Restoration of Black Knapweed
(Centaurea nigra)
At Tower Point
RNS Restoration Project | Black Knapweed
Tower Point (Witty’s Lagoon Regional Park)
Spring 2015
Jeremy Field
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Abstract
The field at the entrance to Tower Point, part of Witty’s Lagoon Regional Park in Metchosin BC, contains one of the only identified populations of Black Knapweed (Centaurea nigra) in the
Capital Regional District. This project attempted to restore part of this field through the manual excavation of Black Knapweed, filling the pits created with soil, and sowing native grass mix within the area as to promote grass regrowth. Due to the current list of challenges faced, the restoration of Black Knapweed is a project that progresses slowly and could use a burst of funding or activity to prevent greater expenses in the long term, but is a project that volunteers may be helpful for, and is a project that has the potential to prevent Black Knapweed from establishing itself within the Capital Regional District.
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Acknowledgements
This project has been completed to fulfill the requirements of ER 390 for the Restoration of
Natural Systems Program at the University of Victoria. I would like to thank Dr. Val Schaefer for overseeing my project, and for his assistance in procuring the necessary equipment to complete the survey and initial phase of this restoration project.
I am also grateful for the advice, guidance, and assistance that was provided by Colleen Long,
Liz Belcher, and Todd Golumbia of CRD Regional Parks. Thank you once again.
Finally, to Max Macdonald & Zachary Luck, thank you both for taking time during the UVIC exam period to come out to Tower Point, to work up a sweat helping me complete my project.
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Introduction
Black Knapweed (Centaurea nigra) is a plant native to Europe that was first reported in North
America in the late 1800’s (GOERT, 2010). It has become widespread enough that it is now
considered an invasive species, and can be found throughout the west coast of North America.
However, C. nigra has only been identified in 11 sites in BC (BC Ministry of Agriculture, Food
and Fisheries, 2002). Of those sites, only two are located south of Nanaimo, and both are found
within the Capital Regional District (CRD Regional Parks, 2008). One cluster of C. nigra is
located on the Galloping Goose Regional Trail, and the other is located at Tower Point within
Witty’s Lagoon Regional Park (CRD Regional Parks, 2008).
Tower Point
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Witty’s Lagoon
Figure 1 Map of Greater Victoria, (Google Maps, 2015)
Located approximately 40 minutes away from Victoria in Metchosin BC, Tower Point is a part of
Witty’s Lagoon Regional Park, a 58.2 hectare area that has existed as a park since 1966. The
park is a popular recreational area, with multiple beaches, over 5 kilometers of trails, and over
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160 species of birds (CRD, 2015). It contains a diverse array of ecosystem types within its boundaries, and provides habitats for species adapted to dunes, intertidal areas, forests, and sand marshes.
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Entrance
Tower Point
Figure 2 Boundaries of Witty's Lagoon
Currently, the area surrounding Tower Point is semi-rural and suburban, and as a result of human development the connectivity of natural spaces surrounding the area has been disrupted. This loss of connectivity, coupled with the ecological disturbances caused by human development, reduces the resiliency of the ecosystems that exist there, and have created the conditions under which a number of invasive species have managed to thrive in the area, such as Himalayan Blackberry (Rubus discolour), and Scotch Broom, (Cytisus scoparius). I attempted to find literature on the terrestrial ecology of Tower Point, but was unsuccessful.
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Reports done on the areas around Tower Point have primarily focused on coastal marine systems or on the saltmarshes, dunes, and intertidal zones of Witty’s Lagoon. However, I observed that the entrance to Tower Point was a grassy field, while there was a patch of forest and a grassy field in the core of Tower point. Tower Point and Witty’s Lagoon, due to the presence of beaches, are especially popular during summer months. During the busiest periods of park use, the grassy field at the entrance to Tower Point is used as an overflow parking area.
