Geotextile Engineering : Application in Civil and Environmental Engineering

Shobha K. Bhatia Syracuse University, New York

ASCE Expo 2012 Outline

 Introduction  History  Classification  Properties  Applications  Innovations  Conclusions Geotextiles

 Permeable used in conjunction with or rock.

 Integral part of many manmade structures, such as levees, , , retaining walls, steep slopes, landfills and others. ZIGGURAT – woven mat reinforcement

Ziggurat of Ur in Mesopotamia ~ 2500 B.C. History  Initially referred as “ fabrics” or “filter fabrics.”  First use in 1926:  Cotton fabric with hot asphalt ( kind of material) was field tested.  Polymer based woven industrial fabrics (geotextile) were used beneath concrete block in late 1950s.  Early 1960s, geotextiles were typically woven polyproplene monofilament fibers. Major Breakthroughs

 In 1956, Dutch engineers used geotextiles to overcome dilemmas present in their Delta Works Scheme  Hand woven from 100-mm wide  1-mm thick nylon strips  From 1960s, polymeric woven geotextiles were commonly considered in coastal protection works. Major breakthroughs  Mid 1960s, geotextile filters were considered only on sites where granular filters were not readily available.  In 1968, FHWA monitored pavement overlay repair schemes where geotextiles were installed to control reflective cracking in asphalt surfacing.  First nonwoven needle punched polyster geotextile was developed by Rhone- Poulenc company in France. Major breakthroughs

 Valcros  In 1970, thick nonwoven geotextiles were used as filters beneath rip rap protection.  55Ft High Dam, Slity ,30%<0.075mm.  Polyester Continuous filament needle punched nonwoven geotextile, 300g/m2.  Continuous trickle of clean water for 35 years.

 At the same time, ICI started producing thinner heat bonded nonwoven geotextiles Major Breakthroughs  In 1973, three basic functions of geotextiles were identified  Separation  Filtration  Reinforcement  In 1974, was added as fourth basic property.  By early 1990s, cushioning or protection was added as the fifth basic property.

VALCROS DAM, 55 ft (1970)

First Dam with Geotextile Filter Manufacturer’s and sales

 In 1957, after a tropical storm caused severe beach at the home of the president of Carthage mills, he started working with engineers from Laboratories of University of Florida to use Carthage Mills fabrics to protect his property against future storms.

 This resulted in first use of woven filter fabric in waterfront structures. Manufacturer’s and sales

 Research sponsored by AB Fodervavnader of Bora, Sweden, a small specialty weaving company resulted in the world’s first pullout test device. Geotextiles The manufacturing of synthetic fibers  Transforming raw polymer from solid to liquid form.  Extruding fibers through spinneret, and  Solidifying the fibers into continuous filaments.  Various textile-forming technologies used to make:  Woven ,Non-woven, Knitted and Stitch- bonded Geotextile Classification Types Warp  Woven- weave pattern and fiber Threads Plain Weave, Basket Weave, Twill Weave, satin weave

Weft  Non-woven -Spun Bonding Thread

Weaving Polymer Chip Direction

Fiber Bonding

Winding  Knitted –seldom used Fibers

 Geotextiles are made of synthetic fiber  Polypropylene (92%)  Polyster (5%)  Polyethylene (2%)  Nylon (1%)

Slit Film Tapes Yarns

Different types of yarn  Monofilament fibers  Heterofilament fibers  Multifilament yarns Multi Filament Yarns  Staple fibers  Slit-film tapes  Fibrillated yarns

Different Type of Geotextiles Natural Fibers

 Fiber types: natural (wood, straw, coconut, jute), synthetic (PP, PET, nylon), and combinations (straw/coconut, wood/synthetic)

 Fiber structure types: short, long, multifilament

 RECP structure types: ECNs, OWTs, ECBs, and TRMs

 92 different degradable RECPs and 37 different non-degradable RECPs are available in the US

RECPs –

wood excelsior wood/synthetic blend straw/

Coir Coir Jute Types and Properties

 20 different companies market geotextiles  87 Woven and 124 nonwoven geotextiles  Properties-  Transportation Related Application  Mass per unit area, percentage open area,  Permittivity, puncture resistance, tear and grab strength, survivability  Reinforcement Application  Wide width tensile strength, creep limited strength

