The Odyssey of Ancient Greek Diet

the hearts of all Greeks" (Marrou 1956:146). I will then look at the According to myth, Promethius archaeological record for confirmation of was caught stealing fire from the gods and whether or not the foods mentioned by consequentially brought the harsh Homer were actually consumed by the necessity of agricultural labour upon the Ancient Greeks; specificallywine, cereals, Greeks. It was seen as a punishment olive oil, meat, fruits, and dairy (milk and imposed by a vengeful Zeus because cheese) (Garnsey 1999). without this labour seeds could not be converted into edible plants (Garnsey 1999). While this myth is concerned with the origins of ancient Greek agriculture, Before I proceed, an apparent what is of greater interest to the aims of contradiction in my thesis must be this paper is the actual diet of classical explained and justified. The Otfyssf!)' by Greece. Homer, in short, is an epic poem about Historians and archaeologistshave the homecoming of the Greek Odysseus long been interested in the study of food after the Trojan War. Here is where the in classical antiquity. From the research I contradiction is evident; why am I have done, it is clear that the majority of searching in a text conceived around evidence related to food in classical 750BC that is based on events that are Greece is archaeological in nature. Of supposed to have occurred around 1250 course this would be expected when BC when I am looking for clues about dealing with a civilizationthat existedover food being consumed in the classical two thousand years ago. I propose that, period, approximately 480-300 BC? The although archaeological evidence should answer to this question is simple, but remain the primary source of information, often overlooked. The Otfyssf!)', as it can be accompanied by classicalliterary mentioned, is an epic poem and was material as well. For example, no one therefore recited orally for centuries and would argue that Virgil's Aeneid, or the not written down until the invention of story of Promethius mentioned above, are the book in the classical period. The legends. These legends, however, were poem was recited by rhapsodes (song- written by real people, in real space, and stitchers) from the time of Homer until time and I believe that they can reveal the classicperiod (Marrou 1956). No one certain cultural truths that existed. knows for certain when Homer lived or I will be using Homer's Otfyssf!)'as composed The Otfyssf!)'and The Iliad, but it my literary source because not only is it is fashionable to place the date around the abundant with references to food, but also middle of the eighth century BC (Rieu because it continued "through all the 1950).This implies that during the almost centuries of the classicaltradition, to fire three hundred years that it was being Maher - Ancient Greek Diet 8 recited orally, these song-stitchers could quantity of seeds, it is assumed that they add their own cultural touches depending were used in the production of wine on where and when they were located. (Vickery 1936). Further evidence of the Therefore, I believe the version of The use of grapes in making wine is furnished Otfyssry with which we are all familiar and by a discovery made by British the food mentioned within it is the archaeologists near Sparta, where they accumulation of centuries of cultural found a seal from the mouth of a jar. The elements from approximately 750 BC up clayimprints clearlyshow that it had been to and including the classical period. Of covered with leaves that have been course the food mentioned in The Otfyssf!Y identified as grape leaves (Vickery 1936). is not fully representative of all the food Although this doesn't prove the presence choices available to the classical of wine, the evidence of grape leaves in populations but their reference and this context certainly allows for that repetition in the poem lead me to suspect possibility.. that they were the most significant. Another place to look for evidence of the presence of wine is pottery. There are numerous amphora reliefs showing the consumption of wine. "... and a herald, going back and forth, One such example is an Attic black-figure poured the wine for them ... " (Lattimore amphora dated to approximately 500 BC 1965:143). showing Dionysus, the god of wine, "... grape cluster after grape cluster ... " consuming his drink from a large cup. (Lattimore 1965:121). Besides the reliefs found on pottery, sometimes the actual shape of the pottery The only drinks that were available can dictate its function. For example, the to the Greeks in antiquity were water, rhyton is a ritual pouring vessel that wine, milk, and fruit juice (Craik 1997). sometimes appeared in the shape of an Wine is mentioned over ten times in The animal head and is believed to have been Otfyssry, and most involved feasts or used to