Environmental Resource Utilization: a Case Study of Traditionally Useful Wild Plant Species in the Makhado Local Municipality

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date). ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE UTILIZATION: A CASE STUDY OF TRADITIONALLY USEFUL WILD PLANT SPECIES IN THE MAKHADO LOCAL MUNICIPALITY

MULALO DAVID MUHALI

Minor-Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR: Dr. I.T. RAMPEDI

28th September 2017 DEDICATION

I Dedicate This Work To My Late Daughter, Zwavhudi Muhali, Who Passed Away on the 3rd June 2016. You Will Always Be In Our Hearts. Rest In Peace, Angel.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, thank you for giving me the intellectual equipment, quest for attaining knowledge and courage during the course of this study.

To Dr. I.T. Rampedi, my Supervisor for the study, I wish to express my profound gratitude and acknowledgement for your continuous guidance and encouragement; without your feedback it would have been very difficult to complete this study.

To my wife, Azwihangwisi Muhali, and my daughters, Munei Phindulo and Mudodzwa Muhali, thanks a million for your unwavering support during the course of this study. My love to you is rock solid and undivided.

My special gratitude goes to my dear parents, Mr. Mutshutshu Wilson Muhali and Mrs. Farisani Anna Muhali, for encouraging me to study further for personal and academic development.

Special acknowledgement goes to my Pastor, Given Maluleke, for always willing to read my work in order to improve its readability.

To Rirhandzu Jeleni and Gilani Makhubele, my colleagues, I express my sincere thanks to you for always encouraging me to pursue and complete this study.

To Masakona and Kutama Tribal Council, I thank you for granting me ethical clearance and prior informed consent or permission to conduct this ethnobotanical survey in communities falling under your jurisdiction. To Vho-Alidzuli Nemaembeni and Mifunda, thank you for accompanying me to the field and assisting me with the identification of traditionally useful plants in your communities.

To all respondents who participated in the study, this is your work as well, words fail me to express my gratitude to you.

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ABSTRACT

Wild plant species play a major role in the lives of people around the world. South Africa has vast indigenous plant biodiversity, of which some have ethnobotanical importance. However, there is a growing loss and erosion of indigenous knowledge related to plant species due to rapid emigration of people from rural to urban areas, the adoption of modern lifestyles by largely traditional societies, growing access to modern education and health services, and so on. Making use of surveys and questionnaire interviews, this case study investigated ethnobotanical knowledge in the Makhado Local Municipality in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. The following research objectives were formulated for the study: (1) to provide a comprehensive inventory of all used wild plant species in and around selected rural villages in the Makhado Local Municipality; (2) to determine their local uses and knowledge patterns; and (3) to make recommendations for natural resource management in this area.

From this case study, people in the Makhado Local Municipality utilize wild plants for various purposes including, but not limited to the following uses: (1) as traditional medicine, (2) for satisfying dietary needs, as well as spiritual and cultural values, (3) for income-generation, (4) for designing crafts and household implements, and (5) for fuel wood energy. Most of these uses stem from a system of localized indigenous knowledge or traditional ecological knowledge, which unfortunately is being eroded at faster rates due to changing lifestyles, even in remotely located rural communities. More importantly, an inventory of 58 different plant species was generated. All 58 plants were quantified for their popularity by using a matrix method. The study listed the following plants species as some of the well known species: Aloe marlothii, Berchemia discolor, Sclerocarya birrea, Adansonia digitate, Ximenia Americana, Dicerocaryum senecioides, Opuntia ficus-indica, Euphorbia ingens, Dichrostachys cinerea and Ficus sycomorus. In addition, the study also found that some wild plants were becoming rare and very scarce in their distributional range due to factors such as deforestation, over-exploitation of certain plants, unsustainable harvesting practices, growth of informal and formal settlements, changing weather patterns as well as overgrazing. However, none of the plant species mentioned by respondents were found to be endangered or critical endangered as they were of least conservation concern based on the South African Red Data List.

Key Words: wild plants species, ethnobotany, indigenous knowledge system, ethnoveterinary medicine, wild edible plants, firewood, medicinal plants, snowballing, matrix method, Makhado Local Municipality.

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND ITS JUSTIFICATION 1 1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 2 1.3.1 Socio-economic characteristics 4 1.3.1.1 Energy sources and provisioning in the Makhado Local Municipality 5 1.3.2 Biophysical characteristics 6 1.3.2.1 Geology and soils 7 1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION 7 CHAPTER 2 9 LITERATURE REVIEW 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION 9 2.2 THE CONCEPT OF ETHNOBOTANY, TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OR 9 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS OF WILD PLANTS SPECIES 2.3 ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANT USES 10 2.4 ETHNOVETERINARY PLANT USES 10 2.5 WILD FOOD PLANT SPECIES 11 2.6 WILD FUELWOOD PLANT SPECIES 11 2.6.1 Fuelwood consumption in South Africa 12 2.7 PLANTS SPECIES USED FOR SPIRITUAL AND CULTURAL VALUES OF SOCIETY 12 2.8 WILD PLANT SPECIES FOR MAKING FURNITURE AND CRAFTS 12 2.9 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW 13 CHAPTER 3 14 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 14 3.1 INTRODUCTION 14 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 14 3.2.1 Data collection processes and sampling 14 3.2.2 Compliance with ethical protocols 15 CHAPTER 4 16 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 16 4.1 INTRODUCTION 16 4.2 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF RESPONDENTS 16 4.2.1 Age and gender of respondents 16 4.2.2 Educational level of respondents 17

4.2.3 Employment status of respondents 18 4.3 ETHNOBOTANICALLY IMPORTANT OF WILD PLANT SPECIES IN THE MAKHADO LOCAL 18 MUNICIPALITY 4.4 PROPORTIONS OF WILD PLANT SPECIES CITED PER AGE GROUP AND GENDER 24 4.4.1 Ethnomedicinal plant uses 25 4.4.2 Ethnoveterinary medicinal uses 31 4.4.3 Wild food plant species 34 4.4.4 Wild plant species used for firewood 39 4.4.5 Wild plant species used for construction purposes 43 4.4.6 Wild plant species used for making crafts and furniture 45 4.4.7 Ethnospiritual uses 48 4.5 SPECIES POPULARITY INDEX 51 4.6 ETHNOBOTANICAL KNOWLEDGE INDEX 55 4.7 PLANTS PARTS USED FOR THE ENTIRE CASE STUDY 58 4.8 SOURCE OF PLANT KNOWLEDGE 59 4.9 MULTIPLE USES OF PLANTS 60 4.10 THREATS TO WILD PLANTS 62 4.11 METHODS USED FOR COLLECTING AND HARVESTING PLANTS 63 4.12 COLLECTION AND HARVESTING PATTERNS 64 4.13 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS 68 CHAPTER 5 71 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71 5.1 INTRODUCTION 71 5.2 CONCLUSIONS 71 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER SURVEYS AND OTHER STUDIES 72 REFERENCES 73 APPENDICES 82

LIST OF ACRONYMS

EKI Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index

EVM Ethnoveterinary Medicine

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

IDP Integrated Development Plan

IKS Indigenous Knowledge System

SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute

SPI Species Popularity Index

TEK Traditional Ecological Knowledge

TKS Traditional knowledge System

WEPs Wild Edible Plants

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LIST OF FIGURES

Numbers and titles of figures Page

Figure 1.1 Map of the study area showing the rural villages surveyed for the study 3

Figure 1.2 Education levels in the Makhado Local Municipality 5

Figure 4.1 Number of respondents per age group and gender 16

Figure 4.2 Educational levels of respondents in the study area 17

Figure 4.3 Occupation profile of respondents 18

Figure 4.4 Family names of the different wild plant species collected during the survey 23

Figure 4.5 The proportion (%) of collected wild plant species based on morphology 24

Figure 4.6 Percentage of plants knowledge possessed per age group and gender 25

Figure 4.7 The proportion of plant parts mentioned by respondents for various ethnomedicinal 28 uses

Figure 4.8 Proportions of plant part used by respondents 32

Figure 4.9 Proportions of plant part used to make food 37

Figure 4.10 Picture of firewood during storage before utilization 40

Figure 4.11 Proportions of plant used for spiritual purposes 49

Figure 4.12 Plants part used for the entire study in numbers 59

Figure 4.13 Source of plant knowledge amongst respondents in the Makhado Local 60 Municipality

Figure 4.14 Threats to wild plants 63

Figure 4.15 Collecting and harvesting methods 64

Figure 4.16 Collection and harvesting patterns 65

Figure 4.17 General summary of useful plants 70

Plate 1 Pictures of different plants for their ethnomedicinal value 30

Plate 2 Pictures of different plants for their ethnoverterinary value 33

Plate 3 Pictures of different plants used as food 39

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Plate 4 Pictures of different plants used for firewood purposes 42

Plate 5 Pictures of different plants used for construction purposes 45

Plate 6 Pictures of different plants used for making crafts and furnitures 48

Plate 7 Pictures of different plants used for spiritual purposes 50

Plate 8 Pictures of different popular plants 55

LIST OF TABLES

Numbers and titles of tables Page

Table 1.1 Energy or fuel wood for heating purposes per household 6

Table 1.2 Type of energy source used for cooking purposes per household in the Municipality 6

Table 1.3 Soil potential of the Makhado Local Municipality 7

Table 4.1 An inventory of all ethnobotanically important plants collected from Makhado Local 19 Municipality area as identified by SANBI

Table 4.2 List of ethnomedicinal plants mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local 26 Municipality

Table 4.3 List of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants mentioned by respondents 31

Table 4.4 List of wild edible plants mentioned of Makhado Local Municipality 35

Table 4.5 List of plants used for firewood purposes in Makhado Local Municipality 39

Table 4.6 List of plants used for building and construction purposes 43

Table 4.7 List of recorded plants used for crafting or furniture by respondents in the Makhado 46 Local Municipality

Table 4.8 List of recorded plants used for spiritual purposes 49

Table 4.9 Species popularity index 52

Table 4.10 Ethnobotanical knowledge index amongst respondents in the Makhado Local 56 Municipality

Table 4.11 An inventory of multiple uses per plant species by respondents in the Makhado 61 Local Municipality

Table 4.12 The conservation status of different plant species listed in the inventory 66

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND 1.1 INTRODUCTION In many regions of the world, especially in rural areas, natural vegetation provides an important source of livelihood for local inhabitants, and in over extended periods of time such experiences and insights have developed into ethnobotanical knowledge (Sathirathai 1998; Rist et al., 2010; Kuenzer & Tuan, 2013; Ifegbesan et al., 2016). Ethnobotany examines the relationship between plants and humans, as well as how they are used by local people for meeting their livelihood needs, such as providing building and construction materials, crafts and utensils, firewood, traditional medicine, as well as food and beverages, amongst others (Chauhan 1988; De Groot et al. 2002; Singh et al., 2009; G´omez-Baggethun et al., 2009; Maroyi, 2011; Martínez-Harms & Balvanera, 2012). Ethnobotanical studies are important as they highlight locally important plant species, particularly for establishing patterns in their uses. Although ethnobotanical knowledge is transmitted orally, intra-generationally, and inter- generationally, in many parts of the world such knowledge is disappearing and fading away rapidly because of growing access to western education, modern lifestyles, as well as increased one-way communication from mass- media such as radio and television (Benz et al., 2000; Pan & Bilsborrow 2005; De la Torre et al., 2012).

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND ITS JUSTIFICATION South Africa has a rich natural vegetation diversity, of which some is of enthnobotanical importance, especially for ethnomedicinal uses (Van Wyk & Gericke, 2003; Olivier & De Jager, 2005; Rampedi & Olivier, 2005; Petersen et al., 2012). Although many ethnomedicinal studies (Rakuambo et al., 2009, Olivier et al., 2012; Mahwasane et al., 2013; Tshisikhawe et al., 2012; Semenya et al., 2012; Semenya et al., 2013) have been conducted in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, very limited research has been undertaken on other plant species that are equally important and indispensable in sustaining local subsistence strategies and safety nets (Olivier & De Jager, 2005, Rampedi & Olivier, 2013). The last comprehensive study of this nature was conducted more than 25 years ago (Mabogo, 1990) and was conducted without the use of the matrix method (Van Wyk et al.; De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011), thus necessitating an update on current ethnobotanical knowledge in the Venda region. Such an indigenous knowledge base is very important in contributing new information to environmental science. Also, as pointed out by the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, it is imperative to recognize close and traditional dependence of indigenous and local communities on their surrounding biological diversity (Summit, 1992). With a better understanding of local wild plant species use patterns, it is possible to understand the role they play in sustaining rural livelihoods and how to set, and delineate conservation priorities for achieving successful natural resource management (Ayantunde et al., 2008; Sop et al., 2012).

It is against this background that the current ethnobotanical case study was conceived, the goal being to address the following research objectives, namely; (1) to provide a comprehensive inventory of all used wild plant species in and around selected rural villages in the Makhado Local Municipality; (2) to determine their local uses and knowledge patterns; and (3) to make recommendations for natural resource management in this area. Most of the Makhado Local Municipality is rural in terms of local socio-economic characteristics, and people still harvest wild plant species for meeting some of their subsistence needs. Therefore, recording ethnobotanically important plant species in this area highlights their cultural and socio-economic significance for current and future generations as well as possible threats, which may warrant conservation prioritization.