Geotextile consumption

Year 1970 1980 1990 1998

Millions of 5 100 300 600 square meters ,North America

Million of 10 60 250 App.400 square meters, Western Europe Million square 100 meters , Japan (all )

Growing market in China and India………… Relative importance of geotextile functions in geotechnical applications

Application Separation Filtration Reinforcement Drainage Protection

Temporary and permanent 1 2 2 pavements

Asphalt overlays 1 2 2 Railways 1 3 3

Embankment 3 3 1 3

Retaining walls and slopes 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 2

Subsurface drainage 3 1 Membrane protection 3 1

(1) Primary Function (2) Secondary Function (3) Tertiary Function Geotextile Properties Geometric Information

Schematic

25 cm²

2 kPa

thickness

metal base

Measuring thickness at 2 kPa

The test is performed to EN964 part 1 for a single layer products and to EN964 part 2 for multi-layer

Sampling Measuring (mua) Mechanical Properties

 Short-term tensile strength and dependent deformation  Long-term tensile behaviour (creep/creep rupture)  Long-term compressive creep behaviour (with/without  Shear stress)  Resistance against impact or punching  Static puncture test, rapid puncture  Resistance against abrasion  properties  Direct shear, inclined plane test, pullout resistance  Protection efficiency  Damage during installation  Geosynthetics or composites internal strength  Geosynthetic reinforcement segmental unit connection testing Mechanical Properties

Testing machine with Capstain clamp for video-extensometer with laser-extensometer Tensile Tests

ε Force - Strain behaviour of Geosynthetics

Fm 1 kN/m 2 3 100 Woven Fabrics, 90 4 80 70 60 5 50 PP - M 40 PP/ PE - T 30 20 PP/ PET - T HD PE - M 10

strain 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Tensile Creep and Creep Rupture EN ISO 13431 : 1996 ASTM)

 Tensile creep tests give information on time-dependent deformation at constant load.  Creep rupture tests give time until failure at constant load.  A deformation measurement is not necessary for creep rupture curves.  Loads for creep testing are most often dead weights, often enlarged by lever arms. Multiple Creep Rupture Rigs in a Temperature Controlled Chamber Resistance To Static Puncture

 Static Puncture Test: The Test CBR (EN ISO 12236 : 1996)

The use of (CBR) apparatus for this static puncture test, has resulted in the unusual name for this test.

 A plunger of 50mm diameter is pushed at a speed of 50 +/- 10mm min onto and through the specimen clamped in the circular jaws. Measurement of force and displacement are taken. The test is widely used for geotextiles, it is not applicable to grids, and the test provides useful data for .

CBR - device Inserting in testing specimen in machine hydraulic CBR- clamps Impact Resistance Test (CEN TC 189 WI 14; ISO 13428 draft)

 Efficiency of protection materials can be tested by dropping a hemispherical shaped weight onto a specimen placed on a lead plate on a resilient base.

 The impression in the lead and the condition of the specimen are recorded.

Lighter round shaped drop weights are used for other geosynthetics. The deformation of a metal sheet under the tested material gives quantitative results. Impact Resistance Test

Drop weight, lead platen, specimen under ring Impact Resistance Test (performance test : BAW)

 A heavy drop weight (67.5 kg) is dropped from 2 m height on the geosynthetic placed on sand and fixed in a ring. The result is a “penetration yes or no” decision.

67.5 kg

2 m

Result of drop tests - The Test no penetration Abrasion Resistance (EN ISO 13427 : 1995)

 Emery cloth of a specific is moved linearly along the specimen. After 750 cycles the abraded specimen is tested to measure the residual tensile strength or hydraulic properties

Example of Apparatus with Sliding Block Specimen Specimen after before test abrasion test Direct Shear Friction (EN ISO 12957 : 1998)

 Reinforcing geosynthetics develop their tensile resistance by the transfer of stresses from the soil to the fabric through friction. The friction ratio is defined as the angle of friction, the ratio of the normal stress to the shear stress. Low normal stresses may be tested by an inclined plane test and higher normal stresses by direct shear or by pull out test.