pour wine (pedley 1993). There religious ceremonies of some sort. In are numerous examples of these types of these ceremonies, the men drank the wine vessels; specifically,a rhyton in the shape in moderation and only when mixed and of a bull's head from Crete and one consumed with the food. Wine, cereals, showing a hilltop sanctuary from the city and olives are what Braudel called the of Zakro (pedley 1993). eternal trinitl and they provided the base of By examining the archaeological the traditional Greek agricultural and data, supplemented by paleobotanical dietary system (Garnsey 1999). evidence, pottery art, and pottery Excavations on the island of Crete function, it is clear that wine was known have provided archaeologists with many prior to and into the classicalage. clues regarding the making, storage, and consumption of wine. There they have found residues in jars that indicate that they had once contained liquids, most " ... housekeeper brought in the bread... " likely olive oil or wine. Moreover, on the (Lattimore 1965:175). mainland in the ancient city of Tiryns, the " ... there is wheat and millet here and only physical remains of food discovered white barley, wide grown ... " (Lattimore were grape seeds. Because of the large 1965:604). Maher-Ancient Greek Diet 9 Cereals are the second group of According to archaeological and Braudel's eternal trinity and must be seen as historical data, Garnsey (1999) believes a whole group of seed crops, the most that over the years barley lost ground to important cultigens being wheat and wheat, husked grains lost ground to naked barley (Garnsey 1999). The ancient grains, and eventuallybread was preferred Greeks used cereals not only as over porridge. Nonetheless, it is clear that domesticate food, but also and more cerealsplayedan important role in ancient importantly, for bread. There is a Greek diet. significant amount of archaeological evidence to show the importance of cereals. At Knossos there are a number of "... oozes the limpid olive' oil.. ." indications that the ancient Greeks were (Lattimore 1965:107). heavy cereal eaters. In a smallroom later "... and the flourishing olive... " discovered to be a stable, archaeologists (Lattimore 1965:116). found stores of wheat, and it is interesting to note that it was not kept in a container Olives represent the third and (Vickery 1936). Vickery also claims that finar element of what Braudel labeled the "wheat and barley certainly were the eternal trinity and were seemingly very principle grains of the Aegean world" important to the ancient Greeks' (Vickery 1936:112). In the north, in traditional agricultural dietary regime Thessaly and Olynthus, samples of millet (Garnsey 1999). The olive needs a dry have been found as well as what might be season in which to develop its oil content, rye (Vickery 1936). Moreover, German and a cool winter in which to rest. archaeologists working near Melos have Moreover, they are intolerant to frost and discovered what they believe to be a to elevationsabove 800 meters (Mattingly model of a granary (pedley 1993). The 1996). Thus in Greece, the olive thrived cereals used in ancient Greece are a and soon found itself an integral part of reflection of the variable Greek climate the Aegean diet. The cultivation of the and soil quality; for example, barley is olive, and use of its oil, dates back to the tolerant to poorer soils and a range of early part of the bronze age, and climactic conditions and was, therefore, fortunately there are many strands of probably grown in Greece;whilethe more archaeological evidence pertaining to the intolerant wheat was most likelyimported olive: paleobotanical data, traces of (Craik 1997). ancient orchards, olive mills and presses, Bread was a staple commodity to and plenty of amphorae that were used to the ancient Greeks. Archaeological transport and store oil (Mattingly1996). discoveries of certain pottery covers On the island of Naxos, the actual suggest that they had been used in ovens. remains of olive oil were found in a jug Bread could be placed on a slab of stone discovered in a tomb. Interestingly, two or pottery ware, covered with a lid of the lampswere found alongside the oil leaving sort referred to, and placed in an oven or archaeologiststo wrestle with the idea that over coals. There is an ongoing argument the oil was actually fuel. Putting that to whether these ovens were known in thought aside, the discovery of an olive Homeric times because mention of them press and great quantities of storage jars is absent in his work (Vickery1936). leads us to believe that the oil was probably a Greek export (Vickery 1936). Maher - Andent Greek Diet 10 It appears that the olives themselves were these sacrifIcialelements are hard to trace prepared for eatingwhile the oil was used in the archaeologicalrecord, but the actual for cooking, salad oil, and