THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY of AMERICA Catechetical Service-Learning: Strengthening the Community Service Component of Catechesis Th

THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA

Catechetical Service-Learning: Strengthening the Community Service Component of Catechesis Through the Application of Service-Learning Principles and Practices.

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to the Faculty of the

School of Theology and Religious Studies

Of The Catholic University of America

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Peter J. Schafer

Washington, D.C.

2017

Catechetical Service-Learning: Strengthening the Community Service Component of Catechesis Through the Application of Service-Learning Principles and Practices.

Peter J. Schafer, Ph.D.

Director: Margaret Schreiber, S.T.D.

Community service is a common component in secular and Catholic high school education as well as in catechetical situations, particularly in confirmation preparation and youth ministry programs. In the catechetical context, the value of community service is affirmed, but the integration of these experiences within sacramental preparation and on-going faith formation is often lacking. Frequently, community service is treated as an appendage rather than an integral aspect of catechesis, which in and of itself, does not often lead to a life-long commitment to love and serve others. Community service has the potential to enhance catechetical formation but methods of integrating service into the catechetical endeavor need to be more fully developed to actualize its potential.

This study is a literature review which incorporates the scholarship from diverse sources into a model of Catechetical Service-Learning. The first chapter provides a theology of Christian service using the themes of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity found in the Rite of

Christian Initiation of Adults, the Rite of Baptism for Children, and the Rite of Confirmation.

The second chapter explains the use of service in catechesis through a review of the Christian service themes in the catechetical directories and other official catechetical documents. The third chapter summarizes the key principles and practices of service-learning from the secular literature that can be applied to catechetical situations. The fourth chapter presents current methods of catechesis and how they incorporate the service component. The results indicate that Christian service is an integral aspect of formation for initiation

preparation as well as on-going faith formation. Leaders can faithfully incorporate many of the

principles and practices of service-learning into catechetical situations. Likewise, current

methods of catechesis can benefit from adopting principles and practices of service-learning.

This study shows that incorporating the model of Catechetical Service-Learning into all catechetical situations, but especially confirmation preparation, Catholic school religion classes, and youth ministry programs, has many potential positive implications. Catechetical Service-

Learning that is Christocentric, reflective, communal, and transformative is an opportunity to encounter God, deepen one’s faith, and positively impact the greater community. This dissertation by Peter J. Schafer fulfills the dissertation requirements for the doctoral degree in Catechetics approved by Margaret Schreiber, S.T.D., as Director, and by Raymond Studzinski, Ph.D., and Michael Clay, D.Min., as Readers

______Margaret Schreiber, S.T.D., Director

______Raymond Studzinski, Ph.D., Reader

______Michael Clay, D.Min., Reader

To Elise

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CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……………………………………….………...………………....vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………...……..viii

INTRODUCTION………………….……………………………………………………………..1 Components of Christian Service…………………………………………………………2 Christian Service and the Tasks of Catechesis……………………………………………3 Overview of Chapters……………………………………………………………………..7

CHATPER ONE…………………………………………………………………………………10 Service in the Liturgical Rites of Baptism and Confirmation Overview of the RCIA, RBC, and RC…………………………………………………...12 References to Christian Service Themes in the RCIA, RBC and RC……………………21 The Importance of Setting an Example of Discipleship, Witness, and Mission of Charity…………………………………………………………...46 Prayer as Interconnected and Foundational for Christian Service……………………….51 Importance of Formation………………………………………………………………...58 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….62

CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………………...66 Service in the Catechetical Documents Brief Overview of Twentieth-Century Catechetical Renewal…………………………...68 Brief Overview of the Catechetical Directories………………………………………….73 Aspects of Christian Service in the Catechetical Directories…………………………....80 Explicit References to Service in the Catechetical Directories………………………...117 Service in Other Documents Guiding Catechesis……………………………………....124 Pedagogy of Faith………………………………………………………………………130 Conclusion with Criteria for Integrating Service in Catechesis………………………...142

CHATPER THREE………………………………………………………………………….....145 Service-Learning: Brief History, Principles, and Practices Brief History of Service-learning………………………………………………………146 Service-Learning Focused Organizations and Journals………………………………..157 Terminology and Overview of Service-Learning……………………………………...161 Principles of Effective Service-Learning………………………………………………168 Potential Negative Aspects of Service-Learning………………………………………195 Moving from Theory to Practice: Conceptual Models of Service-Learning…………..212 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..221

CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………..…………..223 Service in Current Catechetical Methodologies Service and the Transformational Nature of Catechesis………………………………..224 Connection of Prayer, Especially the Liturgy, with Service and Justice...……………..226 Catechesis for Social Justice……………………………………………………………231 Catechetical Models that Incorporate Service Experiences…………………………….233 Service-Learning Centered Catechesis…………………………………………...…….241 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...250

CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………………………………………….…252 Conclusion Aspects of Catechetical Service-Learning……………………………………………...252 Addressing the Limitations of Service-Learning……………………………………….264 General Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..268

REFERENCE LIST…………………………………………………………………………….273

ABBREVIATIONS

AG Ad Gentes (Decree on the Church’s Missionary Activity)

BT Basic Teachings for Catholic Religious Education

CCC Catechism of the Catholic Church

CCNCCE Community College National Center for Community Engagement

CD Christus Dominus (Decree on the pastoral office of Bishops in the Church)

CI Christian Initiation, General Introduction

CT Catechesi Tradendae (Apostolic Exhortation on Catechesis in Our Time)

EN Evangelii Nuntiandi (Evangelization in the Modern World)

GE Gravissimum Educationis (Declaration on Education)

FD Fidei Depositum – (Apostolic Constitution on the Publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church)

GCD General Catechetical Directory

GDC General Directory for Catechesis

IARSLCE International Association for Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement

ICSLTE International Center for Service-Learning in Teacher Education

IJRSLCE International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement

NDC National Directory for Catechesis

NYLC National Youth Leadership Council

OHWB Our Hearts Here Burning Within Us

RBC Rite of Baptism for Children

RC Rite of Confirmation vi

RCIA Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults

RV Renewing the Vision: A Framework for Catholic Youth Ministry

SLF Sharing the Light of Faith: National Catechetical Directory

TTJD To Teach As Jesus Did. A Pastoral Message on Catholic Education

VISTA Volunteers in Service to America

USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With a grateful heart and giving thanks to God, I am appreciative of everyone that had a role to play in the completion of this chapter of my life. I specifically give thanks to Margaret Schreiber for her support, encouragement, and help in continually improving my research and writing. I also give thanks to Raymond Studzinski and Michael Clay for their dedication and expertise.

Though separated from each other by miles and distanced from the beginning of the project by years, the committee plodded along with me. I give thanks to my family for all the sacrifices they made. Most especially, I thank my wife, Elise, for her constant love and support. Words cannot express my love and gratitude for her and how she has positively impacted my life.

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INTRODUCTION

In recent years, community service has become a standard component of education.

Many secular and Catholic high schools as well as institutions of higher education have adopted

some form of service requirement for their students. Community service is also a common aspect

in catechetical contexts, particularly in confirmation preparation, Catholic high schools, and

youth ministry programs. While the value of community service exists, the integration of these

experiences within the overall context of ongoing faith formation is inadequate. Frequently,

catechetical leaders treat community service as an appendage rather than an integral aspect of faith formation. They often send students to serve for a specified number of hours and ask the

students to return with a paper signed as proof of completion. Such a practice, in and of itself,

does not often lead to a life-long commitment to love and serve others.

Though service is included in contexts such as confirmation preparation, Catholic high

schools, and youth ministry, these programs often lack a sufficient articulation of the value and

expectations of service. In a broad context, community service can conjure up many different

images. In the judicial system, community service is a form of punishment and restorative justice

for minor crimes. In the secular realm, service becomes a way to “give back” or improve the

state of the community. In a Catholic context, high school students may see required community

service as forced labor or just another requirement for graduation. One scholar critiques service

in Catholic Schools as merely a means to improve the school image, especially when the school

appears to ignore the Gospel commitment to justice (Gerics 1991). Those preparing for

sacraments, especially confirmation, may see service as related solely to sacramental preparation.

1 2

Because of the variety of meanings given to community service, it is important to articulate service from the Christian perspective and demonstrate how it relates to Christian life.

Components of Christian Service

Service from the Christian perspective, referred to as Christian service throughout this work, is a multifaceted reality. Christian service is any selfless act of love motivated by Christ to help one’s neighbor and create a more just and loving society. It encompasses many concepts related to being a Christian, including following Christ as a way of life through discipleship, proclaiming Christ to the world through witness, and the love of neighbor through a mission of charity. Authentic Christian service is also rooted in the prayer and faith life of the individual and the community. Like many aspects of being Christian, it is encouraged in the individual through the community’s example.

Christian service is rooted in Jesus’ life and teachings. It is a call to live out the command of Jesus to love God and love your neighbor as yourself (Mk 12:28-34 and Mt 22:34-40). In the first letter of John, love of God and love of neighbor are intimately related (4:7-21, especially verses 20-21). Jesus reminds his followers through the parable of the sheep and goats in

Matthew’s Gospel that any act of compassion toward the least in society is an act of love toward

God (Mt 25:31-46). Ultimately, Christian service is one important way to live out the call to follow Christ’s example of a life of compassionate love toward all. Jesus goes so far as to command love of one’s enemies (Mt 5:42-48, especially verse 44). While in many aspects the practice of secular community service and Christian service can appear the same, such as feeding

the hungry, Christian service is distinct because the love of God motivates it and the power of the

Holy Spirit strengthens it.

Christian service thus embodies three central aspects of being Christian. First, Christian

service is one important component of following Christ as a way of life. In other words,

Christian service is one integral aspect of discipleship. Second, Christian service is a great

opportunity to share Christ’s presence with the world. Through Christian service a follower of

Christ becomes a witness for Christ in word and deed. Third, Christian service fulfills Christ’s

command to love your neighbor as yourself (Mk 12:31 and Mt 22:39). Christian service is one way to respond to the commandment of love and fulfill Christ’s mission of charity. Thus through discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, Christian service realizes many important aspects of the Christian life.

Christian Service and the Tasks of Catechesis

Christian service also embodies many components of catechesis. As stated in the

National Directory for Catechesis,1 “Catechesis aims to bring about in the believer an ever more

mature faith in Jesus Christ, a deeper knowledge and love of his person and message, and a firm

commitment to follow him” (19A). In leading people into communion with Jesus Christ (19B),

“[t]he fundamental task of catechesis is to achieve… the formation of disciples of Jesus Christ”

(20). Six distinct, yet complementary and interdependent tasks are necessary in forming disciples

1. The numbers throughout indicate the appropriate paragraph.

and making faith known, celebrated, lived, and expressed in prayer.2 The first task is to promote

knowledge of the faith (20.1). Knowledge communicates the content of God’s revelation that

comes through Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition. The second task is to promote knowledge

of the Liturgy and the sacraments (20.2). Preparation for active participation in the liturgy fosters

communion with Christ and the Church. The third task is to promote moral formation (20.3).

Moral formation should bring about personal transformation and conversion and illustrate the

social consequences of the Gospel. The fourth task is to teach how to pray (20.4). A disposition

of prayer and reflection is the ordinary environment for catechesis. The fifth task is preparation

to participate in the life and mission of the Church (20.5). Through apprenticeship in Christian

living, catechesis encourages daily discipleship. The sixth task promotes a missionary spirit

(20.6). Catechesis helps disciples of Christ bear witness to their faith in words and deeds.

Together these tasks encompass the objective of complete formation of Christian disciples.

This study explores the formation of disciples through experiences of Christian service

toward the goal of faith that is lived, known, celebrated, and expressed in prayer. The focus will

be on three of the tasks of catechesis mentioned above: to promote moral formation (task 3), to

prepare the Christian to participate actively in the life and mission of the Church (task 5), and to

promote a missionary spirit that prepares the faithful to be present as Christians in society (task

6). The three central aspects of being Christian embodied in Christian service relate well to these

2. These six tasks are based on the fundamental tasks of catechesis found in the General Directory for Catechesis (85 and 86). However, the General Directory for Catechesis, which is the document that guides catechesis for the universal Church, lists four fundamental tasks of catechesis (knowledge of the faith, liturgical education, moral formation, and teaching to pray) and two “other fundamental tasks of catechesis” (education for community life and missionary initiation). The National Directory for Catechesis for the United States of America gives all six tasks in one list.

three tasks of catechesis. The goal of moral formation (task 3) is to foster discipleship: “Moral

catechesis aims to conform the believer to Christ – to bring about personal transformation and

conversion” (20.3). The witness aspect of Christian life is also present, as it “should encourage

the faithful to give witness – both in their private lives and in the public arena – to Christ’s

teaching in everyday life” (20.3). This task promotes the mission of charity as well, as it includes

“the social consequences of the demands of the Gospel” (20.3).

The task of catechesis that promotes a missionary spirit (task 5) also relates to the three

central aspects of being Christian embodied in Christian service. The focus is on witness, which

“seeks to help the disciples of Christ to be present in society precisely as believing Christians

who are able and willing to bear witness to their faith in words and deeds” (20.6). This task also

incorporates the discipleship and mission of charity aspects of Christian service by fostering the

attitudes of Christ, which include working against injustice: “catechesis nourishes the evangelical

attitude of Jesus Christ in the faithful: to be poor in spirit, to be compassionate, to be meek, to

hear the cry of injustice, to be merciful, to be pure of heart, to make peace, and to accept

rejection and persecution” (20.6). These three tasks of catechesis each highlight the importance

of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, which are all integral to Christian service as

well. The discipleship, witness, and mission of charity aspects of catechesis and Christian service will be present as consistent themes throughout this study.

The task of catechesis that prepares the Christian to participate in the life and mission of the Church (task 6) also relates to the three central aspects of being Christian embodied in

Christian service. The main goal of this task of catechesis is to foster the mission of charity within the disciple. The command to “love one another as I have love you … provides the basis

6 for the disciples life in community” (20.5). This task of catechesis also encourages “a special concern for the poor” (20.5), an integral attitude for Christian service. Discipleship is encouraged through apprenticeship in Christian living, and witness is an important part of this task as it

“encourages the disciples of Jesus to make their daily conduct a shining and convincing testimony to the Gospel” (20.5).

To achieve an interconnectedness of faith and action in Christians, the National Directory for Catechesis advocates using theories, methods, and practices from the secular realm and especially the social sciences to enhance both the training of catechists and the methods of catechesis (94, 96). Educational theory and practice, especially service-learning, forms a fitting dialog partner with catechesis on the topic of incorporating community service into its core structures. Broadly speaking, the National Service Learning Clearinghouse website defines service-learning as “a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities.” Service-learning is an expansive and ever- developing concept within the realm of education. A recent surge in service-learning scholarship in educational literature provides fertile ground that is ripe for use in catechesis. Concepts and practices of service-learning have been applied to religious studies courses and Catholic institutions on the university level but seldom to catechetical settings in Catholic parishes and high schools. The goals of service-learning, which include identity formation, community engagement, and cognitive development through reflection, mentoring, and further analysis of justice issues, are complementary to the goals of faith formation programs. Developing and

incorporating community service based on service-learning principles can enhance faith

formation programs, particularly preparation for the sacrament of confirmation.

Overview of Chapters

This study pulls together resources from both theological and secular sources to create a

model of Catechetical Service-Learning. The RCIA, RBC, and RC provide the theology of service while the catechetical directories guide the use of experiential learning and service in catechesis. The secular educational literature on service-learning provide effective principles and

practices that are later related to a faith context. When combined, these sources form a model of

Catechetical Service-Learning which transforms Christian service into a truly catechetical component.

Chapter One identifies important aspects of Christian formation from the RCIA, RBC, and RC that relate to Christian service. These aspects include following Christ as a way of life

(discipleship), witness for Christ to the world (witness), and love of neighbor (mission of charity). It is through these three aspects of Christian life – discipleship, witness, and mission of charity – identified in the Initiation Rites of the Church that a theology of service emerges. These rites also surface two other components of Christian service. First, Christian service is interconnected with prayer because discipleship, witness, and mission of charity all build upon the foundation of prayer. In addition, the link of prayer and Christian service shows the importance of going beyond the physical act of charity to include the spiritual act of prayer and care for the other both in body and soul. The second component is the importance of formation.

One aspect of formation is following the example of other Christians, especially in love for one’s

neighbor. Formation should also be holistic and developmentally appropriate. Going beyond the

classroom, Christian service provides one avenue for the total formation of new and life-long

Christians.

Chapter Two articulates a catechetical understanding of service. The chapter begins with

an overview of catechetical developments in 20th century. Many official documents of the

Church, including general and national catechetical directories, affirmed and further advanced these developments. These and other documents highlight the aspects of Christian service from a

catechetical perspective. Discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, prayer and service, and the example of the community are highly evident in the catechetical documents as well. Further examination of these documents will show an increased emphasis on the lived aspect of faith and expanding support for teaching about social justice, encouraging a life of charity of justice, and using experiences of service in the catechetical process. The chapter ends with a presentation of the pedagogy of faith as a guideline for implementing new methods of learning to ensure they are true to the Church’s vision of discipleship formation.

Chapter Three presents the principles of service-learning from the general educational literature. The chapter begins with a brief history of service-learning as it has developed over the past 40 years and includes an overview of organizations and journals that are focused on service- learning. After presenting some basic terminology and foundations of service-learning, the chapter articulates six principles of effective service-learning based on current scholarship. These principles are fostering authentic relationships, encouraging reflection, ensuring quality experiences, focusing on transformative learning, empowering students to take ownership, and

9 providing mentorship. Finally, there is a description of the potential negative aspects of service- learning along with some guidance on mitigating these issues.

Chapter Four presents current methods of catechesis and how they incorporate the service component. The chapter begins with an affirmation of the transformative nature of catechesis and the importance of connecting prayer and service, as well as theories of catechesis for social justice. The writings of Thomas Groome and Maria Harris provide a starting point for the incorporation of service more fully into catechetical practice. Finally, there is a summary of the references to service-learning in religious education and faith-based contexts.

Chapter Five combines the information from the first four chapters to articulate a model of Catechetical Service-Learning. It articulates a vision to incorporate service into the catechetical endeavor more fully by focusing on four main components: Christocentric, relational, communal, and transformative. Each of these components relate well to the wisdom of the service-learning literature from Chapter Three. From a foundation in the secular literature, the components are then conformed to a Christian context using the understanding of Christian service as presented in Chapters One, Two, and Four. By combining the secular wisdom from the service-learning literature with the Christian understanding of service, the model of Catechetical

Service-Learning offers a way of pulling the serving experience into the heart of the catechetical endeavor in the hopes of transforming the student and the greater community. The general conclusion summarizes the main aspects of the dissertation, provides questions for further research, and gives general statements on how the model of Catechetical Service-Learning can be applied to specific catechetical situations.

CHAPTER ONE

Service in the Liturgical Rites of Baptism and Confirmation

This investigation into the connections between service-learning and catechesis1 begins

with three rites of the Roman Catholic Church. The Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults

(hereafter RCIA) and the Rite of Baptism for Children (hereafter RBC) are the rituals through

which new members are added to the Church. The third rite, the Rite of Confirmation2 (hereafter

RC), seals baptism, conforms believers to Christ, and strengthens them by the Holy Spirit

through sealing with Chrism. All three liturgical rites proclaim the importance of Christian

discipleship both in the formation that occurs prior to the celebration of initiation sacraments and

in the actual celebration of the rites themselves. These rites include praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, and rituals that provide a liturgical theology, give rubrics and texts for the celebration of the rite

1. Unless otherwise indicated, in this dissertation the term catechesis means the Church’s mission to bring people into greater communion with Christ through the transmission of his teachings and the Christian way of life in order to instill faith in Christ and inspire a commitment to follow him in every aspect of life. As will be demonstrated, catechesis is a broad term that not only includes traditional classroom settings, but also touches on many other aspects of the Church’s life. The multifaceted nature of catechesis is clearly shown in the articulation of the six tasks of catechesis in the National Directory for Catechesis (20). At times, the documents of the Church use descriptive terms to indicate certain types of catechesis, such as initiation, liturgical, sacramental, and ongoing.