Geology I attempted to find a source detailing the bedrock and overburden composition of the site, but the detailed quaternary geological map of Victoria does not extend to cover Tower point, and the only other geological data available was available at a much larger scale, so it was difficult to determine the specific geology found within Tower Point. What I found that the general region is primarily volcanic rock that is classified as the “Metchosin Igneous Complex” (Timpa et al,
2005), and the overburden is primarily glacial gravel and clay (Metchosin Community Green
Map, 2011). The overburden seems to be classified as Colluvial Blocks, which are “blocks and rubble with sand and silt derived from crystalline bedrock, medium grade metamorphic substrate and cemented sandstone”. (Natural Resources Canada, 1995)
Cultural Significance Tower Point falls within the traditional lands of the Songhees First Nation, and contains evidence indicating the area was a site of significance. It is thought that Tower Point was used by the local First Nations as a natural fortification that provided protection during periods of warfare between groups (Liz Belcher, personal communication, 2015). In addition to natural barriers, hostile groups advancing on Tower Point encountered burial cairns and mounds.
These burial sites were thought to have been strategically placed so that advancing forces would have to cross through a cemetery to reach their targets, which would have deeply unsettled the hostile forces prior to battle (Liz Belcher, personal communication, 2015).
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Black Knapweed Black Knapweed, (Centaurea nigra) is an invasive perennial forb, typically found in disturbed areas, that has appeared in the
Kootenays, the northwestern section of
BC, and has been identified in the
Greater Victoria region (BC Ministry of
Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, 2002).
Biology Black Knapweed is a part of the member Figure 4 patch dominated by C. nigra (Alberta Invasive Species Council, 2014) of the Asteraceae (Sunflower) family, and can grow up to 1.5 meters in size (BC Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries, 2002). C. nigra’s rosette and lower stem leaf blades are “lance-shaped” and can be 5-25cm long. (Alberta
Invasive Species Council, 2014). It reproduces almost exclusively by seed, which it manages to produce at over “1000 seeds per plant per year” (GOERT, 2010) (Alberta Invasive Species
Council, 2014). The vast majority of these seeds do not travel farther than 1 m from the parent plant, creating a seed bank that allows for the formation of large monocultures (GOERT, 2010).
Seeds are not the only method of
reproduction however, as lateral shoots
may develop below the soil. These
shoots may increase how dense a
population may be, but unlike seeds,
lateral shoots do not have the
Figure 3 - Rosette of C. nigra (Ackley, B., Bugwood.org) capability to spread black knapweed across long distances. In contrast, C. nigra seeds are able to be transported by wind, animals,
7 or vehicles. (GOERT, 2010). When these seeds are spread, they are spread “primarily by people, via shoes, vehicle tires, and machinery”
(CRD Regional Parks, 2008). Some sources state these seeds stay viable for 5 years, but others state they can be viable up to 8 years
(CRD Regional Parks, 2008) (GOERT, 2010).
C. nigra flowers from July to October, and prefers habitats that are open, moist, and disturbed (CRD Regional Parks, 2008).
Regional Approaches Figure 5 Stem of C. nigra (Roche, C., Bugwood.org) These characteristics, coupled with small population sizes that have the potential to uncontrollably expand without management, have led the Capital Region Invasive Species Partnership (CRISP) to classify C. nigra as an orange “E” listed invasive species. As invasive species can negatively impact the biodiversity of areas they colonize by outcompeting native species, they can subsequently reduce that area’s ecological resilience and ability to resist or adapt to change,
Figure 6 - CRISP Classification levels which can threaten the ecological integrity of an area. As E-listed invasive species are known to occur only with limited distribution and in low densities, conservation groups may be able to prevent these populations from establishing themselves within the region which would risk destabilizing native ecosystems
8 in the future. Therefore, CRISP advises that conservation plans dealing with Black Knapweed aim to “Eradicate” the species from the area and region.
Treatment Methods There are a number of different treatment methods that have been used to attempt to restore or to control C. nigra populations on the west coast of North America.
Mechanical methods of restoring areas containing C. nigra include: pulling of C. nigra
specimens out by hand, clipping the seed heads of C. nigra to inhibit the spread of
seeds, mowing area that have been covered by C. nigra, and digging each specimen of
C. nigra out. Hand pulling can be an effective method for control of very small
populations, however pulling these plants as may cause irritation. For larger population,
the “flower heads can be cut or mowed before they set seed” and must be taken from
the site (GOERT 2010).
Chemical: There are a number of herbicides that have been used to treat areas affected
by C. nigra, and many of them have been seen to be effective methods of eliminating C.
nigra populations. However, these herbicides may not be useful as a restoration method
as they can be non-discretionary and may actually negatively impact the ecological
integrity of the areas they are applied in. Currently no selective herbicides are registered
for use on black knapweed (Alberta Invasive Species Council, 2014). Herbicides such as
glyphosate and triclopyr can help is used for treating spots, and application should occur
during periods when native species are dormant. Caution should be applied, as
“treatment with herbicides can be destructive to native vegetation, totally modify the
ecosystem, persist for several years following application, and be costly for large areas”
(GOERT 2010).
