Spor Bilimleri Dergisi Hacettepe J. of Sport Sciences 2008, 19 (4), 250–260 Davetli Derleme

EQUALITY AND SOCIAL MISSIONS: MUSLIM WOMEN AND THEIR OPPORTUNITIES TO PARTICIPATE IN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

Gertrud PFISTER University of Copenhagen, Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences

ABSTRACT This article explores the opportunities of Muslim women to participate in sport and physical activities and the barriers they face in competitive sport as well as in sport for all. Although there has been an increase of female athletes from Islamic countries in the last decade, Muslim women are still a small minority among the competitors in international sport events such as the . In many Islamic countries, numerous girls and women do not have access to physical ac- tivities and/or physical education. However, we have to be aware that the situation of women and women’s sport is different depending on countries, cultures, social backgrounds and religious orientations. The second part of the article focuses on backgrounds and reasons for the marginalization of Muslim women in sports. It is argued that not Islam per se, but traditions, environments and (economic) condi- tions may prevent girls and women to participate in sport (for all). At the end, the article refers to a workshop about “Muslim Women and Sport” and quotes signifi- cant parts of the declaration “Accept and Respect” which emphasizes the opportu- nities of Muslim women (and men) to enjoy physical activities. Key Words: Muslim women, Olympic Games, Sport for all, Islam, Gender relations

Geliş Tarihi: 03.08.2009 250 251 Yayına Kabul Tarihi: 03.12.2009 Equality and Social Missions

EŞİTLİK VE SOSYAL MİSYONLAR: MÜSLÜMAN KADINLAR VE SPOR VE FİZİKSEL AKTİVİTELERE KATILIM FIRSATLARI ÖZ Bu çalışma Müslüman kadınların spor ve fiziksel aktiviteye katılım fırsatlarını ve yarışma sporu ve herkes için sporda karşılaştıkları engelleri incelemektedir. Son on yılda İslam ülkelerindeki kadın sporcuların sayısında artış olmasına karşın Müslüman kadınlar Olimpiyatlar gibi uluslar arası spor etkinliklerine katılan yarışmacılar içinde hala azınlıktadırlar. Pek çok İslam ülkesinde çok sayıda kız ve kadın fiziksel aktiviteye ve/veya beden eğitimine erişim sağlayamamaktadır. Bununla birlikte kadınların durumlarının ve kadınların spora katılımının ülkelere, kültürlere, sosyal arka plana ve dini yönelimlere göre değiştiğinin farkında olmak zorundayız. Çalışmanın ikinci bölümü sporda Müslüman kadınların marjinalleşmesinin arka planına ve sebeplerine odaklanmaktadır. Sadece İslamın kendi başına değil, geleneklerin, çevrelerin ve (ekonomik) koşulların, kızların ve kadınların (herkes için) spora katılımlarını engelleyebildiği ileri sürülmektedir. Son olarak çalışma, “Müslüman Kadın ve Spor” konusunda bir çalıştaya değinmiş, Müslüman kadınların (ve erkeklerin) fiziksel aktivitelerden zevk almaları için fırsatları vurgulayan “Kabul Et ve Saygı Göster” Bildirgesinin önemli bölümlerini aktarmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Müslüman kadınlar, Olimpiyat Oyunları, Herkes için spor, İslam, Toplumsal cinsiyet ilişkileri

Equality in sport - does it exist? from Islamic countries 1 competed at the Competitive Sport OG, a very small number in the view of Women were “late-comers” in sport the fact that around 20 % of the world as their participation in the Olympic Ga- population adheres to Islam. mes shows clearly. In 1896, they were With regard to the participation of excluded, but since the Olympics in Paris women, some progress occurred in the (1900) their participation rate grew slowly, last decades: Of the 160 NOCs which but continuously. The gradual increase in took part in the Seoul Olympics, 42 (inc- the number of women competitors obs- luding 21 Islamic countries) sent only cures the fact that a woman’s chance of male athletes (Hargreaves, 1994). In Bar- participating and competing in sport and celona 33, in Atlanta 28, and in Sydney in the OG depends to a large extent on only 9 NOCs did not include women in her nationality as well as her cultural and their teams. In 2008, only three delega- religious background. Traditionally, Isla- tions (Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Kuwait) mic cultures do not prioritise sport and were “men only”. For the first time Oman thus the numbers of Muslim athletes at and the United Arab Emirates sent wo- the OG were and are quite low. In 2008, men to the Olympics, Jordan’s delegati- 427 men, 6 % of the male athletes, and on consisted of three men and four wo- 98 women, 2 % of the female athletes, men and the North African nations inc-