1.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA The study area included selected rural villages falling under the Ha-Kutama Tribal Authority and Ha-Masakona Tribal Authority in the Makhado Local Municipality of the Limpopo Province (Figure 1.1). The GPS coordinates of the town of Makhado (also known as Louis Trichardt) are: S23º02’45.8” E029º54’19.3”. The Makhado Local Municipality is one of the four local municipalities in the Vhembe District of this province, and is about 8300 km2 in geographical extent (Makhado IDP, 2014/2015). The study was conducted at 7 villages falling under the Ha- Kutama Tribal Authority, which is situated 30 kilometers west of Makhado Local Municipality. The names of these villages are: Muduluni (S23º4’11.6” E029º38’42.4”), Ha-Makhitha (S23º03’05.0” E029º39’43.6”), Tshikwarani (S23º03’34.7” E029º37’39.3”), Midoroni (S23º02’28.9” E029º37’39.3”), Samukomu (S23º3’39.8” E029º36.00.1”), Maebani (S23º2’10.7” E029º39’07.0”) and Ha-Manavhela (S23º03’45.2” E029º37’04.4”). All of these human settlements are located on the south-facing slopes of the Soutpansberg Mountain. Ethnobotanical surveys were also undertaken in the Ha-Masakona village (S23º15’58.8” E030º14’44.5”) located at nearly 37 kilometers east of the Makhado Local Municipality.

Figure 1.1: The study area showing the rural villages surveyed.

According to the previous Population Census (2011), the total number of people living in the local municipality was estimated to be 516 031 and there were 134 889 households. Language groups in the municipality include Tsonga, Sepedi, Afrikaans as well as Tshivenda. However, the main ethnic language spoken in the study area is Tshivenda; estimated to be spoken by about 3 million South Africans. The Venda people have occupied the rugged and mountaneous Soutpansberg terrain since earliest times, and are a distinct tribal group despite cultural influences from other ethnic groups (Mudau, 2009). Unemployment levels are high in the villages surveyed, and local inhabitants engage in subsistence livestock and crop farming, traditional medicine as well as handicrafts.

In terms of biophysical aspects, the savanna woodlands adjacent to the villages are exceptionally rich in natural vegetation and it ranges from Afro-montane forests to scattered Kalahari sand-type xeric scrub communities (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). The Soutpansberg Arid Mountain Sour Bushveld is also endemic to this area, and is comprised of species such as Catha edulis; Bridelia mollis, Ziziphus mucronata, Flueggia virosa, Combretum moggi, Olea capensis, Hyperacanthus amoenus and Adansonia digitata (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). One of the local threats to the natural vegetation is the expansion and growth of human settlements and the development of municipal infrastructure in these areas as ecological habitats are fragmented and modified. Furthermore, many households still rely on fuel wood harvesting for cooking purposes and space heating (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006).

1.3.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics Ha-Kutama villages have an estimated population of 23011, whereas Masakona village has a population of about 7288 (Makhado IDP 2014/2015). The economy of the Makhado Local Municipality depends largely on farming, tourism from surrounding holiday resorts on the mountain slopes, own businesses (including spazzas), government employment and grants. According to Makhado IDP (2014/2015), the population with no schooling background amounts to 11%, some primary school 24%, completed primary school 5%, some secondary school 29%, and those who completed Grade 12 constituted 12% (Figure 1.2).

Educational levels of Makhado Local Municipality

No schooling 13% 11% Some Primary school 1% 5% Completed primary school 24% Some secondary school 12% Completed grade twelve Higher than grade twelve 5% Unspecified 29% Not applicable

Figure 1.2: Education levels in the Makhado Local Municipality. Source: Makhado IDP (2014/2015).

1.3.1.1 Energy sources and provisioning in the Makhado Local Municipality According to the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) of Makhado Local Municipality for the 2014-2015 financial year, the municipality had about 34 693 households without electricity. Furthermore, Table 1.1 shows that 64 246 households use fuelwood as a source of energy for heating purposes. This was followed by the number (53 249) of households using electricity, while those using paraffin were 1336. Lastly, animal dung was relied upon by 99 households and solar energy by 128 households. In terms of energy use per household for cooking purposes in this municipality, the figures are shown in Table 1.2. Based on this table, 81 818 households use fire wood as a source of energy for cooking purposes. It is evident as depicted in both Table 1.1 and 1.2 that the majority of people in Makhado Local Municipality still use firewood as a source of energy to meet their livelihoods needs.

Table 1.1: Energy or fuel wood for heating purposes per household. Type of energy source Households Electricity 53 249 Gas 1072 Paraffin 1336 Fuelwood 64 246 Coal 122 Animal dung 99 Solar 128 Other 3 None 14 634 Source: Makhado IDP (2014/2015).

Table 1.2: Type of energy source used for cooking purposes per household in the municipality.

Type of energy source Households Electricity 48 117 Gas 2440 Paraffin 1937 Wood 81 818 Coal 147

Animal dung 27 Solar 132 Other 21 None 250 Source: Makhado IDP (2014/2015).

1.3.2 Biophysical Characteristics As already mentioned, the topography of this municipal area is very mountainous (Makhado Municipality, 2014/2015). It should also be noted that although settlements are mostly located on slopes that are less than 9% (1:10), many of the urbanized areas (settlements) are located between the mountainous areas with slopes between 9-25%, in other words, slopes between 1:10 to 1:4 (Makhado Municipality, 2014/2015). The temperature for the municipal area ranges between 18°C in the mountainous areas to 28°C in the rest of the area, with an average of 25, 5°C. Maximum temperatures occur during January, while the minimum temperatures occur in July (Makhado Municipality, 2014/2015). In addition, the main period for rainfall is January to February, with an annual rainfall of 450 mm in the low-lying plains, to 2300 mm on the Soutpansberg mountain area. In the municipality, average

rainfall ranges between 450 to 800 mm. The areas north of the Soutpansberg Mountains have less rainfall than the lower western foothills, as well as the central and eastern high-lying areas of the mountain. However, higher rainfall occurs on the higher-lying areas of the Soutpansberg as well as adjacent foothills (Makhado IDP, 2014/2015).

1.3.2.1 Geology and soils With respect of the geomorphology of the surrounding landscape, 13,61% of the municipal area falls within what is known as the Lowveld, 8,4% is on the Great Escarpment, 17,24% is on the Soutpansberg mountain range, 34% is within the Limpopo Flats, meanwhile 26,02% is part of the Polokwane Plains (Makhado IDP, 2014/2015). With regard to soils, it is important to consider the soil potential of this land as summarized in Table 1.3. It is striking to realise that about 23% of soils in the area are of poor suitability for arable agriculture, while nearly 16% is suitable for grazing or forestry.

Table 1.3: Soil potential of the Makhado Local Municipality. Soil potential %

No dominant in class 13,10 Not suitable for agriculture or commercial forestry; suitable for conservation, recreation or 7,85 water catchments Soil not suitable for arable agriculture; suitable for grazing or forestry where climate permits. 16,05 Soil of poor suitability for arable agriculture where climate permits 23,12 Soil of intermediate suitability for arable agriculture where climate permits 31,22 Soil of highly arable or suitable agriculture where climate permits 8,54 Water bodies 0,13 Total 100 Source: Makhado (2014/2015).

Large areas in the Makhado Local Municipality lie vacant and are largely covered by natural vegetation. Subsistence farming on the other hand occurs in areas where rural villages and traditional authorities occur, mainly to the southeast, whilst cultivated land occurs in the western part of the Soutpansberg (Makhado IDP, 2014/2015).

1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction and the research background, statement of the research problem, research objectives, as well as a justification of the study. The description of the study area is also provided in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 is based on a literature study on ethnobotanically important plant species and approaches to such studies. Chapter 3 deals with the research design, data collection methods and

7 analyses. Chapter 4 is based on the research findings emanating from ethnobotanical surveys as well as their discussion. Lastly, Chapter 5 leads to conclusions and recommendations for further studies.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The literature review is presented in this chapter. Firstly, the review examined the concept of ethnobotany, traditional ecological knowledge or indigenous knowledge systems of wild plants species. Secondly, ethnomedicinal and ethnoveterinary plant uses were reviewed before other ethnobotanical aspects such as plants for fuelwood as well as divination and spiritual well being were put into perspective. Lastly, a brief summary on the implications of the literature review is provided.

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF ETHNOBOTANY, TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OR INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS OF WILD PLANTS SPECIES According to Amenu (2007), ethnobotanical work started with Christopher Columbus in 1492, during the era when he brought tobacco, maize, spices and other useful plants to Cuba and Europe. However, the term ethnobotany was coined for the first time in 1895, but was used with different meanings and definitions at that time. Traditionally, ethnobotany deals with the use of plants by aboriginal people (Cotton, 1996). Other definitions highlights the interaction between plants, plants uses and the people (Kaur, 2015; Amenu, 2007). Also, ethnobotany can focus into different subfields dealing with ethnoveterinary as well as ethnomedicinal applications. The ethnobotany of plant uses has led to a renewed area of research and many drugs in use today have been discovered through ethnobotanical studies. For example, the drug from species such as Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona ledgeriana and Cinchona succirubra shrub whose bark is a source of quinine is used as one of the effective anti-malaria medicine in the world today (Fangod, 2014). Closely related to ethnobotany is traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which is only one part of the so-called indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). IKS is one of the means of survival within many rural communities in the world (Afolayan & Kambizi, 2008). However, the point must be made that IKS is bigger than the scope of TEK, and according to Khasbagan and Soyolt (2008), IKS is usually unwritten and preserved only through oral tradition. IKS proceeds beyond the knowledge of wild plant species and their cultural uses and it includes beliefs, traditions, practices, and worldviews that are locally developed and sustained by indigenous and rural communities in their interaction with their environments (Reyes-Carcia et al., 2013). Both TEK and IKS involve a cumulative body of knowledge that has been generated and evolved over a long period of time, representing generations of experience, creative thoughts and actions of societies to earn livelihoods and cope with the changing conditions of the natural, socio-economic and cultural environment (Berkes et al., 2000). According to Rijal (2008), the growing appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge is due to its importance and relevance to development, conservation and other uses for people who traditionally dependent on it. What follows is a review of different aspects of ethnobotanical knowledge.

2.3 ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANT USES Several ethnobotanical studies have focused on ethnomedicinal plants (Kayonde et al., 2008; Njoroge et al., 2010; Maroyi, 2011; Amri & Kisangau, 2012; Motlhanka & Nthoiwa, 2013; Mesfin et al., 2013). For instance, a study by Semenya et al. (2012) identified 35 exotic wild plant species used by Bapedi traditional healers in the Limpopo Province to treat human ailments such as headaches, hypertension, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, skin complaints, as well as diabetes. The study also showed that some of the exotic plants have also attained ethnomedicinal importance in certain areas. De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) explored the different plant species utilized by the Khoisan communities in Agter-Hantam in the Northern Cape Province, and amongst the 46 wild plant species that were assessed, there were 99 different new uses. Some of these wild plant species have been examined for their phytochemistry, pharmacological efficacy, as well as their antioxidant and anti-microbial properties (Lado, 2004; Dovie et al., 2008; Van Wyk et al., 2008; Olivier et al., 2012). Most medicines that the traditional healers utilize are derived from wild plants, and such medicinal products play an important role in the livelihood strategies of developing countries, where economically vulnerable rural people depend greatly on natural resources (Mathibela, 2013). In the Blouberg Mountain range in the Limpopo Province, many inhabitants are still dependent on medicinal plants for their health care needs (Semenya & Mathibela, 2012). Some of the reasons why local people in such rural areas tap into such natural resources for their well being are the following: (1) traditional healers may be living near their homes, and in that context information is disseminated by word of mouth as to where medicinal products can be received; (2) familiarity with the patient’s culture and environment; and (3) the costs associated with such treatments are generally negligible (Mahwasane et al., 2013). Realising the vast potential of ethnomedicinal uses, certain countries, including Thailand, China, Mexico and Nigeria, have integrated traditional medicine into their primary health care system (Balick & Cox, 1997).

2.4 ETHNOVETERINARY PLANT USES Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) refers to knowledge on traditional animal health care and associated practices. EVM is comprised of traditional surgical and manipulative techniques, traditional immunization, beliefs, management practices and the use of herbal remedies to prevent and treat a range of livestock diseases (Luseba & Van Der Merwe, 2006; Amenu, 2007). EVM also includes methods for caring, healing, and managing livestock (Moreki, 2012). Several ethnoveterinary studies conducted in South Africa show some similarities of application and uses between the VhaVenda, Batswana, Xhosa and Tsonga people. For example, Dicererocaryum eriocarpum (Pedaliaceae) species is used by both the Tsongas and Batswana groups for dystocia and severance of placenta remains while Aloe zebrine (Asphodelaceae) is used to treat wounds and burns (Luseba & Van Der Merwe, 2006). Furthermore, traditional remedies are the main source of herbal remedies for dealing with livestock ailments, especially in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province in South Africa (Magwede et al., 2014).