2. The sacrament of confirmation can occur either during the RCIA or as the separate Rite of Confirmation. The initiation aspect is clear when celebrated after baptism and before eucharist in the same ceremony as prescribed by the RCIA. However, there is confusion about the sacrament of confirmation when it is celebrated many years after baptism and eucharist as is typically practiced by the contemporary western Church. Paul Turner in Confirmation: The Baby in Solomon’s Court outlines reasons for confusion in the “Concerns” section of the “Adolescent Confirmation” chapter, pages 106- 119. These include the imprecise use of the term “initiation” for one who has been baptized for many years, the perception that baptism is ineffective if confirmation is necessary to complete initiation, the language in the RCIA that the eucharist is the climax and culmination of initiation, and the normative listing of the sacraments in Canon Law in the order of baptism, confirmation, and eucharist. Though there is confusion surrounding adolescent confirmation of those baptized as infants, the principles of preparation and implications for discipleship relevant to this study are similar whether it is celebrated in the RCIA or the RC.

10 11

itself, and articulate the implications for the Christian life. A close reading of the rites discloses

the importance of discipleship,3 witness,4 and mission of charity5 which form the basis and

rationale for Christian service. Interconnected with these themes of Christian service is the

foundational importance of a life of prayer and faith. In addition, the rites’ insistence on

developmentally appropriate and holistic formation gives insight into the potential use of

Christian service in forming new members.

This study begins with an overview of the RCIA, RBC, and RC. A study of the various

components of Christian service found in the three rites follows. The purpose of this study is to

draw out references to Christian service articulated in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers,

intercessions, and Scripture options of each rite. Though not using the language of service, the

rites often repeat the central themes of discipleship, witness, and the mission of charity. The

liturgical language associated with discipleship include various terms and phrases such as

following Christ, being more like Christ, being united, conformed, and obedient to Christ, and

making the paschal mystery a part of life. The witness aspect of Christian service is implicit in

the rites use of phrases such as give witness, spread the Gospel, and proclaim to the world by

3. Unless otherwise indicated, in this dissertation the term discipleship means a conversion of heart and mind to Jesus Christ, including fostering a personal relationship with Christ and conforming one’s life to following him. See the National Directory for Catechesis, 17B and 20.3.

4. Unless otherwise indicated, in this dissertation the term witness means the call of the faithful to be present as Christians in society and to proclaim their faith in Christ through words and deeds, testifying to the truth by living in conformity to the Gospel. See the National Directory of Catechesis, 20.6.

5. Unless otherwise indicated, in this dissertation the phrase “mission of charity” means the call of the faithful to participate in the life and mission of the Church in living out the command of Jesus to love, including acts of love and justice within the Church as well as toward the greater community. See the National Directory for Catechesis, 20.5).

way of life. The mission of charity aspect of Christian service is articulated through liturgical

language including of love of neighbor, service, works of charity, good works, self-denial and

putting others first.

The significance of Christian service will also be supported through the many references

in the RCIA, RBC, and RC to the importance of the community, sponsors, parents, and

godparents being good examples of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity for those

celebrating the sacraments. Phrases such as being living examples of the Gospel and models of

Christian living, putting others first, and showing candidates how to practice the Gospel and bear

witness, and persevering in good works give evidence to the importance of the example of the

community. Also, there is a foundational relationship between prayer and Christian service as

shown in the close connection of phrases in the rites such as prayer and practice of love of neighbor, faith and service, prayer and charity, and meditation on the Gospel alongside doing works of mercy. Finally, this chapter presents the rites’ emphasis on the importance of holistic, developmentally appropriate formation of all those involved in sacramental preparation. This

chapter closes with a discussion of the rites’ recommendations for sacramental preparation and a

presentation of the significance the rites place on an active life of faith, which includes Christian

service, both as an outcome of the formation process and as a potential means to aid in the

lifelong formation of new and maturing members.

Overview of the RCIA, RBC, and RC

The western Church celebrates the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and eucharist in

a variety of ways. In contemporary practice, baptism typically occurs during infancy through the

RBC. Although not a universal practice, in many parishes the reception of the eucharist is then

celebrated around second grade and confirmation takes place during adolescence using the RC.

For adults and children of the age of reason who were not baptized as infants, as well as Catholic

adults and children of catechetical age baptized in infancy but not catechized, the RCIA is the

process for complete initiation into the Church. In addition, the RCIA contains rites for those

who were baptized in a different Christian tradition and desire to be received into full

communion in the Catholic Church.6 All three of the rites have been introduced (RBC),7

reintroduced (RCIA) or revised (RC) since the Second Vatican Council. Each rite contains a

variety of options based on the circumstances of those being initiated and includes praenotanda

to explain the rites and sacraments, including preparation for them. The rites also include the

rubrics, prayers, intercessions, Scripture passages, and rituals used during the celebrations.

Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults

The Second Vatican Council called for the restoration of the catechumenate for adults as

well as a revision of the rites of baptism. The result was the promulgation of the RCIA on

January 6, 1972 (RCIA, Congregation for Divine Worship Decree). After a provisional English

6. These individuals celebrate confirmation within the Rite of Reception of Baptized Christians into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church as prescribed in the RCIA, 473-504. The RCIA also contains combined rites for baptized persons participating in the entire RCIA process. See RCIA, Appendix I.

7. Prior to the RBC, a shortened version of the adult rite of baptism was used to baptize infants. The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy from the Second Vatican Council called for a rite of baptism suited for baptizing infants. As noted by Bugnini (1990), “[f]or the first time in the history of the liturgy, a rite was to be prepared specifically for infants” (598). The earlier rite of infant baptism from the Ritual of Paul V in 1614 directly addressed the child with questions of renouncing Satan and professing faith as through the child could respond.

translation was authorized in 1974,8 the current official English translation was approved for use in the United States beginning on July 1, 1988 and “[f]rom 1 September 1988 the use of the Rite

of Christian Initiation of Adults is mandatory in the dioceses of the United States of America.

From that day forward no other English version may be used” (RCIA, National Conference of

Catholic Bishops United States of America Decree). The RCIA includes four periods of

formation and three liturgical rites that move the inquirer from one period to the next as they

journey with the community into a fullness of faith (7). The first period is the Period of

Evangelization and Precatechumenate. This is a time of evangelization by the Church and an

initial conversion to faith in Jesus Christ on the part of the inquirer (36-37). The first step occurs

when the inquirer’s faith has been awakened, initial conversion has occurred, the beginnings of a

spiritual life are in place, and the fundamentals of Christian teaching have taken root. This first

step is the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of Catechumens, when the inquirer expresses

his/her formal desire to become a Christian (41-42). The second period, the Period of the

Catechumenate, focuses on catechesis and formation (75). It is often the longest period, lasting

until “the conversion and faith of the catechumens become strong” (76). This leads to the second step, the Election or Enrollment of Names. In this rite, the bishop, acting in the name of the

Church, proclaims God’s choice of the catechumens as the elect of God. It also includes a pledge of fidelity on the part of the candidates who sign their name in the book of those chosen for initiation (119). The catechumens “are expected to have undergone a conversion in mind and in action and to have developed a sufficient acquaintance with Christian teaching as well as a spirit

8. The interim translation was issued by International Commission on English in the Liturgy (ICEL) in 1974. It was approved “ad interim” for use in the dioceses of the United States of America in the same year (RCIA, “Forward”).

of faith and charity” (120). From this point until the celebration of the Easter sacraments they are

then known as the elect (124). The Election or Enrollment of Names officially begins the Period

of Purification and Enlightenment, which typically corresponds to the season of Lent. Both the

community and the elect enter “a time for spiritual recollection in preparation for the celebration

of the paschal mystery” (138). This time of intense spiritual preparation is marked by three scrutinies, which “are rites for self-searching and repentance and have above all a spiritual purpose” (141). It is also marked by the Presentation of the Creed and the Presentation of the

Lord’s Prayer as the catechumens undergo their proximate preparation for initiation (147-149).

The third step is the Celebration of the Sacraments of Initiation, ideally during the Easter Vigil

(206-207). Once baptism, confirmation, and eucharist, are celebrated, the Period of

Postbaptismal Catechesis or Mystagogy begins and continues throughout the Easter season. This time of continued formation aims to deepen the faith of the new Christians, who are called neophytes, and to make the paschal mystery a lifelong part of their lives by meditating on the

Gospel, sharing in the eucharist, and doing works of charity (244).

The community plays an essential role in the entire process of the RCIA, which is to take place within the community of faith (4). Indeed, the initiation of adults “is the responsibility of

all the baptized” (9), and the community is encouraged to be present throughout. The faithful are

called to be present during the liturgical rites, and the community is often called upon to help,

pray for, and give good example to those who are on the journey through the RCIA (9). Specific

members of the community come forward as sponsors and godparents9 who accompany those

9. In the RCIA, sponsor typically refers to people who accompany those seeking baptism from the beginning of their journey through the rite of acceptance and the period of the catechumenate. The

seeking to enter the catechumenate10 through good example, friendship, and guidance in the

Christian way of life. They also witness to the catechumens’ readiness to be elected for baptism.

The support of the godparents continues after the sacraments of initiation are celebrated (10-11).

Other prominent members of the community crucial in the RCIA are the bishop, priests, deacons,

and catechists (12-16). Initiation brings individuals into the Church, but the entire Church plays

an important role in helping each and every individual come to a fullness of faith and integration

into the community, including formation in lifelong service of the Gospel.

Catechesis within the RCIA is important in bringing individuals to faith and continues

throughout the process. In fact, catechesis is to be ongoing throughout the life of a Christian.

Three of the four periods of the RCIA specifically focus on important catechetical functions, and

the other period still includes elements of catechesis. The Period of Evangelization and

Precatechumenate is marked by the proclamation and suitable explanation of the Gospel of

Christ (36-39). The Period of the Catechumenate is the most intensive time for catechetical

formation. Catechesis during this period gives the catechumens “suitable pastoral formation and

guidance, aimed at training them in the Christian life” (75). Catechesis is specifically mentioned

as one way that formation occurs, but all of the ways of formation mentioned are part of the tasks

of catechesis, as discussed below. The Period of Purification and Enlightenment is a time of

“more intense spiritual preparation, consisting more in interior reflection than in catechetical

godparents accompany those seeking baptism from the Rite of Election through the period of Mystagogy and the rest of their lives. The sponsor and godparents may or may not be the same person (10-11).

10. The RCIA here uses the term candidate for those seeking entrance in the catechumenate. In this work catechumen refers to an unbaptized person while candidate refers to a person whose baptism is recognized by the Catholic Church.

instruction” (139). While it is centered on spiritual rather than catechetical preparation, it is still

catechetical in nature. The rite mentions the liturgical catechesis of Lent, which is one of the

tasks of catechesis (138). The Period of Postbaptismal Catechesis or Mystagogy continues the

formation of the neophytes. The neophytes and the whole community “grow in deepening their

grasp of the paschal mystery and in making it part of their lives” (244-245) especially through

the experience of the sacraments. From evangelization and the initial proclamation of the faith to

the “gradual and complete” (75.2) catechesis leading to the liturgical catechesis during Lent and

the celebration of the sacraments and followed by pertinent catechesis during mystagogy, catechesis is essential throughout the entire RCIA.

Rite of Baptism for Children

While the RCIA is the normative lens through which adults and children of catechetical

age are to be initiated, the RBC is a distinct rite for the baptism of infants. Infants and young

children are baptized according to the RBC and later celebrate eucharist and confirmation. The

RBC is used for children who have not reached the age of discernment and cannot profess

personal faith (1). However, the longstanding practice has been to immerse children into the

grace of God and the faith of the Church from the earliest opportunity. Because of the necessity

of baptism, children should not be deprived of so great a gift (2). Children of Catholic parents are

to be baptized within the few first weeks after birth, except for pastoral reasons, and children in

danger of death should be baptized immediately (8). The profession of faith rests upon the

parents and godparents, and it is expected that the children “later be formed in the faith in which

they have been baptized” (3). The grace of the sacrament of baptism strengthens the response of

18 faith by the parents and godparents (17) and lays the foundation for growth in faith throughout the life of the child. The importance of the parents’ and godparents’ faith as well as the need for further faith formation of the child are clear in the rite.

As with the RCIA, the community as a whole in addition to the parents and godparents play a distinct and important role in the initiation and formation of the child. The community plays an integral part not only during the baptism itself, which may take place during a Sunday

Liturgy with the community present, but also before and long after the ceremony (4). The rite specifies that “[b]efore and after the celebration of the sacrament, the child has a right to the love and help of the community” (4). Within this context of the community, the parents then hold primary responsibility for the baptized child’s faith and “should prepare to take part in the rite with understanding” (5.1) with help from the pastor and community. The Code of Canon Law states that pastors are to provide parents and godparents with instruction on the meaning of the sacrament and the obligations attached to it (851.2). During the sacrament, the parents are called to participate fully in their responses and especially the profession of faith. After the baptism, it is their continual responsibility to help their child know God and participate in the life of the

Church (5). To help the parents in this significant role, godparents are chosen (6). In addition, it is the duty of the priest to aid in the mission of preparation for the sacrament and formation of the child (7). Incorporating a child into the Church and forming the child into a disciple of Christ is begun by God through the grace of the sacrament of baptism and fostered by the efforts of the parents, godparents, priests, and entire Christian community.

Rite of Confirmation

Confirmation has a theological focus on the action of the Holy Spirit empowering

believers to bear witness to the love of God in the world through service. For children baptized

as infants, the RC typically follows the first reception of eucharist. In the RCIA, confirmation takes place directly after baptism and just before the reception of the eucharist. In the Latin

Church, confirmation is delayed at least until about the age of seven for those baptized as

Catholics before the age of reason (RC, 11). Endowed with the use of reason by this age, the candidates “must be in the state of grace, properly instructed and capable of renewing the baptismal promises” (12). The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (hereafter USCCB) set the age for confirmation between the age of discretion and about 16 years of age.11 With the

reception of eucharist often taking place around the age of reason, confirmation is typically

celebrated after the first reception of the eucharist. This disrupts the original sequence of

initiation: baptism, confirmation, eucharist. The RC for those baptized as infants explains that the

grace of confirmation “conforms believers more fully to Christ and strengthens them so that they

may bear witness to Christ for the building up of his Body in faith and love” (2). While the law

gives others the faculty to confirm,12 the bishop is the ordinary minister. This gives “a clearer

reference to the first pouring forth of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost” (7) through the laying on of

11. The decree made effective July 1, 2002, states “The National Conference of Catholic Bishops, in accord with the prescriptions of canon 891, hereby decrees that the Sacrament of Confirmation in the Latin rite shall be conferred between the age of discretion and about sixteen years of age, within the limits determined by the diocesan bishop and with regard for the legitimate exceptions given in canon 891.” See http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/canon-law/complementary-norms/canon- 891-age-for-confirmation.cfm (accessed September 14, 2013).

12. Though the bishop is the ordinary minister, RC 7 and 8 provides a list of those who may confirm besides the bishop.

hands and shows the bond between the confirmed and the Church. As will be developed later, the

RC does stress the importance of service regardless of the sequence of the sacraments.

As is the case with the RCIA and the RBC, the entire Christian community takes part in

the preparation of candidates for confirmation. To prepare the baptized for confirmation is “[o]ne of the highest responsibilities of the people of God” (3). Pastors have a special responsibility in this task, but it is primarily the duty of the parents (4). Sponsors assist the parents, and their responsibility goes beyond journeying with the candidates leading up to and during the confirmation ceremony. Sponsors also are to help the candidates “fulfill their baptismal promises faithfully under the influence of the Holy Spirit whom they have received” (5).

Summary

The RCIA, RBC, and RC are all theologically rich and multifaceted. The preceding short overview of the rites highlights the importance of initiation catechesis within the community of faith for those celebrating the sacraments. Forming disciples of Christ is an important aspect of the RCIA and RC, both preceding and continuing after the sacraments are celebrated. Similarly, the RBC insists on the formation of the parents and godparents of the children to be baptized to ensure that the children will be formed as disciples as they grow. By reading these rites through

the lens of Christian service, a theology of service according to the purpose and effects of

baptism and confirmation can be identified. Themes of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity as found within these rites will form the basis of a theology of Christian service.

Evidence for understanding the nature of Christian service is found in the praenotanda, rubrics,

prayers, intercessions, and Scripture prescribed for the RCIA, RBC, and RC, which will be

explored in the next section.

References to Christian Service Themes in the RCIA, RBC and RC

While the praenotanda and rubrics of the rites give an overview and explanation of the

sacraments, the theological heart of the RCIA, RBC, and RC are the liturgical texts, symbols,

and gestures of the rites themselves. Along with the prayers and intercessions, the Scripture

passages that may be chosen for proclamation during the ceremonies give further indication of

the multifaceted significance of the sacraments. This study will focus on a theology of Christian

service as articulated in these rites’ articulation of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity.

As the ancient dictum of the Church states, the law of prayer informs the law of belief. This then

flows into the life of faith. What is celebrated in the liturgy and how it is celebrated forms the

Christian community in their beliefs and life as disciples.13 The praenotanda, rubrics, prayers,

intercessions, and Scripture options of the RCIA, RBC, and RC give important clarity into the

theology of and preparations for the sacraments, including the importance of Christian service in

the ongoing formation of the Christian life grounded in discipleship, witness, and mission of charity.

A close reading of the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions, and Scripture reading

options of the RCIA, RBC, and RC through the lens of Christian service themes will show the multiple ways in which the rites foster a dynamic formation that develops active Christian

13. See the Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraph 1124.

disciples. It will be established that throughout the RCIA, RBC, and RC there is an emphasis on living a Christian life through discipleship, witness, and mission of charity.

Discipleship

Discipleship entails a conversion of the heart and mind to Jesus Christ. It includes

fostering a personal relationship with Christ and conforming one’s life to following him.

Forming disciples through the RCIA, baptism, and confirmation process entails helping

participants experience and live out Christ’s presence in their lives and is aided by participating

in the liturgy and the life of the Christian community. The whole community is then sent forth to

live as disciples by following Christ’s example in all aspects of their life. As demonstrated below

in the initiation rites, the foundation of Christian life as well as Christian service is discipleship.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

The themes of discipleship are present throughout the RCIA. The Period of the

Catechumenate focuses on formation and guidance, which are “aimed at training them

[catechumens] in the Christian life” (75). The instruction during the catechumenate is meant to

nurture “a life completely in accord with the spirit of Christ” (78). The Anointing of the

Catechumens symbolizes God’s help and strength so the catechumens “will forthrightly take the

step of professing their faith and will hold fast to it unfalteringly throughout their lives” (99).

The Rite of Election then marks the beginning of the Period of Purification and Enlightenment.

This is the final stage before initiation at Easter and focuses on living the life of Christ leading up

to initiation. During the Rite of Election, at which the bishop typically presides, the catechumens

are “encouraged to follow Christ with greater generosity” (118). Now accepted for initiation at

Easter and identified as the “elect,” they are expected to be converted in their way of life and

their spirit of charity (120). As evidenced here, even before they are formally initiated into the

Church, those being initiated are expected to live their life guided by Christ’s example. Through

the celebration of the initiation sacraments, this commitment is sealed. The profession of faith

expresses the intention “to enter into a new covenant with Christ” (211) and in baptism the elect

“receive divine adoption” (212). The importance of action in the world is emphasized during the

Period of Postbaptismal Catechesis or Mystagogy. Mystagogy “is a time for the community and

the neophytes together to grow in deepening their grasp of the paschal mystery and in making it

part of their lives” (244). Living a life following the example of Christ is a way of preparing for

initiation as well as continually deepening Christian discipleship.

Christian Initiation, General Introduction, (hereafter CI) is the introduction preceding the

RCIA in the Rites of the Catholic Church.14 CI gives two references that relate to following

Christ as a way of life, indicating that one of the graces of baptism is to be united with Christ. In

discussing the effects of baptism, the rite explains “[t]hose who are baptized are united to Christ

in a death like his; buried with him in death, they are given life again with him, and with him

they rise again” (6). Baptism also “brings to the recipient a share in the kingly priesthood of

Christ” (12). To be baptized is to share in the life of Christ.

14. Christian Initiation was promulgated in 1969 by the Sacred Congregation for Divine Worship prior to the publication of the RCIA. It was intended to serve as an introduction for infant and adult baptism. When the RCIA was published for use in the United States in 1988, Christian Initiation immediately preceded the RCIA text. See Jim Schellman, “An Overview of Christian Initiation, General Introduction,” in The Liturgy Documents, Volume Two: Essential Documents for Parish Sacramental Rites and Other Liturgies, Second Edition, 75-83, Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications, 2012.

The praenotanda of the RC clearly indicates the effects of the sacrament are tied to following Christ as a way of life. The rite explains that during confirmation, the “giving of the

Holy Spirit conforms believers more fully to Christ” (2). This is reiterated later in the

explanation of the symbolism of the oil: “Signed with the perfumed oil, the baptized receive the

indelible character, the seal of the Lord, together with the gift of the Spirit that conforms them

more closely to Christ and gives them the grace of spreading ‘the sweet odor of Christ’” (9).