Biological: At least 13 insects have been released as biocontrol agents of knapweed.
These insects attack the flowers and roots, reducing their competitive advantage. In
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addition to insects, fungi and bacteria have also been introduced as biological control
agents (GOERT 2010).
Ecological: Fire has been explored as a method of restoring areas affected by C. nigra,
but it seems to have had results that suggest fire is undesirable for restoration purposes.
Fires are not always able to burn hot enough to neutralize knapweeds – However,
annual summer burning has been shown to reduce spotted knapweed populations by
limiting reproduction. Therefore, fire may be useful as a tool within a program that uses
multiple approaches to control (GOERT 2010). Grazing has also been used as a
restoration method but seems to be discouraged, as C. nigra is “generally not palatable”
to grazers, and as the seeds of invasive species may be inadvertently spread through
this method (Alberta Invasive Species Council, 2014). Grazing by sheep and goats could
have the same effect as mowing. However, trampling and increased grazing can have
negative impacts on ecosystems and must be supervised (GOERT, 2010).
Previous Treatments at Witty’s Lagoon
To date, all of the restoration efforts at Tower Point have made use of physical methods of treating C. nigra.
Mowing – A mechanical method that was successful in the past, but has become less
effective over time as C. nigra has adapted and currently grows below mower blade
height. This method was carried out by CRD Parks Staff. This method allowed Parks
Staff to efficiently control large areas, but unfortunately is less effective now.
Cutting of seed heads – A low cost, low disturbance manual method to control
knapweed spread has been employed by volunteers with limited success. This method
does not necessarily kill each specimen but the clipping of flower heads inhibits seed
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dispersal. As clipping occurs during the flowering season, some seeds may be
distributed before the heads are removed.
Digging C.nigra out to a depth of 1 foot. – A relatively high-cost, high disturbance manual
(with the potential to be mechanical) method with as of yet unknown but promising long
term effects. This method requires significantly more effort than the other methods and
generates significantly more waste (as the flower heads, stems, rosettes, and root
structures are removed). However, there are currently 2 smaller plots that have been
treated by CRD Parks Staff in the Tower Point parking lot that have used this method,
and both plots are showing positive results, with very rare (2 specimens spotted during a
mid-march walkthrough) knapweed regeneration and with abundant grass regeneration.
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Methods
N 1:5000
Figure 7 Location of restoration site (CRD Atlas, 2015)
I located the restoration project area using critera set out in the CRD’s best practices document.
Then, using the CRD Atlas GIS tool’s Measurement feature, I determined that the site was roughly 180m2. To gain a sample that can be considered representative, I needed to survey
10% of 180m2, which works out to 18m2. To do so, I used 4 quadrats that were
2.125mx2.125m. I surveyed these quadrats pre-restoration to establish a baseline, and future monitoring of the site should re-survey these quadrats and compare their findings to the pre- restoration data and the post-restoration data.
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Determining Project Location
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Figure 8 - Project Site & Previous Restoration Sites
I walked through the site with CRD Parks’ Liz Belcher to gain a sense of how dense and widespread Black Knapweed was in the boundaries of Tower Point. Once the walkthrough had been completed I selected the site that I would be restoring, using criteria set out by CRD
Regional Parks (2008) to determine which sites to prioritize. These criteria prioritize the restoration of sites that are both at the margins of invasive species populations and that see high volumes of traffic. These sites are prioritized as they are the areas where limited resources are expected to have the greatest effect possible.
The site that I chose fulfilled both of these criteria, as it was located at the boundary of Tower
Point (marginal), and in an area that serves as the general entrance to Tower Point (high traffic).
The chosen site was also nearby the two previous locations that CRD Regional Parks Staff had restored areas with C. nigra present through digging out.
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Siting Quadrats Once the site had been selected and the area of the site had been determined to be 180m2 using the CRD Atlas GIS tool, I chose to use four (4) 2.125mx2.125m quadrats to collect data on 10% of the area so the results can be considered statistically representative. The 4 quadrats were randomly sited by selecting 4 independent cells within a grid, and then superimposing that grid (sized so that each cell was approximately~2mx~2m) overtop of an orthophoto of the site found on the CRD Atlas. The vertical grid lines were then aligned with Magnetic North.