2.5 WILD FOOD PLANT SPECIES Internationally, the traditional use of wild food plant species is widely recognized, especially as nearly two billion people in the world suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, thus making them vulnerable to diseases (Jain & Tiwari, 2003; Amri & Kisangau, 2012; Food and Agricultural Organization, 2012; Dogan et al., 2013; Mesfin et al., 2013). According to Pitso and Lebese (2014), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) maintains that around 30 000 plant species around the world are edible, but of these, only 7000 are used by humans as food. Traditional wild edible food plants grow naturally regardless of rainfall variability (Legwaila et al., 2011). According to Shumsky et al. (2014), wild edible plants (WEPs) have the following five important characteristics:

 They are locally available and their use is based on traditional ecological knowledge.  They are a low-input, low-cost option for increasing nutrition, and reduce the need to spend limited cash.  They provide greater benefits to vulnerable populations, that is, women, children and poorer households.  They contribute to livelihoods, and are available during times of drought.  They tolerate water stress better than their domesticated plants. Given the socio-economic and developmental challenges in the world, especially in rural areas, they can play an important role for supplementing local diets as wild vegetables, fruits, porridge, snacks and beverages. For instance, in Turkey a total of 46 wild edible plants were documented for their traditional consumption as wild edible plants, as well as the important role they play in enhancing local diets (Dogan et al., 2013). In one of the districts in India, about 10 selected wild plant species are used as supplementary wild foods due to their nutritional value, especially during emergency periods (Jain & Tiwari, 2003). In Botswana, the most common wild edible plant species are Azanza garckeana, Strychnos cocculoides and Sclerocarya birrea, which provide an important source of food for people, and contain important nutrients and essential vitamins for proper maintenance of human health, especially for children who are susceptible to malnutrition and diseases due to their low immune system (Legwaila et al., 2011). In South Africa, some ethnobotanical studies on wild food plant species have also been undertaken (Olivier & De Jager, 2005; Flyman & Afolayan, 2006; Rampedi & Olivier, 2013).

2.6 WILD FUELWOOD PLANT SPECIES Wild fuel wood species may be used for cooking and space heating in rural and urban households. Fuel wood users access woodlands and forests either for domestic or economic gains. In fact, indigenous woodlands provide both urban and rural populations in Tanzania with the greatest proportion of their fuel requirements (Luoga et al., 2000; Ndamase, 2012). Firewood from the wild is the most significant source of energy in Uganda, and the majority of people employ it for domestic use and small-scale industries. Interestingly, the 48 wild plants used for firewood were also used for medicinal purposes and to perform traditional cultural rites (Tabuti et al., 2003). The following plant species were commonly used for firewood - Milicia excelsa, Lantana camara, Senna siamea, Sclerocarya

birrea, Hymenocardia acida, and Sabellastarte spectabilis. According to Balemie and Kebebew (2006), 79% of the total uses of wild plant species were attributed to fuel wood in South Ethiopia. In the Manang District in Central Nepal, 16 wild plant species belonging to nine families and ten genera were used as fuel wood for cooking and commercial purpose, as well as a source of heat (Bhattarai et al., 2006). In the Banda Daud Shah District in Pakistan, it was revealed that 25 out of 58 wild plant species were used as fuel wood, while 6 out of the 22 wild plant species were found useful as timber in the District of Bannu in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2013; Murad et al., 2013).

2.6.1 Fuelwood Consumption in South Africa According to Matsika et al. (2013), over 70% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, mostly in the rural areas, depends on fuelwood as firewood or charcoal to meet their primary domestic energy requirement. Over 80% of rural and urban inhabitants in South Africa use fuel wood as a primary or secondary energy source (Hassan et al., 2002). In South Africa, due to high costs of electricity and electrical appliances, as well as high levels of poverty, many rural households are highly dependent on natural woodland and forest resources for fuel and as a source of income (Ndamase, 2012; Hassan et al., 2002). A study conducted in 5 rural villages in Bushbuckridge in South Africa revealed that after more than 10 years of electrification, over 90% of households still use fuelwood for thermal purposes, especially cooking (Madubansi & Shackleton, 2007; Matsika et al., 2013). The following were the most preferred plant species used for fuelwood in Bushbuckridge Dichrostachys camera, Terminalia sericea, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Sclerocarya birrea, Combretum collinum, Combretum imberbe and Combretum apiculatum (Madubansi & Shackleton, 2007).

2.7 PLANTS SPECIES USED FOR SPIRITUAL AND CULTURAL VALUES OF SOCIETY Many indigenous healing traditions in the world employ plants to facilitate divination and other spiritual healing rituals (Sobiecki, 2008). In Southern Africa, research into indigenous cultural, rituals and spiritual uses of psychoactive plants by the indigenous people remains neglected (Jean-Francois, 2014). In addition, ethnobotanical studies in South Africa shows that the majority of research regarding indigenous plant-uses have focused on medicinal plants (16%) and food plants (20%), with only 7% relating to the category of magic, ritual and customs (Sobiecki, 2008). Despite South Africa’s modernization, superstition and divination still play an important role in indigenous folklore. In KwaNibela, St Lucia, in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, out of 82 plant species recorded in one ethnobotanical study, 24 plants were used for superstition and divination purposes (Corrigan et al., 2010).

2.8 WILD PLANT SPECIES FOR MAKING FURNITURE AND CRAFTS Wild plants have other uses such as to provide materials for the design and sculpting of traditional crafts and tools, as well as for making furniture (Ishtiaq et al., 2013). In a book written by Van Wyk and Gericke (2007) in South

Africa, many wild plant species have been documented for various applications, including for making utilities, crafts, thatching, mats, brooms and timber. For example, Athrixia phylicoides has many ethnobotanical applications as it is traditionally used as a herbal medicinal beverage, but also for making traditional brooms, which were becoming highly priced for sweeping yards and also as decorations (Olivier & De Jager, 2005; Rampedi & Olivier, 2005). These brooms are sold by informal traders in provinces such as KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga (Olivier & De Jager, 2005; Shackleton & Campbell, 2007). Wild plant species such as Chondropetalum tectorum, Cymbopogon validus, Imperata cylindrical, and Stipagrostis uniplumis are traditionally used for making mats and thatched roof, which are aesthetically pleasing to the eye (Van Wyk & Gericke, 2007).

2.9 SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW In this literature review, ethnobotany as well as indigenous knowledge systems have been briefly contextualized. Whereas ethnobotany is mainly focused on linking wild plant uses to specific communities in certain cultural settings, the indigenous knowledge system is much broader than ethnobotany as it examines all strands of traditional knowledge on how society cope and adapt to their environmental settings in order to survive and live effectively. The review further examined various ethnobotanical uses of wild plant species internationally and nationally. It was found that in some instances some of these species have multiple uses, and this may exacerbate harvesting pressure on these plants, thus harming the survival of their natural populations.

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the research design, data collection methods and analyses. Furthermore, an account on the ethical protocol that was followed for the case study is also provided.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Most ethnobotanical studies in South Africa have adopted a survey design (Wintola & Afolayan, 2010; Maroyi, 2011; Semenya et al., 2012; Kose et al., 2015). As mentioned by Leedy and Ormrod (2005), survey research obtains key information about phenomena under investigation, including people and related aspects by asking questions and tabulating collected data in frequencies and other graphical representations. Similarly, in the present study a survey design was used for addressing the research problem. Primary data was collected by means of questionnairres, matrices as well as photographs.

3.2.1 Data Collection Processes and Sampling

Primary data on the use of wild plants by the local inhabitants of selected villages in the Makhado Local Municipality were collected by means of semi-structured interviews. These interviews commenced from September 2015 to March 2016. Eight different rural communities were surveyed for ethnobotanically important plant species. Given the difficulties of meeting locals with relevant knowledge on ethnobotanically useful plants, a non-probalistic snowballing sampling approach was adopted (Goodman, 1961). During snowballing sampling, an advantage was taken on existing social networks amongst local inhabitants. In other words, data were collected by deliberatedly targeting individuals (for example: traditional healers; plant collectors; local herdsmen and shepherds; and elderly folks) who were likely to generate the required information and thereafter they were requested to generate other useful leads for the survey. However, before the main survey was undertaken, guided field trips were undertaken in the Ha-Masakona and Ha-Kutama Tribal Authority areas with traditional healers, and plants collectors who were willing to assist. In this initial exercise, useful plants were identified and colour photos were taken. The goal was to systematically organize such information into several posters in line with the matrix method of ethnobotanical survey. Furthermore, wild plants species were initially identified by their local Venda names, while scientific naming was conducted by curators at the herbarium of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) in Pretoria.

The semi-structured questionnaires used for the survey had four sections, namely; biographical aspects (i.e. age, gender, employment type, years of living in the area); geographical aspects (i.e. GPS coordinates; name of the town,

village name, soil type and land type); botanical aspects (i.e. name of wild plant species, structure and whether they are indigenous or exotic); and ethnobotanical uses of plants (i.e. medicinal uses, food, cosmetic, crafts, fuel wood or furniture wood). All the data collected by means of questionnaires was stored in the 2010 Microsoft Excel for descriptive statistical analysis.

Primary data on estimating the amount of ethnobotanical knowledge that respondents possessed was obtained by means of the matrix method as used by Van Wyk et al. (2008), as well as De Beer and Van Wyk (2011). The matrix method involves a quantification of the local traditional ecological knowledge provided by local inhabitants during completion of questionnaires. In using the matrix method, colour pictures or photos of different plant species were compiled into different posters, as alluded to earlier. Along with filling questionanairres during interviews, respondents were expected to identify as many wild plant species as they know on the posters provided. Most importantly, each plant identified on the poster was to be linked to a specific ethnobotanical use category and such uses were grouped as follows:

1. Poster 1: Medicinal plants 2. Poster 2: Wild food plants 3. Poster 3: Fuel wood plants 4. Poster 4: Furniture and wood craft plants Based on the number of plants identified and linked to a specific use, the value of indigenous knowledge was rated from the scale of zero (0) to one (1), whereby zero (0) represents no knowledge at all, and one (1) represents complete knowledge based on plant photos depicted on the posters (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011). For example, if the respondents knew 19 out of 50 wild plant species shown on the posters, individual ethnobotanical knowledge was rated as equivalent to (19/50=0,38). Multiplying this fraction by 100 would give a percentage score.

3.2.2 Compliance with Ethical Protocols Given the nature of the study, ethical permission was requested from the relevant Faculty at the University of Johannesburg. For this reason, the necessary Application Form was completed accordingly, of which this was subsequently approved so that the study can proceed. Furthermore, an Educated Prior Informed Consent was requested verbally and in written form from the respondents who were willing to participate in this survey. With such consent, respondents were provided with adequate knowledge on what the scope of the case study was, their freedom to participate or not, and their right to terminate such involvement at any time and without any negative repercussions. At the same time, permission to conduct the study was also requested from the Makhado Local Municipality, as well as the various Traditional Royal Chieftaincies that have jurisdiction over the rural areas surveyed.

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 4 provides the research findings of the present study as well as discussions. These results are based on feedback received from respondents in the Ha-Kutama Tribal Council and the Ha-Masakona Tribal Councils in the Makhado Local Municipality. The presentation is based on plant utilization patterns observed during the survey. A summary is given lastly.

4.2 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF RESPONDENTS 4.2.1 Age and Gender of Respondents Figure 4.1 depicts the number of respondents per age group, gender and relevant percentages. In total, 60 respondents took part in the survey. Thirty four (57%) respondents are women (57%) whereas 26 (43%) are men. The youngest woman respondent was 25 years old and the oldest was 76 years old and the average age was 50 years. The youngest male respondent was 23 years old and the oldest was 75, years old and the average age was 47 years. The average age for male respondents was 47 years. Across all gender the average age was 50 years. Most of the respondents came from the 30-39 age group, which represented 20% of the entire sample. However, the proportion of respondents below and above 50 years was nearly the same – 48% and 52%, respectively.

Number of respondents per age group and gender

Total number Female Male

14 12 12 10 10 10 10 9 9

8 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3

0 Age (20-29) Age (30-39) Age (40-49) Age (50-59) Age (60-69) Age (70-79)

Figure 4.1: Number of respondents per age group and gender.

Based on the age groups and gender patterns, 50% of all respondents were over the age of 50. Also the proportion of female respondents appeared to be relatively more in several age categories, with the exception of the 20-29 age group. 4.2.2 Educational Level of Respondents In relation to the educational levels of the respondents, Figure 4.2 shows the levels of education for both male and female respondents and associated percentages per category. As illustrated in Figure 4.2, 16 respondents passed Grade 12 and attained 2 years of further education, and they represented 27% of all respondents. Ten respondents who passed Grade 12, and attained further education were women, which was the highest number of women in the category comprising 17% of this category. Thirteen respondents had primary education, that is, from Grade 1 to Grade 7, which is the second highest number, contributing to 22% of the entire sample. Those who passed Grade 12 and attained 3 years further education were 9. Similarly, those who had secondary education were also 9, thus constituting 30% of the category. Seven respondents passed Grade 12, and amounted to 11% of the total respondents. Only 6 of the respondents had no formal education. In general, most respondents had completed at least a Grade 12 school qualification whereas relatively few of them had lower educational levels.

Educational levels of respondents

Total number Female Male

18 16 16 14 13 12 10 10 9 9 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 1 0 No formal Primary education Secondary Passed grade 12 Passed grd 12 & 2 Passed grd 12 & 3 education education yrs edu yrs edu

Figure 4.2: Educational levels of respondents in the study area.

4.2.3 Employment Status of Respondents Figure 4.3 shows the occupation level of the respondents for both genders. There were 7 housewives and one unemployed man, 11 pensioners, 11 semi-skilled personnel, 9 professionals, 2 people with own business, 8 traditional healers, 8 plants collectors, and 3 students who took part in the study.

Occupation of respondents

Total number Women Men

12 11 11

10 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1

0 House wife/ Pensioners Semi-skilled Professionals Own business Traditional Plants Students unemployed healer collector

Figure 4.3: Occupation profile of respondents.