Discipleship is not only a grace of the sacrament, but also an intended outcome of preparation.

The rite stipulates that local bishops may set a suitable age for confirmation, “especially to

implant deeply in the lives of the faithful complete obedience to Christ the Lord” (11). These

texts refer to the discipleship aspect of Christian service in the call to follow Christ, to be

converted in their way of life, sharing in and making the paschal mystery a part of their lives,

being conformed to Christ, and complete obedience to Christ the Lord.

Prayers

Following the example of Christ is a theme that runs through the prayers of the RCIA,

RBC, and RC. At the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens in the RCIA, the

foreheads of the candidates are signed with the cross. One of the prayer options said during this

action is “Receive the cross on your forehead. It is Christ himself who now strengthens you with

this sign of his love. Learn to know and follow him” (55.B). In the First Acceptance of the

Gospel, also during the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens, the celebrant

exhorts the catechumens, “strive to pattern your life on the teachings of the Gospel [discipleship]

and so to love the Lord your God and your neighbor” (52.C). During the Period of the

Catechumenate, the catechumens may be anointed by the oil of catechumens to grow and strengthen their faith throughout their preparation and their lives after initiation (99). When the oil is blessed during the ceremony, a prayer is offered asking that the catechumens be given

“strength to accept the challenges of Christian life” (102.B). The anointing strengthens catechumens to be faithful followers of Christ throughout life. The importance of following

Christ is particularly evident in the Rite of Election or Enrollment of Names for children who have reached catechetical age. During the rite, the parents and godparents of the young catechumens are asked if the children have “tried to live as [God’s] faithful followers” (283).

Later in the rite, the celebrant formally declares the catechumens as part of the elect and then tells them that they “must strive to know, love, and serve the Lord more and more with each passing day” (285). These examples from the rite show the importance of following Christ as a way of life during the time of sacramental preparation. The journey toward initiation for children of catechetical age and for adults is one of active engagement in Christian living.

A high point in the process of initiation is the Easter Vigil and here the importance of living a life following the example of Christ is clearly articulated in the prayers of confirmation.

The invitation just before the celebration of confirmation in both the Celebration of the

Sacraments of Initiation and in the combined rites: Celebration at the Easter Vigil of the

Sacraments of Initiation and the Rite of Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic

Church emphasizes the close connection between the sacrament and living a Christian life. The celebrant speaks to those about to be confirmed, saying, “[t]he promised strength of the Holy

Spirit, which you are to receive, will make you more like Christ and help you to be witnesses to

his suffering, death, and resurrection” (233 and 589).15 This prayer is used for newly baptized as

well as those who were previously baptized and seeking reception into the full communion of the

Catholic Church. During the RBC, the prayer during the lighting of the child’s baptismal candle

prays, “[t]hese children have been enlightened by Christ. They are to walk always as children of

the light” (64).

The RC contains several prayers focused on empowering disciples who follow Christ in their lives. The admonition to follow Christ as a way of life is a central part of the sacrament as described in the prayer just before the laying on of hands. The bishops prays, “[l]et us pray to our

Father that he will pour out the Holy Spirit to strengthen his sons and daughters with his gifts and anoint them to be more like Christ the Son of God” (24). A similar call to discipleship is contained in the bishop’s Prayer over the People at the end of the ceremony, which prays that

God “[m]ake them ready to live his Gospel and eager to do his will” (33). One of the opening

prayer options for the Rite of Confirmation Outside Mass states, “Lord, send us your Holy Spirit

to help us walk in unity of faith and grow in the strength of his love to the full stature of Christ”

(35). The prayers from the rites refer to the discipleship aspect of Christian service through the

call to learn to know and follow Christ, live as faithful followers, and accept the challenges of

Christian living. In addition, the texts refer to discipleship with the necessity of knowing, loving,

and serving the Lord, the promise of strength to be more like Christ, the commission to live the

Gospel and do God’s will, and the strength given to grow into the full stature of Christ.

15. Paragraph 233 refers to the rite used at the Easter Vigil when only catechumens are present. Paragraph 589 is directed to both the newly baptized and newly received during the Celebration at the Easter Vigil of the Sacraments of Initiation and of the Rite of Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church.

Intercessions

Intercessions during two parts of the RCIA speak to the importance of discipleship.

During the Rite of Acceptance, the assisting minister prays “[t]hat [the catechumens] may

undertake with generous hearts and souls whatever God may ask of them” (65). The scrutinies

are later celebrated during the season of Lent leading up to the Easter Vigil and focus on the

spiritual formation of the elect. However, they also include intercessions that remind the elect,

and the whole community, of their call to live according to the example of Christ. During the

Second Scrutiny (option A), the assistant minister prays that the elect “may seek those things that

are holy and just” (167.A). At the Third Scrutiny a prayer is offered for the whole community,

“that all of us may walk in the newness of life and show to the world the power of the risen

Christ” (174.B). The whole Church joins in prayer for the elect and for themselves to live more

Christ-like lives.

The RBC and RC also contain intercessions that pray for those celebrating these sacraments to follow Christ as a way of life. In the RBC the following intercession is prayed:

“Through baptism and confirmation, make them your faithful followers and witnesses to your gospel” (47).16 A similar intercession is included in the Rite of Bringing a Baptized Child to the

Church: “Inspire him (her) to hear, follow, and witness to your Gospel” (175). In the RC, one

intercession prays for the parents and godparents, “that by word and example they may always

encourage them [the confirmandi] to follow the way of Jesus Christ” (30). The purpose of

16. This intercession is repeated in all the various rites of baptism, including the Rite of Baptism for One child (84), the Rite of Baptism for a Large Number of Children (114), and The Rite of Baptism for Children Administered by a Catechist when no Priest or Deacon is Available (130).

parents and godparents is to help others follow Christ as a way of life. The discipleship aspect of

Christian service is shown in the texts of seeking what is holy and just, walking in the newness

of life, and being faithful followers of the way of Jesus Christ.

Scripture

The goal of forming disciples to follow Christ as a way of life is reiterated in the

Scripture passages proclaimed during the RCIA, RBC, and RC. In the RCIA, one of the

acclamations used before the Gospel during celebrations of the Word of God is Ephesians 5:1-2:

“Imitate God; walk in his love, just as Christ loves us” (RCIA, 595.12). In the Rite of

Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens, the Gospel passage recounts the story of Andrew

and Simon following Jesus for the first time (Jn 1:35-42, Lectionary, 743). The readings

prescribed for initiation apart from the Easter Vigil include Matthew’s account of Jesus’

conditions for discipleship (Mt 16:24-27, Lectionary, 755.1). In this passage, Jesus tells his

disciples, both then and now, “Whoever wishes to come after me must deny himself, take up his

cross, and follow me. For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life

for my sake will find it” (Mt 16:24-25 NAB). This challenging passage is also one of the choices

in the RC.17 During the Easter Vigil the elect and candidates hear a passage from Baruch about

the importance of following the ways of God (Lectionary, 41). After lamenting the destruction of

Israel, the prophet plainly states, “Had you walked in the way of God, you would have dwelt in

17. Matthew 16:24-27 is the second in a list of options for the Gospel reading used for the RC as found in “Chapter V: Texts for the Celebration of Confirmation” (65).

enduring peace” (Bar 3:13 NAB). Each of these passages shows the importance of following

Christ as a way of life.

The RBC contains similar choices for passages that remind the listener that faith is a way

of life conformed to Christ. Galatians 3:26-28 (RBC, 192) tells of the dignity of being a child of

God through faith, stating that “all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ” (Gal 3:27 NAB). John’s Gospel story of the vine and the branches (15:1-11) reveals the importance of clinging to Christ at all times (RBC, 214). In verse 4, Jesus tells his listeners,

“Remain in me, as I remain in you. Just as a branch cannot bear fruit on its own unless it remains on the vine, so neither can you unless you remain in me” (NAB). These selected options of

Scripture passages in the various rites show the importance of following Christ as a way of life.

They refer to the discipleship component of Christian service with texts of imitating God’s love, leaving everything behind and taking up the cross, following and staying connected to Jesus, and being clothed with Christ.

Witness

Living an active life of discipleship entails being a witness for Christ to the world.

Witness is the call of the faithful to be present as Christians in society. Faith is not meant to be merely a personal endeavor, but also an outward sign of the presence of God. Living a life following Christ naturally leads to being a witness for Christ to the world. Disciples are to be present as Christians in society, proclaiming their faith in Christ through words and deeds.

Christians testify to the truth by living in conformity to the Gospel. The witness aspect of

Christian service is expressed throughout the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions, and

Scripture options in the RCIA, RBC, and RC. The apostolic nature of Christ’s life is required of

His disciples.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

In the RCIA there is an expectation that the catechumens will live out their faith in an

apostolic manner. Their lives and actions, even before they are formally initiated, should bear the

mark of Christ to the world. The rite articulates the four ways disciples are formed during the

Period of the Catechumenate, discussed below.18 The fourth way emphasizes the importance of

an apostolic way of life, stating that “[s]ince the Church’s life is apostolic, catechumens should

also learn how to work actively with others to spread the Gospel and build up the Church by the

witness of their lives and by professing their faith” (75.4). Christian service is one of the ways

that catechumens can experience this. The rite clearly emphasizes that while good instruction

presents the teachings of the Church, it also “enlightens faith, directs the heart toward God,

fosters participation in the liturgy, inspires apostolic activity,19 and nurtures a life completely in

accord with the spirit of Christ” (78, emphasis added). The formation envisioned not only

informs the mind of the maturing disciple, but also their actions in the world. An active

experience of Christian service is ideal for this type of instruction.

18. The four ways of formation in the period of the catechumenate are articulated in paragraph 75. See page 37 of this dissertation for an overview of the four ways of formation.

19. While apostolic activity could refer to both witness and mission of charity, the definition of apostolic in paragraph 75 focuses primarily on spreading the Gospel and building up the Church, one aspect of which is charity.

The praenotanda of the RC gives an explanation of the theology of confirmation with

abundant references to the importance of witnessing for Christ to the world. The presence of the

bishop as the ordinary minister of confirmation “shows the close bond that joins the confirmed to

the Church and the mandate received from Christ to bear witness to him before all” (7). Another

sign of the importance of witness is the fact that conferences of bishops may set an appropriate

age for confirmation in order to “implant deeply in the lives of the faithful complete obedience to

Christ the Lord and a firm witnessing to him” (11). For adults being confirmed, the goal of

catechesis beforehand is “to achieve formation toward both bearing witness by Christian living

and carrying on the apostolate” (12). Being a witness for Christ to the world is both a goal of

formation and a requirement for discipleship. The Christian service aspect of witness is indicated

with texts of spreading the Gospel with the witness of life, inspiring apostolic activity through

catechesis, bearing witness to Christ before all, and carrying on the apostolate.

Prayers

From the time of entrance into the catechumenate to the reception of confirmation during

the Easter Vigil, several reminders are given in the RCIA as to the importance of being a witness

for Christ to the world. In the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens, there is an

optional signing of the senses.20 During this formal beginning of the catechumenate the minister prays that “Christ may be known in the works which you do” (56) as the hands of the candidates

20. Though this portion of the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumenate is optional, paragraph 75.3 stresses the importance of liturgical rites in the formation of catechumens. The more fully the catechumens are immersed into the prayers and rituals of the Church, the more these rites can help to “strengthen them with God’s blessing” (75.3).

are signed.21 At the Rite of Sending Catechumens for Election, marking the beginning of the

final stage of preparation before Easter, the celebrant asks the godparents if the catechumens and

candidates have “given evidence of their conversion by the examples of their lives” (112).22

Next, at the Second Scrutiny during Lent, there is a prayer that the elect “prove to be staunch and

fearless witnesses to the faith” (168.A).

An important reference to being a witness for Christ occurs during the reception of the

sacraments at the Easter Vigil. The invitation just before the celebration of confirmation connects

the reception of confirmation to being a witness for Christ. The celebrant speaks to those about

to be confirmed, saying, “[t]he promised strength of the Holy Spirit, which you are to receive,

will make you more like Christ and help you to be witnesses to his suffering, death, and

resurrection” (233).23 These newly initiated and received members, and in fact all fully initiated members of the Church, are called to live the suffering, death, and resurrection of Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit so as to bring others to faith. The self-sacrificial nature of Christian service is one of the ways that this is lived out.

The prayers of the RC also speak of the importance of being a witness. The prayer over the people at the end of the RC prays “May they never be ashamed to proclaim to all the world

21. This text was prepared for use specifically in the dioceses of the United States of America as indicated by the designation “USA” in the margin. See “Foreword: Christian Initiation of Adults” which states, “[r]ites and texts prepared specifically for use in the dioceses of the United States of America are designated ‘USA’ in the margin”.

22. The same prayer is used in the combined rite Parish Celebration for Sending Catechumens for Election and Candidates for Recognition by the Bishop (538) when both unbaptized catechumens and previously baptized candidates are present.

23. The same prayer is used in the combined rite Celebration at the Easter Vigil of the Sacraments of Initiation and of the Rite of Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church (589), and is addressed to both the newly baptized and the newly received.

Christ crucified” (33). One opening prayer option for the Rite of Confirmation Outside Mass

prays “send your Holy Spirit to make us witnesses before the world to the Good News

proclaimed by Jesus Christ, our Lord” (35). The witness aspect of Christian life is shown in texts that reference making Christ known through works, giving evidence of conversion through the example of their lives, being fearless witnesses to the Good News of Christ’s suffering, death, and resurrection, and proclaiming to all the world Christ crucified.

Intercessions

The RCIA, RBC, and RC all include at least one intercession that shows the importance of being a witness for Christ to the world. During the optional Sending of the Catechumens for

Election, one intercession prays “[t]hat these catechumens may share with others the joy they have found in their friendship with Jesus” (114).24 Two other references from the RCIA also

include the entire community in the prayer. During the Second Scrutiny, the assistant minister

leads the prayer “that all of us, by the example of our lives, may become in Christ the light of the

world” (167.B). During the Third Scrutiny, the intercessions pray “that all of us may walk in the

newness of life and show to the world the power of the risen Christ” (174.B). The RBC includes the intercession “make them [the baptized] your faithful followers and witnesses to your gospel”

(47). The RBC list of alternate intercessions includes a prayer that the baptized “always and

24. Similar intercessions are used during the Rite of Sending the Candidates for Recognition by the Bishop and for the Call to Continuing Conversion (442) as well as the Parish Celebration for Sending Catechumens for Election and Candidates for Recognition by the Bishop (543). These rites are all optional, but paragraph 75.3 stresses the importance of liturgical rites in the formation of catechumens. The more fully the catechumens are immersed into the prayers and rituals of the Church, the more these rites can help to “strengthen them with God’s blessing” (75.3).

everywhere give witness to [God] by the way they live” (219). Similarly, in the RC the newly

confirmed are prayed for, “that they give witness to Christ by lives built on faith and love” (30).

The intercessions of the Church pray for and indicate the importance of the Christian service

aspect of witness through texts of sharing with others the joy of friendship with Christ, becoming

in Christ the light of the world, showing the world the power of the risen Christ, being witnesses

to the gospel, and giving witness to Christ.

Scripture

Being a witness for Christ to the world is often reiterated in the Scripture passage options

for the RCIA, RBC, and RC. At the Easter Vigil, the Gospel reading is always a story of the

resurrection of Jesus (Lectionary, 41). In each of the Evangelists’ version of this event prescribed for the Easter Vigil, the women who find the empty tomb are either told to go and tell the other disciples or they do go and tell the other disciples that Jesus is risen.25 The great commission is another important example. Matthew’s version (28:18-20) is one of the Gospel options in the

RBC (205). In this passage after the resurrection, Jesus tells his disciples, “Go, therefore, and

make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the

holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you” (Mt 28:19-20a NAB). This

same reading is among the options for initiation apart from the Easter Vigil in the RCIA

(Lectionary, 755.2). Another option (Lectionary, 755.5) is the parallel story from Mark’s Gospel

25. Matthew 28:7 reads “Then go quickly and tell his disciples, ‘He has been raised from the dead, and he is going before you to Galilee; there you will see him.’ Behold, I have told you.” Mark 16: 7 reads “But go and tell his disciples and Peter, ‘He is going before you to Galilee; there you will see him, as he told you.’” Luke 24:9 reads “Then they returned from the tomb and announced all these things to the eleven and to all the others.”

(Mk 16:15-16, 19-20) where Jesus tells his disciples “Go into the whole world and proclaim the

gospel to every creature” (Mk 16:15 NAB). Disciples of all ages are called to share their faith

with others.

Two of the possible readings for the RC address the call of witnessing Christ to others.

In a reading from Acts of the Apostles 1:3-8 (RC, 62.1), Jesus tell his disciples right before the

ascension, “you will receive power when the holy Spirit comes upon you, and you will be my

witnesses in Jerusalem, throughout Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8

NAB). An option from John’s Gospel (15:18-21, 26-27, RC, 65.11) gives a similar

understanding of receiving the Holy Spirit and then being a witness of Christ to the world. Jesus

tells his disciples, “When the Advocate comes whom I will send you from the Father, the Spirit

of truth that proceeds from the Father, he will testify to me. And you also testify, because you

have been with me from the beginning” (Jn 15:26-27 NAB). The graces of the sacraments are

not merely for the individual who celebrates them, but are also meant to be shared with the

world.

The Old Testament and responsorial psalm selections can also be a rich source of

motivation to witness Christ to the world. During the Presentation of the Creed in the RCIA

(Lectionary, 748), the elect hear how the Israelites are commanded to love God and are then told

to “Take to heart these words which I [the LORD] command you today. Keep repeating them to your children. Recite them when you are at home and when you are away, when you lie down and when you get up” (Dt 6:6-7 NAB). Psalm 22 also tells of sharing faith in God down through

the generations. Among the verses of the psalm prescribed for the RC (63.1) are the following:

“Then I will proclaim your name to my brethren; in the assembly I will praise you…. I will offer

praise in the great assembly; my vows I will fulfill before those who fear him…. The generation

to come will be told of the Lord, that they may proclaim to a people yet unborn the deliverance

you have brought” (Ps 22: 23, 26, 32 NAB). The RC also includes Psalm 96 as an option (63.3),

which proclaims “Sing to the LORD, bless his name; proclaim his salvation day after day. Tell his

glory among the nations; among all peoples, his marvelous deeds” (2-3 NAB). Praying the

responsorial psalms may help to instill in the candidates and the community the important

message of witnessing for Christ to the world. The Christian service aspect of witness is

articulated in the Scriptural texts about telling others about the risen Christ, making disciples of

all nations, being witnesses to the ends of the earth, testifying to Jesus, and telling about God to

family and the nations.

Mission of Charity

One aspect of being a witness for Christ to the world is through love of neighbor and

service to others. To live as a Christian means to serve like Christ and to share His concern for

others. The mission of charity is the call of the faithful to participate in the life and mission of the

Church in living out Jesus’s commandment of love. It includes acts of love and justice within the

Church and toward the greater community of humanity. The mission of charity aspect of

Christian service is notably emphasized throughout the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers,

intercessions, and Scripture options in the RCIA, RBC, and RC. It will be demonstrated that the mission of charity aspect of Christian service closely aligns with the purpose and effects of the

RCIA and sacraments of baptism and confirmation to love God and love neighbor. Throughout

the entire Christian journey, the Church is continually calling to mind that her members, both old

and new, are called to a mission of charity, following in the footsteps of Christ.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

Of all the periods of the RCIA, the Period of the Catechumenate has the greatest

emphasis on catechesis; thus this is where the most explicit references linking Christian service

themes and formation occur. Paragraph 75 of the rite outlines four ways in which the

catechumens’ Christian dispositions are brought to maturity through training in the Christian life.

The first is a suitable catechesis which is gradual and complete in its coverage of dogmas of the

Church and the mystery of salvation (75.1). The second is to imitate the Christian way of life that

the community animates (75.2). The third is formation through suitable liturgical rites which

help the catechumens along in their journey of faith (75.3). The fourth is learning to join in the

Church’s apostolic mission (75.4). The second way, imitating the Christian way of life, is

particularly important in linking formation with actions such as love of neighbor through

Christian service. It expands the formation process from merely learning about the faith to

include an active experience of living the faith. During the Period of the Catechumenate, the

catechumens “already share through faith in the mystery of Christ’s death and resurrection”

(75.2). The result is a “progressive change in outlook and conduct” (75.2), and the catechumens

are expected to begin living a life of discipleship prior to celebrating the sacraments of initiation.