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luded a considerable number of female (19 - 25 years of age) are members of a athletes, even a volley ball team (Banna- sport club (Karfoul, 2009). yan, 2008). Despite the numerous barriers that A view of the medal count shows the exist, women in Islamic countries have marginalization of the teams from Non- managed to become successful athle- Western countries. In Beijing, few delega- tes, even in assertive sports like kara- tions shared the medals: 10 of the more te or taekwondo. This is especially true than 100 teams gained 65 %, and 15 te- in the case of where the separati- ams 75 % of the gold medals. With few on of State and religion and the Westerni- exceptions the successful teams came zation of the middle classes in large citi- from Western industrialized countries. 2 es provide a positive climate for women’s Turkey was the most successful Is- sports (Pfister, 1997). According to Koca lamic country at the Beijing Games with and Hacisoftaoğlu (2010) who draw on in- 8 medals, four of them won by women: 2 formation from the Turkish Government medals were gained by the female long Agency for Sports, the number of fema- distance runner of Ethiopian origin Elvan le athletes has increased threefold since Abeylegesse, a Turkish woman was also 1997. Currently, 13 % of the 420,000 elite successful in weightlifting, another in Ta- athletes are women. Most of the 57,000 ekwondo. In addition, there were two sports women of the 23 million female more female medal winners from Muslim population (15-64 years of age) compe- countries, an Algerian judoka and a Mo- te in (approx. 11000 women), ta- roccan 800 m. runner. Despite these suc- ekwondo (9,000), (5,000), ka- cesses, this overview shows clearly that rate (4,000), and 2000 or less in swim- the marginalization of Muslim women in ming, kickboxing, handball and judo. One the OG is a serious issue.3 example of women overcoming barriers in sports is that of the Turkish elite athle- Sport for all te, Hamide Bıkçın Tosun, a bronze medal Little is known about physical activi- winner in the 2000 Olympic Games and ties and sport for all among girls and wo- a mother, who covers her hair in daily life men in Islamic countries. A first overvi- and, to the extent possible, also during ew will be available next year, when the Taekwondo competitions. studies of scholars of various Islamic co- Another example is that of the Syri- untries about women and sport in the- an female athletes who compete in nati- ir home countries will be published in a onal and even international competitions, book (Benn et al., 2010). It can be assu- mostly in Pan-Arabian, Asian or Mediter- med that sport for all is not wide spre- ranean tournaments and championships. ad in Islamic countries and that girls and Successful female athletes, as the Syrian women take even less part in sport than Ghada Shouaa a track and field athlete, boys and men. We already have informa- and winner of the heptathlon in the 1996 tion about , one of the Islamic count- Games, are treated as heroines (Karfo- ries, where women have the same (for- ul, 2009). The same is true for Malaysian mal) rights as men. Nearly 9 % of young athletes (Wirdati, 2006) and sports wo- men and less than 2 % of young women men from many other Islamic countries.

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These success stories should not must be stated first of all that there is no hide the fact that women in Islamic co- general prohibition of sport in Islam, and untries are a small minority in the com- that this applies to girls’ and women’s petitive sports arena. They remain mar- sport too.4 Islamic sport scientists, both ginalised when compared with male ath- male and female, emphasis that health letes and are often stereotyped as unfe- and fitness are important for men and minine and bad Muslims. They lack reso- women alike and should be sustained by urces and facilities and face resistance sporting activities. It was repeatedly po- based on religion, tradition and culture. inted out in this connection that Moham- Structural and economic problems impe- med had advocated living a healthy life de sports development in many Islamic and had recommended running, horse- countries but women more than men are riding, swimming and archery5. Leila Sfeir affected in many ways and to a much hig- and others concluded from this that ori- her degree (Benn et al, 2010). ginally Islam was positively inclined to- Much more information is available wards women’s sports. Sfeir writes: “Is- about the participation of immigrant wo- lamic religion in no way tries to deprecia- men and girls in sport and physical activi- te, much less deny sport for women. On ties. Do immigrant girls and women have the contrary, it attributes great significan- the opportunity to participate in physical ce and function to physical strength and activities in Western countries? There is sport activities. Islam is a constant con- no question in all European countries that cern with one’s body, cleanliness, pu- girls from ethnic minorities have to par- rification and force, with segregation of ticipate in physical education at school. the sexes. But certain religious elements, How Muslim girls like physical education, such as Islamic fatalism and Hindu mysti- what they experience and what effects it cism, have been dominant factors in has, has not been in the centre of scho- controlling general access to sport.” 6 larly attention. However, it seems that PE After studying Islamic sources and does not further sport interest and enga- authorities Daiman (1995) even arrives gement among Muslim girls. Muslim girls at the conclusion that sport ought to do not develop a close commitment to be obligatory for women on health gro- sport. This can be seen by looking at the unds. Nevertheless, in some countries participation of immigrant women and women’s sport is regarded as being ir- girls in physical activities inside and out- reconcilable with Islamic values and the side of sport organizations. The majority traditional and culturally rooted concept of immigrant girls and women with an Is- of femininity, which restricts women’s ac- lamic background are not active in sport. tions to the home and family (Sfeir, 1985).