4.3 ETHNOBOTANICALLY IMPORTANT WILD PLANT SPECIES IN THE MAKHADO LOCAL MUNICIPALITY Fifty eight ethnobotanically important wild plants species belonging to 34 families were mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality and they are documented in an inventory summarized by Table 4.1. Their taxonomic classification was conducted by SANBI. In terms of family representation, Figure 4.4 indicates their different affiliations. Seven plant species belonged to the Fabaceae family, of which this was the largest (12%) amongst the collected plants. In terms of morphology, 67.24% are trees; 18.97% are shrubs meanwhile 13.79% are herbaceous plants (Figure 4.5). Amongst the collected wild plant species, the percentage of native species was 91% while exotic species constituted 9%. On Table 4.1, both native and exotic species are shown. Furthermore in terms of plant family affiliation, 4 plant species belonged to Combretaceae, 3 Malvaceae, 3 Ebenaceae, 3 Euphorbiaceae, 3 Asteraceae, 2 Anacardiaceae 2 Celastraceae, 2 Moraceae, 2 Rhamnaceae, and 2 Rubiaceae.

Table 4.1: An inventory of all ethnobotanically important plants collected from Makhado Local Municipality area as identified by SANBI.

Vernacular Name English Scientific Name Family Name Plant Native/Exotic Common Type Name Mufula Marula Sclerocarya birrea Anacardiaceae Tree Native Murungulu Simple- Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Shrub Native spined num- num Mushakaladza Mountain Searsia leptodictya Anacardiaceae Tree Native karee (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya

Munnamutswu Long-stalk Pristimera Celastraceae Tree Native paddle-pad longipetiolata (Oliv.) N.Hallé

Muvhuyu Baobab Adansonia digitata Malvaceae Tree Native L.

Mudoro Indian fig Opuntia ficus-indica Cactaceae Shrub Exotic (L) Mill. Munembenembe Monkey Cassia petersiana Fabaceae Tree Native senna Bolle Musese African Peltophorum Fabaceae Tree Native wattle africanum Sond. Mukolokote Camel’s foot Piliostigma Fabaceae Tree Native thonningii (Schumach.) Milne- Redh.

Muthobi Coffee tree Boscia albitrunca Capparaceae Tree Native (Burch.) Gilg & Ben. Mutambanamme Bead-bean Maerua angolensis Capparaceae Tree Native tree DC. subsp. angolensis

Tshipandwa Confetti tree Gymnosporia Celastraceae Tree Native senegalensis (Lam.) Loes.

Muvuvha Weeping Combretum sp. Combretaceae Tree Native Bushwillow Mugavhi Russet Combretum Combretaceae Tree Native Bushwillow hereroense Schinz

Mudzwiri Leadwood Combretum imberbe Combretaceae Tree Native Wawra

Mususu Silver tree Terminalia sericea Combretaceae Tree Native Burch. ex DC.

Muthala/ Mutangule Monkey Diospyros lycioides Ebenaceae Shrub Native plum Desf. subsp. lycioides

Musuma African Diospyros Ebenaceae Tree Native ebony mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC.

Mutangule Magic guarri Euclea divinorum Ebenaceae Tree Native Hiern

Mukonde Common tree Euphorbia ingens E. Euphorbiaceae Tree Native Euphorbia Mey. Ex Boiss. Mutungu Pencil plant Euphorbia tirucalli Euphorbiaceae Tree Native L. Mutangule/Mutangahuma White- berry Flueggea virosa Phyllanthaceae Tree Native Bush (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt subsp. virosa

Muswoswo Dead-man’s Synadenium Euphorbiaceae Herb Native tree cupulare (Boiss.) L.C.Wheeler

Bunganyunyu Dwarf sage Litogyne gariepina Asteraceae Herb Native (DC.) Anderb.

Tshikhopha Mountain Aloe marlothii Asphodelaceae Shrub Native Aloe Berger var. marlothii. Lufhaladzamakole Asparagus Asparagus setaceus Asparagaceae Shrub Native fern (Kunth) Jessop

Savha / Mukhode Mother-in- Sansevieria sp. Ruscaceae Tree Native Law’s tongue Mukwakwa Black Strychnos Loganiaceae Tree Native monkey madagascariensis orange Poir.

Murenzhe Kalahari Dichrostachys Fabaceae Tree Native Christmas cinerea (L.) Wight & tree Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt var.

Tshikululu/ Mukululu Red- leaved Ficus ingens (Miq.) Moraceae Tree Native fig Miq.

Muhuyu Common Ficus sycomorus L. Moraceae Tree Native cluster fig subsp. sycomorus

Mutanzwa Blue Ximenia americana Olacaceae Tree Native sourplum L. var. microphylla Welw. ex Oliv.

Muvhale Lucky bean Erythrina lysistemon Fabaceae Tree Native tree Hutch Museto Devil Thorn Dicerocaryum Pedaliaceae Herb Native senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels subsp. senecioides

Mukhukhuma / Munie Brown ivory Berchemia discolor Rhamnaceae Tree Native (Klotzsch) Hemsl.

Mutshetshete/ Mukhalu Dwarf Ziziphus zeyheriana Rhamnaceae Tree Native buffalo-thorn Sond.

Tshiralala Gardenia cf. Rubiaceae Tree Native ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Verdc.

Muzwilo Wild medlar Vangueria infausta Rubiaceae Tree Native Burch.

Mububulu Red Mimusops zeyheri Sapotaceae Tree Native milkwood Sond.

Mututulwa Apple of Solanum Solanaceae Herb Native Sodom campylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich. subsp. panduriforme (Drège ex Dunal) J

Delele Corchorus sp. Malvaceae Herb Native

Muredwa Grey raisin Grewia monticola Malvaceae Tree Native Sond.

Muvhazwi Tree nettle Obetia tenax Urticaceae Shrub Native (N.E.Br.) Friis

Tshidzimbambule Bird’s beer Lantana rugosa Verbenaceae Shrub Native Thunb.

Mukwifhi Cyphostemma Vitaceae Shrub Native humile (N.E.Br.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. subsp.nov.

Salt tree Elephants Portulacaria afra Didiereaceae Shrub Exotic food Jacq.

No name Silky oak Grevillea robusta Proteaceae Tree Exotic A.Cunn. ex R.Br.

Mulanga cf. Warburgia sp. Canellaceae Tree Exotic

Sticky Psiadia punctulata Asteraceae Shrub Native Muthathathuri Psiadia (DC.) Vatke

Munyongatshifumbu Vitex rehmannii Lamiaceae Tree Native Gürke

Mubvumela White Kirkia acuminata Kirkiaceae Tree Native seringa Oliv.

Muukhuthu Velvet- Commiphora mollis Burseraceae Tree Native leaved (Oliv.) Engl. corkwood Musingandou Silver Bush Mundulea sericea Fabaceae Tree Native (Willd.) A.Chev.

No name Yellow Schkuhria pinnata Asteraceae Herb Native Tumbleweed (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell.

No name Drimia sp. Hyacinthaceae Herb Native

Liluvha Cape Catharanthus roseus Apocynaceae Herb Exotic periwinkle (L.) G.Don

Muswiriri Pride of De Bauhinia galpinii Fabaceae Shrub Native Kaap N.E.Br. Muthathazwivhi Wild pear Dombeya Sterculiaceae Tree Native rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch. var. rotundifolia

Family names of wild plant species collected during the survey

Apocynaceae 1 Asteraceae 3 Hyacinthaceae 1 Burseraleae 1 Kirkiaceae 1 Lamiaceae 1 Canellaceae 1

Rubiaceae 2

Proteaceae 1 Didiereaceae 1 Vitaceae 1 Rhamnaceae 2 Verbenaceae 1 Urticaceae 1 Solanaceae 1

Sapotaceae 1

Moraceae 2 Pedaliaceae 1 Olacaceae 1 Loganiaceae 1 Euphobiaceae 3 Ruscaceae 1 Asparagaceae 1 Asphodelaceae 1

Phyllanthaceae 1

Ebenaceae 3 Combretaceae 4 Brassicaceae 2 Fabaceae 7 Cactaceae 1 Malvaceae 3 Celastraceae 2

Apocynaceae 1

Anacardiaceae 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 4.4: Family names of the different wild plant species collected during the survey.

Proportion (%) of collected plants according to their morphology

Herbs 13.79

Shrubs 18.97

Trees 67.24

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Figure 4.5: The proportion (%) of collected wild plant species based on morphology.

4.4 PROPORTIONS OF WILD PLANT SPECIES CITED PER AGE GROUP AND GENDER Figure 4.6 depicts the percentages of plant species mentioned per age group and gender. Most respondents ranging from 50 years of age tended to mention the greatest number of wild plant species – 59% (50-59); 63% (60-69); and 66% (70-79). On the other hand, younger respondents mentioned comparatively fewer species. As for gender, its influence on the citation of species was not uniform, although in most classes women respondents appeared to mention relatively more plant species than their male counterparts.

Percentage of plants cited per age group and gender

Percentage Women percentage Men percentage

70 66 63 59 60 55 50 50 42 43 40 35 36 32 29 27 30 25 23 24 23 21 20 17

0 Age 20-29 Age 30-39 Age 40-49 Age 50-59 Age 60-69 Age 70-79

Figure 4.6: Percentage of plants knowledge possessed per age group and gender.

4.4.1 Ethnomedicinal plant uses In Table 4.2, an inventory of ethnomedicinally important plant species (n=29) is provided with the Fabaceae family being the most represented (16.7%) plant family. These plants are used by the respondents to treat a wide range of ailments and conditions, including body pains, headaches, colds and flu, eye infections, toothache, stomach complaints, urogenital sicknesses, cancer, blood circulation, snake bites and mosquito repulsion. Several plant species may also be used for the same ethnomedicinal condition. For example, 8 plant species - Cassia petersiana Bolle, Peltophorum africanum Sond, Maerua angolensis DC. subsp. angolensis, Euclea divinorum Hiern, Aloe marlothii Berger var. marlothii; Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt var; Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welw. ex Oliv and Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell were used for treating stomach ailments, while toothache is treated by means of 5 different plant species - Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mill; Cassia petersiana Bolle; Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt var; Erythrina lysistemon Hutch and Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich. subsp. panduriforme (Drège ex Dunal) J.

Compared to other studies, the following points can be made. Semenya et al. (2013) also reported Terminalia sericea as a useful plant for treating measles, while Maroyi and Mosina (2014) listed the use of Catharanthus roseus for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.

Table 4. 2: List of ethnomedicinal plants mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Species Vernacular Family Used Part/S Plant Uses Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Bark/ leaves Colds, headaches Searsia leptodictya Mushakaladza Anacardiaceae Leaves Colds, headaches (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya

Adansonia digitata L Muvhuyu Malvaceae Roots Soft porridge for children, colds, diarrhea Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mudoro Cactaceae Roots Toothache Mill. Cassia petersiana Bolle Munembenembe Fabaceae Roots Toothache, Syphilis, Stomach disorder Peltophorum africanum Musese Fabaceae Bark Stomach disorders, Sond. colds, chest pains, blood purification Maerua angolensis DC. Mutambanamme Brassicaceae Leaves/ barks Headache, stomach subsp. angolensis disorders

Terminalia sericea Mususu Combretaceae Roots/ leaves Soft porridge for Burch. ex DC. children, diarrhea, dysentery, measles Euclea divinorum Mutangule Ebenaceae Roots Headache, stomach Hiern disorders

Euphorbia ingens E. Mukonde Euphorbiaceae Bark Cancer, ulcers Mey. Ex Boiss. Flueggea virosa (Roxb. Mutangule/Mutangahu Phyllanthaceae Roots Immune booster ex Willd.) Voigt subsp. ma virosa

Synadenium cupulare Muswoswo Euphorbiaceae Latex Body pains (Boiss.) L.C.Wheeler

Litogyne gariepina Bunganyunyu Asteraceae Whole plant Mosquitoes (DC.) Anderb. repellent

Aloe marlothii Berger Tshikhopha Asphodelaceae Roots Stomach disorder var. marlothii. Asparagus setaceus Lufhaladzamakole Asparagaceae Roots Vomiting (Kunth) Jessop Dichrostachys cinerea Murenzhe Mimosaceae Roots/ bark Snake-bites, (L.) Wight & Arn. toothache, subsp. africana Brenan Eyes, & Brummitt. Stomach disorder, Soft porridge for children Ximenia americana L. Mutanzwa Olacaceae Bark Diarrhea, stomach var. microphylla Welw. disorders ex Oliv.

Erythrina lysistemon Muvhale Fabaceae Bark Toothache Hutch Ziziphus zeyheriana Mutshetshete/ Rhamnaceae Roots Treat infertility Sond. Mukhalu

Vangueria infausta Muzwilo Rubiaceae Roots Improve fertility Burch.

Mundulea sericea Musingandou Fabaceae Roots Treat miscarriages, (Willd.) A.Chev. Treat infertility

Solanum Mututulwa Solanaceae Roots/ fruit Toothache campylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich. subsp. panduriforme (Drège ex Dunal) J

Catharanthus roseus Liluvha Apocynaceae Roots Cancer, gonorrhea, (L.) G.Don sexual transmitted diseases Kirkia acuminata Oliv. Mubvumela Kirkiaceae Root/ bark Vomiting, toothache

Vitex rehmannii Gürke Munyongatshifumbu Lamiaceae Roots/ leaves Menstrual cycle, Eyes Commiphora mollis Muukhuthu Burseraceae Roots/ leaves Blood purification, (Oliv.) Engl. sexual transmitted diseases Schkuhria pinnata Unknown Asteraceae Roots/ whole Stomach disorders, (Lam.) Kuntze ex plant mosquito repellent Thell.