Magnetic
North
Figure 9 Aerial image of the site with a ~2mx2m grid superimposed to locate quadrats. The blue triangle acts as a reference point to orient Figure 10.
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Figure 10 Photo of site with approximate borders (lines) and quadrat locations (stars) superimposed
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Surveying Once the quadrats had been randomly sited, I arrived at Tower Point to lay out the boundaries of the restoration area and to locate the quadrats on the ground. Once the quadrats were located each quadrat had a metal spike driven into the northwest corner (so future monitoring projects can use the same spots reliably). In these quadrats, I surveyed for:
Black Knapweed Cover (%)
Grass Cover (%)
Non-Vegetated Area (%)
Canopy Coverage (%) (Nearby and Overhead to determine how much shade each
quadrat receives)
A Species List.
This data forms the baseline against which the long term success of this project can be gauged.
Figure 11 Guide used to estimate percent cover (Anderson, 1986)
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Restoration Based on the long term success seen in the previous plots where spots inhabited by C. nigra were excavated a foot in depth and exhibited low rates of regrowth and strong regrowth of native grasses, I looked to expand the area in Tower Point that had had this restoration method applied. I did not use biological controls as they are more effective at controlling the spread of a population rather than eliminating it. In addition, the distribution of C. nigra is limited enough that the risk of introducing additional foreign species to Tower Point’s ecosystems outweighs the potential benefits that biological methods provide over physical, ecological, or chemical methods. Further, chemical approaches were not used as I do not possess an herbicide applicators licence. However, even if I was in possession of a license, the ecological impacts of herbicide application make using chemical methods unattractive. Many of the herbicides used to treat C. nigra in Washington State negatively affect native species as well as invasive species, which may have a net negative effect on the overall ecology of the area. As one of the most effective methods of preventing the spread of C. nigra is to maintain healthy ecosystems (as black knapweed primarily colonizes disturbed areas) chemical methods may not be ideal. In addition, as the site is heavily used recreationally and is located in a residential area, a significant number of social and political barriers exist that must be addressed before treating C. nigra chemically. These barriers, in addition to the ecological impacts of the application of herbicides, make alternative methods more attractive for a site of this scale. Due to the residential nature of the area surrounding Tower Point, fire was not explored as a restoration option further as the procedures and preparations that would have been needed to do so safely would have been extensive, public resistance could be (understandably) substantial, and the area could potentially emerge from the flames with a greater level of disturbance than before.
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Once the initial survey was been completed and a baseline was established, the plan was to actively interact with the area. This was completed as following, starting in the southwest corner of the restoration area moving northeast:
1. Marking each specimen of C. nigra by laying pink surveyors tape in an “X” overtop
2. Digging out specimens manually (to a 1 foot depth for each specimen to ensure that the
root structures are removed & unable to regenerate). After each pit was dug, a meter
stick was used to determine the depth of each pit and to ensure each pit was dug deep
enough.
3. Once excavated, each specimen was dumped into 20 gallon hard plastic bins, which
were loaded onto a pickup once full.
4. Any surveyors tape remaining at the site was collected and disposed of, and the tools
used will be washed down to prevent the spread of knapweed matter.
5. Once all of the 20 gallon bins were full of C. nigra, they were taken to the CRD Regional
Parks Headquarters and disposed of in the Controlled Waste Bin.
Once a section had all the C. nigra removed, the pit that remained was then filled with straight leaf mulch. Straight leaf mulch was used as it is assumed to be free of invasive organic materials. As invasive species normally thrive in disturbed areas, it was important that the pits be free of invasive materials so that native species could thrive.
Once the pits had been filled, agronomic grass seed mix, which was primarily fescue, was sown over each area, and fencing was to be put up around the area. This fencing had a sign attached explaining the purpose of the temporary closure of the area (for public education purposes).
This sign will also direct interested citizens to opportunities for future volunteer participation.