Backgrounds and Reasons Gender Roles The Prophet and Women’s Sport In Islamic cultures the situation of In examining the question of how women is influenced by the importance sporting activities in general and Muslim of the family, which is the focus and the girls’ and women’s participation in sport centre of men’s and women’s lives and in particular are influenced by religion, it which is more than the sum of its mem-

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bers. Age and sex determine one’s soci- family is the faithfulness of wives to the- al position in the family as well as in soci- ir husbands and the virginity of daughters ety and the strictly hierarchical organisa- (Sfeir, 1985; Daiman, 1995). Every action tion of the family plays an important role and every sort of behaviour that might en- in Islamic cultures, which are based on a danger the good reputation of the fema- strict division of labour according to sex. le family members has to be avoided. The The husband is the head of the family, husband and other male members of the who has the right and the duty to control family have the duty to protect the hono- and “protect” the female family members. ur of the family and the right to control the The social and cultural superiority of men female family members and to sanction is connected with the concept of hono- transgressions. ur and a specific regulation of sexuality 7. The female body and covering the In Islamic ideology sexuality has a body plays a central role in Islamic disco- place only inside marriage. Sexual rela- urses and practices. Moral integrity requ- tions outside marriage are strictly forbid- ires for women to cover their bodies inc- den and severely punished. Female se- luding the hair. However, attitudes and xuality is controlled by a segregation of practices connected with the body and the sexes - either with the help of walls the scarf differ considerably among Isla- – women had to stay in the house and/or mic cultures, but also among individuals. are not allowed to participate in (physical) If and how a woman covers her head de- activities together with men – or with the pends upon various factors. She can be help of the scarf or veil. forced to wear a scarf by the family or the Virginity is absolutely required of environment, she can decide to do it out Muslim girls, even in families which do of various reasons, as part of her religio- not normally follow Islamic laws strictly. us belief, as protection, as a cultural cus- It is quite impossible to find a husband tom or as political signal. Many women, i.e. for a girl who is not a virgin. Numerous in Egypt or Turkey, also those who define rules and regulations are intended to gu- themselves as good Muslims, decide not arantee that girls do not lose their virgi- to cover their hair. Muslim feminists even nity: the main strategy is to keep girls un- claim that neither the Koran nor the Ha- der control and to prevent contacts with dith, the sayings of the Prophet, prescribe boys and men. the wearing of a scarf. According to them, The prestige and the position of a fa- the dominance of men and the gendered mily are dependent on “honour”, and ho- directives in all areas of society are to be nour also means the ability of the head of attributed, not to religion, but to a mixture the family or its male members to fight or of Islam and patriarchal traditions. avenge aggression and abuses. The rela- tions inside and outside of the family are Barriers in Islamic Countries based on the concept of honour which Not only the rules of the religion, but forces its members to take over specific also the culture, the living conditions, le- roles and duties, but guarantees, in return, gal prohibitions and social stigmas may support and protection, and also gives so- prevent Muslim women from participation cial prestige. Central to the “honour” of a in physical activities and especially from