Drimia sp. Tshiganame Hyacinthaceae Roots Gonorrhoea, sexual transmitted diseases, impotence Dombeya rotundifolia Muthathazwivhi Sterculiaceae Bark / roots Abscess / blood (Hochst.) Planch. var. purification rotundifolia

Four different plant species - Cassia petersiana Bolle, Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don, Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl and Drimia sp. were mentioned for the treatment of some of the urogenital and sexually transmitted diseases. The proportions of plant parts utilized for different medicinal purposes are portrayed in Figure 4.7. The most utilized plant parts were roots and bark as their proportion of their citation was 69% and 25%, respectively. Only 16% of respondents mentioned leaves, while 2.8% mentioned the use of latex.

Proportion (%) of plant parts used 80 69.4 70

30 25

20 16

10 2.8 0 Roots Barks Leaves Latex

Figure 4.7: The proportion of plant parts mentioned by respondents for various ethnomedicinal uses.

Figure A: Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Figure B: Sclerocarya birrea

Figure C: Euphorbia ingens E. Figure D: Adansonia digitata L

Figure E: Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Figure F: Cyphostemma humile

Figure G: Synadenium cupulare Figure H: Peltophorum africanum Sond.

Figure I: Kirkia acuminata Oliv Figure J: Solanum campylacanthum

Figure K: Aloe marlothii Figure L: Vangueria infausta Burch.

PLATE 1: Pictures of different plant species mentioned by respondents of Makhado Local Municipality for their ethnomedicinal value; that is, Figure A (Catharanthus roseus L.), Figure B (Sclerocarya birrea), Figure C (Euphorbia ingens E), Figure D (Adansonia digitata L), Figure E (Dichrostachys cinerea L), Figure F (Cyphostemma humile), Figure G (Synadenium cupulare), Figure H (Peltophorum africanum Sond), Figure I (Kirkia acuminata Oliv), Figure J (Solanum campylacanthum), Figure K (Aloe marlothii) and Figure L (Vangueria infausta Burch).

4.4.2 Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Uses One of the categories of ethnomedicinal uses involved wild plant species used for veterinary purposes (Table 4.3). In this instance, only 8 wild plant species were mentioned, which included Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC, Synadenium cupulare (Boiss.) L.C. Wheeler, Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. Ex Boiss, Adansonia digitata L, Euphorbia tirucalli L, Dicerocaryum senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels subsp. senecioides, Sclerocarya birrea and Vitex rehmannii Gürke. These plants are used for treating livestock sicknesses and conditions for goats (blood circulation), cattle (placenta and diarrhoea), as well as pigs (growth enhancement).

Previous studies conducted by Magwede et al. (2014) and Mabogo (1990) have indicated some of these findings. These studies have the ethnoveterinary use of Terminalia sericea roots as a decoction for animals with a hanging placenta and Synadenium cupulare is used to treat blood circulation in the same livestock animals.

Table 4. 3: List of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants mentioned by respondents. Species Vernacular Family Used Plant uses part/s

Terminalia sericea Mususu Combretaceae Roots Decoction of root is given to a cow to compel it Burch. ex DC. to lose a hanging placenta

Synadenium Muswoswo Euphorbiaceae Latex Blood circulation cupulare (Boiss.) L.C.Wheeler

Euphorbia ingens Mukonde Euphorbiaceae Roots/ Blood circulation E. Mey. Ex Boiss. latex

Adansonia digitata Muvhuyu Malvaceae Bark Bark is mixed with food and given pigs to enable L. them to grow big and prevent ailments

Euphorbia Mutungu Euphorbiaceae Latex Blood circulation in goats tirucalli L.

Dicerocaryum Museto Pedaliaceae Leaves Infusion of the leaves is forced to a cow to compel senecioides it to lose a hanging placenta (Klotzsch) Abels subsp. senecioides

Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Bark Diarrhoea in cattle

Vitex rehmannii Munyongatshifu Lamiaceae Leaves Treat eyes in animals Gürke mbu

Proportions of plant parts used by respondents

Roots Latex Bark Leaves

22% 22%

22%

34%

Figure 4. 8: Proportions of plant part used by respondents.

Figure A: Terminalia sericea Figure B: Synadenium cupulare

Figure C: Euphorbia tirucalli L. Figure D: Dicerocaryum senecioides

Figure E: Adansonia digitata L. Figure F: Sclerocarya birrea

Plate 2: Pictures of different plant species mentioned by respondents of Makhado Local Municipality for their ethnoveterinary uses, that is; Figure A (Terminalia sericea), Figure B (Synadenium cupulare), Figure C (Euphorbia tirucalli L), Figure D (Dicerocaryum senecioides), Figure E (Adansonia digitata L) and Figure F (Sclerocarya birrea).

4.4.3 Wild Food Plant Species Of the 58 plants listed in Table 4.1, 28 were cited by respondents as wild edible plants and this collection represented 48% of all plants mentioned. Such plant species are depicted in Table 4.4. On the same note, a traditional porridge known as “tshiunza” can be prepared from about 7 different plant species such as - Carissa spinarum L, Pristimera longipetiolata (Oliv.) N.Hallé, Adansonia digitata L, Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh, Diospyros lycioides Desf. subsp. lycioides, Sansevieria sp and Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. This traditional soft porridge is usually given to babies who are not yet ready to consume hard porridge. Only three plants were mentioned as wild edible vegetables by the respondents of Makhado Local Municipality. Dicerocaryum senecioides, Corchorus spp and Obetia tenax were mentioned as plants used for vegetables purposes.

Some similarities can be drawn with other studies on the use of Sclerocarya birrea for both beverages and food (Rampedi & Olivier, 2013). In addition, Balemie and Kebebwe (2006) cited similarities with this study in the use of Sclerocarya birrea, Carissa spinarum and Ximenia americana as some of the most popular wild edible plants used by Kusume, Derashe and Gamo communities in the South Region of Ethiopia.

Table 4. 4: List of wild edible plants mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Species Vernacular Family Used Plant Uses Part/S Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Fruit Food, beverages Carissa spinarum L. Murungulu Apocynaceae Fruit / roots Food, make soft

porridge for children Searsia leptodictya (Diels) Mushakaladza Anacardiaceae Fruit Food T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya

Pristimera longipetiolata Munnamutswu Celastraceae Fruit / roots Food, make soft (Oliv.) N.Hallé porridge for

children Adansonia digitata L. Muvhuyu Malvaceae Fruit / roots Food , make

soft porridge for children Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mudoro Cactaceae Fruit Food Mill. Cassia petersiana Bolle Munembenembe Fabaceae Fruit Food Piliostigma thonningii Mukolokote Fabaceae Fruit / roots Food, make soft (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. porridge for

children Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Muthobi Brassicaceae Fruit Food Gilg & Ben. Diospyros mespiliformis Musuma Ebenaceae Fruit Food Hochst. ex A.DC Euclea divinorum Hiern Mutangule Ebenaceae Fruit Food

Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Mutangule/Mutangahuma Phyllanthaceae Fruit Food Willd.) Voigt subsp. virosa

Strychnos Mukwakwa Loganiaceae Fruit Food madagascariensis Poir.

Ficus sycomorus L. Muhuyu Moroceae Fruit Food subsp. sycomorus

Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Mukululu/ tshikululu Moroceae Fruit Food

Ximenia americana L. Mutanzwa Olacaceae Fruit Food var. microphylla Welw. ex Oliv.

Berchemia discolor Mukhukhuma / Munie Rhamnaceae Fruit Food (Klotzsch) Hemsl.

Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Mutshetshete/ Mukhalu Rhamnaceae Fruit Food

Vangueria infausta Muzwilo Rubiaceae Fruit Food Burch.

Mimusops zeyheri Sond. Mububulu Sapotaceae Fruit Food

Grewia monticola Sond. Muredwa Malvaceae Fruit Food

Lantana rugosa Thunb. Tshidzimbambule Verbenaceae Fruit Food

Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. Muswiriri Fabaceae Roots Make soft porridge for children Sansevieria sp. Savha /Mukhode Ruscaceae Roots Make soft

porridge for children Diospyros lycioides Desf. Muthala / Mutangule Ebenaceae Roots Make soft subsp. lycioides porridge for

children Corchorus sp. Delele Malvaceae Leaves Food /

vegetables Dicerocaryum senecioides Museto Pedaliaceae Leaves Food / (Klotzsch) Abels subsp. Vegetables senecioides

Obetia tenax (N.E.Br.) Muvhazwi Urticaceae Fresh Food / Friis leaves Vegetables

Proportions of plant parts used to make food

11% 15%

11% Fruit / roots Fruit / roots Roots Leaves

63%

Figure 4.9: Proportions of plant parts used to make food.

Figure A: Mukumbi (traditional beer) Figure B: Ximenia americana L

Figure C: Ficus sycomorus L Figure D: Diospyros mespiliformis

Figure E: Vangueria infausta Figure F: Carissa spinarum L

Plate 3: Different plant species used for food in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A (Mukumbi a traditional beer made from Sclerocarya birrea), Figure B (Picture of Ximenia americana L), Figure C (Ficus sycomorus L), Figure D (Diospyros mespiliformis), Figure E (Vangueria infausta) and Figure F (Carissa spinarum L).

4.4.4 Wild plant species used for firewood Eighteen wild plant species were mentioned by respondents for providing fuelwood or firewood and these represented 31% of all plants identified in this survey. In all instances, fuelwood is derived from both the trunk and branches of such plants (Table 4.5). The following 11 plants were also cited by a study conducted by Mabogo (1990) for their firewood purposes, namely; Pristimera longipetiolata, Carissa spinarum, Gymnosporia senegalensis, Combretum spp, Combretum hereroense, Combretum imberbe, Diospyros mespiliformis, Dichrostachys cinerea, Erythrina lysistemon, Berchemia discolor and Ziziphus zeyheriana.

Table 4. 5: List of plants used for firewood purposes by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Species Vernacular Family Used Part/S Plant Uses Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Wood, branches Firewood Carissa spinarum L Murungulu Apocynaceae Wood, branches Firewood Searsia leptodictya (Diels) Mushakaladza Anacardiaceae Wood, branches Firewood T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya

Pristimera longipetiolata Munnamutswu Celastraceae Wood, branches Firewood (Oliv.) N.Hallé

Peltophorum africanum Musese Fabaceae Wood, branches Firewood Sond. Piliostigma thonningii Mukolokote Fabaceae Wood/ branches Firewood (Schumach.) Milne-Redh.

Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Muthobi Capparaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Gilg & Ben. Gymnosporia senegalensis Tshipandwa Celastraceae Wood/ branches Firewood (Lam.) Loes.

Combretum sp. Muvuvha Combretaceae Wood/ branches Firewood

Combretum hereroense Mugavhi Combretaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Schinz

Combretum imberbe Mudzwiri Combretaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Wawra

Terminalia sericea Burch. Mususu Combretaceae Wood/ branches Firewood ex DC.

Diospyros mespiliformis Musuma Ebenaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Hochst. ex A.DC.

Strychnos Mukwakwa Loganiaceae Wood/ branches Firewood madagascariensis Poir.

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Murenzhe Fabaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Wight & Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt var.

Erythrina lysistemon Muvhale Fabaceae Wood/ branches Firewood Hutch Berchemia discolor Mukhukhuma / Rhamnaceae Wood/ branches Firewood (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Munie

Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Mutshetshete/ Rhamnaceae Wood/ branches Firewood

Mukhalu

Figure 4.10: Picture of firewood stored before utilisation.

Figure A: Combretum imberbe Figure B: Peltophorum africanum

Figure C: Combretum sp. Figure D: Diospyros mespiliformis

Figure E: Combretum hereroense Figure F: Dichrostachys cinerea

Figure G: Ziziphus zeyheriana Figure H: Terminalia sericea

Figure I: Sclerocarya birrea Figure J: Gymnosporia senegalensis

Plate 4: Different plant species used for firewood in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A (Combretum imberbe), Figure B (Peltophorum africanum), Figure C (Combretum sp.), Figure D (Diospyros mespiliformis), Figure E (Combretum hereroense), Figure F (Dichrostachys cinerea), Figure G (Ziziphus zeyheriana), Figure H (Terminalia sericea), Figure I (Sclerocarya birrea) and Figure J (Gymnosporia senegalensis).

4.4.5 Wild plant species used for construction purposes In Table 4.6, wild plant species utilized for building and construction purposes are listed and this use category amounted to 20% of the total collection. The Combretaceae family was found to be represented by 3 different species such as Combretum hereroense Schinz, Combretum imberbe Wawra and Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. For all plant species cited by repondents the common material used was their woody parts.

Similarities were also drawn from the previous study conducted by Mabogo (1990) where the following plants were mentioned for their role in building and construction, namely: Searsia leptodictya, Pristimera longipetiolata, Combretum sp, Combretum hereroense, Combretum imberbe, Dichrostachys cinerea, Berchemia discolor and Ziziphus zeyheriana.

Table 4.6: List of plants used for building and construction purposes. Species Vernacular Family Used Part/S Plant Uses Searsia leptodictya Mushakaladza Anacardiaceae Wood Construction (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya

Pristimera Munnamutswu Celastraceae Wood Construction longipetiolata (Oliv.) N.Hallé

Piliostigma thonningii Mukolokote Fabaceae Wood Construction (Schumach.) Milne- Redh.

Gymnosporia Tshipandwa Celastraceae Wood Construction senegalensis (Lam.) Loes.