Therefore, a vital aspect of preparation for initiation is to practice being Christian. Imitating the

Christian way of life following the example of the community includes learning “to practice love

of neighbor” (75.2). The catechesis covering the teachings of the Church naturally flows into and

includes the practice of living out a Christian way of life and encountering Christ through service

to others. Without this experience of living the faith and serving others, the formation process is

incomplete.

Once the sacraments of initiation are celebrated, the RCIA emphasizes the importance of

loving action in the world during the Period of Postbaptismal Catechesis or Mystagogy. As stated previously, mystagogy “is a time for the community and the neophytes together to grow in deepening their grasp of the paschal mystery and in making it part of their lives through meditation on the Gospel, sharing in the eucharist, and doing works of charity” (244, emphasis

added). The process of learning the life of discipleship through acting as a disciple is now intensified as the newly initiated fully participate in the prayer, sacramental, and service-centered life of the community. Service can be seen as an integral aspect to the formation that continues after initiation is complete. The mission of charity aspect of Christian service is demonstrated through the texts that focus on the practice of the love of neighbor and doing works of charity.

Prayers

The prayers of the RCIA, RBC, and RC are a reminder that faith includes a mission of charity which is actively lived through service to others. The First Acceptance of the Gospel in

the RCIA occurs during the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens. In option C for Candidates’ First Acceptance of the Gospel, the celebrant exhorts the catechumens, “strive to pattern your life on the teachings of the Gospel and so to love the Lord your God and your neighbor” (52.C, emphasis added). Later during the catechumenate, the Minor Exorcisms include a prayer that the catechumens “put into practice [God’s] command of love” (94.C).

These texts indicated that one of the aims of the catechesis in the RCIA is to form disciples who

put into practice the law of love of God and neighbor taught by Christ.

While the RCIA is primarily intended for unbaptized persons called to baptism, it also

includes rites for baptized but uncatechized adults26 as well as for adults baptized in other

Christian denominations who seek reception into the full communion of the Catholic Church. For

these already baptized individuals, a Call to Continuing Conversion is celebrated at the

beginning of Lent. The intense Lenten journey to the Easter sacraments begins with a

reaffirmation and commitment to their baptismal promises. The celebrant questions the sponsors

regarding their candidates’ preparedness for full communion in the Church. In the last question

during the Affirmation by the Sponsors (and Assembly), the sponsors are asked if the candidates

have “advanced in a life of love and service to others” (453 and 556).27 In addition to listening

attentively to instruction, reflecting on the tradition of the Church, and joining in prayer, those

seeking to complete their initiation or full communion with the Catholic Church are expected to

live out their baptism through love of neighbor.

The RBC contains one prayer reference to the service of God and neighbor. In the

Reception of the Children, the parents make a profession of faith for their child with the understanding the child will be raised in the faith. Therefore, the parents are asked if they

26. Baptized but uncatechized adults refers to those who were baptized as Roman Catholics as infants “but did not receive further catechetical formation nor, consequently, the sacraments of confirmation and eucharist” (400). See RCIA paragraphs 400-410 for the full explanation.

27. Paragraph 453 refers to the Rite of Calling the Candidates to Continuing Conversion, which is celebrated when there are no catechumens present. Paragraph 556 refers to when there are candidates and catechumens present and the Celebration of the Rite of Election of Catechumens and of the Call to Continuing Conversion of Candidates who are Preparing for Confirmation and/or Eucharist or Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church is used.

40 understand their obligation “to bring them up to keep God’s commandments as Christ taught us, by loving God and our neighbor” (39). The commitment to raise their child in the faith is a commitment to love God and neighbor.

The RC’s effect of empowering those to be confirmed to live out their faith through service is best described in the sample homily of the rite. The confirmandi are told to “[b]e active members of the Church, alive in Jesus Christ. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit give your lives completely in the service of all, as did Christ, who came not to be served but to serve” (22).

The experience of Christian service before and after confirmation helps the Christian fulfill the divine call to love with the help of the Holy Spirit. In each of these examples from the rites, the prayers indicate that a major effect of the RCIA and the sacraments of baptism and confirmation is a life of loving service. The mission of charity aspect of Christian service is heavily stressed in the prayers, including texts with an often repeated call to love your neighbor and put into practice God’s command of love. In addition, service is specifically called for with texts of a life of love and service and the command to serve as did Christ.

Intercessions

The intercessions written for the various liturgical rites of the RCIA pray for the integration of the mission of charity into the faith life of the catechumens, candidates, sponsors, and the whole community. These prayers begin at the Rite of Acceptance and Rite of Welcoming and continue through the season of Lent, leading up to the celebration of the Easter Vigil.

Through the intercessions, the community frequently prays that those seeking the sacraments of initiation will live out their faith through service of others. One example of this is the

intercession during the Rite of Acceptance asking that the catechumens’ “hearts and ours may become more responsive to the needs of others” (65). The Rite of Welcoming, the corresponding ceremony for uncatechized adults and for baptized adults seeking reception into the full communion of the Catholic Church, also includes the same intercession (430 and 526).28

Intercessions with an emphasis on putting others first occur several times during the

season of Lent. During the Rite of Sending the catechumens and candidates to the Rite of

Election, the parish community prays that the catechumens and candidates “learn to put others

first” (114, 442 and 543).29 Then, at the Rite of Election of the catechumens in the presence of

the bishop, the diocesan church prays that the catechumens “may renounce self and put others

first” (134.B). The same prayer is offered when candidates are present for the Call to Continuing

Conversion (558.B).30 The optional Rite of Election or Enrollment of Names used for children who have reached catechetical age also includes the intercession that they “learn to put others first” (287). In addition, during the Second Scrutiny for uncatechized adults, one intercession prays that they “renounce self and put others first” (469). These prayers indicate that being responsive to the needs of others by putting others first is an integral aspect of living out the

Christian faith.

28. Paragraph 430 is part of an optional Rite of Welcoming the Candidates for uncatecheized adults seeking confirmation and eucharist. Paragraph 526 refers to the Celebration of the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of Catechumens and of the Rite of Welcoming Baptized but Previously Uncatechized Adults who are Preparing for Confirmation and/or Eucharist or Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church used when both catechumens and candidates are present.

29. The references refer to situations where there are catechumens only (114), candidates only (442), and both catechumens and candidates (543).

30. Paragraph 558.B refers to the combined rite when both catechumens and candidates are present.

The intercessory prayers for the catechumens and candidates to live out their faith

through love of neighbor extend also to the godparents, sponsors and the entire community. The

Rite of Election includes an intercession that the whole community may “renew [themselves]

through self-denial and works of holiness” (134.A).31 An intercession for the Rite of Election for

children prays that the community may “grow this Lent in our love for God and neighbor” (287).

The First Scrutiny for catechumens includes an intercession asking that the whole community may “persevere in our good works” (153.A). The same prayer is used during the Penitential Rite

(Scrutiny) for candidates (469). The prayer of the Church as evidenced in the intercessions throughout RCIA is that her members, new and old, continue to live out the Gospel through their love of neighbor. The mission of charity aspect of Christian service is strengthened by the numerous texts of being responsive to the needs of others, putting the needs of others first, works of holiness, love of neighbor, and persevering in good works.

Scripture

There are numerous Scripture passage options from the RBC, RC, and RCIA that proclaim the Christian responsibility for a mission of charity through love of neighbor and service to others. Both Matthew and Mark’s version of the greatest commandment given by

Jesus are among possible Gospel proclamations for the RBC (204 and 208, respectively). In the

Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is asked which commandment is the greatest and responds, “You shall love the Lord, your God, with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is

31. The same prayer is used in paragraph 558.A during the Call to Continuing Conversion for baptized adults seeking reception into the full communion of the Catholic Church.

the greatest and the first commandment. The second is like it: You shall love your neighbor as

yourself. The whole law and the prophets depend on these two commandments” (22:37-40

NAB). The Gospel of Mark reveals that those who love are not far from the kingdom of God.

The scribe said to [Jesus], “Well said, teacher. You are right in saying, ‘He is One and there is no other than he.’ And ‘to love him with all your heart, with all your understanding, with all your strength, and to love your neighbor as yourself’ is worth more than all burnt offerings and sacrifices.” And when Jesus saw that [he] answered with understanding, he said to him, “You are not far from the kingdom of God.” (Mk 12:32-34a NAB)

Loving God and neighbor brings one close to Christ and His kingdom.

Two of the Scripture passage options in the RC relate to the biblical exhortation of love of neighbor. One option from the book of Isaiah (RBC 61.3) ties anointing directly to the love of neighbor: “The spirit of the Lord God is upon me, because the Lord has anointed me; He has sent

me to bring good news to the afflicted, to bind up the brokenhearted, to proclaim liberty to the

captives, release to the prisoners, to announce a year of favor from the Lord and a day of vindication by our God; to comfort all who mourn” (61:1-2 NAB). This reminds the confirmandi of their commission to go out to the world and serve others. Among the many gospel pericopes prescribed for the rite is Luke 4:16-22a (RBC, 65.5). In this Gospel, Jesus reads the previously mentioned passage from Isaiah and declares, “Today this scripture passage is fulfilled in your hearing” (Lk 4:21 NAB). As the Church continues the mission of Jesus through the power of the

Holy Spirit, the newly confirmed are reminded of their call to love in a similar manner as Christ.

They need to help those who are afflicted physically, emotionally, or spiritually. They need to reach out to those who are captive to addiction, financial distress, or loneliness. God’s justice,

love, and mercy to the world must shine through Christ’s disciples. Those that are called to

follow Christ as a way of life are called to love and fulfill this passage as He did.

Many of the Scripture passages suggested in the RCIA reinforce the necessity of love of

neighbor. RCIA Appendix II includes scripture acclamations for use in Celebrations of the Word

of God during the Period of the Catechumenate.32 These acclamations are typically used before the reading of the Gospel. One of the acclamations is from the First Letter of John, “God is love.

Those who live in love, live in God” (4:16, see RCIA, 595.3), which reinforces the Christian responsibility to love one’s neighbor and links love directly to one’s relationship with God. St.

Paul’s well-known reflection on love (1 Cor. 12:31-13:13) is an option for the Reception of

Baptized Christians into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church (Lectionary, 761.2).

Initiation apart from the Easter Vigil includes two readings that point to doing good. A reading

from the Letter to the Hebrews (Lectionary, 752.11) speaks of the importance of sincere worship

and staying close to the community: “we must consider how to rouse one another to love and

good works” (10:24 NAB). The story in John’s Gospel about the vine and the branches

(Lectionary, 755.12), noted above, also serves well to reinforce the significance of doing good works: “I am the vine, you are the branches. Whoever remains in me and I in him will bear much fruit, because without me you can do nothing…. By this is my Father glorified, that you bear much fruit and become my disciples” (15:4, 8 NAB). During the Period of Mystagogy, on the fourth Sunday of Easter Year A, the newly initiated and the whole community are reminded in the First Letter of Peter (Lectionary, 49) to persevere in good works even through difficulty: “if

32. See paragraphs 81-89 for more on Celebrations of the Word of God during the Period of the Catechumenate.

you are patient when you suffer for doing what is good, this is a grace before God” (2:20b NAB).

Discipleship bears fruit through love and service, essentials for Christian life.

In addition to love of neighbor through charity and good works, the call to justice is

explicit in the reading options of the RCIA. Loving neighbor must go beyond direct charity and

strive to create a more just society. Psalm 33 focuses on justice and is one of the responsorial

psalms prescribed for the Easter Vigil (Lectionary, 41). It also is proclaimed on the fifth Sunday

of Easter during year A (Lectionary, 52), which is particularly suitable for the Period of

Postbaptismal Catechesis and Mystagogy (see RCIA, 247). Psalm 33 proclaims, “For the LORD’s word is upright; all his works are trustworthy. He loves justice and right. The earth is full of the mercy of the Lord” (4-5 NAB). This song extols the goodness of the Lord and indicates that following Christ as a way of life includes loving neighbor by working for the justice that God represents. The mission of charity aspect of Christian service is evident in the Scripture option

texts of love of neighbor as yourself, doing good works as Christ did, living in love, bearing

fruit, and God’s love of justice.

Summary

As evidenced in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions, and Scriptural options of

the RCIA, RBC, and RC there is clearly an emphasis on forming disciples who follow Christ as a

way of life, witness Christ to the world, and act on the mission of charity. Discipleship, witness, and mission of charity are integral components of Christian service. One goal of sacramental preparation is forming disciples who live out their faith in the service of others. One of the

necessary ingredients to help form Christians who serve others is the example of a community of

46 disciples who witness Christ to the world and live the mission of charity. The next section will present the evidence throughout the RCIA, RBC, and RC that shows the importance of the example of the community, sponsors, parents, and godparents in these important areas.

The Importance of Setting an Example of Discipleship, Witness, and Mission of Charity

Reading the rites through the lens of Christian service demonstrates that discipleship, witness, and mission of charity are emphasized in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions, and Scripture options of the RCIA, RBC, and RC. In addition to these important qualities in those preparing for and celebrating the sacraments, the rites also emphasize the importance of the community before, during, and after the celebration of the sacraments. Coming to faith is not simply an individual experience and the rites clearly show that it is the example of other Christians that fosters faith. This is true especially when forming disciples who follow

Christ as a way of life, witness for Christ to the world, and love their neighbor. The following section presents the many places in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, and intercessions of the

RCIA, RBC, and RC that emphasize the importance of the community, sponsors, parents, and godparents setting examples of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity for those preparing to celebrate the sacraments.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

As discussed in the overview of the RCIA, RBC, and RC above, the community has an important role in the formation process and this is especially true in terms of their example of important aspects of Christian life and service. For instance, at the Rite of Election or Enrollment

of Names the whole community is called to give good example to the elect, especially at this stage in the journey (RCIA, 129). Within the community, certain members play a unique role in

the initiation rites. The parents are to fulfill a fundamental role in the formation of their

children.33 In the RCIA, RBC, and RC, sponsors and godparents are also of vital importance.

The RCIA describes that the role of the godparent is “to show the candidates how to practice the

Gospel in personal and social life, to sustain the candidates in moments of hesitancy and anxiety,

to bear witness, and to guide the candidates’ progress in the baptismal life” (11). Similar

expectations are placed on godparents for infant baptism (CI, 8) and on sponsors for confirmation (RC, 5).34 The code of Canon law specifically uses the term “apprenticeship” for

the period of the catechumenate (788.1). For an effective apprenticeship to take place, this term

suggests an active faith on the part of the sponsor and godparents as well as the catechumen. The

idea of catechumen and sponsor or godparent together sharing the experience of living out the

Christian life and having the catechumen learn from his or her sponsor or godparent lends itself well to the use of Christian service during periods of formation; serving others is often learned through the example of others. These texts refer to the importance of the community in fostering

33. For children who have reached catechetical age, the RCIA states, “[i]t is to be hoped that the children will also receive as much help and example as possible from the parents” (254.2). The RBC states that “parents have a ministry and a responsibility in the baptism of infants more important than those of the godparents” and lists the many responsibilities of the parents (5). The RC states that “[parents] are to perform and gradually increase a spirit of faith in the children and … prepare them for the fruitful reception of the sacraments of confirmation and eucharist” (3).

34. Paragraph 8 of CI states, “[i]n the baptism of children, as well, godparents are to be present in order to represent both the expanded spiritual family of the one to be baptized and the role of Church as mother. As occasion offers, godparents help the parents so that children will come to profess the faith and live up to it.” Paragraph 5 of the RC states, “sponsors bring the candidates to receive the sacrament, present them to the minister for the anointing, and will later help them to fulfill their baptismal promises faithfully under the influence of the Holy Spirit whom they have received.”

the discipleship aspect of service-learning through texts of giving good example and showing

candidates how to practice the Gospel in personal and social life.

Prayers

The prayers in the RBC and RCIA show the importance of an example of Christian

service from parents, godparents, sponsors, and the whole community. In the RBC, the parents

are asked if they understand their obligation “to bring them [their children] up to keep God’s

commandments as Christ taught us, by loving God and our neighbor” (39). The duty of the

parents to instill faith in their child is returned to in the blessing of the mother and father at the

end of the liturgy. The blessing prays that the parents be “the best of teachers, bearing witness to

the faith by what they say and do” (70A). Passing on the faith to children as they grow

necessitates the important components of Christian service of love of neighbor and witness

through the example of their lives.

Though the parents take a central role in the RBC, the sponsors35 and their example of

Christian service are integral in the RCIA rites for the unbaptized, for baptized and uncatechized

non-Catholics seeking reception into the full communion of the Catholic Church, and for

baptized but uncatechized Catholics. At the Rite of Calling the Candidates to Continuing

Conversion for both previously baptized but uncatechized adult Catholics and baptized adults

35. The title sponsor is used for those journeying in the early stages of the RCIA with the unbaptized (who later choose godparents for the sacraments and the rest of their life). Sponsor is also used for those standing up with candidates for confirmation in both the RC and the RCIA rites for uncatechized adults and baptized adults seeking reception into the full communion of the Catholic Church, as is the case in this reference.

and children of catechetical age seeking reception into the full communion of the Catholic

Church, the bishop addresses the sponsors by saying, “[s]ponsors, continue to support these candidates with your guidance and concern. May they see in you a love for the Church and a sincere desire for doing good” (454 & 557).36 The role of mentorship includes living out the faith

through doing good, such as Christian service. The Rite of Election for children includes a prayer

which calls the parents, godparents, and the whole assembly to encourage and support the

catechumens on their journey. Then, the celebrant continues by saying “above all, be a good

model to them of Christian living so that by your example they may grow deeper in the faith of

the Church” (285). The rites recognize that it takes the good example of many people throughout

the community to foster the practices of Christian life and service in those being prepared for the

sacraments of initiation. The discipleship aspect of Christian service is shown in the call for the

entire community to be good models of Christian living. The witness aspect is to be modeled by

parents as they witness to the faith by their actions. The mission of charity aspect is referred to in

the texts about bringing up the children to love God and neighbor and the sponsors exemplifying

their desire for doing good.

Intercessions

The intercessions written to be prayed by the whole community in the RCIA, RBC, and

RC show the importance of the parents, godparents, sponsors, and entire community leading the

36. The prayer is the same for the Rite of Calling the Candidates to Continuing Conversion when there are no unbaptized catechumens present (454) and the Celebration of the Rite of Election of Catechumens and of the Call to Continuing Conversion of Candidates who are Preparing for Confirmation and/or Eucharist or Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church when unbaptized catechumens and baptized candidates are present (557).

way with examples of lives of Christian service through discipleship, witness, and mission of charity. During the RCIA this is evidenced particularly in the intercessions prayed during the intense formation of Lent. The Rite of Sending for catechumens and candidates all include the prayer that “their godparents may be living examples of the Gospel” (114, 442, and 543).37 At the Rite of Election the intercessions include the prayer that the whole community may “renew

[themselves] through self-denial and works of holiness” (134.A), that “each day of Lent they may do something in [God’s] honor,” and that “they may renounce self and put others first”

(134.B). The First Scrutiny includes intercessions that the community may “persevere in [their] good works” (153.A) and that “all of us may learn from Christ to do the Father’s will in love”

(153.B). Although specifically intended for the catechumens and candidates, the Lenten preparation and scrutinies call the whole community to be an example of discipleship and love of neighbor for those preparing for initiation and full communion in the Catholic Church.

The RBC and the RC focus on the good example of the parents and godparents of those receiving the sacraments. In the RBC, one intercession requests, “[m]ake the lives of their parents and godparents examples of faith to inspire these children” (47). Similarly, in the RC, an intercession offered “[f]or parents and godparents who led them in faith, that by word and example they may always encourage [the newly confirmed] to follow the way of Jesus Christ”

(30). The necessity of surrounding those who are growing in the faith with good examples before and after the sacraments is very evident in these rites. The intercession texts show the importance

of the example of the community in each aspect of Christian service. The discipleship aspect of

37. The references refer to situations where there are catechumens only (114), candidates only (442), and both catechumens and candidates (543).

Christian service is referred to in texts of godparents as living examples of the Gospel, doing

something in God’s honor, and learning from Christ to do the Father’s will. The example of

witness is stressed in texts directed to parents and godparents to be examples of faith to

candidates, encouraging them to follow Jesus through word and example. The example of

mission of charity is shown through texts expressing the importance of self-denial, works of

holiness, putting others first, and the entire community persevering in good works.