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participation in sport competitions (Pfis- In addition, it must be taken into con- ter 1997; 2003). An example of the prob- sideration that immigrants living in foreign lems which Muslim athletes may face is countries have to construct a new identity, the case of the Afghani runner Mehbooba the identity of an immigrant, and this can Andyar who sought asylum in Norway be- lead to insecurities and identity conflicts. cause she got death threats from extre- Therefore immigrants often adhere to tra- mists although she competed in a hijab.8 ditional values much more strictly than In many Islamic countries, women’s they would have done in their home co- sport is confronted with numerous conc- untry.10 Islamic communities in Western rete difficulties, ranging from the lack of countries seem to exert high demands girls’ physical education at school and the on the conformity of their members, and limited opportunities which women have Muslim families are in many ways depen- of practicing sports, of training and com- dent on their neighbourhoods and net- peting. The law of the segregation of the works. sexes and a scarcity of sport facilities of- Immigrant girls in Western countri- ten leads to the exclusion of women from es have to live in different cultures. Scho- opportunities to engage in sporting activi- lars observed that the dilemma of Turkish ties and especially sport competitions. girls is that their parents teach them the culture of their home country with the im- Barriers in Western Countries portance of religion, the patriarchal struc- The Situation of Immigrant Women tures of the family and the concepts of Immigrants have to live and to “func- honor. At the same time, outside their ho- tion” in their new society. They are conf- mes and especially at school, they learn ronted with Western lifestyles, body ideals, about the culture of a Western country practices and movement cultures whose with its focus on individual freedom and adaptation would mean not only changing gender equality. behaviour patterns but also breaking with Immigrant girls have to integrate am- deeply anchored cultural norms and valu- bivalent, even contradictory expectations, es which can lead to various conflicts. deal with the stigmatization, and develop Female immigrants are not only conf- different identities than they would have ronted with the problems connected with done in the home country of their parents. the adaption to the living conditions in a Most girls develop, in some way, the abo- foreign country, but they face specific ex- ve mentioned hyphenated-identities; pectations and demands because they they are, for example Turkish-German or are women. As already mentioned, in Is- German-Turkish. They create new cultu- lamic cultures, the enactment of gender, res by mixing cultural ideals and practi- gender images and identities are to a ces of the home-country with the mains- high degree influenced by the beliefs and tream culture in the country in which they laws connected with the body. One of the live. Most immigrant girls also manage to most visible signals of the gender arran- adapt to different demands according to gements is the covering of the body. It is the situation, they learn to change from especially the body of immigrant girls and one culture to the other, from the German women which is a contested terrain9. school to the Turkish family.

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But immigrant girls and women in Islamic background to take up sporting ac- Western countries are not one single gro- tivities. In general, it may be assumed that up; on the contrary, their aims, identities, many immigrant families are oriented, to a experiences and conditions of life vary greater or lesser extent, towards traditio- considerably according to their home cul- nal gender roles rooted in religious beliefs. tures, their social class, and their religio- With regard to sport engagement we have us orientations. to take into consideration, as already men- tioned, the high importance of the family, The Hijab and Sport the traditional gender roles, and the rules In Western countries, the scarf is a connected with sexuality, or more preci- visible and highly contested sign of „ot- sely the importance of virginity for girls. herness“. But, as already mentioned, the These norms, values, attitudes and scarf also shows that cultural symbols behaviour patterns influence, if not deter- have various and ambivalent meanings. mine, the physical culture of many Mus- To wear a scarf can be a fashion or a ha- lim girls and women. The law on cove- bit, it can be a religious duty, but a scarf ring the body is a problem in many sports, can also be the expression of gender hie- and the demand for the segregation of rarchy and the suppression of women. the sexes makes it impossible for religi- ous girls and women to train or practise Barriers For Sporting Activity sport with boys or men. If Islamic law does not forbid girls Participation in sport can also lead to be active in sport, why do so few girls to conflicts in immigrant families becau- participate in sport?.Even if formal barri- se it creates situations in which girls and ers for doing sport or becoming a mem- women are outside the control of the fa- ber of a sport club may not exist, it is not mily. A pilot study in Denmark showed easy for people from ethnic minorities to that it is also the “gossip”, the fear losing take up sport. For various reasons, im- one’s reputation, all in all the pressure of migrant girls and women can have diffi- the Muslim community which prevent the culties integrating into groups of the ma- participation of girls and women in sport. instream population. They tend to have It is often a dilemma for immigrant girls a network of friends of their own from “that their parents teach them the cultu- which they get social support. And the re of their home country… At the same immigrant cultures favour specific body time, outside their homes and especially and beauty ideals which can be a com- at school, they learn about Western cul- bination or a mixture of traditional and ture with its freedom and equality. … Ob- Western ideals and practices. An athle- session with virginity leads to severe rest- tic lifestyle or a muscular body may not fit rictions of personal freedom and perso- in, for example, with traditional Pakista- nal development “.11 ni or Somali ideals of femininity and may A further problem, already mentio- also not meet the “taste” of the “Danish- ned above, is that girls and women in im- Turkish” or “German-Turkish” population. migrant families often have a high burden However, there are still other barriers of housework, which leaves little time and which make it difficult for females with an energy for sport activities. Whereas in