Combretum sp. Muvuvha Combretaceae Wood Building/ construction Combretum hereroense Mugavhi Combretaceae Wood Building/ construction Schinz

Combretum imberbe Mudzwiri Combretaceae Wood Building/ construction Wawra

Terminalia sericea Mususu Combretaceae Wood Building/ construction Burch. ex DC.

Diospyros mespiliformis Musuma Ebenaceae Wood Building/ construction Hochst. ex A.DC.

Dichrostachys cinerea Murenzhe Fabaceae Wood Building/ construction (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt var.

Berchemia discolor Mukhukhuma / Rhamnaceae Wood Building/ construction (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Munie

Ziziphus zeyheriana Mutshetshete/ Rhamnaceae Wood Building/ construction Sond. Mukhalu

Figure A: Combretum sp. Figure B: Dichrostachys cinerea L.

Figure C: Diospyros mespiliformis Figure D: Combretum imberbe

Figure E: Piliostigma thonningii Figure F: Terminalia sericea

Figure G: Combretum hereroense Figure H: Ziziphus zeyheriana Plate 5: Pictures of different plant species used for construction purposes in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A (Picture of Combretum sp), Figure B (Picture of Dichrostachys cinerea L), Figure C (Picture of Diospyros mespiliformis), Figure D (Picture of Combretum imberbe), Figure E (Picture of Piliostigma thonningii), Figure F (Picture of Terminalia sericea), Figure G (Picture of Combretum hereroense) and Figure H (Picture of Ziziphus zeyheriana).

4.4.6 Wild Plant Species used for making Crafts and Furniture Table 4.7 shows an inventory of 9 wild plant species used for making cultural crafts and furniture. These plants represented 15% of the total for the entire survey. Whereas other species had multiple uses some had singular uses. For example, the woody part of Sclerocarya birrea is used for crafting musical drums, plates as well as eating

45 bowls. On the other hand, the woody Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Ben. is only used for designing domestic utensils.

Table 4. 7: List of plants used for crafting or furniture by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Species Vernacular Family Used Plant Uses Part/S

Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Wood Crafting of drums, plates, bowls Peltophorum africanum Sond. Musese Fabaceae Wood Crafting Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne- Mukolokote Fabaceae Wood Crafting of grain mortar Redh.

Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Ben. Muthobi Brassicaceae Wood Crafting households utensils Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. Tshipandwa Celastraceae Wood Crafting of spoons, stirrers

Combretum imberbe Wawra Mudzwiri Combretaceae Wood Crafting of grain mortar

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Musuma Ebenaceae Wood Crafting

Kirkia acuminata Oliv. Mubvumela Kirkiaceae Wood Crafting of spoons, plates,

bowls Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl. Muukhuthu Burseraceae Wood Crafting

Figure A: Sclerocarya birrea Figure B: Gymnosporia senegalensis

Figure C: Combretum imberbe Figure D: Peltophorum africanum

Figure E: Diospyros mespiliformis Figure F: Kirkia acuminata

Figure G: ommiphora mollis Figure H: Boscia albitrunca PLATE 6: Different plant species used for making crafts and furnutire in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A shows a (Sclerocarya birrea), Figure B (Gymnosporia senegalensis), Figure C (Combretum imberbe), Figure D (Peltophorum africanum), Figure E (Diospyros mespiliformis), Figure F (Kirkia acuminate), Figure G (Commiphora mollis) and Figure H (Boscia albitrunca).

4.4.7 Ethnospiritual uses Eight plants were mentioned by respondents for ethnospiritual uses and most of them are associated with human protection (Table 4.8). This category of plant species were equivalent to 14% of the total collection in this survey. Some of these plant species are believed to even have some influence on atmospheric and weather conditions. Notably, Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop, whose burning is believed to disperse clouds away and the Aloe marlothii Berger var. marlothii whose whole plant in a homestead is associated with the prevention of lightning strikes. The thorns of Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes are traditionally used for preventing and overcoming witchcraft meanwhile the sticks of Vangueria infausta Burch. are thought to offer general protection to households. The following similaries were also documented by Mabogo (1990) for plants such as Gymnosporia senegalensis, Asparagus setaceus, Gardenia cf. ternifolia and Vangueria infausta.

Table 4.8: List of recorded plants used for spiritual purposes. Species Vernacular Family Used Plant Uses Part/S Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Tshipandwa Celastraceae Thorns Prevent witches and Loes. wizards

Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop Lufhaladzamakole Asparagaceae Whole Burning of plant makes plant clouds disappear Gardenia cf. ternifolia Schumach. & Tshiralala Rubiaceae Leaves Makes people to be Thonn. subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) forgetful, to protect Verdc. households

Vangueria infausta Burch. Muzwilo Rubiaceae Sticks Protect households

Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Mutshetshete/ Rhamnaceae Branches Put on top of the coffin of Mukhalu the dead never married man. Euclea divinorum Hiern Mutangule Ebenaceae Branches / For good luck leaves Aloe marlothii Berger var. Marlothii. Tshikhopha Asphodelaceae Whole Prevent lighting to strike plant the households Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A.Chev. Musingandou Fabaceae Whole Makes people fight if used plant for firewood purposes

Proportions of plant used for spiritual purposes Thorns Branches 11% 22%

Sticks Whole plant 11% 34%

Leaves 22% Thorns Whole plant Leaves Sticks Branches

Figure 4.11: Proportions of plant used for spiritual purposes.

Figure A: Gymnosporia senegalensis Figure B: Asparagus Setaceus

Figure C: Ziziphus zeyheriana Figure D: Aloe marlothii

Figure E: Mundulea sericea Figure F: Gardenia cf. ternifolia Plate 7: Different plant species used for spititual purposes in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A (Gymnosporia senegalensis), Figure B (Asparagus setaceus), Figure C (Ziziphus zeyheriana), Figure D (Aloe marlothii), Figure E (Mundulea sericea) and Figure F (Gardenia cf. ternifolia).

4.5 SPECIES POPULARITY INDEX In the determination of the Species Popularity Index (SPI) values, 60 respondents were given an opportunity to identify as many plants as they possibly can making use of different Posters which were designed for this case study. These posters exhibited the collected plant species in colour. The popularity of all of these plants (Table 4.9) was determined by using the matrix method where the value of the plant species was rated from the scale of zero (0) to one (1). Zero (0) represents no knowledge of the plant at all and one (1) represents the greates knowledge of the plant (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011). The matrix method allows a quantification of the extent to which each plant species is by respondents in the survey (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011). For example, as shown in Table 4.9, Sclerocarya birrea was cited 45 times out of 58 wild plants species, thus leading to an index value of 0, 77. Table 4.10 shows the Species Popularity Index (SPI) values (for the different respondents) based on the 58 plants species positively identified on the Poster. Table 4.10 is divided into species name, vernacular names, the number of times the plant was identified by the respondents and its uses, plant score and plant percentages. Although all the different plants were positively identified, 4 of them had no vernacular names (Grevillea robusta, Schkuhria pinnata, Portulacaria afra and Drimia sp).

As shown in Table 4. 9, the most popular plant species was Aloe marlothii with a score of 0, 96 (96%) and the most unpopular plant was Warburgia sp with a score of (0.0172) 1,72%. Other popular plants were as follows: Corchorus sp at 0,94 (94%), Berchemia discolor at 0,87 (87%), Sclerocarya birrea at 0,84 (84%), Adansonia digitate L at 0,82 (82%), Ximenia americana at 0,81 (81%), Dicerocaryum senecioides at 0,81 (81%), Opuntia ficus-indica L at 0,79 (79%), Euphorbia ingens E at 0,75 (75%), Dichrostachys cinerea at 0,75 (75%) and Ficus sycomorus L with a score of 0,75 (75%). Plant species that scored the least were Grevillea rubusta at 0,06 (6%), Schkuhria pinnata at 0,06 (6%), Portulacaria afra at 0,10 (10%) and Cyphostemma humile with a score of 0, 13 (13%). Furthermore, it is evident as showed in Table 4.9 that the majority of most popular plants were edible plants or fruits.

Table 4. 9: Species popularity index. Species Vernacular Times Plant Plant Percentage Mentioned Score Sclerocarya birrea Mufula 49 0,84 84% Carissa spinarum L. Murungulu 39 0,67 67%

Searsia leptodictya (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & Mushakaladza 26 0,44 44% J.Wen forma leptodictya

Pristimera longipetiolata (Oliv.) N.Hallé Munnamutswu 24 0,24 24%

Adansonia digitata L. Muvhuyu 48 0,82 82%

Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mill. Mudoro 46 0,79 79% Cassia petersiana Bolle Munembenembe 18 0,31 31% Peltophorum africanum Sond. Musese 28 0,48 48% Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Mukolokote 24 0,41 41%

Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Ben. Muthobi 30 0,51 51% Maerua angolensis DC. subsp. angolensis Mutambanamme 15 0,25 25%

Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. Tshipandwa 17 0,29 29%

Combretum sp. Muvuvha 22 0,37 37%

Combretum hereroense Schinz Mugavhi 12 0,20 20%

Combretum imberbe Wawra Mudzwiri 29 0,5 50%

Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. Mususu 30 0,51 51%

Diospyros lycioides Desf. subsp. lycioides Muthala/ Mutangule 19 0,32 32%

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Musuma 34 0,58 58%

Euclea divinorum Hiern Mutangule 17 0,29 29%

Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. Ex Boiss. Mukonde 44 0,75 75% Euphorbia tirucalli L. Mutungu 14 0,24 24% Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt subsp. Mutangahuma 14 0,24 24% virosa

Synadenium cupulare (Boiss.) L.C.Wheeler Muswoswo 32 0,55 55%

Litogyne gariepina (DC.) Anderb. Bunganyunyu 28 0,48 48%

Aloe marlothii Berger var. marlothii. Tshikhopha 56 0,96 96% Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop Lufhaladzamakole 26 0,44 44%

Sansevieria sp. Savha / Mukhode 34 0,58 58%

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. Mukwakwa 31 0,53 53%

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. Murenzhe 44 0,75 75% africana Brenan & Brummitt var.

Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. Tshikululu/ Mukululu 36 0,62 62%

Ficus sycomorus L. subsp. sycomorus Muhuyu 44 0,75 75%

Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welw. ex Mutanzwa 47 0,81 81% Oliv.

Erythrina lysistemon Hutch Muvhale 20 0,34 34% Dicerocaryum senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels Museto 47 0,81 81% subsp. senecioides

Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Mukhukhuma / Munie 51 0,87 87%

Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Mutshetshete/ 34 0,58 58%

Mukhalu Gardenia cf. ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. Tshiralala 17 0,29 29% subsp. jovis-tonantis (Welw.) Verdc.

Vangueria infausta Burch. Muzwilo 37 0,63 63%

Mimusops zeyheri Sond. Mububulu 30 0,51 51%

Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich. Mututulwa 36 0,62 62% subsp. panduriforme (Drège ex Dunal) J

Corchorus sp. Delele 55 0,94 94%

Grewia monticola Sond. Muredwa 9 0,15 15%

Obetia tenax (N.E.Br.) Friis Muvhazwi 29 0,5 50%

Lantana rugosa Thunb. Tshidzimbambule 34 0,58 58%

Cyphostemma humile (N.E.Br.) Desc. ex Wild & Mukwifhi 8 0,13 13% R.B.Drumm. subsp.nov.

Portulacaria afra Jacq. Salt tree 6 0,10 10%

Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br. No name 4 0,06 6%

Warburgia sp. Mulanga 0 0 0%

Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke Muthathathuri 14 0,24 24%

Vitex rehmannii Gürke Munyongatshifumbu 13 0,22 22%

Kirkia acuminata Oliv. Mubvumela 24 0,41 41%

Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl. Muukhuthu 15 0,25 25% Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A.Chev. Musingandou 17 0,29 29%

Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. No name 4 0,06 6%

Drimia sp. No name 12 0,20 20%

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Liluvha 36 0,62 62%

Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. Muswiriri 33 0,56 56% Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch. var. Muthathazwivhi 19 0,32 32% rotundifolia

Figure A: Aloe marlothii. Figure B: Marula beer (Sclerocarya birrea)

Figure C: Ximenia americana L. Figure D: Adansonia digitata L. PLATE 8: Different popular plant species in Makhado Local Municipality. Figure A (Aloe marlothii), Figure B (Marula beer made from Sclerocarya birrea), Figure C (Ximenia americana L) and Figure D (Adansonia digitate L).

4.6 ETHNOBOTANICAL KNOWLEDGE INDEX Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI) values were calculated by using the matrix method for the quantification of ethnobotanical knowledge of all 58 respondents in this case study. The approach adopted was in line with work completed by De Beer and Van Wyk (2011). Table 4. 10 shows EKI of all respondents. In addition, EKI was calculated by determining the total score of the individual respondents for all of the 58 plant species and dividing this by the maximum possible score for the 58 plant species.

For example, as it was stated earlier, the EKI is 1.00 when the respondents knew all the plants names and uses for all of them [EKI=58 (the maximum possible total) ÷ (58x1) = 1]. The index is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. Zero (0) represents no knowledge and one (1) represents maximum knowledge. The closer the respondents draw to a score=1, they are deemed more knowledgeable on wild plants species under consideration. In this study, the respondents received a full mark for recognizing every plant species or its name and associated this with a specific use. As mentioned earlier, of the 60 respondents who took part in the survey, 34 were female (57%) whereas 26 were male (43%). The youngest respondents was 23 years old and the oldest was 76 years old and average mean age was 50. Table 4.10 shows the extent to which the wild plants species under consideration were known to the inhabitants. The highest EKI score was 0,76 (76%) and was assigned to a 51 years old female respondent, who is indicated as participant No. 53 on Table 4.10. The following respondents also achieved a relatively higher EKI value (0.74): Respondent No. 5 (48 years male), No. 29 (75 years old male) and No. 30 (71 years male).The lowest score was 0,26 (26%) and was assigned to a 34 years old male respondent (No.41) (Table 4.10). The average EKI value for female respondents was 0,52 (52%) meanwhile male exhibited an EKI average of 0,57 (57%). On the other hand, the total average score for both genders was 0,54 (54%).