 Direct shear (EN ISO 12957-1) The friction partners are placed one in an upper box, the other in the lower box. The lower box is moved at a concentrate of displacement (index testing: 1 mm/min) while recording force and displacement. The results for three normal stresses (50, 100, 150 kPa) are plotted, the value of friction angle is calculated Section Through Shear box Test

Damage During Installation

 The CEN-ISO standard applies a cyclic load to a platen (100 x 200) pressing via a layer of Corundum aggregate placed on top of the geosynthetic being tested. (Corundum is a trade name for a sintered aluminium oxide.

 After 200 cycles between 5 kPa and 900 kPa maximum stress the specimen is exhumed and may be subject to a tensile test for the residual strength for reinforcement applications, or for filtration the hydraulic properties for filtration applications.

 A performance test requires the soil and fill to be used on the site and the equipment to spread and compact the material.

 Typical results of an index-test are shown Material Before (left) and After (right) Damage Test

Characteristic Opening Size (EN ISO 12956 : 1999)

 To determine, which grain size can passing through a geosynthetic and which is retained, a wet sieving test is used with a standard “soil”.  The ‘soil’ passing the geotextile is extracted from the water and sieved again.

 A characteristic value O90- is calculated according to EN ISO 12956.

 O90 = d90 of the ‘soil’ passing the geosynthetic

Dry Sieving

 Hoop sizing  Sagging  Broken and irregular glass beads  Trapping within the geotextile  Electrostatic effects  Time for the Test Wet Sieving

 Hoop sizing sagging  Great chance for error: a. Leakage between sieves b. Analyzing passed glass beads (<325 mesh)  Glass bead clumping on geotextile  Elimination of electrostatic effects  Time for the test Pores with Glass Beads

 Plan view  Side view 100 Product: Texel, 909 90 PET/PP, Staple, Needle- 80 punched, Nonw oven Thickness: 2.3 mm 70 W2 - Permeability: 0.45 cm/sec 60 AOS: 0.07-0.11 mm (Dry multifilament 50 Sieving) Bubble Point: 0.116-0.135 Mineral Oil 40 mm Silw ick 30 O95: 0.098-0.11 mm Percent Finer (%) Finer Percent O50: 0.069-0.076 mm Porew ick 20 10 0 1 0.1 0.01 Diameter ( mm) Pore size, volume, permeability, density, surface area, and adsorption

Comparison of Wet Sieving & Bubble Point Method

Bubble Point Method: 0.12 mm 100 90 80 70 Amoco 4510 Sample A 60 Amoco 4510 Sample B 50 Amoco 4510 Sample C Amoco 4510 Sample D 40 30

Percent Finer (%) 20 10 0 1 Diameter (mm) 0.1 0.12-0.068 mm 0.01 Durability Properties

 Resistance to weathering

 Resistance to microbiological degradation (soil burial)

 Resistance to liquids

 Resistance to hydrolysis

 Resistance to thermal oxidation Durability Properties

 Geosynthetics may be used for temporary structures such as access roads for sites or may be required for medium term applications until consolidation of makes them redundant.

 Long-term applications are the main use (30 to 60 years for some in UK application or ; more than 120 years for landfills in most countries).

 Therefore durability is an important requirement.

Resistance to Weathering (prEN 12224 : 1996)

 Products exposed uncovered to light and products placed without cover-soil for service are tested by artificial weathering.  Exposure to UV-light of defined emission spectrum and at elevated temperature accelerates the test.

Exposure to Natural Weathering Tensile tests after exposure and reference to fresh specimen tensile strength loss in %. Tensile tests on exposed and fresh specimens can be used to determine the loss of tensile strength, normally expressed as a percentage of strength retained after exposure. Rainsplash erosion testing Typical engineering properties of geotextiles used in geotechnical applications (after Lawson 1982)

Geotextile type Mass per Unit Apparent Volume water Tensile Maximum area (g/m2) Opening size permeability Strength kN/m Elongation (AOS) (mm) 1/m2/s %

Woven • Monofilament 150-300 0.07-2.5 25-2000 20-80 9-35 • Multifilament 250-1300 0.2-0.9 20-80 40-800 9-30 • Tape 90-250 0.05-0.10 5-15 8-90 15-20