applied to the consumption itself is easier to distinguish. skin for hygienicand culturalreasons. Bones of domestic animals have Moreover, olives and olive oil are been found in such great quantities it is represented in the art of the ancient easy to assume that the ancient Greeks Greeks. In Cretan art, olive trees (at fIrst lived largely on meat, but this would be a questionable) are now being identifIed mistake. Meat in the Aegean area was in with confIdence due to the quantity of relatively short supply (Vickery 1936). examples. One such example is found on There is evidence that the Greeks a painted ceilingblock entitled, The Diver, domesticated and ate the flesh of sheep, dated to 480 BC that shows two distinct goats, swine, and cattle. The three representations of olive trees (pedley archaeological clues pointing to the fact 1993). they practiced domestication are Because of the extensive "representations of men capturing cattle archaeological evidence, it can be said alive; evidence of the long-homed oxen with a fair deal of certainty that olives being kept in captivity;and direct evidence already existed for centuries prior to the of domestication" (Vickery1936:14). classical period. The olive tree was An example of one of the Athena's gift to the Athenians after she numerous sites found that contain animal defeated Poseidon for possession of remains is Thebes. Here archaeologists Athens (Mavromataki1997). It therefore have discovered the processed remains of represented the strength, peace, and sheep, swine, cattle, wild boars, rabbits, continuity of the Greek state. Although it and even small amounts of fIsh vertebra is of great nutritional importance, its (Vickery1936). These vertebrae represent cultural signifIcance must not be a rare fInd because, to the ancient Greeks, overlooked. fIsh was more of a delicacythan a regular part of the diet (Craik1997). Other forms of archaeological evidence can be found by examining " ... and sacrifIce our oxen and our sheep reliefs found on both walls and pottery. A and our fat goats... " (Lattimore 1965:55). beautiful fresco from Corinth dated 500 " where his herds of swine were penned BC shows a procession approaching an in sacrifIced them ... " (Lattimore altar with a sheep for sacrifIce (pedley 1965:73-74). 1993). Another good example is the Dionysus amphora mentioned above, Small domestic animals such as which also shows two maenads holding fowl were most likely prepared and up a slaughtered hare to their wine god cooked privately in the home while the (pedley 1993). larger animals, like the ones listed above, Meat and other foods of animal were most commonly cooked publiclyand origin in the Greek world were in eaten at festivals (Craik 1997). In The relativelyshort supply and, therefore, were OcfySSf!y, there are countless numbers of probably of minor importance in the diets detailed descriptions of sacrifIcial of the population (Garnsey 1999). Meat arrangements, and they usually involved was never a staple to the ancient Greeks the blood letting of the animal followed and although its dietary importance was by the consumption of the meat. Some of relatively small, its cultural significance Maher - Ancient Greek Diet 11 (i.e., sacrifices, rituals, etc.) was much and beans. These and other similar greater. vegetables were probably raised in the household gardens as they are grown today (Vickery 1936). Of the garden vegetables, only the legumes listed above "... pear trees and pomegranate trees and could survive, so for the other types of apple trees... " (Lattimore 1965:115). vegetables we must rely on other forms of "... rows of greens, all kinds, and these are evidence. lush... " (Lattimore 1965:128). In a fresco found in Praeneste, there is an image of a vegetable garden in The four main fruits listed in The front of a house (pedley 1993). As for 04Yss~ are apples, pears, grapes, and figs. fruit, there exists a portrait of a priestess Grapes and figs were usually dried for from Thera in which it appears that she is preservation because they are better holding a vessel bearing fruit of some sort adapted to this process than apples or (grapes or berries) (pedley 1993). pears (Craik 1997). Among vegetables, Additionally, a painting from Andriuolo the ancient Greeks made the distinction dated 350 BC shows a woman carrying an between root vegetables and leafy greens offering that contains pomegranates and it appears that onions and garlicwere (Garnsey 1999). the most popular. Herbs and spices were Ultimately it is easy to assume that also present, and were not only used for the presence of the fruits and vegetables food preparation, but were also often used in the archaeological record is proof that for medicinal purposes (Craik1997). the Greeks consumed them but this The archaeological evidence for would be a precarious assumption. Only the existence of these