Table 4. 10: Ethnobotanical knowledge index (EKI) amongst respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Respondent No Age Gender Respondent Score Respondent Percentage 1. 72 Female 0,57 57% 2. 70 Male 0,59 59% 3. 66 Female 0,59 59% 4. 26 Male 0,45 45% 5. 48 Male 0,74 74% 6. 69 Male 0,64 64% 7. 37 Female 0,34 34% 8. 41 Female 0,48 48% 9. 29 Male 0,52 52% 10. 59 Female 0,55 55% 11. 64 Female 0,52 52% 12. 35 Female 0,41 41% 13. 44 Female 0,65 65% 14. 32 Male 0,48 48% 15. 55 Male 0,6 60% 16. 56 Male 0,55 55% 17. 28 Male 0,59 59%

18. 38 Male 0,65 65% 19. 56 Female 0,41 41% 20. 60 Female 0,53 53% 21. 62 Female 0,59 59% 22. 39 Male 0,31 31% 23. 75 Female 0,65 65% 24. 40 Male 0,59 59% 25. 40 Male 0,59 59% 26. 57 Male 0,55 55% 27. 28 Male 0,48 48% 28. 64 Male 0,59 59% 29. 75 Male 0,74 74% 30. 71 Male 0,74 74% 31. 68 Male 0,69 69% 32. 71 Female 0,63 63% 33. 72 Female 0,65 65% 34. 76 Female 0,64 64% 35. 72 Female 0,69 69% 36. 27 Female 0,43 43% 37. 65 Female 0,72 72% 38. 62 Male 0,69 69% 39. 44 Male 0,38 38% 40. 48 Male 0,55 55% 41. 34 Male 0,26 26% 42. 60 Male 0,65 65% 43. 44 Female 0,53 53% 44. 35 Female 0,41 41% 45. 48 Female 0,57 57% 46. 44 Female 0,33 33% 47. 36 Female 0,27 27% 48. 28 Female 0,55 55% 49. 55 Female 0,48 48% 50. 52 Male 0,67 67% 51. 36 Female 0,52 52% 52. 34 Female 0,36 36% 53. 51 Female 0,76 76%

54. 25 Female 0,45 45% 55. 26 Female 0,40 40% 56. 54 Female 0,55 55% 57. 52 Female 0,59 59% 58. 40 Female 0,52 52% 59. 32 Female 0,28 28% 60. 23 Male 0,53 53%

Furthermore, ethnobotanical knowledge was also expressed in terms different ethnobotanical or folklore names for the wild plant species mentioned by respondents. Of the 58 plants collected and identified in the field, it was found out that those with multiple uses and thus possibly over-utilized were known by several vernacular names. For example, the following plants were known by at least 2 different folklore names - Diospyros lycioides Desf. subsp. lycioides (Muthala or Mutangule), Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt subsp. virosa (Mutangule or Mutangahuma), Sansevieria sp (Savha or Mukhode), Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq (Tshikululu or Mukululu), Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl (Mukhukhuma or Munie), and Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. (Mutshetshete or Mukhalu).

4.7 PLANTS PARTS USED FOR THE ENTIRE CASE STUDY Figure 4.12 shows plants parts used for the entire case study in numbers. One plant species can be used for different purposes. Roots, leaves and barks of one plant can be used to treat various ailments. Of the 58 wild plants species listed in Table 4.10, wood was cited the most with a score of 35. Wood is mainly used for firewood purposes, buildings, construction and fencing and for crafting purposes. The second most used plant part was roots with a total score of 26 as pointed out in Figure 4.5. Roots were mainly used for medicinal purposes as indicated in Figure 4.7.

The third most used plant part was fruits which were mainly used for food by both human and animals. Some fruits were also cited for medicinal purposes and others as used for making beverages. The fruits of plants species such as Ximenia americana L, Mimusops zeyheri and Sclerocarya birrea were cited for making beverages. Branches were mentioned by 22 people mostly for firewood and for spiritual purposes. Leaves were stated by 11 people for medicinal purposes and for making vegetables. Bark was cited by 9 people completely for medicinal purposes. Whole or entire plants were mentioned four times for mosquito repellant and spiritual purposes. The least plant part mentioned was thorns as they were cited only once for their ethnospiritual purposes.

Plants parts mentioned in the whole case study expressed in numbers

Thorns , 1 Bark, 9 Branches, 22 Leaves, 11

Fruits, 23

Wood, 35

Roots, 26 Whole plant, 4

Figure 4.12: Plants parts mentioned by respondents in the whole case study expressed in numbers.

4.8 SOURCE OF PLANT KNOWLEDGE During data collection process, one of the questions that the respondents were required to answer was “from whom have you learned to use the plants”. Figure 4.13 illustrates the source of plant knowledge amongst respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. Thirty-six respondents who represent 60% of 60 respondents indicated that they acquired plants knowledge from elders in the village. It is important for elders to pass these plant knowledge to the younger generation. Eight participants making 14% of the study cited that they learned to use the plants from traditional healers and plant collectors. Six participants consisting of 10% of the study group indicated that they acquired their botanical knowledge from friends and community members. Five of respondents (8%) mentioned that they obtained the plants knowledge from family members, and 5 people (8%) cited that they acquired the same knowledge through their own individual experiences.

Source of plant knowledge

8% 8% Elders Traditional healers/ plants collector 10% Community members/ friends 60% Family members 14% Own experience

Figure 4.13: Source of plant knowledge amongst respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality.

4.9 MULTIPLE USES OF PLANTS Some of the plant species mentioned by respondents had multiple uses. They can be simultaneously utilized as sources of food, medicine, religious or spiritual wellness, and other purposes. Table 4.11 shows a list of multiple uses per plant species. Of the 58 plant species mentioned in the survey, 30 (~52%) of them had multiple uses. Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. has 6 multiple uses and these entailed traditional medicine, spiritual wellness, food, firewood, building as well as construction. This trend was followed by those with at least 5 multiple uses – Sclerocarya birrea (crafting, medicine, firewood, food, and beverages); Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. africana Brenan & Brummitt. (medicine, firewood, building and construction, and fencing); and Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC (food, crafting, firewood, building and construction). Those with the least number of multiple uses are as follows: 4 multiple uses for Searsia leptodictya (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen forma leptodictya (crafting, medicine, firewood and food); 4 uses for Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl (food, firewood, building and construction); 3 uses for Peltophorum africanum Sond. (food, medicine, and beverages); 3 uses for Adansonia digitata L (food, medicine, and beverages); 3 uses for Euclea divinorum Hiern (medicine, food and firewood); 3 uses for Vangueria infausta Burch (medicine, spiritual purposes, and food); and similar trends can be seen in Table 4.11.

Table 4. 11: An inventory of multiple uses per plant species by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. .Species Vernecular Family Used Part/S Utilization Category Sclerocarya birrea Mufula Anacardiaceae Wood, Crafting, medicine, branches, fruit, firewood, food, seed, bark, beverages, (5) roots Searsia leptodictya (Diels) Mushakaladza Anacardiaceae Leaves, wood, Medicine, crafting, food, T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen fruit firewood (4) forma leptodictya

Adansonia digitata L Muvhuyu Malvaceae Fruit, bark, Food, medicine, leaves, roots beverages (3) Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mill. Mudoro Cactaceae Fruit, roots Food, medicine (2)

Cassia petersiana Bolle Munembenembe Fabaceae Roots, fruit Medicine, food (2) Peltophorum africanum Sond. Musese Fabaceae Wood, Firewood, medicine, branches, crafting (3) roots, bark Terminalia sericea Burch. ex Mususu Combretaceae Roots, leaves, Medicine, firewood (2) DC. wood, branches Euclea divinorum Hiern Mutangule Ebenaceae Roots, fruit, Medicine, food, wood firewood (3) Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Mutangule/Mutangahuma Phyllanthaceae Fruit, roots Food, medicine Willd.) Voigt subsp. virosa (2)

Aloe marlothii Berger var. Tshikhopha Asphodelaceae Roots, whole Medicine, spiritual marlothii. plant, latex purposes (2) Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Lufhaladzamakole Asparagaceae Roots, whole Medicine, spiritual Jessop plant purposes (2) Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Murenzhe Mimosaceae Roots, wood, Medicine, firewood, Wight & Arn. subsp. branches, bark building and africana Brenan & Brummitt construction, fencing (5) var.

Ximenia americana L. var. Mutanzwa Olacaceae Roots, fruit Medicine, food microphylla Welw. ex Oliv.

Erythrina lysistemon Hutch Muvhale Fabaceae Bark, Medicine, firewood (2) branches, wood Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. Mutshetshete/ Mukhalu Rhamnaceae Roots, Medicine, spiritual branches, fruit, purposes, food, wood, leaves firewood, building and construction (6) Vangueria infausta Burch. Muzwilo Rubiaceae Roots, sticks, Medicine, spiritual fruit purposes, food (3) Mundulea sericea (Willd.) Musingandou Fabaceae Roots, wood, Medicine, spiritual A.Chev. branches purposes (2)

Kirkia acuminata Oliv. Mubvumela Kirkiaceae Wood, bark Medicine, crafting,

Dombeya rotundifolia Muthathazwivhi Sterculiaceae Bark, roots Medicine, spiritual (Hochst.) Planch. var. purposes (2) rotundifolia Piliostigma thonningii Mukolokote Fabaceae Fruit, roots, Food, medicine, (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. wood firewood (3)

Pristimera longipetiolata Munnamutswu Celastraceae Fruit, roots, Food, medicine, (Oliv.) N.Hallé wood, firewood (3) branches Carissa spinarum L. Murungulu Apocynaceae Fruit, roots, Food, medicine, wood firewood (3) Diospyros mespiliformis Musuma Ebenaceae Fruit, wood, Food, crafting, Hochst. ex A.DC branches firewood, building and construction (5) Strychnos madagascariensis Mukwakwa Loganiaceae Fruit, wood, Food, firewood (2) Poir. branches

Berchemia discolor Mukhukhuma / Munie Rhamnaceae Fruit, wood, Food, firewood, (Klotzsch) Hemsl. branches building and construction (4) Gymnosporia senegalensis Tshipandwa Celastraceae Wood Crafting, firewood (2) (Lam.) Loes.

Combretum imberbe Wawra Mudzwiri Combretaceae Wood, Firewood, crafting, branches, building and construction (3) Combretum sp. Muvuvha Combretaceae Wood Firewood, building and construction (3) Boscia albitruna (Burch.) Muthobi Brassicaceae Fruit, wood, Food, crafting, firewood Gilg & Ben. branches (3) Pristimera longipetiolata Munnamutswu Celastraceae Fruit, wood, Food, medicine, (Oliv.) N.Hallé roots, branches firewood (3)

4.10 THREATS TO WILD PLANTS When respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality were asked to cite threats to wild plant species, the following patterns emerged (Figure 4.14). Most respondents mentioned the growth of formal and informal settlements (44) as well as deforestation (32) as human threats to the existence of natural populations of wild plant species. The accelerated growth of new human settlements in the study area clears plant species from the landsurface, thus fragmenting and destroying theor ecological habitats. The cutting of trees for fuelwood was found to be one of the main reasons for increased rates of deforestation in the study area. Even so, the damage caused during the harvesting (22) and over-exploitation (18) of ethnomedicinal species through the removal of their roots, as well as their bark, was found to be of environmental conservation concern. Other respondents (15) attributed threats to wild plant species as arising from weather and climate-related changes. For example, the effect of droughts and overgrazing by livestock was mentioned by 13 respondents. Though to a limited extent, some respondents (5) indicated that the development of private land, private farms, business developments and the mushrooming of hotels and game reserves on the majestic slopes of the Soutpansberg mountains may also be a contributing factor to loss of wild

62 plant biodiversity in the study area. Due to these threats, wild plants such as Strychnos madagascariensis, Ximenia americana, Gymnosporia senegalensis, Mimusops zeyheri and Cyphostemma humile are becoming more scarce, and local people claim that they now have to travel longer distances to reach unexploited natural populations.

Threats to wild plants (Number of Respondents) 50 44 45

35 32 30

25 22 20 18 15 15 13

10 5 5

Threats to wild plants

Figure 4. 14: Threats to wild plants.

4.11 METHODS USED FOR COLLECTING AND HARVESTING PLANTS During the interview sessions respondents were asked to indicate methods they use to collect and harvest wild plants. Figure 4.15 shows methods used for collecting and harvesting of wild plant in the Makhado Local Municipality. The majority of respondents (28) mentioned the cutting of branches as the most used method for collecting and harvesting plants. Twenty six respondents mentioned digging out of plants as the second most used method of harvesting. Picking fruits as a method of harvesting was cited by 22 respondents. Those who peel off the bark from plants were 11 while 9 respondents mentioned the picking of leaves from plants as a method of harvesting. The picking up and collection of fruit from the ground was the least (6) mentioned harvesting method.