Prayer as Interconnected and Foundational for Christian Service

An examination of the texts of the RCIA, RBC, and RC has demonstrated that one of the purposes and effects of the RCIA and the sacraments of baptism and confirmation is to form disciples who follow Christ as a way of life, witness Christ to the world, and act on the mission of charity. Further, it was shown that an important way for disciples to be formed before and after the celebration of the sacraments is through the example of Christian living and service given by parents, godparents, sponsors, and the entire community of faith. One other underlying and significant component in the RCIA and RC is the close relationship between prayer and the aspects of Christian service. Christian service as practiced through discipleship, witness, and mission of charity needs to be intimately connected with the prayer and faith of the believer. As will be demonstrated, the connection between prayer and Christian service is apparent in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, and intercessions of the RCIA and RC as well as several of the

Scripture options of the RCIA.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

The explanation of the Period of the Catechumenate in the RCIA clearly expresses the

necessity of integrating the various aspects of living a Christian life. In articulating the ways of

pastoral formation, discussed above, the RCIA indicates that learning through participation in the

life of the community is essential. The catechumens’ formation includes the interrelated aspects

of learning to pray, to bear witness to the faith, and to practice love of neighbor with other

Christians:

As they become familiar with the Christian way of life and are helped by the example and support of sponsors, godparents, and the entire Christian community, the catechumens learn to turn more readily to God in prayer, to bear witness to the faith, in all things to keep their hopes set on Christ, to follow supernatural inspiration in their deeds, and to practice love of neighbor [mission of charity], even at the cost of self-renunciation. (RCIA, 75.2, emphasis added)

Here the connection between prayer and the themes of Christian service is clearly articulated.

Through this period of pastoral formation and guidance, catechesis is enhanced and disciples are

formed through an active Christian life of prayer, witness, and mission of charity. These aspects

are part of an integral whole in becoming a Christian disciple.

The RCIA passage quoted above also highlights the vital importance of the example of

the sponsors, godparents, and entire community in the comprehensive formation process. In

discussing the duration of the Period of the Catechumenate, the RCIA specifies it should be

sufficiently long enough for the conversion and faith of the catechumens to become strong

(76).38 The catechumens are called to an ongoing and ever deepening life of prayer, discipleship,

38. The RCIA indicates that there are many circumstances that affect the length of proper formation in the catechumenate and several years should be taken if necessary (76). No time period can

witness, and mission of charity. The RCIA states, “[b]y means of sacred rites celebrated at

successive times [the catechumens] are led into the life of faith [discipleship], worship [prayer],

and charity [mission of charity] belonging to the people of God” (76). The life of faith, worship,

and charity are intimately related and thus prayer should be at the heart of Christian service.

The RCIA contains other references to the multifaceted nature of instruction which links

prayer and the themes of Christian service. The document states that instruction “should be of a

kind that while presenting Catholic teaching in its entirety also enlightens faith, directs the heart

toward God [prayer], fosters participation in the liturgy [prayer], inspires apostolic activity

[witness], and nurtures a life completely in accord with the spirit of Christ [discipleship]” (78).

Prayer, witness, and discipleship, along with instruction, are connected in the process of

formation and the life of faith. The second step in the RCIA, Election or Enrollment of Names,

specifies that the catechumens are expected “to have developed a sufficient acquaintance with

Christian teaching as well as a spirit of faith [developed through a relationship with the Lord in

prayer] and charity [mission of charity]” (120).39 Prayer, vital to a spirit of faith, is directly connected to the mission of charity. The link of prayer and aspects of Christian service is also noted during the Period of Postbaptismal Catechesis or Mystagogy after the sacraments of initiation are celebrated. The RCIA states that this period “is a time for the community and the

be set a priori for this crucial process of formation (76). However, the National Statues for the Catechumenate in the U.S. states that the period of the catechumenate “should extend for at least one year of formation, instruction, and probation” (RCIA, Appendix III, 6). In practice, however, the RCIA process is typically on a school calendar schedule, lasting from September to the Easter Vigil the following year. This practice of conforming the conversion process to the calendar can often be a disservice to those on the journey of faith. 39. The acquaintance with Christian teaching and a spirit of faith and charity cannot often be equated with the completion of an RCIA program from September until the First Sunday of Lent as is often the case in practice at many parishes. See footnote 38 above.

neophytes together to grow in deepening their grasp of the paschal mystery and in making it part

of their lives through meditation on the Gospel [prayer], sharing in the eucharist [prayer], and

doing the works of mercy [mission of charity]” (244). Ongoing formation in the Christian life

includes related experiences of prayer and service in the context of the Christian community.

Formation and Christian living are best fostered when prayer is intimately related to the Christian

service aspects of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity.

The RC references the interrelated nature of faith and the themes of Christian service.

The praenotanda explains that the “giving of the Holy Spirit conforms believers more fully to

Christ [discipleship] and strengthens them so that they may bear witness to Christ for the

building up of his Body in faith [prayer] and love [mission of charity] (2, emphasis added).

Discipleship, witness, mission of charity, and faith are all connected in this one short explanation

of confirmation. As evidenced in these examples, the praenotanda and rubrics of the RCIA and

RC demonstrate the intimate relationship between prayer and Christian service with texts that

promote the multifaceted nature of Christian living and formation including prayer, discipleship,

witness, and mission of charity.

Prayers

The prayers of the RCIA also give strong references to the importance of linking prayer

and Christian service. The Rite of Christian Initiation of Children who have Reached

Catechetical Age explicitly connects prayer and service. During the optional40 Rite of Election or

40. The Rite of Election or Enrollment of names is integral to the RCIA, but is optional for children of catechetical age. The rite states that it may be celebrated “especially [for] those whose

Enrollment of Names, the parents and godparents are asked if the children have “taken part in the

community’s life of prayer and service” (283). Similarly, the Preparation of Uncatechized Adults

for Confirmation and Eucharist and the Reception of Baptized Christians into the Full

Communion of the Catholic Church emphasize the connection of prayer and service in Christian

discipleship. In the declaration of intent the candidates are exhorted to “join with us in a life of

prayer and service” (419).41 During the Easter Vigil, the invitation just before the celebration of

confirmation emphasizes the close connection between faith, discipleship, witness, and mission

of charity. The celebrant speaks to the confirmation candidates saying, “[t]he promised strength

of the Holy Spirit, which you are to receive, will make you more like Christ [discipleship] and

help you to be witnesses [witness] to his suffering, death, and resurrection. It will strengthen you to be active members of the Church [discipleship] and to build up the Body of Christ in faith

[prayer] and love [mission of charity]” (233, emphasis added).42 Confirmation encompasses a

life of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, rooted in faith and prayer. The bond of faith

and love, as well as prayer and service, are interrelated and foundational components of the

Christian life following confirmation.

catechumenate has extended over a long period of time” (277). Though optional, the right gives the children of catechetical age the full experience of the initiation process afforded adult catechumens and a prayerful start to the final stage of preparation leading up to the Easter Vigil.

41. The same exhortation is found in the Celebration of the Rite of Acceptance into the Order of the Catechumens and of the Rite of Welcoming Baptized But Previously Uncatechized Adults who are Preparing for Confirmation and/or Eucharist or Reception into the Full Communion of the Catholic Church (512) when both unbaptized catechumens and baptized candidates are present.

42. This same prayer is addressed to both the recently baptized and recently received when the combined rite is used (689).

Intercessions

An intercession in the RCIA as well as the RC reveals the importance of both prayer and

service in the life of a Christian. During the optional Sending of the Catechumens for Election,

the assisting minister prays “[t]hat our community, during this Lenten season, may grow in

charity [mission of charity] and be constant in prayer” (114).43 In addition to the close

connection of mission of charity with prayer, this intercession also highlights the importance of

the example of the community. In the RC, the first intercession prays for those confirmed, “that

they give witness to Christ by lives built on faith [prayer] and love [mission of charity]” (30,

emphasis added). Witness is supported by prayer and the mission of charity. These intercessions

show the important connection between prayer and the Christian service components of witness

and mission of charity by placing charity and prayer side by side as well showing the interrelated nature of witness, faith, and love.

Scripture

Two scripture readings that are prescribed for the RCIA point to the integration of prayer

and service. The letter to the Hebrews 10:22-25 is an option when initiation takes place apart

from the Easter Vigil (Lectionary, 752.11). The passage begins by describing the disposition

needed for prayer and quickly turns to the practical implication of love and service:

43. The same intercession is used during the Rite of Sending the Candidates for Recognition by the Bishop and for the Call to Continuing Conversion (442) as well as the Parish Celebration for Sending Catechumens for Election and Candidates for Recognition by the Bishop (543). See note 24 concerning the fact that these rites are optional.

Let us approach with a sincere heart and in absolute trust, with our hearts sprinkled clean from an evil conscience and our bodies washed in pure water. Let us hold unwaveringly to our confession that gives us hope, for he who made the promise is trustworthy. We must consider how to rouse one another to love and good works. (Heb 10:22-24 NAB)

The Acts of the Apostles reading proclaimed on the Second Sunday of Easter Year A

(Lectionary, 43) gives a glimpse into the life of the early Christian community, which includes both prayer and aspects of Christian service. It tells the story of how the early Christians

devoted themselves to the teaching of the apostles [discipleship] and to the communal life, to the breaking of the bread [prayer] and to the prayers. Awe came upon everyone, and many wonders and signs were done through the apostles [witness]. All who believed were together and had all things in common; they would sell their property and possessions and divide them among all according to each one’s need [mission of charity]. (Acts 2:42-45 NAB, emphasis added)

The pericope emphasizes that prayer and the Christian service aspects of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity are all important aspects of living the Christian life in community.

Faith, or prayer, and charity, or love, are listed side by side as integral components of discipleship five times throughout the RCIA and RC. It is stated that catechesis is to direct the heart toward God while inspiring catechumens to be a witness. The text also connects prayer – meditation on the Gospel, turning to God in prayer, and worship – to the mission of charity – service, love of neighbor, charity, doing works of mercy, and love of neighbor – as interrelated ways to form Christians. As indicated in the praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions, and

Scripture options, the connection of prayer and service needs to be kept at the forefront in discipleship formation.

Importance of Formation

Forming Christians to follow Christ as a way of life, witness Christ to the world, and act on the mission of charity is not an easy task. The rites identify the example of the parents, godparents, sponsors, and the entire community as well as the close connection of prayer and service as important building blocks of discipleship formation. In analyzing how Christian service can be used as a means of faith formation, it is also important to present the formation guidelines and requirements in the RCIA, RBC, and RC. These rites most often use the language of preparation and instruction for those who are to celebrate the RCIA and sacraments of baptism and confirmation, but also include the importance of spiritual formation, training, and the example of the sponsors. The praenotanda and rubrics of the RCIA, RBC, and RC each stresses the importance of developmentally appropriate and holistic formation of those planning to celebrate the sacraments, as well as of their parents and godparents.

Praenotanda and Rubrics

Several statements included in CI give the importance of formation surrounding the celebration of the sacraments. It requires preparation and instruction for adults entering the

Church as well as preparing parents and godparents of children being baptized “through appropriate pastoral guidance” (12,13). Further, CI states that “preparation for baptism and

Christian instruction are both of vital concern to God’s people, the Church, which hands on and nourishes the faith received from the apostles” (7). The Church’s duty to inspire all to a true and living faith is aided by “the pastoral instruction of catechumens, the preparation of the children’s

59 parents, the celebration of God’s word, and the profession of faith at the celebration of baptism”

(3). Instruction and preparation, including celebrations of God’s word, is important prior to the celebration of the initiation sacraments.

Because the RCIA is used to cover a wide variety of circumstances for those entering into the Church there is an emphasis on formation that is developmentally appropriate. The rite of

Christian Initiation of Children who have Reached Catechetical Age states that “[t]he process of initiation must be adapted both to their spiritual progress, that is, to the children’s growth in faith, and to the catechetical instruction they receive” (253). “Catechesis suited to their needs”

(401) is also specified for uncatechized adults preparing for confirmation and eucharist. For the reception of baptized Christians into full communion with the Catholic Church, the rite requires that they “receive both doctrinal and spiritual preparation, adapted to individual pastoral requirements” (477). Though the RCIA, RBC, and RC are universal, there is the important qualification that any formation process should to be adapted to the prior development and needs of the persons involved. The formation process and the rites celebrated are chosen in consideration of specific circumstances such as age, culture, previous catechesis, and other considerations. Formation is based on universal principles and guidelines and must be adapted to each situation.

The RBC places an emphasis on the formation of parents and godparents since the children being baptized have not reached catechetical age. However, the praenotanda to the rite states that infants who are baptized “must later be formed in the faith in which they have been baptized” (3). The community plays an important role in this formation, and in fact “the child has a right to the love and help of the community” (4). Parents need to be fully aware of the

implications of baptizing their child and thus “should prepare to take part in the rite with

understanding” (5.1) through suitable catechesis. If there is a high probability that the child will

not be instructed in the faith, baptism can be delayed (8.3).44 During the baptism the

responsibility of the parents to later teach the child the faith is clearly expressed twice. At the beginning of the rite (39) and before the renunciation of sin and profession of faith (56), parents are asked if they clearly understand their responsibility of training their child “in the practice of the faith.” Formation is essential to the process not only for the baptized, but also for the parents and godparents who play integral parts in the ongoing formation of the baptized.

The emphasis on formation is strong in the RC. The praenotanda explains that in

confirmation, believers are strengthened “so that they may bear witness to Christ for the building

up of his Body in faith and love” (2). For this to take root in those to be confirmed, preparation is crucial: “One of the highest responsibilities of the people of God is to prepare the baptized for confirmation” (3). Parents are primarily responsible for their children. Parents “are to form and

gradually increase a spirit of faith in the children and, at times with the help of catechism

classes,45 prepare them for the fruitful reception of the sacraments of confirmation and the

eucharist” (3). Sponsors are an important part of the process not only before the ceremony, but also in a role that is ongoing. Sponsors are called to “help [the confirmed] to fulfill their

44. It is important to note that the rite clearly states that baptism can be delayed and does not indicate that it can be denied. The delay is only until proper formation of the parents occurs and it can reasonably be hoped that the child will be instructed in the faith.

45. While the limited notion of catechesis being equated with learning the catechism is shown here, the Church’s understanding of catechesis has progressed beyond “catechism classes” since the promulgation of the RC in 1971. Chapter Two will further discuss the Church’s current teachings on catechetical formation.

baptismal promises faithfully under the influence of the Holy Spirit whom they have received”

(5). The praenotanda states that persons who are to celebrate confirmation must be properly

instructed, but it leaves details of this responsibility to the local conference of bishops (12).

One underlying aspect of formation in the RCIA, RBC, and RC that is open to the use of

Christian service in catechetical formation is the emphasis on holistic learning. One of the

documents referenced by the United States Bishops as an underlying conciliar document on the

catechumenate is Ad Gentes (hereafter AG), the Decree on the Church’s Missionary Activity.46

AG calls for “not simply a presentation of teachings and precepts, but a formation in the whole

of Christian life” (14). One aspect of this training is sharing in the apostolic ministry of the

Church. AG states “because the Church’s life is apostolic, catechumens should learn to take an

active share in the evangelization and the building up of the Church through the witness of their

life and the profession of their faith” (14). A holistic approach to sacramental preparation

embraces learning through action, including practices such as Christian service which fosters

discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, following the example of the community and

immersed in prayer.

Summary

The sacraments are gifts of God’s grace given through the Church, the Body of Christ, to

the People of God. The praenotanda and rubrics of the rites also make it clear that individuals

46. The National Conference of Catholic Bishops approved appendix III on November 11th, 1986, which included National Statues for the Catechumenate and Documentation of “underlying conciliar decisions and statements on the catechumenate.” See page 348 in The Rites of the Catholic Church. Vol. 1 Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990.

seeking to celebrate these sacraments as well as parents, godparents, and sponsors need to be

prepared to more fully participate in, and be open to, the grace awaiting those who will celebrate

them. This formation should take into consideration the development of the catechumens and candidates, as evidenced by the fact that there are a variety of rites and options to address the many circumstances of people who want to enter the Church. In addition, preparation needs to go beyond mere classroom instruction and include holistic formation.47 Full formation of those

celebrating the sacraments enables them to enter the life of Christ and the Church more

completely and continue toward a mature faith through prayer, service, and ongoing formation.

Conclusion

The praenotanda, rubrics, prayers, intercessions and Scriptural options of the RCIA,

RBC, and RC show the importance of catechesis and formation. The rites are meant to form

disciples who follow Christ as a way of life, witness Christ to the world, and act on the mission

of charity. These traits are integral as well to Christian service. The RCIA, RBC, and RC stress

the importance of the example set by the entire community of the Christian service aspects of

discipleship, witness, and mission of charity. In addition, the rites highlight the close relationship

of prayer and the Christian service component of mission of charity in forming disciples. The

rites call for preparation of everyone in the sacramental process through formation that is

developmentally appropriate and holistic.

47. Pope Francis spoke of the need to go beyond teaching information when he stated, “catechesis, as a component of the process of evangelization, needs to go beyond the simple realm of scholastics, in order to educate believers, beginning with children, to encounter Christ, living and working in his Church” (Francis, “Address”).

The close reading of RCIA, RBC, and RC through the lens of the discipleship, witness,

and mission of charity revealed a theology of Christian service. This theology is evident through

the terms used in the rites. Discipleship is stressed throughout with an emphasis on following

Christ, being like Christ, and living a Christ-like life. Seven references contain language that explicitly references following Christ. In addition, eight references use the language of being

more like Christ, being united, obedient, and conformed to Christ, or imitating God. Seven

references point to living a Christian life based on the Gospel.

The witness aspect of Christian service includes direct mention of being a witness,

participating in apostolic activity, and living a life that witnesses Christ to the world. The rites

explicitly reference being a witness to Christ ten times. The rites also mention eight times

apostolic activity such as spreading the Gospel, proclaiming the word, making disciples, and

sharing with others the joy of friendship with Jesus. The importance of the example of the

Christian life in spreading the Good News occurs six times.

The mission of charity is evident through the references to love of neighbor, service, and

putting others first. The rites explicitly mention love of neighbor eight times. Eleven references

include the terminology of serving others and doing good works. Six times throughout the rites

there occurs the importance of self-denial and putting others first. The praenotanda, rubrics,

prayers, intercessions, and Scripture options of the RCIA, RBC, and RC contain a balanced

emphasis on the themes of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity.

In fostering the Christian aspects of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, the rites

point to the necessity of the example of the entire community. Nine references illustrate the

importance of the community as a model of Christian living through the example of living faith.

Four other references in the intercessions pray for the sponsors, godparents, and entire community to live a life committed to doing God’s will, renouncing self, and doing good works.

Less prevalent but still significant in the RCIA, RBC, and RC are texts that link themes of prayer and service. Five references clearly state the close connection of faith and love or charity. In addition, the rites mention prayer and service side by side twice and prayer and charity once. Four other references place together various themes of prayer and worship with practices such as love of neighbor and works of mercy. The integrated nature of discipleship throughout the rites shows the importance of connecting faith and prayer with the themes of

Christian discipleship.

The RCIA, RBC, and RC also express the importance of formation for both those celebrating the sacraments as well as their parents, godparents, and sponsors. Mention of preparation before the celebration of the sacraments occurs six times. The preparation of parents and godparents is stated five times. Also, the importance of formation that is adapted to the spiritual and catechetical needs of those involved occurs three times. In addition, rites emphasize continued formation after the sacraments two times. The rites articulate the necessity of several important aspects of formation.

Beyond the general admonition of the importance of formation, there is little in the way of guidance on principles and methodologies of catechesis to implement the goal of forming a

Christian, or one preparing to become one, based on discipleship, witness, and mission of charity. The rites lack there details perhaps because of the Church’s rich tradition of catechesis.

In recent years, there has been a resurgence in this tradition, leading to the publication of catechetical documents guiding the ever important catechetical endeavor of the Church, both

65 universally and in the United States. In order to perceive how the Church understands the use of service in catechesis, the next chapter analyzes recent catechetical documents.

CHAPTER TWO

Service in the Catechetical Documents

Chapter One articulated a theology of service based on the rites of initiation of the

Catholic Church. The chapter identified Christian service’s underlying aspects of discipleship,

witness, and mission of charity using the introductions, prayers, intercessions, and Scripture

options of the RCIA, RBC, and RC. The text of these rites focus on discipleship described as

following Christ, being conformed to Christ, and living out the Gospel. The rites also supported

the witness aspect of Christian service by explicitly stating the importance of being a witness for

Christ and spreading the Gospel to others, especially through the example of life. The texts

support a mission of charity that emphasize love of neighbor, performing service and good

works, and putting others first. The rites also show an intimate connection of prayer and service

as a basis of Christian service, placing together themes of prayer and service, as well as faith and

love. In addition, the chapter presented the importance of preparation suited to the needs of those

involved in sacramental preparation. In integrating Christian service1 into the life of those

celebrating the sacraments, the example of Christian living by the entire community is vitally

important.