Nonwoven • Heat-bonded 70-350 0.01-0.35 25-150 3-25 20-60 • Needle-punched 150-2000 0.02-0.15 25-200 7-90 50-80

Knitted • Weft 0.1-1.2 60-2000 2-5 300-600 • Warp 20-120 12-15

Stitched-bonded 250-1200 0.07-0.5 30-80 30-1000 8-30 Application

Geotextile as reinforcement

 Designing for Roadways reinforcement  Unpaved and paved roads

 Designing for soil reinforcement  Geotextile reinforced wall  Geotextile reinforced soil  Geotextile to improve Geotextile encase columns, A continuously, radially, woven geotextile sock  Geotextile to in situ slope stabilization made from a variety of polymers. These socks form encased stone columns when filled with compacted sand, or crushed rock for use in very soft soil where conventional ground treatments cannot be utilized. http://www2.wrap.org.uk/downloads/MRF116_Geosystems_Guidanc e_Document_FINAL_February_2010.adb44eaf.8590.pdf Basic Principles of Reinforced Soil

 For reinforced soil to work, the soil and reinforcement must STRAIN  In a stable structure the strain in the soil and reinforcement are equal (i.e. there is strain compatibility)  The strain in the reinforced soil is influenced by:

 The stiffness of the reinforcement  Properties of the soil  The stress state of the soil Analysis and Design

 Established geotechnical and stability methods used  Soil parameters generally considered in total stress terms  Three main failure mechanisms considered

- Rotational Stability - Lateral Sliding - Bearing Capacity Lateral Sliding fill

Horizontal Reinforcement movement of fill, driven by active wedge Tr Tr

Soft Foundation Reinforcement tension develops in the plane of the reinforcement

 Resistance to lateral sliding determined from active driving force  Geosynthetics/soil interface should be obtained from testing Foundation Extrusion Embankment fill

Lateral extrusion of foundations due to Reinforcement settlement of fill

Soft Clay Foundation

The solution to this mode of failure is to reduce the settlement by making the base stiffer (Geocell mattress)

 If soft soil thickness > embankment base width, a bearing capacity analysis will be required  If soft soil layer thickness < than the embankment base foundation width extrusion occurs at the toe.

Case Study: Hetaoyu Coal Mine Processing Plant

 Location: China  Retaining wall (1km x 140m) built adjacent to Jinghe River  PET geotextile used to reinforce soil http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0212_fla_hetaoyu_mine.html High strength geotextiles for embankments on soft ground

35 June 8, 2002 Case Study: Levee WBV-72

 Location: New Orleans, LA  Levee (2.8miles long) has 2.4miles of geotextile reinforcement  Geotextile strengths used:  490 kN/m (21,500 sq yd)  650 kN/m (187,403 sq yd)  830 kN/m (172,071 sq yd)  Used as embankment reinforcement and separation http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/081712_huesker_levee.html Case Study: Levee WBV-72 cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/081712_huesker_levee.html Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced Roadway Embankment Soil

 Location: Lake Ridge Parkway, Texas  Originally constructed in the of a proposed lake (1980s)  Earth fill embankments were built (slope ratio=3) to raise over lake  Slope failures occurred (2000s)  Repaired with fiber-reinforced soil  3” polypropylene fibers used to increase http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html

Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced Roadway Embankment Soil cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced Roadway Embankment Soil cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html Geotextile as filter or drain Pavement

Stone 450 mm base

GT 400 mm Crushed Soil stone/ perforated 300 mm pipe

(GT Filter in Excavated ) ( & Perforated Pipe) Geotubes in Dewatering Applications

 Municipal Paper Sludge  Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge  Mineral Processing Sludge  Fly Ash  Mining and Drilled Waste  Industrial By-Product  Agriculture Waste Case Study: Dewatering Solutions cont.

