by a divine command and, to my mind has a sense of a vow distinct blocks into a meaningful sequence and achieve a like “by god”. Compare: Pabilsag’s Journey to Nippur Segment B:4 (ETCSL 1.7.8), which seems to signify the fulfilment of a wish, involving smooth textual fabric the scribe must have adjusted them to the production of grains and the creation of water courses, remotely remi- one another. niscent of our story. In Inana and An Segment D:45 and 55 (ETCSL 1.3.5) The first unit (ll. 1-4) defines the conditions in Dilmun and it signifies the fulfilment of a command. Inana and Bilulu:111 (ETCSL heightens the effect by means of repeated short nominal sen- 1.4.4) is the turn of Bilulu into a water skin. In Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta:505 (ETCSL 1.8.2.3) the invention of the clay tablet, and in The tences. The second literary unit (ll. 5-10) is connected to the Curse of Agade:272 (ETCSL 2.1.5) it precede the description of the city’s first thematically and literally. Its closure (and main clause) decline (Cooper’s emendation in his commentary to that line is unlikely repeats verbatim the predicates of the closure of the first unit: because it is a stock phrase). In Hendursaga hymn A, segment C:30 sikil-àm and dadag-àm (l. 4 = ll. 7 and 10). The third liter- (ETCSL 4.6.1) the temporal part of this phrase replaces in one copy another stock phrase ì-ne-és lú lú-ra a-na an-na-an-dug4. Finally, at the end of Sulgi ary unit (ll. 11-28) is connected with the previous units the- B:358 (ETCSL 2.4.2.2) the king vows that everything written above it true. matically, it verifies by examples the statements in ll. 1-4, 7 Typical indication of oral tradition are easily discernible blocks of texts and 10 concerning the situation in Dilmun. Thus, the three (here and in the second story), and the use of stereotypes or proverbs (as units are knitted together thematically as well as literally. in the third unit). 54) Line 62 “Now, by Samas, on this day so it indeed happened” is This complex structure is consistent with the intricate struc- undoubtedly the conclusion of the first story. For a vow that the things said ture of each unit. are true, compare Sulgi B:318 (ETCSL 2.4.2.2), “By An, Enlil, Utu and The architecture of ll. 1-28, the literary considerations Inana, it is no lie — it is true!” and Isme-Dagan A:381-2 (ETCSL 2.5.4.1), invested in the build-up of each individual unit, and the whole “Everything that is in my poetry or which is written on my stele, is defi- nitely not false, but genuine”! In line 2b ki-en-gi is inserted in a phrase passage as a systematically interrelated sequence, point about Dilmun. 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 547
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cannot be the prologue to the story of the relationship of in keeping with the convention, and ll. 3-4 are the prologue these two gods. of the first story, which begins in l. 5. A thematic, structural and wording parallels between the second unit and the beginning of the second story strongly 2.2 Lines 29- 62 Dilmun is enlivened suggest that ll. 5-6 with the brief reference to Enki mark the beginning of first story, the tale of Dilmun. The second story As abruptly as the first story began so it continues. With begins with an episode in which Enki is luring Nintud to cop- no previous preparation, and in conflict with the beginning ulate with him (ll. 63-71). The first and last lines ll. 63-64 + of the story, it appears that Ninsikila is not Enki’s wife but 71 parallel the opening couplet of the second unit (ll. 5-6 and his daughter and that Enki gave Dilmun to her. But there is, 8-9). The common theme is Enki’s sexuality: apparently, not much joy in becoming the goddess of an 5/8. dili-ni -ne dilmunki-a ù-bí-in-nú empty, lifeless place. Ninsikila is not happy with the gift. 63. dili-ni géstug-ge tuku-a dnin-tud ama kalam-ma-sè Responding to her complaint, Enki has changed the nature of 71. nú-a ambar-ra the island. 6/9. ki den-ki dam-a-ni-da ba-an-da-nú-a-ba d d 64. en-ki-ke4 géstug-ge tuku-a nin-tud
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dependent on EWO:238-958) and moreover, that it may have 48. iri-zu é-gún kar-ra kalam-ma-ka Ìé-a been the departure point of ENH, which would explain why May your city become a storehouse on the quay of the Land. this information is not repeated.59) The literary elaboration 49. Dilmunki é2-< etc. > on the terms sikil and dadag in the prologue (ll. 1-4), may May Dilmun become a storehouse
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not certain because it may be accidental. Traces of a-gàr in l. Ur ends with a passage which confirms in detail that Dil- 36 suggest that Ninsikila’s complaint and the fulfillment of mun indeed became a prosperous commercial center. The Enki’s promise belong to the same level of redaction. Nippur source ends with a vow that whatever was told is The designation iri “city” in l. 61 returns to iriki kug-kug- true (l. 62), a formal closure of the tale, thus it definitely ga-àm in line 1, delineating a literal frame for the whole first emphasizes the greatness of Enki, rather than Dilmun. story. The distribution of iri as opposed to the compound kur- Literally, l. 62 suggests that Enki brought the water sources Dilmun is noteworthy. kur-Dilmunki is used only in the first in a magical, miraculous way. Magic and sweet water sources unit. The restricted grouping marks lines 1-4 as a tightly closed are the most typical domains of Enki’s divinity.65) His con- unit. iri is attested once in the prologue as iriki (line 1a), two trol over fresh water and his ability to produce sources when times in the third unit (ll. 24 and 28), and continuously in the and where necessary, as here in Dilmun, is at the heart of the last three units in parallel to Dilmunki. The meaning of this story. Line 62 highlights this divine power. Thus, although it grouping is not certain. Different levels of redaction are unlikely is a stock phrase, its use here is significant for the topic. because the first story is fully dependent on