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the extended families in Islamic countries the interpretation of Islamic laws and rest- mothers, aunts and grandmothers share rictions because of cultural traditions. house work and childcare, in Western co- The growing tensions between the untries these duties are often done by the Muslim and the Western peoples and, at wives alone. the same time, the lack of understanding In discussing the reasons for the of the gendered discourses and practi- abstinence of immigrant girls and women ces in both worlds make intensive dialo- from sport we must also take into acco- gues and cooperation necessary. Howe- unt their social situation. With regard to ver, we have to keep in mind, that Mus- education and income, but also with re- lim women are not a homogeneous gro- gard to “cultural and symbolic capital” up and that there is a huge variety in the immigrants tend to be marginalised in way they face and solve demands of reli- Western societies. And we should not for- gion and/or culture. These demands and get that a clear correlation between so- restrictions may be rooted in traditional cial class and participation in sport and and patriarchal discourses and practices, physical activities can be observed also but problems arise as well from sport ins- in Western countries.12 titutions, reaching from the federations to the mass media trying to enforce rules Perspectives and regulations which contradict religio- What possibilities do we have, then, us oberservance. to support the participation of girls in A work shop in Oman - sponsored by physical activities? It must be stressed the Sultan Quaboos university and sup- again that immigrant women - like the fe- ported by IAPESGW (International Asso- male mainstream population - come from ciation of Physical Education and Sport a wide variety of backgrounds and have a for Girls and Women) provided the oppor- wide variety of needs. It should be regar- tunity for a cross-cultural discussion and ded as a principle that sport - its condi- an exchange of knowledge, opinions and tions, its contents and its aims - must be best practices based on openness, the oriented to the needs of these different willingness to learn, and the attempt to groups of girls. Socialisation, life circums- understand each other. Sixteen scholars tances as well as experiences and expec- (including me), 15 women and one man, tations must all be taken into considera- of physical education, sport and Islamic tion. Concepts and programmes should studies, and leading practitioners, gathe- follow the principles of equal rights, equ- red from 14 countries across Europe, the al status, equal opportunities and inclusi- Middle and Far East (Bahrain, Bosnia and on as well as acceptance and tolerance. Herzegovina, Denmark, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, Morocco, Oman, South Africa, Accept and respect - a declaration Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates about Muslim women and sport and the United Kingdom), not to ‘repre- As mentioned above, there are many sent’ their countries but as interested in- reasons for the marginalisation of Muslim dividuals, engaged in the field, who wan- women in the world of sport, among them ted to share culturally and nationally di- the rigid rules of modern sport as well as verse experiences. Some women were

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atheists; many were religious with diffe- It took one exciting week to come to rent ways to practice their faith. Some a consensus and draft the following dec- wore Western clothes and hairstyles; ot- laration. The most important sentences hers observed the Islamic dress code. are: The purpose of the group was to identify means of improving the oppor- DECLARATION “ACCEPT AND tunities of Muslim women in and thro- RESPECT” ugh sport and physical education. The 1. Islam is an enabling religion that en- discussions were very controversial as dorses women’s participation in were the perspectives, priorities, questi- physical activity. ons and answers. Dialogue across cultu- 2. We affirm the importance of physical ral and national boundaries requires abili- education and physical activity in the ties to see the world as the “others” see it, lives of all girls and boys, men and but often ethnocentric positions prohibit women (more - see addition). this change of perspectives. Is a balance 3. We recommend that people working between global values and cultural diver- in the sport and education systems sity possible? accept and respect the diverse ways In order to avoid the dilemma of uni- in which Muslim women and girls versal versus culturally specific human practice their religion and participa- values we chose to emphasize the free- te in sport and physical activity, for dom of choice and listened to Islamic fe- example, choices of activity, dress minists who shared with us an insight into and gender grouping. the ways that scholars were framing em- 4. We urge international sport federa- powerment for Muslim women from in- tions to show their commitment to side of the religion. Such a faith-based inclusion by ensuring that their dress approach is for many women the only codes for competition embrace Isla- way of overcoming difficulties and obs- mic requirements, taking into acco- tacles. But choice should also be possib- unt the principles of propriety, safety le for those women who re-interpret Is- and integrity. lam, adapt the rules to modern life and can combine their religion with Western This declaration is directed to Muslim dresses and elite sports. This is an option and Western countries as well as to religi- in (many) Islamic countries, as the partici- ous and sport leaders, to accept the cho- pation of female athletes from , ices of women (and men) and to respect , Morocco, and Turkey in the their cultural background. The essence of 2008 Olympics showed. this declaration can be transferred to ot- However, also the focus on choice her groups or cultures as well. However, has its weaknesses, because it leads to modern sport has limited opportunity to the structure/agency dilemma: Are wo- accept diversity and include “otherness”. men (and men) really free to make decisi- The existence and the fascination of sport ons about their lives or are their choices are based on equal conditions in order to determined by culture and society? identify differences and identify the best