In addition to a liturgical theology of Christian service derived from the liturgical rites, it

is important to understand service from a catechetical viewpoint. The liturgical theology of

Christian service shows the importance of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity, as well

as an integration of prayer and service in the life of a Christian. A catechetical theology of

1. The term service used in the catechetical documents corresponds to Christian service, the term used in this work. Christian service is any selfless act of love motivated by Christ to help one’s neighbor and create a more just and loving society. Christian service can include both direct service and social advocacy, known as the two feet of social justice. See the introduction for a full explanation of Christian service. 66 67

Christian service will build on that foundation and explain the importance of incorporating service into the formation of Christian disciples. To fully utilize the transformative and catechetical potential of Christian service, it must be guided by the principles and practices of catechesis. Through an analysis of catechetical sources, this chapter presents the catechetical principles underlying the use of Christian service in the formation of Christian disciples and articulates guidelines of incorporating Christian service into catechesis based on the pedagogy of faith.

This chapter begins by presenting a general overview of the renewal in catechesis in the twentieth century. The chapter also outlines the development and background of four major catechetical directories that incorporate the renewal in catechesis over the past fifty years. Next, there is an articulation of the aspects of Christian service from Chapter One using texts from the catechetical documents, followed by a presentation of the principles and practices of catechesis that support and link Christian service to RCIA and confirmation preparation as well as general faith formation. This includes the similarities between the liturgical and catechetical documents as well as a major difference in emphasis in the area of charity and justice. Then, there is an account of passages in the catechetical directories that explicitly support using experiences of service in catechesis. A summary of the importance of experiences of service in Renewing the

Vision and the Catechism of the Catholic Church follows. Finally, the “pedagogy of faith” gives guidance on effectively incorporating Christian service into programs of catechetical formation.

Brief Overview of Twentieth-Century Catechetical Renewal

Throughout history the Church utilized a variety of approaches to catechesis and handing

on the faith from one generation to the next. The twentieth century saw major developments in

catechesis after 400 years of emphasizing memorization of a catechism. These developments

shaped the catechetical directories and other catechetical documents that were endorsed and

encouraged by the Magisterium of the Church during and after the Second Vatican Council. One

aspect of this renewal is a growing importance placed on service and social justice in catechesis.

The result in the renewal was a revolutionary shift in focus from methods, to the message and content, to the experience of the learner.

Efforts to discover better methods of passing on the faith to students mark the early stages of catechetical renewal. The method of memorizing question-and-answer catechisms was no longer adequate in forming people in the faith. New methods of catechesis were introduced early in the twentieth century in Germany by adapting learning theories from educational psychology (Dooley 1997, 147). One method that reached great prominence in the United States was the Munich method (Elias 2002, 210). The Munich method’s three steps “began with the presentation of a story, usually a biblical story, went on to explain the doctrine that interpreted the story, and then applied the doctrine to life” (Mongoven 2000, 44). Other methodologies were also developed, including using drama, drawing, and singing of hymns (44). However, the

United States Catholic bishops continued to concentrate on the Baltimore Catechism, revised in

1941, as the foundation of catechesis (42).

The next stage of renewal began with attention on the kerygmatic method. This method was concerned not only with the method of delivery but also with the content of the message.

Emphasizing the proclamation of the person and teachings of Christ based on the work of Josef

Jungmann (1889-1975), the kerygmatic method further separated catechesis from exclusive reliance on a catechism. Jungmann was an Austrian Jesuit who had a lasting influence on both the catechetical and liturgical reforms of the 20th century. He taught catechesis and liturgy at the

University of Innsbruck between 1925-1952, but was also highly influenced by his parish ministry as a young priest (Hofinger 1976, 351). Though Jungmann’s influential work was first published in 1936, it was not translated into English until 1962 under the title The Good News

Yesterday and Today. Jungmann also served as a peritus at the Second Vatican Council (352).

The kerygmatic method “placed an emphasis on proclaiming the Bible as salvation

history, initiating students into the mystery of Christ through the liturgy, and challenging

students to witness to their Christian faith in their individual and communal lives” (Elias 2002,

211). Presentation of the Christian faith expanded beyond the catechism to include four main

sources: liturgy, Scripture, Church teaching, and the witness of Christian living (Dooley 1997,

148). Dooley points out that “[t]he integration of these sources freed the catechetical endeavor

from its isolation. Catechesis was no longer limited to instruction and to the classroom” (148).

Jungmann also reintroduced the word catechesis that was used in the early Church and argued

that catechesis should be wholly Christ centered since it is Christ that is proclaimed (Mongoven,

2000, 46). With this shift in emphasis to the content of teaching, catechesis continued to evolve

and expanded from the narrow view of children reciting catechism answers in a classroom to a

broader understanding of an encounter with Christ, not only through the teachings of the Church,

but also through Scripture, liturgy, and the life of the Church.

Although the kerygmatic method was introduced in the United States by Johannes

Hofinger, a student of Jungmann, his greatest contribution to the catechetical renewal in general

was the initiation of the International Catechetical Study Weeks. Kate Dooley describes the

international meetings2 as “key moments in the evolution of catechesis” (148). The result of the

international study weeks was a shift of focus in catechesis from the kerygmatic approach to one

that was experiential and centered on the life of those being catechized.

One important international study week gathering was in Eichstätt in 1960. At the gathering, principles of the catechetical renewal were formulated. According to Dooley, the

principles had an influence on Vatican II documents as well as later catechetical documents

(149). The participants at the meeting also affirmed Jungmann’s fourfold presentation of faith

derived from the liturgy, the Bible, systematic teaching and the testimony of Christian living.

Another influential international gathering took place in Bangkok in 1962 and shifted the

primary focus in catechesis from children to adults (Mongoven 2000, 53-54).

In 1968, the final study week was held in Medellin where the discussion focused on the

experience and context of those being catechized. The participants highlighted the need to

acknowledge the human person in a particular historical context and living in a particular

communal setting and, as Dooley notes, recognize God’s activity in life, which is more than

mere proclamation of the Good News (149-150). This gathering brought together method and

2. There were a total of six International Study Weeks: Nijmegen, 1959; Eichstatt, 1960; Bangkok, 1962; Katigongo, 1964; Manila, 1967; Medellin, 1968. This dissertation only refers to the three study weeks that are pertinent to the scope of this project.

catechetical content and proposed that a diversity of catechetical forms be developed and

implemented to speak to the many life situations of students (Mongoven 2000, 57). The enduring

impact of the International Catechetical Study Weeks on the ministry of catechesis was an

integration of the message of faith and the experience and life of the catechized.

In the United States, Gabriel Moran (b. 1935) was a key leader in experiential religious

education and leading advocate for and promoter of attention to the experience of the ones

engaged in catechesis.3 He criticized the kerygmatic method for being too focused on the past,

weak in educational theory, and deficient in helping students reflect on God in the experience of

the students’ lives. For Moran, the basis of catechesis was his view of revelation as God’s self- communicating, self-giving, personal love (Mongoven 2000, 61). John Elias points out that

Moran’s lasting contribution was his broad vision of religious education, “including not only the activity of schools but also education within parishes, families, the workplace, and all of life itself” (211).

Berard Marthaler (1927-2014) also had great influence on the renewal of catechesis in the

United States.4 Marthaler was a member of Order of Friars Minor Conventional and taught at

The Catholic University of America between 1963-1997. He was the long-time editor of The

3. Moran wrote 24 books and over 200 scholarly articles, much of them devoted to religious education. Moran’s early influential works include Catechesis of Revelation and God Still Speaks: The Basis of Religious Education (Parmach).

4. Marthaler’s influential works include The Creed: The Apostolic Faith in Contemporary Theology and commentaries on the Church’s catechetical documents (Catechesis in Context: Notes and Commentary on the General Catechetical Directory Issued by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy; Sharing the Light of Faith: An Official Commentary; and Sowing Seeds: Notes and comments on the General Directory for Catechesis). He also wrote on the Catechism of the Catholic Church (The Catechism Yesterday and Today: The Evolution of a Genre) and numerous articles and book chapters on the topic of catechesis.

Living Light, the national catechetical journal. Though a scholar of history, Marthaler quickly

became a leader in the field of catechetics (Willhauck). Mongoven states that Marthaler “was

largely responsible for educating the United States Catholic Church about the General

Catechetical Directory” (1997, 136). Marthaler brought the term catechesis to the forefront in

the United States, making it the central concept of his socialization theory of religious education.

He maintained that catechesis takes place in the “interaction between the learner and all activities

and persons in their environment” (Elias 2002, 213). The adult catechumenate, restored in 1972 by the promulgation of the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults, is a good example of catechesis because it is “both an experiential experience through prayer and celebration as well as an educational process” (213). For Marthaler, the foundation of all catechesis is participating in the

liturgical rites and experiencing Christian values and lifestyles in community.

In summarizing the renewal movements of catechesis in the United States in the

twentieth century, Elias explains three stages, each based on worldwide developments. After a

time focusing on the methods of catechesis, there was a rise of “kerygmatic catechetics with

emphasis on the Bible and liturgy” (Elias 2002, 210). This was followed by the “introduction of

experiential approaches that attempted to meet psychological and developmental needs of

students” (210). The last phase Elias discusses is the “pluralism of approaches including peace

and justice issues, feminism, spirituality, culture and multiculturalism” (210). This short

summary shows a profound shift in focus from concerns about method and message to also being

aware of the experience and environment of the catechized. Mary Charles Bryce states that the

twentieth century broadened catechesis beyond books and children in a classroom (1981, 232).

Mongoven notes that “[t]he major achievement of the reform was that it brought about a

73 recognition of the essential unity between faith and life” (2000, 62). This opened the possibility for a variety of ideas and suggestions for catechesis. Active, experiential catechesis can be what

Bryce describes as “a benevolent agitator that is not content with being Christian, it is restlessly earnest in ever becoming Christian” (1981, 232). Over the last century, catechesis has developed from a narrow focus on memorizing content to an experiential and holistic goal of forming

Christian disciples in the context of life.

The twentieth-century developments in catechesis came at a time of general renewal in the Church. The efforts of those working to renew catechesis were affirmed and continued by the

Magisterium of the Church through the documents of the Second Vatican Council and to an even greater extent, the post-conciliar documents that explain the principles and practices of catechesis. The catechetical directories, in particular, demonstrate the importance of the experience of those being catechized and focus on charity and justice in living a life of Christian discipleship and service. Before taking a look at specific references from the relevant documents, a general overview of the catechetical directories and other pertinent documents will give the necessary background and context of the Church’s official documents guiding catechesis.

Brief Overview of the Catechetical Directories

Two documents promulgated by the Second Vatican Council had direct bearing on catechesis. The first was Gravissimum educationis (Declaration on Christian Education, hereafter GE), which directly addressed Christian education. The declaration is principally concerned with Catholic schools. However, GE does highlight the importance of catechetical instruction “which illumines and strengthens the faith, develops a life in harmony with the spirit

of Christ, stimulates a conscious and fervent participation in the liturgical mystery and

encourages people to take an active part in the apostolate” (GE, 4). GE was not considered a

great achievement of the council, but several keys shifts in catechesis are present. For example, one goal of Catholic education is the improvement of society in general, not just the individual

(Elias 2002, 208). Elias argues that GE “broadens the concept of the Catholic school and

Catholic education beyond the primary and secondary schools” to include adult education and special education (208). Overall, however, GE exhibits a school model mentality.

The second document from the Second Vatican Council that had a direct impact on catechesis was Christus Dominus (Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church, hereafter CD). In explaining the bishops’ role in the Church, CD mentioned catechesis when stating that preaching and catechetical instruction were to hold pride of place for bishops (CD,

14). CD described the nature and goals of catechesis, which include developing active faith in children, adolescents, and adults, using methods suited to the audience, and having instruction

based on “holy scripture, tradition, liturgy, and on the teaching authority and life of the church”

(CD, 14). The most direct and lasting influence of CD on catechesis was the call for the creation

of a directory of catechetical instruction (44).

The council’s decision to mandate a directory rather than a catechism was itself a

significant development. At the First Vatican Council, many of the bishops desired a universal

catechism to ensure unity of faith through uniformity in teaching. The vote was overwhelmingly

in favor of preparing a catechism, but the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War ended the

council before the decree could officially be promulgated. During the preparatory stage for the

Second Vatican Council, the question of a catechism was once again considered. Bishop Pierre

Marie Lacointe of Beauvais, France, proposed writing a directory of guidelines for catechesis

rather than a catechism. Ultimately, the preparatory commission agreed with Bishop Lacointe

that a universal catechism was not feasible because of the various contexts of catechesis around

the world (Mongoven 1997, 132-133). GE calls for “a directory for the catechetical instruction of

the Christian people in which the fundamental principles of this instruction and its organization

will be dealt with” (44). In deciding that a directory would be more beneficial than a catechism,

the council affirmed the movement away from sole reliance on a catechism.

The development of the directory was nearly a five-year process and affirmed many

aspects of the broader catechetical renewal. In June 1966, the Sacred Congregation for the

Clergy began work on the directory through a broad program of consultation. An initial draft was

written in May 1968. Four members of the commission who wrote the draft were involved in the

International Catechetical Study Weeks of the 1960s. The final edition of the General

Catechetical Directory5 (hereafter GCD) was promulgated in Latin on Easter Sunday, April 11,

1971 (Mongoven 1997, 134). Marthaler notes that “[t]he General Catechetical Directory was the

first document ever issued by Rome for the universal Church that treated catechesis in a

comprehensive and systematic way” (2008, 20). The GCD was a comprehensive analysis of

catechesis with its roots firmly planted in the Second Vatican Council and the catechetical

renewal earlier in the century. It helped widen the separation of catechesis from being equated

with a catechism, which was the primary means of catechesis since the Protestant Reformation.

As a new genre in catechesis, the directory offered directives and guiding principles for the context of catechesis while prior catechisms had focused solely on the content of faith. Among

5. The numbers in the following references to the GCD refer to paragraph numbers.

76 other innovations, the GCD incorporated insights from the social sciences on human development and maturity for a more holistic view of the person and faith (Horan 1996, 2-5).

The immediate purpose of the GCD was to aid in the production of national catechetical directories (GCD, Foreword). However, before completing a national directory, the United States

Catholic bishops published two other documents that touched on catechesis. The first was a 1972 adaptation of GE for the United States context titled To Teach as Jesus Did: A Pastoral Message on Catholic Education (hereafter TTJD). The document was meant to “reaffirm the Church’s commitment to the educational ministry in general and to Catholic schools in particular”

(Marthaler 2008, 43). Much like GE, TTJD focused on a school model of catechesis and mainly covered programs such as Catholic Schools, youth programs, and adult religious education (42).

However, TTJD does state the importance of joining the message revealed with the fellowship of the community and service to the Church and the world (TTJD 14 and 32).

The other document published by the United States Catholic bishops following the promulgation of the GCD was Basic Teachings for Catholic Religious Education (hereafter BT) in 1973. As the title implies, BT provides a “syllabus for religious education programs and textbooks” (Marthaler 2008, 48). The choice of the term religious education over the GCD’s language of catechesis shows that BT “emphasizes instruction and teaching of doctrine” over the formational aspect of education (48). Though the school model is still primary, one intriguing aspect of BT is the list of the Precepts of the Church (Appendix B). The list includes one more than in the Baltimore Catechism, adding “to join in the missionary spirit and apostolate of the

Church” (49). Participation in the mission of the Church, including serving others and working for justice, is here recognized and in later documents clearly stated as a key aspect of catechesis.

The project to create a national catechetical directory was begun by the United States

Catholic bishops in 1971 and completed in 1979 after a long process of consultation and

revisions. Three principles guided its completion: adapting the broad directives of the GCD to

the United States context; giving priority to pastoral concerns; and utilizing the widest

consultations possible (Marthaler 2008, 49). The committee was comprised of men and women,

clergy, religious, and lay people. Input from thousands of individuals around the country added

ideas and insights throughout the document’s four revisions. The directory was promulgated in

1979 under the title Sharing the Light of Faith: National Catechetical Directory for Catholics of

the United States6 (hereafter SLF). SLF covered a broad range of ages and circumstances of

catechesis. Like the GCD, SLF was holistic and developmental in its presentation of faith

formation, taking into consideration the diverse circumstances, cultures, and experiences present

within the United States context (Zaums 1996, 204-205).

SLF follows the presentation of catechesis in the GCD but also expands it. One of the

strengths of the directory is the “approach to catechesis that is holistic,” including the four major components of catechesis – message, community, worship, and service (Zaums 1996, 204). This closely aligns to the GCD. However, SLF expands the understanding of catechesis by adding an entire chapter on catechesis for social ministry (Marthaler 2008, 50). The addition of service and justice as a major aspect of catechesis is an important step. Mary Charles Bryce states that the chapter in SLF on catechesis for social ministry is “one of the outstanding chapters in the volume” (1983, 266). She attributes the chapter’s wisdom as coming from the 1971 Synod of

Bishops’ statement Justice in the World (269). However, Bryce also critiques SLF despite the

6. The numbers in the following references to SLF refer to paragraph numbers.

chapter on social justice. She detects “vagueness in terms of catechesis for social justice” and

feels the complexity of social justice tends to “obscure specific catechetical approaches” (1983,

271). Anne Marie Mongoven also sees much development between the GCD and SLF in terms of service and justice. She states that a weakness of the GCD is that it does not “emphasize the justice dimension of catechesis” (2000, 67). She believes that SLF provides a “major contribution” on the “nature of catechesis with its inclusion of an entire chapter on the place of social justice in catechetical ministry” (77). This broader view of catechesis and its relationship

with social justice develops into a fuller presentation of service in later catechetical documents, as will be demonstrated below.

After more than two decades of use and reflection on it, the Congregation for the Clergy updated and replaced the GCD with the promulgation of the General Directory for Catechesis7

(hereafter GDC) in 1997. Marthaler points out that a revision was necessary because many

developments in catechesis had taken place since the 1971 release of the GCD (2008, 123). The developments include the promotion of catechetical research, the promulgation of the Rite of

Christian Initiation of Adults (1972), Synods of Bishops reflecting on catechesis followed by the post-synod apostolic exhortations Evangelii Nuntiandi (1975) and Catechesi Tradendae (1979), and the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992). The revision of the GCD was meant to “adapt this valuable theologico-pastoral instrument to new situations and needs”

(GDC, 7). The GDC attempts to balance the two principle requirements of catechesis: the contextualization of catechesis found in Evangelii Nuntiandi and the content of the faith found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (GDC, 7). Focusing on the nature and principles of

7. The numbers in the following references to the GDC refer to paragraph numbers.

catechesis, the immediate end of the GDC was once again to assist in the writing of national

directories (11). The updated directory continues to reflect the Church’s developing

understanding of catechesis as formative rather than merely communicating information in a

classroom setting.

Recognizing that the context and methods of catechesis continually change, SLF mandated that there be periodic reviews to see if a revision was necessary (SLF, 7). In addition to the numerous documents on catechesis at the universal level, the United States Catholic bishops had published “more than a dozen documents, statements, and pastoral plans to support the catechetical mission of the Church in the United States” (National Directory for Catechesis,

2).8 They began to consider a revision of SLF in 1992 but were advised to wait until the GDC

was published (Marthaler 2008, 169). Once the GDC was released in1997, the United States

Catholic bishops began the process of revising SLF. The USCCB’s subcommittee on catechesis

was responsible for the revision. The process included two broad, nation-wide consultations and

two consultations with the bishops. The result was the publication of the National Directory for

Catechesis (hereafter NDC) in May of 2005 (Marthaler 2008, 169-170). The NDC set the basic

theological and pastoral principles and guidelines of catechesis in the United States context.

The catechetical documents produced by the Church in the decades following the Second

Vatican Council shows her commitment to the catechetical developments throughout the

twentieth century. The Council’s decision to write a directory rather than a catechism set the foundation for a focus on catechetical principles and practices rather than just content. The two

8. The citation numbers and letters in the following references to the NDC refer to numbered and lettered sections of the NDC.

general directories affirmed the broad view of catechesis as formation. The United States

national directories9 gave an even more detailed presentation of the holistic nature of catechesis,

exemplified through the emphasis on service and justice. While these documents have impacted

every area of catechesis, the next section focuses on the aspects of Christian service in the catechetical directories.