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Monitoring In order to monitor the site and to determine the long-term success of the restoration project, the locations of the four 2.125m x 2.125m quadrats used to develop the baseline should be surveyed 6 weeks after the restoration activity is completed, and should occur every 4 months after for 2 years to monitor knapweed regrowth. Follow up monitoring should be done by assessing the conditions of the quadrats via changes in:
%Black Knapweed coverage
%Native Grass coverage
List of Species Identified
The sides of the 4 quadrats run parallel with Magnetic N/S, and have an 8’’ nail placed to mark the NW corner of each quadrat so that during follow up monitoring the quadrats can be re- located easily and reliably. In addition, Photos will be taken of each quadrat post- restoration from 1 meter away from the center of the south side so that changes over time can be documented visually.
Materials Shovels ~450 liters of soil 4 - 20 gallon plastic bins Meter stick Agronomic grass mix Compass 2.125mx2.125m Quadrat Camera Surveyors Tape Measuring Tape
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Results
Baseline Survey
Figure 12 Pre-Restoration Quadrat Photos
Quadrat # 1 2 3 4
Black Knapweed Cover 0 5 10 20
(%)
Grass Cover (%) 90 75 70 65
Non-Vegetated Area 5 20 20 15
(%)
Canopy Cover (Nearby 0 5 20 25 and overhead) (%)
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Quadrat # 1 2 3 4
Species List -Bellis perennis, - Bellis perennis, -Grasses -Grasses
(English Daisy) (English Daisy) -Centaurea nigra -Centaurea nigra
-Grasses -Grasses (Black Knapweed) (Black Knapweed)
-Centaurea nigra -Clover* -Sedge (unknown)
(Black Knapweed) (unidentified)
-Taraxacum officinale -Parsley*
(Common Dandelion) (unidentified)
* Appendix 1
contains image of
specimen
By analysing the data collected in the baseline survey, C. nigra is shown to be more populous in the areas that receive shade (Canopy Cover - %), most likely because these areas are more moist than the areas in the middle of the field where only grass and daisies are located. Other
C.nigra infestations in the area seem to occur along the margins of the field in areas that are also partially shaded.
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Restoration
Figure 13 Phase 1 Area Restored
Starting in the southwest corner of the transect, Zachary Luck, Max Macdonald, and I began to
mark out specimens with flagging tape. Zachary and Max volunteered to help with the
restoration of the area by contributing their physical labour. We soon noticed that in the areas
that received relatively large amount of shade (for the site) C. nigra was growing dense enough
that excavating individual
specimens would have
been inefficient, and I
found that I had
underestimated the amount
of soil needed as fill. I was
initially skeptical of how
Figure 14 A C. nigra with its taproot exposed showing extent of C. nigra’s root structure - This small specimen has a root depth of over 6’’/15cm necessary excavating a
22 foot of soil was for the restoration of the site, but after excavating a number of specimens it became clear that even the smaller knapweeds had roots extending 2x-3x the above surface length down. Due to the density of C. nigra and the volume of soil required, we ran through all our fill (~450 liters) faster than anticipated, and so were not able to treat the entire area without creating a tripping hazard to other users of the park. Unfortunately, due to the timing of a number of personal factors, the completion of restoration at the site was not possible prior to the submission of this report and so post-restoration photos must be included in an addendum (to be added in the future).
CRD Regional Parks offered to put up fencing around the restoration area, and stated that they could potentially complete future monitoring of the site, as I am unsure of where I may be in the near future.
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Discussion
Importance of Controlling C. nigra As C. nigra is a species that is predicted to “take advantage of climate change” and to pose a more significant threat to native species & “indigenous biodiversity” in the future, there is a strong case to be made for allocating resources in order to eradicate the species from Tower
Point and the Capital Regional District (Qaderi et al, 2013). Additionally, as C. nigra prefers somewhat dry and open habitats, if it is able to spread beyond Tower Point it may threaten already endangered Garry Oak ecosystems in the region as their habitat preferences are similar and knapweed may be able to out-compete already struggling native species (GOERT, 2010).
Because of these and other reasons, the BC government has declared that controlling knapweeds should be a “high management priority” (BC Ministry of Agriculture, Foods, and
Fisheries, 2002). As knapweed is relatively contained currently, it is worth moving to eradicate now instead of waiting until it is able to become established regionally and becomes impossible to remove.
Challenges A number of challenges exist that must be overcome in order to prevent C. nigra from becoming established locally. One such challenge is that governmental parks organizations have limited resources, and are required by legislation (such as the BC Weed Control Act) to prioritize certain flora over others- those which are considered noxious weeds (such as Giant Knotweed -
Fallopia sachalinensis). I do believe that resources are used effectively, but these required species may leave government organizations without enough resources left over to effectively manage other species. This inability to control species before they threaten wider regions may cause higher costs over the long term than otherwise.