Collecting and harvesting methods 30 Cutting of branches, 28

Digging it out, 26

Picking fruits, 22

Peeling off the bark, 11

10 Picking leaves, 9 Picking up fruit from ground, 6

0 Digging it out Peeling off the Cutting of Picking fruits Picking up fruit Picking leaves bark branches from ground

Figure 4. 15: Collecting and harvesting methods as mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality. . 4. 12 COLLECTION AND HARVESTING PATTERNS Figure 4.16 shows patterns regarding those who collect and harvest wild plants species in the Makhado Local Municipality. Of the 60 respondents who participated in the study, 36 of them indicated that anyone depending on plants uses can collect and harvest plants. Twenty four respondents indicated that in most instances it is usually adults who harvest and collect plants for medicinal puposes, firewood and crafting and building purposes. Traditional healers and plants collectors were mentioned 18 times for their role in collecting and harvesting plants for medicinal purposes. Women were mentioned 16 times for their role in collecting and harvesting wild plants for firewood, food and beverage-making plants. Thirteen respondents stated that men were usually the ones who usually collects and harvest wild plants for crafting and buiding purposes.

Plants crafters were mentioned 11 times for their role in collecting and harvesting wild plants for building and crafting purposes. Eight participants stated that boys collect and harvest plants for food purposes. Girls were cited 4 times for collecting and harvesting plants for firewood purposes.

Collection and harvesting patterns (Number of Respondents) 40 36 35

30 24 25

20 18 16 15 13 11 10 8 4 5

0 Anyone Adults Boys Girls Women Men only Crafters Traditional healer

Figure 4. 16: Collection and harvesting patterns.

Table 4.12: The conservation status of different plant species listed in the inventory. Species Endagered Critical Least Not endangered concern evaluated Sclerocarya birrea LC Carissa spinarum L. NE

Searsia leptodictya (Diels) T.S.Yi, A.J.Mill. & J.Wen LC forma leptodictya

Pristimera longipetiolata (Oliv.) N.Hallé LC

Adansonia digitata L. LC

Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mill. NE Cassia petersiana Bolle LC Peltophorum africanum Sond. LC Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. LC

Boscia albitrunca (Burch.) Gilg & Ben. LC Maerua angolensis DC. subsp. angolensis LC

Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. LC

Combretum sp. -

Combretum hereroense Schinz NE

Combretum imberbe Wawra LC

Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC. LC

Diospyros lycioides Desf. subsp. lycioides LC

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. LC

Euclea divinorum Hiern LC

Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. Ex Boiss. LC Euphorbia tirucalli L. LC Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt subsp. virosa LC

Synadenium cupulare (Boiss.) L.C.Wheeler NE

Litogyne gariepina (DC.) Anderb. LC

Aloe marlothii Berger var. marlothii. LC Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop LC

Sansevieria sp. -

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. LC

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. subsp. africana NE Brenan & Brummitt.

Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. LC

Ficus sycomorus L. subsp. sycomorus LC

Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla Welw. ex Oliv. LC

Erythrina lysistemon Hutch LC Dicerocaryum senecioides (Klotzsch) Abels subsp. LC senecioides

Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. LC

Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond. LC

Gardenia cf. ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. subsp. jovis- NE tonantis (Welw.) Verdc.

Vangueria infausta Burch. LC

Mimusops zeyheri Sond. LC

Solanum campylacanthum Hochst. ex A.Rich. subsp. LC panduriforme (Drège ex Dunal) J

Corchorus sp. -

Grewia monticola Sond. LC

Obetia tenax (N.E.Br.) Friis LC

Lantana rugosa Thunb. LC Cyphostemma humile (N.E.Br.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. subsp.nov.

Cyphostemma humile (N.E.Br.) Desc. ex Wild & LC R.B.Drumm. subsp.nov.

Portulacaria afra Jacq. LC

Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br. NE

Warburgia sp. -

Psiadia punctulata (DC.) Vatke LC

Vitex rehmannii Gürke LC

Kirkia acuminata Oliv. LC

Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl. LC Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A.Chev. LC

Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. NE

Drimia sp. -

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don NE

Bauhinia galpinii N.E.Br. LC Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch. var. rotundifolia LC Source: Red Data List of South African Plants.

Of the 58 different plant species identified and collected for taxonomic identification in this case study, 53 had full detailed information on their genera and species. As a result, these 53 spices were checked on the Red Data List of South African Plants. Based on the verification made on this list, none of them were found to be endangered or critical endangered. Thus, the majority of the plants identified by respondents in this survey were found to be of least conservation concern. This means that their natural population in the wild are not considered to be endangered or critical endangered in any way by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI).

4.13 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS Chapter 4 dealt with research findings, interpretation and discussions of results. Figure 4.17 provides a general summary of all useful plants cited in the study. The uses of all 58 plants collected and identified were categorized in a table formant and provided for each of the following category:  Medicinal plants

 Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants  Wild edible plants  Firewood plants  Plants used for building and construction purposes  Plants used for crafting or furniture purposes  Plants used for spiritual purposes  Vegetables  Plants popularity index  Ethnobotanical knowledge index

Figure 4.17 shows the summary of all useful plants mentioned in Table 4.1. Thirty-six (62%) plants were cited for their ethnomedicinal uses. There were 22 wild edible plants mentioned in the study comprising 40% of the collected plants which is the second highest percentage. Plants used for firewood purposes mentioned by participants were 18 adding up to 31% of the 58 plants cited in the study. Plants used for building and construction purposes were 12 making to 20% of the collected plants. Crafting or furniture plants were indicated by 9 respondents (15%). Spiritually useful plants were cited by 8 people (14%) meanwhile ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were cited by 8 people (14%). The least useful plants mentioned by the respondents were 3 plants making 5% of the entire study.

36 , General overview and a summary of traditionally useful plants 40

35 22 , Medicinal plant Medicinal

30 18 , 12 , 25 8 , Wild edible edible plants Wild 9 8 , , 20 Firewood plants Firewood

15 Building Building & construction 3 , 10 Crafting or furniture Spiritual useful Spiritual plants Enthnoveterinary plants Enthnoveterinary

5 Vegetables

Figure 4.17: General overview and a summary of traditionally useful plants.

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION The aim of this case study was to investigate and document traditionally useful wild plant species ccurring in the savanna woodlands in and around rural communities in the Makhado Local Municipality. Chapter 5 provides conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of this case study.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS This case study has provided an inventory of 58 different wild plant species for ethnobotanical applications in the Makhado Local Municipality, specifically from the Ha-Masakone and Ha-Kutama rural villages. It has been found out that these plants are used for a range of traditional applications such as ethnomedicine; ethnoveterinary medicine; wild food and beverages; fuelwood; traditional crafts; implements and spiritual uses. The number of plant species cited per use category in this case study can be summaried below as follows.  Ethnomedicinal plants: 36.  Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants: 8.  Wild edible plants: 22.  Firewood plants: 18.  Building and construction plants: 12.  Plants used for crafting or furniture: 9.  Spiritual useful plants: 8.  Vegetables: 3. Plant popularity was determined by using the matrix method and popularity indices varied from zero (0) to 0,96 (96%). Some of the plants obtained scores as high as 0,75 (75%) to 0,96 (96%). The most popular plant was Aloe marlothii with a score of 0,96 (96%) and the least popular plant was Warburgia sp with a score of zero (0). The other most popular plants entailed Corchorus sp at 0,94 (94%), Berchemia discolor at 0,87 (87%), Sclerocarya birrea at 0,84 (84%), Adansonia digitata L at 0,82 (82%), Ximenia americana at 0,81 (81%), Dicerocaryum senecioides at 0,81 (81%), Opuntia ficus-indica L at 0,79 (79%), Euphorbia ingens E at 0,75 (75%), Dichrostachys cinerea at 0,75 (75%) and Ficus sycomorus L with a score of 0,75 (75%).

Furthermore, there are few ethnobotanical studies in South Africa which have recorded and measured traditional ecological knowledge quantitatively. In this case study, the traditional ecological knowledge was quantified and ranged from 0,26 (26%) to 0,76 (76%) with an average mean of 0,54 (54%). Such scores bear some resemblance to findings in the Agter-Hantam ethnobotanical study which was conducted by De Beer and Van Wyk (2011). In the latter study, EKI values for Khoi-San respondents in the Calvinia District of the Northern Cape province of South Africa ranged from 0,20 (20%) to 0,93 (93%) (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011). In addition, this case study has established that the most frequently mentioned plant was Aloe marlothii with a score of 0,96 (96%) compared to 0,97 (97%) of the best known plant in Agter-Hantam which was Aloe microstigma. Of the 18 plants species cited for this study for fuelwood purposes, Mabogo (1990) also mentioned 17 of these, with the exception of Boscia albitrunca. It is also imperative to mention that Adansonia digitata was cited for the very first time for its traditional role in feeding livestock. In this instance, its bark is mixed with meals prepared for pigs so that they can be fattened meanwhile their health status is improved. The current study has also reported some similarities with another study conducted by Semenya et al. (2013) whereby Catharanthus roseus is used for treating gonorrhea and other sexualy transmitted diseases. Lastly, it is interesting that none of the ethnobotanically or traditionaly useful plant species mentioned in this case study are listed on the South African Red Data List as endangered nor critically endangered. Thus, all ethnbotanically plant species cited in this case study are of least environmental conservation concern although their harvesting is still required to be sustainable so that natural populations in the wild are not harmed.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER SURVEYS AND OTHER STUDIES This case study never examined the income generating potential of the species mentioned by respondents in the Makhado Local Municipality although several respondents indicated that some people are making money out of wild plant-related businesses in their neighbourhoods. It is therefore recommended that a detailed study must be undertaken on the income-generating potential of traditionally useful plant species in the entire Vhembe District Municipality in the Limpopo province. Lastly, future studies on ethnobotany must quantify such traditional knowledge so that proper comparisons between different regions can be made consistently.

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APPENDICES

RESEARCH PROJECT Environmental resource utilisation: a case study of traditionally useful wild plant species in the Makhado Local Municipality.

This research is being undertaken in the Department of Geography, Environmental Science and Energy Studies, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg for MSc Environmental Management degree. The following people can be contacted for more information: MSc Student: Mr Mulalo Muhali; [email protected] or 082 313 7964 Supervisor: Dr. I.T Rampedi; [email protected] or 011 559 2429.

SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION 2. GPS location of the study area: 2.1 Name of the town/ village/ where survey is conducted:………………………………………………………. 2.3 Direction and distance from nearest large town/ city:………………………………………………………… 2.4 Name of magisterial district where this settlement is located:………………………………………………… 3. Date of interview (day, month, and year):………………………………………………………………………. 4. Particulars of the respondent:…………………………………………………………………………………… 4.2 Ethnic groups and the language you speak:……………………………………………………………………

Sepedi Venda Tsonga Setswana Sesotho Zulu Xhosa Afrikaans Ethnic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Speak 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4.3 Gender (Mark with an x) Male ( ) Female ( ) 4.4 Age in year (e.g, 22) 20-29 30-39 40-49 60 and above

4.5. Present occupation of respondent (mark with an x; if unsure, describe as “other”. Not working (e.g. house wife, unemployed) 1 Pensioner 2 Semi-skilled (e.g. labour, cleaner) 3 Professional (e.g., teacher, nurse) 4 Administrative (e.g. clerical, managers) 5

Vendor 6 Own business (e.g., spaza shop) 7 Traditional Healer 8 Other (specify) 9

5. Specify Level of education of the respondent (Mark with an X, e.g for Std 4, Mark block 3, which is the block for Std 2-5). Grade Code No formal education Grades 1-2, std 1 Std 2-5 Std 6,7, or 8 Std 9 or 10 or equivalent Std 10 and/ or 2 years further education Std 10, and 3 years further education

5.1. Does this person have a special position in the community? Chief 1 Traditional Healer 2 Other (specify) 3

SECTION B: BOTANICAL DETAILS 6. Do you know the indigenous plants in your community Yes No 6.1. Mention the indigenous plants you have in your community 1 11 2 12 3 13 4 14 5 15 6 16 7 17 8 18 9 19 10 20

6.2. What are the various uses of these indigenous plants mentioned above? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………...... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6.3 Can you identify some of the plants in this poster and their uses? Yes No 6.4 How many plants can you identify………and what are their uses? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………… 6.5 How abundant are these plants at collection site. Mark with an x Very rare Rare Common Abundant 1 2 3 4

6.6 Is plant becoming very rare? Yes ( ) no ( ).

6.7 If the plant is becoming very rare, what are the causes? Mark with an x.

Deforestation 1 Over-exploitation 2 Damage due to harvesting 3 Growth of informal settlements 4 Weather e.g., droughts or floods 5 Overgrazing 6 Other, specify 7

6.8 Do many people know where the source of this plant is? Yes ( ) no ( ).

7. How is the plant material collected / harvested? Mark with an x.

By digging it out 1 By peeling off the bark 2 Cutting of branches 3 Picking fruits 4 Picking up fruit from ground 5 Picking leaves 6 Any other method 7

8. List of all additional uses of this plant. E- Edible food B-Beverage T-Textile for clothing U-Utensils M-Medicinal C-Cosmetics P-Pigment (colouring) B-Building material R-Rituals O-Other (specify)

8.1 From who have you learned to use this plant? Explain specify………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

9. Who usually collects / harvests the plant material and for what purpose? Mark with an x. Purpose:……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Types of collectors For what purpose Anyone 1 Adults 2 Boys 3 Girls 4 Women only 5 Men only 7 Other, specify

10. Is the plant used by the whole community? Yes ( ) No ( ) 10.1. If no, please explain:…………………………………......