 Location: Midlands, England  Pumping sludge into filtration geosynthetic tubes (“Sedi-Filter”)  Sediment remains but water drains out  Sediment removed to landfill  Ideal before attempting to deepen

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/101310_sediment_bag.html Case Study: Dewatering Solutions

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/101310_sediment_bag.html Waste Containment Liners with Geotextiles

 

Different Drains

Mebra Drain Amerdrain

Installation Prefabricated Vertical Drains

PIPING SYSTEM Application – Seperation

Geotextile as a separator

http://www.typargeotextiles.com/PDFs/TG- Landfills.pdf Erosion Control

Slope Protection with Geotextile

Silt Fence South Channel

A3

A2

A1 Case Study: Incheon Grand Bridge

 Location: Incheon, South Korea  Reclamation dikes had to be built during construction  Geotextiles were used  Cost-efficient  Met construction and time requirements  Close-ended fabric tube with filling ports for sand input  Cost more than $2 million http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0211_fla_incheon_bridge.html

Case Study: Incheon Grand Bridge cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0211_fla_incheon_bridge.html Case Study: PEMEX Marine Facilities

 Location: Tabasco, Mexico  Beach erosion problems  Sand-filled geotextile tubes used under oil conduction pipes in the surf zone  Previously at risk to collapse due to loss of sand foundations  Geotextile tubes also used as a submerged breakwater along the coast http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0410_f3_tubes.html Case Study: PEMEX Marine Facilities cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0410_f3_tubes.html Future Trends and Innovative Products

Reactive Core Mat Intelligent Geotextiles- Geo detect System- Structure Health Monitoring System http://remediation.cetco.com/LeftSideNavigation/Pro http://boingboing.net/2012/01/19/intelligent-geotextiles- ducts/ReactiveCoreMat/tabid/1359/Default.aspx wired.html Future Trends

DUAL FUNCTION GEOSYNTHETICWRAPPED PVD  Provides structural stability due to the high tensile and shear strength of the geosynthetic Can bear the shear stresses generated by the mandrel  Reduces the zone of disturbance and remolding  Also reduces the effects of smear by preventing the finer soil particles to enter the drain core

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVE PVD  Employs the process of electro-osmosis in attempting to reduce the smear effects cations in the diffused double layer of water moves towards the vertical drain (acting as cathode) and get discharged, thus carrying the pore water along with for drainage. Innovative Products and Future

 The use of flat weft knitting technology to manufacture natural fiber geotextiles for reinforcement applications

 Superior over mid range synthetic geotextile used for soil reinforcement

(Anand,2008) Innovative Products and Future

 Reducing fiber diameter to nanoscale, a significant increase in specific surface area to the level of 1000m2/g

 Future geotextiles could be nanocomposites which might not only change their effectiveness, but applications (Ko 2004, Koerner 2000)

Innovative Products and Future

 By taking advantage of the recent development and changes in design aspects, companies have increased weights from 16 oz. / sy. to 28-32 oz. / sy.  Use of for manufacturing of geotextiles has many advantages over traditional polypropylene

(“Advancements in geomembranes and geotextiles” – Reuben Weinstein) Case Study: TenCate Mirafi H2Ri

 Location: Alaska  Water-wicking geotextile used below roads in frozen tundra  Road damage common due to uneven soil moisture freezing differently  Tested on the Dalton Highway and now used in Alaska and Canada

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/102611_tencate_award.html Case Study: TenCate Mirafi

H2Ri cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/102611_tencate_award.html CIVIL Draintube© FTF Embankment drainage

• Replaces traditional granular layers and two geotextile filters • Can replace up to 3 ft. of granular drainage • Effective solution for cuts, fills and soft soils

Portneuf / mer – Road 138 : Quebec – sept. 2008 Autouroute 50 CIVIL Major project in 2009 with Transports © Draintube FTF Québec Embankment drainage 2,5 km of road

Installation Backfill

The entire job  Afitex - 20+ years in the drainage & environmental markets

 Texel - 40+ years in geosynthetics

Draintube© technology Geosynthetic Instrumentation Conclusions Questions

 What are three different types of geotextiles that can be used for civil engineering applications?  What are the most important properties of the geotextiles when they are used as a reinforcing member?  What is the difference between index and performance test?  Where would you get the information about the geotextile’s properties?  Give two specific examples where geotextiles is used as a filter and as a separator.  Give example of two innovative geotextilse that have been developed recently.