EWO:238-9 (kur- ki Dilmun ), which is the only evidence that Dilmun was given 2.4 The merger with the second story to Ninsikila by Enki, to the state in which it was given, and it accounts for her complaint.63) Presumably, in the course of the The two stories share the main protagonist, Enki, but they narration the reference was shortened to iri and Dilmun. differ on the location of Enki’s activities, their purpose, nature and achievements. A significant difference is the rank 2.2.3 The Ur version additional passage: of the female protagonists. In the first plot Ninsikila triggers the events but Enki acts alone. The second plot, however, A passage of more than twenty one lines was added in the develops along the dialectic relations of Enki and Ninhur- Ur version at the beginning of Col. ii. The passage lists lands saga. Enki is no soloist. The coupling of different sort of which traded with Dilmun and their typical goods. It ends, events, in some respects antithetical, generates a duality that before the break, with the praise of Dilmun itself and its nat- defines its two components. Therefore the two parts of the ural resources: grain, dates, harvest and wood. The list of text are two unrelated events in the life and work of Enki. A lands illustrate the prosperity of Dilmun but reflects the com- close reading revealed literary materials which were used to mercial horizons of Babylonia during the reign of Rim-Sîn. render the stories a unified front. Particularly obvious are the The subject matter, the lively commercial activity in Dil- parallel circumstances at the beginning of each story. The key mun associates it with Enki’s promise. Its place in the question is, therefore, what is the intrinsic shared element sequence, however, is in debate. Jacobsen and ETCSL read which made the stories seem suitable for coupling? the verbal forms with the prefix /hu-/ as precative and inserted The story of Dilmun is left behind in l. 62 and l. 63 begins the passage after l. 49 of the Nippur version, as an extension the second story. But ll. 63-64 are not detached from the con- of Enki’s promise (ll. 49A-V). Attinger and Römer read the text. Unlike the beginning of the first story they set in motion passage as optative (or precative) and placed it at the end of a sequence of related events. At first glance it seems that the the tale, after l. 62. In the commentary Attinger suggests the second story is about the sexual pursuits of Enki and the birth affirmative with a question mark (Attinger 1984:37). Both of some minor deities. A closer look, however, exposes a places are possible, depending on the interpretation of the power struggle between two equal gods, Enki and Ninhursaga, story. The answer is, as usual, in the meaning, defined by the that actually nurtures the development of the plot.66) The cli- function of this passage. If the passage is read as precative or max is reached when Enki was on the verge of death as a result optative and inserted as part of Enki’s promise it merely pro- of a curse cast on him by Ninhursaga. Yet, this seems impos- longs it. But a place at the end of the story means that Enki sible, as, Enki was no young dying god nor a mortal, but a dis- did not yet fulfill his promise. My view is that rather than tinguished member of the quartet, an equal of Ninhursaga. This precative or optative it makes better sense as the affirmative unbelievable turn of the plot is at the bottom of the second 1, which is used to assure that whatever was said is true.64) story, not the birth of some insignificant deities whose cult was Since the main function of this affirmative is to remove doubts long forgotten. The death of Enki can be explained only in by the addressee, reading the affirmative signifies that Enki’s mythological terms as signifying the drying up of water promise has been fulfilled. Thus, it is the equivalent of Nip- sources. Thus, both stories center on Enki’s aspect as the god pur’s version of the realization of Enki’s promise, ll. 50-62, of fresh water, narrating the two conflicting realities manifested and can replace it as the end of the story. in the essence of his divinity. In the first story Enki is creating fresh water sources and in the second, his near death signifies 2.3 The essence of first story the danger of a drought, the drying up of water sources. Lines 5-10 adjust the first story to the second without The first story is a short tale about the island of Dilmun. merging the two into one plot, and for good reason. The The subject is clearly defined by the prologue, ll. 1-4, a parallel circumstances at the beginning of each story mark compressed characterization of Dilmun as a lifeless place. a fresh start, emphasizing the split as well as the mutual; Following it is the explanation why and how Enki changed each story is devoted to an opposite manifestation of Enki, the nature of Dilmun and brought it to life. The version from his being and his absence. The division into two separate
63) If EWO would have been contemporary or younger I would expect 65) Jacobsen 1987:183 suggested that this story was originally about that Enki’s blessing of Dilmun would be more detailed, comparable to the Enzak, because in l. 10 Ninsikila his spouse appears as Enki’s. This is blessing of Meluhha (EWO:219-237). That the entry about Dilmun is con- unlikely in view of the textual contact with EWO. cise implies that EWO pre-dates the apex of Dilmun’s prosperity. 66) Comparable to the contest of Enki and Ninmah, after he organized 64) Edzard 2003:117. the creation of man. ENH seems to me to echo the structure of ENM. 0582_BIOR_2007_5-6_01 31-01-2008 13:23 Pagina 550
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stories, embedded in opposite issues, also dissociate Nin- sikila from Ninhursaga, each involved with Enki according to the nature of her own divine property. In the second part of the study a structural analysis of the second story unfolds the complicated plot, full of intrigues and humor.
Bibliographical Abbreviations
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NINO-Leiden, May 2007