Aspects of Christian Service in the Catechetical Directories

This section presents the teachings of the GCD, SLF, GDC, and NDC regarding the

aspects of Christian service discussed in Chapter One in order to establish a catechetical

understanding of Christian service. Specific references to the importance of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity in the directories provide a catechetical understanding of the principles of

Christian service. In addition to these foundational elements of Christian service, the directories reference the importance of the example of the community and the close connection of prayer and service. This section also demonstrates a shift from a focus on charity in the initiation rites presented in Chapter One to the use of the term justice in the catechetical directories. Throughout

the progression of the catechetical directories there is an increasing importance placed on service

as an aspect of catechesis. This is noticeable in the change from emphasizing teaching social

justice and encouraging action to emphasizing experiencing service and living social justice as

integral aspects of catechesis in addition to teaching and encouraging social justice.

9. This section will only address the United States catechetical directories. Therefore, any references below to national directories refer to SLF and NDC.

Discipleship

General Catechetical Directory

In the GCD, discipleship is expressed mainly as faith that is manifest in life. An act of

faith involves a free assent of the mind and the will to the Gospel and leads people to discern the

will of God and cooperate with his grace (15). Catechesis is intended to make faith “become

living, conscious, and active, through the light of instruction” (17, cf. CD, 14) and “presupposes

a global adherence to Christ’s Gospel as presented by the Church” (18). The Holy Spirit assists

by uniting the believer “to the Father and Christ in a communion of life,” which “establishes a

way of life that is totally new and gratuitous” (60). Catechesis is meant to include “not only those

things which are to be believed, but also those things which are to be done” (63). Discipleship is

described as an act of faith, which includes the whole person and their way of life.

Sharing the Light of Faith

Similar to the GCD, SLF describes discipleship as a faith which is manifested in life.

Faith is a response of the whole person: mind, will, and emotions (56). It is a free response that entails commitment and a deep personal relationship with the Lord and is expressed in words and deeds (57-59). The task of catechesis is to foster mature faith, which leads to an upright life of striving toward perfection (33, 38). This is especially true of adult catechesis, whose first and essential objective “is to help adults themselves grow to maturity of faith as members of the

Church and society” (40). Discipleship includes a mature faith in God, expressed in both words and deeds.

SLF describes imitation of Christ as the root of discipleship. Referencing St. Paul’s admonition to put on Christ in Romans 13:14, SLF states that discipleship “means imitating

Christ in our daily lives – loving, forgiving, healing, reconciling – living as He lived” (91).

Because dying and rising were central to Christ’s life and mission “this paschal mystery must have an equally central place in the life and mission of one who aspires to be Christ’s disciple.

Living in His spirit, therefore, Christians are to deny themselves, take up the cross each day, and follow in His steps” (99, cf. Luke 9:23f). Serving others is an important aspect of imitating

Christ. SLF states, “Jesus identified Himself as the one who had come to serve, not to be served.

He cited His ministry of service as the key to His identity and mission (cd. Luke 4:16ff) and clearly stated that anyone who aspires to follow Him must likewise serve the needs of all (cf.

Matthew 20:26f; Luke 22:26f)” (154). Discipleship means living as Christ lived, following His example of self-sacrificial service of others.

General Directory for Catechesis

The GDC describes discipleship as following the person, life, and teaching of Jesus. The

GDC quotes CT in describing the object of catechesis, stating, “[t]he definitive aim of catechesis is to put people not only in touch, but also in communion and intimacy, with Jesus Christ” (80).10

Similarly, the GDC states “[i]t is the task of catechesis to show who Jesus Christ is, his life and

10. The GDC quotes CT 5.

ministry, and to present the Christian faith as the following of his person” (41).11 The goal is to

affect change in the believer’s life, as “[t]he aim of catechetical activity consists in precisely this:

to encourage a living, explicit and fruitful profession of faith” (66).12 Comprehensive formation

“promotes an authentic following of Christ, focused on his Person” (67). The GDC ties together faith, conversion, and discipleship in stating “[t]he Christian faith is, above all, conversion to

Jesus Christ, full and sincere adherence to his person and the decision to walk in his footsteps.

Faith is a personal encounter with Jesus Christ, making of oneself a disciple of him” (53).13

Catechesis aims to encourage people to know and follow Jesus as a disciple.

Catechesis aids in the continual process of total adherence to Christ. The “moment” of catechesis14 involves conversion to Christ and is the basis for adhering to him (63). Conversion

“brings with it adherence to Christ and the will to walk in his footsteps” (56b). Being a believer

involves a transformation of the mind and heart which is continual, lasts the whole of life, and

progresses toward maturity of faith based on the baptismal profession of faith (55-56). The grace

of baptism sustains catechesis’ task of configuring people to Christ (80). Catechesis should

initially be geared toward maturing initial conversion, education in the faith, and incorporation

into the community (61). Communion with Christ then leads disciples to be united with all that

He was united with, including all of humanity (81). The love of God and neighbor should thus

11. The GDC cites CT 5 as well as CCC 520 and 2053.

12. The GDC cites CCC 1229 and CD 14.

13. The GDC cites AG 13a and CT 5b.

14. See CT 18.

influence the believer’s being and action (82). Discipleship is a graced process of becoming like

Christ and is fostered by catechesis throughout the life of the believer.

National Directory for Catechesis

In the NDC, discipleship is based on communion with Christ fostered by the process of

conversion. Quoting CT as did the GDC, the NDC states that “[t]he definitive aim of catechesis

is to put people not only in touch but in communion, in intimacy, with Jesus Christ” (19B).15 The fundamental task of catechesis is stated as “the formation of disciples of Jesus Christ” (20).

Ultimately, “the object of catechesis is communion with Jesus Christ” (19B). The Holy Spirit aids in this through removing obstacles to living life in Christ (34). Communion with Christ is achieved through conversion, which causes a radical change in the believer internally and externally. The document explains conversion, or metanoia:

For the Christian, this metanoia reorients all aspects of the person’s life to Christ. This conversion is the acceptance of a personal relationship with Christ, a sincere adherence to him, and a willingness to conform one’s life to his. Conversion to Christ involves making a genuine commitment to him and a personal decision to follow him as his disciple. (NDC 17B)

Catechesis “matures initial conversion to make it into a living, explicit, and fruitful confession of

faith” (19A).16 The NDC further explains that catechesis aims to bring about “a firm

commitment to follow [Jesus]” as well as “sustaining the gradual conversion to complete

adherence to Jesus Christ” (19A). To aid in this goal, catechesis should provide the “opportunity

15. The NDC quotes CT 5. This quote is also found in the GDC 80.

16. The NDC quotes GDC 82.

to journey with Christ through the stages of his Paschal Mystery” (35D). Discipleship means

encountering and knowing Christ through continual conversion.

Conversion during the initiation process provides a foundation for the Christian way of

life. Conversion to Christ leads to “a personal renewal and greater participation in the Christian

life in the Church” (17E). This begins with catechesis for the initiation sacraments, which

“integrates knowledge of the faith with living the faith” (35B). Through baptism, believers are

“[u]nited in Christ, conformed to him, follow[ing] his example in word and deed” (40). In general, initiation catechesis is a summons to profess faith, follow Christ, and be a disciple

(36A). Catechesis for the eucharist “[i]nstructs the faithful that we are called to realize that we become what we receive – which has great implications for how we live and act” (36A3).

Chapter Six of the NDC reiterates the themes of discipleship and conversion in the moral life of Christians.17 Catechesis is meant to reveal “both the joy and the demands of the way of

Christ” (40). Christian morality, described as life in Christ, consists “‘in following Jesus Christ,

in abandoning oneself to him, in letting oneself be transformed by his grace and renewed by his

mercy’” (42, cf. VS 119). Moral formation is based on conversion to Christ, which “involves

confession of faith in him, adherence to his person and his teaching, following in his footsteps,

taking on his attitudes, and surrendering the old self in order to take up the new self in Christ”

(42). The formation of conscience is based on the example of Christ’s life and his teachings

(42C). Life in Christ for the disciple is described as “the radical integration of the person with

Christ, the indwelling of Christ in the heart and soul of the Christian, a fusion of the Christian

with the Son of God” (46). In summarizing moral formation, the NDC reiterates that catechesis

17. Chapter Six. “Catechesis for Life in Christ.”

86 should encourage the faithful to live in community with the Trinity, be dependent on God, and commit to a personal relationship with Christ (42E).

The catechetical directories describe discipleship as a faith-filled way of life in imitation of Christ. Through a process of conversion, disciples are united to Christ and follow him in all aspects of life. The catechetical documents use phrases such as a living, explicit, and fruitful profession of faith, maturity of faith, following Christ, conversion, adherence to Christ, communion and relationship with Christ, and following Christ’s example in word and deed.

Witness

Chapter One showed the importance of being a witness in the initiation rites of the

Church. The rites indicate the importance of spreading the Gospel through the witness of life and bearing witness to Christ before all. In addition, they emphasized making Christ known through works and sharing with others the joy of friendship with Christ. Being witnesses to the ends of the earth and making disciples of all nations are also included in the call to witness. The catechetical documents also focus on the importance of being a witness using similar terminology. The documents are clear that all Christians are obliged to be a witness for Christ by sharing faith with others and spreading the Gospel to all peoples. This witness of life includes both words and deeds. Witness is thus an important aspect of catechesis and Christian service.

General Catechetical Directory

The GCD gives several references to the witness aspect of Christian service, including one direct reference to charity and justice as a way of witnessing Christ to the world. The Church

is called to give witness to the word of God in the world (65), and the life of the Church should

be renewed continually to bear a more faithful witness (66). Catechesis “should help

communities to spread the light of the Gospel and to establish a fruitful dialogue with [people]

and cultures that are not Christian” (28). In confirmation, the strength of the Holy Spirit is given

to help the believer “live in the world as a witness of Christ” (57). The GCD makes an explicit

connection between being a witness for Christ in the world and activities of justice and charity.

The directory states, “[t]he greatest way the faithful can help the atheistic world for coming to

God is by the witness of a life which agrees with the message of Christ’s love and of a living and

mature faith that is manifested by works of justice and charity” (49). Disciples are called to

witness Christ’s love to the world, especially through lives of justice and charity. The witness

and mission of charity aspects of Christian service are intimately linked.

Sharing the Light of Faith

SLF contains several examples of forming disciples who witness Christ to the world. This

task is shared by all Christians as “[a]ll have an obligation to promote the growth of the kingdom

by constant prayer and personal sacrifice” (71). A mature Christian is one who “is zealous to

spread the gospel in order to make the Church known as the sign and instrument of the salvation

and unity of the human race” (33, cf. GCD, 28; LG, 1).18 The responsibility of giving witness to

Christian beliefs and values comes with the acceptance of the Church’s teaching (38). The call to

bear witness to Christ is renewed and strengthened in confirmation (118), and catechesis which

18. The GCD reference is focused on the community as a whole spreading the gospel, while the SLF reference is focused on the role of the individual mature Christian in spreading the gospel.

follows the sacraments is to explore “their consequences for Christian witness” (36). Witnessing

for Christ is an integral aspect of discipleship.

SLF directly links service to the catechetical task of forming Christians who witness for

Christ. SLF states that Christians are a sign of God’s love to unbelievers “by the compelling

witness of lives which manifest steadfast and mature faith in God, express personal love of

Christ, and include works of justice and charity” (86, emphasis added). Similarly, catechesis for

the eucharist should help individuals build up the community through “works of charity, service,

missionary activity, and witness” (121).19 These two examples show the catechetical importance

of forming disciples who witness for Christ through the service of others.

General Directory for Catechesis

The GDC emphasizes the importance of all Christians being a witness for Christ in the

world as evangelizers and missionaries. Being a witness for Christ includes words and actions

that evangelize. The GDC lists witness as one of the means by which the Gospel is transmitted,

along with proclamation, teaching, sacraments, and love of neighbor. These are the essential

elements of evangelization (GDC, 46). Witness is based on the command of Christ to “be my witnesses” (46, cf. Acts 1:8). A missionary attitude is an important aspect of being a witness for

Christ. The missionary dimension of catechesis is emphasized as it “seeks to equip the disciples

19. SLF here references the GCD 58, which states, “By its nature the Eucharistic banquet is meant to help the faithful to unite their hearts with God more each day in frequent prayer, and thence to acknowledge and love other [people] as brothers [and sisters] of Christ and sons [and daughters] of God.” SLF is more specific in indicating that this occurs through “works of charity, service, missionary activity, and witness” (121).

89 of Jesus to be present as Christians in society through their professional, cultural, and social lives…. The evangelical attitudes which Jesus taught his disciples when he sent them on a mission are precisely those which catechesis must nourish” (86).20 The witness aspect of discipleship is especially evident in the home, where parents have the primary task of the education of their children “to whom they transmit and bear witness to human and religious values” (227). Discipleship and catechesis are rooted in bearing witness for Christ.

National Directory for Catechesis

The NDC contains numerous examples of the importance of Christians bearing witness to

Christ as a means of evangelization. While the GDC speaks of evangelization, the NDC uses the term new evangelization. The new evangelization “involves the active participation of every

Christian in the proclamation and demonstration [witness] that the Christian faith is the only fully valid response to the problems and hopes that life poses to every person and society” (17A).

The NDC also states that “witness is an integral dimension of our mission to evangelize” (17A).

Catechesis urges missionary witness and the Church is meant to provide motivation for apostolic witness in the world (19C). In discussing the challenges of the Church’s catechetical mission, a primary concern of the NDC is the tendency in society to privatize religious faith. Therefore, a priority of catechesis is to promote “the public expression of the Christian faith in the formation of social policy” (41B). Similarly, the NDC later states “society needs the witness of Christians who take the social demands of the Gospel seriously” (43B). The Church’s mission of evangelization is a call for all Christians to witness to Christ.

20. See Mt 10:5-42 and Lk 10:1-20.

The witness aspect of Christian life should be instilled through catechesis. Catechesis for

initiation is meant to foster participation in the Church’s mission by “incorporating the

catechumen into the life of the Christian community, which confesses, celebrates, and bears

courageous witness to the faith of Jesus Christ” (36A). Catechesis for the liturgy is meant to help

people “respond to [liturgy’s] missionary summons to bear witness” (33). Catechesis for

confirmation teaches that the strengthening of the Holy Spirit is meant to “help them

[confirmandi] bear witness to the Christian faith in words and deeds” (36A2). In the process of

catechesis, being a witness for Christ is emphasized.

The NDC refers to the importance of witness twice in the section entitled, “Catechesis for

the Decalogue” (45). Catechesis on the second commandment “enables believers to bear witness

to the Lord’s name in their confession of the faith” (45B). Catechesis on the eighth

commandment “[e]xplains that Christians are to testify to the truth by bearing witness to the

Gospel” but also “[r]ecognizes the difficulty in bearing witness to the truth in a society that considers truth to be relative” (45H). Though often difficult, witness is as fundamental to the life of Christians as the Ten Commandments.

The catechetical directories focus on the importance of the Church and the individual disciple being a witness in all aspects of life, especially through justice and charity. Following the command of Jesus, all are obliged to give witness, especially parents. Witness is emphasized in the catechetical documents through phrases such as sharing mature faith with people who desire to profess it, spreading the light of the Gospel, being a witness for Christ, being zealous to spread the Gospel, compelling witness of lives, and bearing witness to faith in words and deeds.

Mission of Charity

General Catechetical Directory

The GCD rarely references the mission of charity aspect of Christian service. Holiness is described as the perfection of charity and said to be fulfilled in the great responsibility of love of

God and neighbor (64). In addition, acts of charity are among the fruits to be brought to liturgy

(48). The GCD’s strongest reference to both charity and justice states: “[t]he greatest way the faithful can help the atheistic world for coming to God is by the witness of a life which agrees with the message of Christ’s love and of a living and mature faith [discipleship] that is manifested by works of justice and charity” (49, emphasis added). This statement not only shows the importance of the mission of charity, but also its intimate connection with the Christian service aspects of discipleship and witness.

Sharing the Light of Faith

The mission of charity, emphasized throughout SLF, is most often expressed as love of neighbor. The code of Christian conduct entails love of neighbor (38). The mission of charity springs forth from the disciple’s relationship with Christ, who “teaches that love of God and love of neighbor spring from the same spirit and are inseparable” (91). Love of neighbor goes beyond human love and “summons human beings to love with a divine love called charity, as the Father,

Son, and Spirit do. This call carries with it the inner gift of their life and the power of their love,

for Christ does not command what is impossible” (91). Christians are not commanded to love

and then left alone to do so, but instead are empowered to love through Christ.

The mission of charity is important not only to the individual disciple, but also to the

entire community. The Church is called to be a servant, evidenced by “[c]oncern for and ministry

to the poor, disadvantaged, helpless, and hopeless” (45). The Church continues to express her

faith “through service to the community of faith or voluntary service in the universal mission of

the Church” (59). The commitment to love is among the signs of the Church that the kingdom of

God is here (67). For a strong community, members must willingly respond to the needs of

others (70). The celebration of the sacraments empowers the Church’s mission of charity because

they dispose people to practice charity (97). The eucharist specifically helps Christians “become

more and more a people acceptable to God and build up the Christian community with the works

of charity, service, missionary activity, and witness” (121).21

Disciples are commanded by Christ to live out the mission of charity. SLF states that “the

Christian has specific obligations in justice and charity” (105b) toward others. SLF uses the

parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:36f) to support this point and then continues,

[a]nother dramatic illustration of the need for compassion is the biblical description of the last judgment, at which, we are told, the heirs to the kingdom will be identified as those who showed compassion to the hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the naked, the ill, and the prisoner: “I assure you, as often as you did it for one of my least brothers, you did it for me.” (153, cf. Luke 6:27-34)

The love shown to neighbor should “be like His own: ‘Love one another as I have loved you’

(John 15:12). His was an unconditional giving of self to and for others” (154). The mission of

charity is at the core of discipleship.

21. See footnote 19.

In SLF, the mission of charity is intimately linked to catechesis. SLF indicates that the mission of the church “has three aspects: proclaiming and teaching God’s word, celebrating the sacred mysteries, and serving the people of the world” (30). These three aspects are served by the ministries of word, worship, and service, which are inseparably linked (30). Through teaching and example, the Church “has held aloft the torch of charity, as Christ instructed it to do.

Catechesis relates this story of generosity, identifies its sources, and encourages people to respond generously to Christ’s mandate” (162). The Church is called to minister to all people, especially through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy (32 and 66). While these works of mercy have been stressed in catechesis throughout the history of the Church, SLF states that more attention needs to be given to the social ministry mission of the Church, including “an understanding both of its inner life and of its ministry of service to society” (160). Catechesis plays a vital role in continuing the mission of charity.

General Directory for Catechesis

The GDC has few references to the mission of charity. The GDC states that conversion to

Christ leads to participation in the mission of the Church as well as fulfilling economic and social responsibilities (55). In addition, love of neighbor is one of the ways that the Gospel is transmitted, based on the command of Christ to love one another (46, cf. Jn 15:12). The practice of charity is listed alongside ongoing catechesis and the sacraments as a means of evangelization which nourishes the gift of communion among the faithful (48).22 Individuals and communities

22. The GDC cites EN 18-20 and RM 52-54 as well as AG 11-12 and 22.

need continuing formation to live up to their missionary responsibilities (70). Though few in

number, these references indicate the social implications of following Christ.

National Directory for Catechesis

The catechetical importance of the mission of charity aspect of Christian service is highly emphasized in the NDC. Life-long formation should include catechesis on the mission of charity at all stages. Initiatory catechesis introduces the charity of the people of God to those being initiated.23 Mystagogical catechesis leads the baptized deeper into the Christian life, including

the Church’s missionary activity (17C). Quoting RCIA 244, the NDC reiterates the importance

of doing works of charity during the period of post-baptismal catechesis (35D). Catechesis should teach that baptism and confirmation incorporate disciples into the mission of the Church, including serving others (36A1 and 36A2). Lifelong catechesis for the eucharist includes

teaching “that the Eucharist commits those who receive it to serve the poor” (36A3).24

Catechesis for the liturgy encourages a response to the liturgy’s summons to offer service to the world (33). Ongoing catechesis is meant to include opportunities for “acts of charity that involve self-sacrifice, especially toward those in need” (35D). Catechesis on practices of popular piety should lead people to conversion and the exercise of charity (38C).25 Throughout all phases of

catechesis, the mission of charity is mandated.