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The amount of physical labour involved in C. nigra restoration using the digging out method is massive due to the volume of soil generated and the density of the soil that is excavated. If a long term restoration plan is developed to address C. nigra at Tower Point in general the use of heavy machinery may be warranted in order to avoid injury or straining, or in order to complete the work quicker than it can be finished by hand. Volunteer labour may be used, but due to the physically intensive nature of the work it may be less attractive to volunteers than other, less strenuous outings. It is unlikely that volunteers could afford to supply all of the materials needed to restore the area as restoration would take a significant amount of soil and would remove a ton of black knapweed affected soil. The costs involved were too high for me to continue at the time, and I was unable to access a truck (to transport the soil and knapweed) after the completion of the initial restoration effort.
Unfortunately, it appears as though C. nigra has begun to spread beyond the borders of Tower
Point into the backyards of neighboring residences. The landowners of these properties may not appreciate or understand the rationale for restoring Tower Point to a pre-knapweed state, and so may not permit restoration to occur. This may provide a vector for knapweed to recolonize the area after a successful restoration project. Private land owners are encouraged to control these populations, and are able to consult with the CRD for the best practices, but are not required to do so. In addition, during the busiest periods of park use in the summer, the entire field is opened up as a parking area, so any knapweed that flowers during that period has a strong chance of having seeds transported outside of Tower Point via car tires or undercarriages.
Future Directions While the deadlines for this report prevent the reporting of site results post-restoration (as restoration was not completed in time), the restoration of this site is still underway, and will continue through late May 2015. During this period, additional volunteers have offered to make
25 the trip out, and so the site will hopefully see progress in the next while. Due to the physically intensive method chosen for this project (manual removal of 1 foot of soil for each specimen), the use of machinery such as an excavator could potentially prove to be useful in the future if the project area is expanded, funding allows and disturbance can be minimized. Another way to attempt to control black knapweed could be simply attempting to improve the ecological integrity of the areas surrounding infestations, as black knapweed does not thrive in those areas.
As it stands, the control and eradication of black knapweed from Tower Point is a long term project due to funding, time, and jurisdictional constraints. At the same time, it is a project that may protect the Victoria region, and the Garry Oak ecosystems contained within, from facing yet another disruptive invasive species.
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References
Anderson, W.E. (1986). A guide for estimating cover. Rangelands. 8 (5). 236-238)
Floras of North America. Centaurea nigra Linneaus. 20 (1). 187.
Alberta Invasive Species Council. (2014). Black Knapweed Centaurea nigra (Aka lesser
knapweed, common knapweed, hardheads). Factsheet.
CRD Regional Parks. (2008). Knapweed action plan and best management practices. Internal
Document.
CRD. (2015) Witty’s Lagoon Regional Park. Accessed at https://www.crd.bc.ca/parks-
recreation-culture/parks-trails/find-park-trail/wittys-lagoon
Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team [GOERT], (2010). Centaurea biebersteinii & nigra
Spotted and Black Knapweed. Invasive species in Garry oak and associated
ecosystems in British Columbia. Factsheet.
Qaderi, M. M., Lynch, A. L., Godin, V.J., Reid, D.M. (2013). Single and interactive effects of
temperature, carbon dioxide, and watering regime on the invasive weed black knapweed
(Centaurea nigra). Ecoscience. 20(4): 328-338.
Muller, J.E., and Yorath, C.J. (1997). Field trip 7: Guidebook - Geology of Vancouver Island.
Geological Association of Canada.
Metchosin Green Mapping Group. (2011) Metchosin Community Green Map. Accessed at
http://www.westshorearts.org/docs/Metchosin-Green-Map-2011.pdf
Timpa, S., Gillis, K.M., Canil, D., (2005) Accretion related metamorphism of the Metchosin
igneous complex, southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences. 42.1467-1479
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Natural Resources Canada. 1995. Surficial Materials of Canada [Map]. Geological Survey of
Canada.
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Appendix 1 Pre-Restoration Quadrat Photos
Quadrat #1 –Open Field
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Quadrat #2
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Quadrat #3
Quadrat #4 – Area under and behind Tower Point Sign
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