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athlete. Federations may accept women ner Sportjugend 1998. competing in long trousers, but they do 11 Bründel and Hurrelmann 1994, 5. not get a bonus because they are disad- 12 According to Kleindienst-Cachay (1996; vantaged because of their dress. There- 1997) only 23% of girls of lower class but more fore, the declaration, but also the efforts than 50% of girls of middle class background of all of us should focus on physical edu- were members of a sports clubs. cation and sport for all: here is place for diversity, inclusiveness, new paradigms Corresponding Address: and a globalization of best practices. PhD. Gertrud PFISTER Department of Exercise and Sport (Endnotes) Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1 Included are countries with more than 70 Denmark % Muslims among the population in Asia and North Africa. The former states of the USSR are e-mail:[email protected] not taken into consideration. See for the num- bers of male and female athletes in Beijing http:// REFERENCES en.beijing2008.cn/. Bannayan A. (2008). Muslim sportswom- 2 See the Overall Medal Standings en gain standing in Beijing. http:// http://results.beijing2008.cn/WRM/ENG/ www.womensenews.org/article. INF/GL/95A/GL0000000.shtml cfm?aid=3696. 3 See also many web pages, among them Benn T, Pfister T, Jawad H. (2010). Mus- http://muslimahmediawatch.org/2008/08/14/ lim Women in Sport. United Kingdom: muslimahs-atthe-beijing-olympics/. Routledge. 4 On women’s sport in Islam, see, for examp- Daiman S. (1995). Women in Sport in Is- le, Sfeir 1985; Lindsay 1987; Yaldai 1988; Daiman lam. ICHPER-SD Journal, 32(1), 18-21. 1995; De Knop P. et al. 1996; Walseth & Fasting 1999; Dahl 2007. See also the literature provided Hargreaves J. (1994). Sporting Females: in Benn, Pfister & Jawad 2010. Critical Issues in the History and So- 5 Physical activities are mentioned in ha- ciology of Women’s Sports. London: diths. Hadith constitutes the sayings of the Prop- Routledge. het handed down by his followers. The meaning Karfoul EH. (2009). Women and Sport in and the importance attached to the individual sa- yings is a matter of interpretation. Syria. (T Benn, G Pfister, H Jarad, Ed), Muslim Women and Sport. London: 6 Sfeir 1985, 300. Routledge. 7 See among others Delaney 1991. Koca C, Hacısoftaoğlu İ. (forthcoming). 8 about Andyar http://boredmelo.wordpress. Sport Participation of Women and com/tag/mehbooba-andyar/ Girls in Modern Turkey. (T Benn, G 9 See among others, Brainin 1996 on the Pfister, H Jawad, Ed.), Muslim Wom- conditions of life of immigrant girls and boys. en in Sport. United Kingdom: Rout- 10 On the norms and rules which determine ledge International Publishing Series the lives of Turkish girls and women in German, in 2010. too, see Spuler-Stegemann 1998; see also Berli-

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Pfister G. (1997). Frauen und Sport in der Türkei. (Klein M, Kothy J, Ed.), Eth- nisch-Kulturelle Konflikte im Sport.(s. 127-145). Hamburg. Pfister G. (2003). Women and Sport in the Iran: Keeping Goal in the Hijab. (Hartmann- Tews I, Pfister G, Ed.), Sport and Women. Social Issues in International Perspective. (s. 207- 223). London. Sfeir L. (1985). The Status of : Conflict between Cultural Tradition and Modernization. International Review for the Sociol- ogy of Sport, 20 (4), 283-306. Wirdati M R. (2006). Muslim Women and Sports in the Malay World: The Crossroads of Modernity and Faith. Chiang Mai.

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