fruits and vegetables through careful excavation, taking into is interesting and worth presenting. At the account the context of the food and ancient site of Dimini, there is a deposit through cross-referencing with art and that yielded the remains of wild pears and literature can it be said with any degree of a large quantity of figs. Similarly,a site in certainty that these fruits and vegetables Olynthus also yielded a significant were actually eaten. quantity of figs (Vickery 1936). Furthermore, similar archaeological finds have revealed that the ancient Greeks consumed plums, apples, date palms, and " ... baskets were there, heavy with pomegranates (Vickery 1936). Finally,as cheeses ... " (Lattimore 1965:219). already mentioned in the section about " ... he sat down and milked his sheep ... " wine, proof of the presence of grapes (for (Lattimore 1965:244). wine or other) has been identified in Tiryns and Sparta (Vickery1936). As mentioned earlier, the people Vegetable remains are much more of classical Greece kept sheep, goats, and abundant in the archaeological record cattle. It is certain that the goats and than are fruits. On the mainland, the use sheep yielded milk, and it is probable that of leguminous vegetables is proved to go besides being drunk as sweet or soured back centuries before the onset of the milk it was also used for making cheese classical period. Excavations near Sedes (Vickery 1936). Certain seals have been have produced jars containing these dried found that have illustrations depicting leguminous vegetables, specifically peas milk jars but there is no direct evidence of Maher - Ancient Greek Diet 12 the milk's source. Although it is likely Mentions of these products in The Otfyssry, that some cow's milk was used, the fact therefore, were not just modifications in that there was a significantly larger the verse over time or liberties taken with quantity of goats, has lead archaeologists the translation. to believe that goat's milk was more I believe that since every food common (Vickery 1936). mentioned by Homer was found in the Furthermore, because milk and archaeological record, certain aspects of cheese are perishable and not easily classical literature could be applied to transported, it was probably not kept in a anthropological research. I am not regular supply (Craik 1997). A closer suggesting that one attempt a search for examination of the archaeological record Hermes' sandals or jason's golden fleece, can produce further evidence of the but I am suggesting that the consumption of dairy. For example, archaeological record can verify certain German archaeologists discovered a late cultural truths found in classical literature. classic relief showing a peasant driving a Clothing, custom, ritual, geography, and goat to market with what appears to be a of course food can be sought in classical jar of milk and a sack of cheese (pedley literature and eventually substantiated by 1993). Moreover, there are countless archaeology. reliefs showing the milking of sheep and goats. Because of the short life and the perishable nature of milk and cheese, it Craik, E. 1997.''Diet, Diaita and Dietetics." will be extremely difficult (if not In: The Greek World. A. Powell, (ed.).pp. impossible) to ever fmd hard evidence in 387-402.London: Routledge. the archaeological record. In this Garnsey, P. 1999.Food and Society in Classical situation, like that of the fruits and Antiquity. United Kingdom:Cambridge vegetables, proof must be sought in other UniversityPress. media like art and literature. Lattimore, R. 1965.The 04Jssry o/Homer. Translated by R. Lattimore.United States: Harper CollinsPublishers. "Between ancient history and modern social science there is a large but Marrou, H. 1956.Education in Antiquity. New not unbridgeable gap" (Garnsey 1999:106) York: Mentor Books [emphasis mine]. I believe that this paper helps to vindicate this statement. It would Mattingly,D. 1996."First Fruit?The Olive in Ancient Rome." In Human Landscapes in appear that with the exception of nectar ClassicalAntiquity. G. Shipley,(ed.).pp. and ambrosia the food of the gods, the 213-253. London: Routledge. seven major components of the Greek diet mentioned by Homer withstand the Mavromataki, M. 1997.Greek Mythology and scrutiny of scientific archaeological Religion. Athens:HattalisEditions examination. The archaeological record in Greece provides strong evidence that Pedley,]' 1993.Greek Art and Arr:haeology. New wine, cereals, olive oil, meat, fruits, and Jersey: Prentice Hall. dairy (milk and cheese) did exist in the period from approximately 750BC up to, Rieu, E. 1950.Homer: The Iliad. Translated by and including, the classical period. E. Rieu. London: Penguin Group. Vickery, K. 1936. Food in Early Greece. Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences, vol. 20:1934-36. illinois: University of illinois Press.