23. The NDC cites AG 14.

24. The NDC cites CCC 1397.

25. The NDC cites EA 16.

Chapter Six of the NDC, “Catechesis for Life in Christ,” gives numerous examples of incorporating the mission of charity within catechesis. Formation is meant to include both the teaching of moral principles as well the practice of love of neighbor. Catechesis for life in Christ affirms that “the Gospel demands love and self-surrender” (40). It prompts good works based on the “twofold commandment of charity: to love God above all things, and to love our neighbor as ourselves” (40). The virtuous life includes charity, prompting disciples to “love God above all else and our neighbor as ourselves for the love of God” (42B). Catechesis “[e]ncourages the practice of works of charity and stewardship on the part of all Catholics” (45G). Christian moral

principles are meant to be lived out through the practice of the spiritual and corporal works of

mercy (44 and 45G).

Catechesis for life in Christ explains the practice of charity in greater detail than the other

catechetical documents. The NDC states that catechesis “must always demonstrate the social consequences of the Gospel” (42).26 Since humans share in the communal, social nature of God,

all “are called to reach out and to build relationships of love and justice” (43).27 The NDC further

explains that “[t]he Christian person simply cannot live in society without recognizing the duties

and responsibilities that naturally arise within that relationship. Our faith in the sovereignty of

God and the destiny of the human person compels us to work for justice, to serve those in need,

to seek peace, and to defend the life, dignity, and rights of every person” (43B). More

specifically, catechesis on Christian morality “encourages concern for the lives of the poor, the

26. The NDC cites CT 29.

27. The NDC quotes USCCB, Sharing Catholic Social Teaching: Challenges and Directions (Washington, D.C.:USCCB, 1998), 1.

96 weak, the disabled, and the sick, as well as action on their behalf” (41B). The NDC even emphasizes the catechetical benefits of performing acts of charity. It states that catechesis

“[i]ncludes activities that bring Catholics into direct contact with the reality of injustice, enabling them to effect change for the common good and to foster respect for human and Christian values in society” (45G). In the NDC, catechesis for the mission of charity includes teaching about love of neighbor and actually experiencing it firsthand through service.

The catechetical directories focus on charity and love of neighbor mandated by Christ, both for individual disciples and the community as a whole. Charity is an important aspect of catechesis and should be fostered through catechesis. Social responsibility toward justice and peace is also emphasized. The mission of charity in catechesis is advocated through phrases such as the practice of the spiritual and corporal works of mercy, concern for and ministry to the poor, disadvantaged, helpless, and hopeless, love of neighbor following the command of Jesus, mature faith being manifested by works of justice and charity, and obligations of justice and charity.

Example of the Community

General Catechetical Directory

The GCD includes strong references to the importance of community example. Quoting

DV, the GCD states: “the Church, in her teaching, life, and worship, perpetuates and hands on to all generations all that she herself is, all that she believes” (13, cf. DV, 8). In this important quote, the life and worship of the community are listed alongside teaching as essential activities that form Church members. The GCD even contains a short section called “The Necessity of

Ecclesial Witness” (35), which highlights the importance of the example of the community.

Here the GCD states that catechesis “demands the witness of faith, both from the catechists and

from the ecclesial community,28 a witness that is joined to an authentic example of Christian life

and to a readiness for sacrifice” (35, cf. LG, 12, 17, NA, 2). The GCD continues, “[c]atechesis

must be supported by the witness of the ecclesial community. It speaks more effectively about

those things which in fact exist in the community’s external life as well” (35). In fact, a lack of witness by the community is a hindrance to catechesis: “If such a witness is lacking, there arises in the listeners an obstacle to the acceptance of God’s word” (35). Catechists play an important role as they help make “the ecclesial community comes alive, so that it will be able to give a witness that is authentically Christian” (35). The example of the community is a vital aspect and

means of catechesis.

Sharing the Light of Faith

In SLF, the importance of the examples of the community in catechesis begins with the

initiation of new members. Initiation should include catechesis that “will involve many members

of the parish community who support and pray with the catechized” (115). SLF continues by

affirming that “[b]aptismal catechesis involves the community of the faithful, who share their

faith with those being catechized. Adult catechumens and the parents of children to be baptized

alike need the community’s prayers, witness, and support” (117). The community has an

obligation to participate in the preparation of those to be confirmed as the community “embodies

28. This is also reiterated in paragraph 32: “the witness given by the life of both the catechist and the ecclesial community contributes very much to the efficacy of catechesis.”

the message to which [the confirmandi] are to respond and gives witness, in service, to the faith

they profess” (119). The example of the community is evident throughout initiation.

The example of the community, including that of service, remains important for

catechesis after initiation. The community of believers “catechizes its members by its very life

and work,” including “its way of life, its manner of worship, and the service it renders” (45).

Here, SLF explicitly mentions “[c]oncern for and ministry to the poor, disadvantaged, helpless,

and hopeless” (45). In general, God is revealed in daily life though the witness of the faithful

(55).29 Adult catechesis is vitally important because “[i]t is adult Christians who are capable of

mature faith, and whose lives exemplify gospel values to the young members of the Christian

community and the rest of society” (40). In addition, catechists need to be prayerful people to lead others in prayer (145). Overall, the community “leads one to put aside selfish goals and private interest for the sake of a common good” (70). The example of the community helps people know and love God and their neighbor.

General Directory for Catechesis

The example of the community is very important in the process of catechesis according to the GDC. The GDC calls attention to the role of the community in catechesis by stating, “[t]he

Church transmits the faith which she herself lives” (78). The GDC continues, “[t]he Church transmits the faith in an active way” (78). Both of these statements point to the importance of the

29. SLF references GCD 11 (revelation through deeds and words), 13 (living tradition), 26 (Catechesis and Christian light on human existence), and 44 (the historical character of the mystery of salvation). All of these paragraphs touch on the fact that God is revealed throughout the experience of life, especially within the Church.

example of the community. The Church inspires a living profession of faith in those to be

catechized by transmitting “her living experience of the Gospel, her faith, so that they may

appropriate and profess it” (66). Thus a living and active tradition is passed on from one

generation to the next (66).30 For those entering the Church, the ordinary life of the community

nourishes their faith (67). Catechesis depends on the life and example of the community.

Further, the GDC acknowledges that the example of the community is central to the

effectiveness of catechesis. After initiation, “it is necessary to have a Christian community which

welcomes the initiated, sustains them and forms them in the faith” (69). In general, catechesis is

an important service of the Church for which “[t]he entire Christian community should feel

responsible” (219). The GDC quickly reiterates, “[c]atechesis is a responsibility of the entire

Christian community” (220). In fact, “[c]atechesis runs the risk of becoming barren if no

community of faith and Christian life welcomes the catechumen at a certain stage of his

catechesis” (69).31 Along with transmission of the Gospel message, experience of the Christian

life is one of the two principle means of fulfilling the tasks of catechesis (87).32 Proclamation

must be coupled with a lived example of the Gospel through the witness of the community.

The GDC often uses the term apprenticeship in describing catechesis based on the example of the community. Though the document never specifically defines apprenticeship, the implication is that catechesis includes the experience of Christian living under the guidance of

experienced disciples. The GDC uses the term apprenticeship four times, each referring to the

30. The GDC cites CT 22.

31. The GDC is quoting CT 24.

32. The GDC cites CIC 773 and 778 para. 2.

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Christian way of life. Once believers abandon themselves to Christ, “[c]atechesis initiates them in knowledge of faith and apprenticeship in the Christian life” (56). Those who are converted to a Christian way of life are initiated “by a means of ‘a period of formation, an apprenticeship in the whole of Christian life’” (63, citing AG 14). The GDC continues by explaining that comprehensive formation “is an apprenticeship of the entire Christian life” (67). The teaching of

Christ on community life is acquired through apprenticeship (86). Thus, apprenticeship is another way the GDC emphasizes experiencing and following the example of the community.

The significance of the example of the community is especially highlighted within family life. Children “perceive and joyously live the closeness of God and of Jesus made manifest by their parents in such a way that this first Christian experience frequently leaves decisive traces which last throughout life” (226). Parents hold the responsibility of ministry to their children,

“through which the Gospel is transmitted and radiated so that family life is transformed into a journey of faith and the school of Christian life” (227). The entire Christian community is charged with the task of assisting parents fulfill their responsibility (227). The example of the community begins with the family, where children first hear the Gospel proclaimed through the words and deeds of parents.

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National Directory for Catechesis

The NDC emphasizes the community’s example of Christian discipleship in catechesis.

Quoting the GDC,33 the NDC states that “the Christian community is in herself living catechesis” (19C). The NDC continues with a further explanation:

The Church is a natural environment for catechesis. She provides the primary setting for the proclamation of the Gospel, the point of welcome for those who seek to know the Lord, the place where men and women are invited to conversion and discipleship, the environment for the celebration of the sacraments, and the motivation for the apostolic witness in the world. (19C)

The NDC quotes the GDC in affirming the catechetical importance of the experience of the

Christian life (20).34 Through discipleship, “the believer is united to the community of disciples and appropriates the faith of the Church” (17B). The NDC states that “[c]atechesis is enriched when the word of God shines forth in the life of the Church, especially in the lives of the saints and in the Christian witness of the faithful” (18). The NDC also states the importance of the positive models of discipleship found in Sacred Scripture (44). Directly quoting the GDC, the

NDC affirms apprenticeship as integral to Christian initiation (19D and 36A).35 However, the

NDC does not further explain or otherwise use the term apprenticeship. Catechesis thrives through the examples of other disciples in the community.

The example of the community is emphasized beginning in baptismal catechesis and continuing through ongoing catechesis. In light of the statement that the baptismal

33. The NDC is quoting GDC 141.

34. The NDC is quoting GDC 87.

35. In both instances, the NDC is quoting GDC 67.

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catechumenate is the inspiration for all catechesis, the NDC states, “[j]ust as the baptismal

catechumenate is the responsibility of the entire Christian community, so too does the whole

Church bear the obligation to provide an ongoing catechesis for the faithful” (35D). Another

facet of the baptismal catechumenate that is important for all catechesis is that “it incorporates

the catechumens into the Christian community of faith and worship” (35D). The general principles for sacramental catechesis include catechesis that “[i]s intended for all members of the

Christian community, takes place within the community, and involves the whole community of faith” (35B). The prayerful support and apostolic witness of the parish is needed for all those preparing for baptism, including the parents and godparents (36A1). The parents’ role in preparing children for eucharist through participation in the liturgy is highlighted (36A3a).

Similarly, the NDC recognizes that “the witness of Christian life given by parents in the family is particularly formative” (45D). Ongoing catechesis which supports the continual conversion and formation of the Christian is the “responsibility of the whole Catholic community and occur[s] most fruitfully within the community” (19E). Through all these examples, it is demonstrated that catechesis needs to occur in a living community of disciples.

The catechetical directories focus on the importance of the example of the community in all areas of catechesis. The community is meant to be living catechesis. Effective catechesis incorporates experiencing the Gospel through the life of the Church. The example of the community is important during initiation and throughout ongoing catechesis, especially through family life. The catechetical directories use phrases such as the Church transmits the faith which she herself lives, the Church transmits the faith in an active way, catechesis is the responsibility of the entire Christian community, the whole Church bears the obligation of catechesis, the

103 necessity of catechesis being supported by the witness of the ecclesial community, God’s revelation through the life of the Church, and apprenticeship in the Christian life.

Prayer and Service

General Catechetical Directory

The GCD contains two main references linking themes of prayer and service. Both examples come in the context of liturgy and eucharist. The first discusses how charity and justice naturally flow into worship. The GCD states, “[i]n the sacred liturgy the faithful bring the fruits of every kind of act of charity, of justice, of peace, in order to make a humble offering of them to

God, and to receive in return the words of life and the graces they need to enable them in the word to profess the truth in love (cf. Ephesians 4:15) in communion with Christ, who offers his

Body and Blood for [all]” (48). This paragraph also affirms that “the true nature of the worship which God demands and which glorifies him … includes a resolve to fulfill his will in every field of activity, and faithfully to increase in charity the talents given by the Lord (cf. Matthew

25:14ff.).” Later in discussing the eucharist the GCD states, “[b]y its nature the Eucharistic banquet is meant to help the faithful to unite their hearts with God more each day in frequent prayer, and thence to acknowledge and love other [people] as brothers [and sisters] of Christ and sons [and daughters] of God the Father” (58). The fruits of acts of charity and justice are to be brought to liturgy, and liturgy and prayer compel disciples to further love of neighbor. In these ways, liturgy is intimately connected to love of neighbor, showing the important link of prayer and service.

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Sharing the Light of Faith

Themes of prayer and service are often mentioned together in SLF showing their close

relationship in catechetical ministry. Catechesis must always be in relation to Jesus’s mission of word, worship, and service (32). These three aspects of Christian mission cannot truly be separated, nor can one of these be neglected. For continual growth in knowledge and experience of God, the disciple “must rely on love, expressed in contemplative prayer and lives of charity”

(55). Faith must be expressed in words – creeds, dogmas, and moral principles and teachings – and deeds. The deeds “are worship – especially the celebration of the Eucharist, in which the risen Christ speaks to His Church and continues His saving work – and acts performed to build up Christ’s body through service to the community of faith or voluntary service in the universal

mission of the Church” (59). Prayer and service are two integral and interrelated ways of

deepening and expressing faith.

Prayer and service are not only related, but prayer, especially in the celebration of the

sacraments, strengthens the commitment to service. SLF states that “[t]he purpose of the

sacraments is to sanctify humankind, build the Body of Christ, and give worship to God. As

signs, they also instruct: the very act of celebrating them disposes people more effectively to

receive and grow in the life of grace, to worship God, and to practice charity” (97, emphasis

added).36 One fruit of the sacraments is to inspire and strengthen the believer to serve others.

This is especially true in the eucharist, in which, “Christ the Lord nourishes Christians…

effecting a transformation which impels them toward greater love of God and neighbor” (120).

36. SLF cites SC, 59.

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SLF goes on to further explain how the eucharist nourishes the faithful “that they may become more and more a people acceptable to God and build up the Christian community with the works of charity, service, missionary activity, and witness” (121).37 Simply stated, “[t]he liturgy, heart of the Church’s life, leads its members to seek justice, charity, and peace” (148). Formation throughout the liturgical year should include prayer and works of mercy (144d, cf. GNLY, 1) and non-liturgical celebrations of faith can also nourish Christian love and commitment to social justice (142). Through celebrations of faith and worship, the Church “strengthens itself to carry out its commission to give witness and service” (112). Prayer inspires, strengthens, and lays the foundation for serving others in charity and justice.

General Directory for Catechesis

The GDC links themes of prayer and service in several paragraphs. In the journey toward perfection, prayer and charity are listed side by side: “The baptized, moved always by the Spirit, nourished by the sacraments, by prayer and by the practice of charity, as assisted by multiple forms of ongoing education in the faith, seeks to realize the desire of Christ: ‘Be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect’” (56d, citing Mt. 5:48). The GDC also states that the communion of the Church is strengthened through the sacraments and the practice of charity, along with continuous education in the faith (48). All catechesis, in fact, should be performed in the context of prayer. The GDC states, “[w]hen catechesis is permeated by a climate of prayer, the assimilation of the entire Christian life reaches its summit” (85). This is especially true when

Christians are confronted with the more demanding aspects of the Gospel (85), including the

37. SLF cites GCD, 58. See footnote 19.

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love of neighbor through charity and social justice. Together, prayer and service form an indispensable foundation for catechesis.

National Directory for Catechesis

The NDC discusses themes of prayer and service side by side in the process of catechesis.

A profession of faith is essential to the Christian journey and “is nourished by the sacraments, prayer, and the practice of charity” (17B). The new evangelization includes directives to make more explicit the “social justice dimension of the Sunday Eucharist” (17E). Prayer and service themes are also found together in the description of initiatory catechesis, whose function “is to introduce the life of faith, the Liturgy, and the charity of the People of God to those being initiated” (17C).38 After the sacraments of initiation are celebrated, “the function of mystagogical

catechesis is to lead the baptized deeper into the Christian life, celebration of the sacraments,

prayer life of the Church, and her missionary activity [including service]” (17C). The NDC

affirms that initiatory catechesis “enlightens faith, directs the heart toward God, fosters

participation in the liturgy, inspires apostolic activity [including service], and nurtures a life

completely in accord with the spirit of Christ” (19D, cf. RCIA, 78). Post baptismal catechesis

includes “meditation on the Gospel, sharing in the Eucharist, and doing works of charity” (35D

cf. RCIA, 244). The NDC directly connects the eucharist and service by calling for ongoing

catechesis which “[t]eaches that the Eucharist commits those who receive it to serve the poor”

38. The NDC cites AG 14.

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(36A3).39 It also connects eucharist and social justice through “instruction on the implications of the Eucharist for the Church’s mission in the world and for social justice” (36A3). Ongoing catechesis should also include opportunities for prayer, spiritual exercise and acts of charity that involve self-sacrifice, especially toward those in need (35D).

The NDC further explains how prayer and service are complementary and foundational to catechesis. The NDC states that “[p]rayer should be the ordinary environment for all catechesis so that the knowledge and practice of the Christian life may be understood and celebrated in its proper context” (20.4). Wherever or whenever catechesis happens, it should be in the context of prayer. In addition, preparing Christians to participate in the life and mission of the Church includes encouraging “a spirit of simplicity and humility, a special concern for the poor, particular care for the alienated, a sense of fraternal correction, common prayer, mutual forgiveness, and a fraternal love that embraces all these attitudes” (20.5). Living in Christian community naturally brings together aspects of prayer and service. The comprehensive nature of catechesis, including linking prayer and service, requires that all the tasks of catechesis are interdependent: “It is very important that catechesis retain the richness of these various aspects in such a way that one aspect is not separated from the rest to the detriment of others” (20 cf. GDC,

31). Catechesis “stems from the Liturgy insofar as it helps people to worship God and to reflect on their experience of the words, signs, rituals, and symbols expressed in the Liturgy; to discern the implications of their participation in the Liturgy; and to respond to its missionary summons to bear witness and offer service” (33).

39. The NDC cites CCC 1397.

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The catechetical directories connect prayer and service in catechesis by linking aspects

directly related to prayer, such as the sacraments and worship, to aspects related to service, such

as love of neighbor and charity. Worship and service are related in Jesus’s mission. The liturgy is

a time to offer the fruits of charity, justice, and peace to God. The sacraments strengthen the

commitment to serve and dispose disciples to practice charity. The eucharist empowers disciples to love others as brothers and sisters of Christ, committing those who receive it to serve the poor through works of charity and service. All the baptized are nourished by sacraments, prayer, and the practice of charity. Prayer is the environment for all catechesis. Faith is expressed and

nourished by both prayer and service. Through all of these examples, the directories emphasize the importance in ongoing catechesis of interrelated opportunities for prayer, spiritual exercise, and acts of charity that involve self-sacrifice.

Focus on Justice More Than Charity

The catechetical documents use terminology that focuses on themes of social justice much more than the initiation rites. The initiation rites more often use terms of charity, love of neighbor, and service whereas the catechetical documents emphasize themes of catholic social teaching and justice. This is most evident in the United States catechetical directories, SLF and the NDC.

General Catechetical Directory and General Directory for Catechesis

The GCD and GDC give only a few references to themes of justice. In the GCD, two references are notable. The first states that human responsibilities and solidarity are stated as

109 integral to communion with God (23). The second states that a person’s living and mature faith is manifested through works of justice and charity (49). The GDC speaks of justice in several paragraphs. It affirms that continuing catechesis should include study of the Church’s social teaching to help Christians interpret the events of the world (71). In addition, formation in

Christian morality includes “demonstrat[ing] the social consequences of the demands of the

Gospel” (85).40 In several instances the GDC states the goal of inspiring Christians to work for justice (17, 103-104, 157). The GCD and GDC reference justice as an intended effect of mature faith. The GDC includes the study of Catholic social teaching and the social consequences of the

Gospel as part of catechetical formation. However, neither directory cites acts of justice as an integral element of the catechetical process. Justice is thus seen as an end of catechesis. Though the GDC has added the importance of the Church’s social teaching and the social demands of the

Gospel, neither general directory gives much attention to the importance of justice.

Sharing the Light of Faith

While themes of justice are sparse in the general catechetical directories (GCD and

GDC), the national directories, SLF and the NDC, stress its importance, especially in the context of the moral life of Christians. In the GCD, the section on the moral life of Christians (63) does not mention justice. The GDC includes the importance of working for justice (17, 103-104, 157), but only in paragraph 85 does it link morality with “the social consequences of the demands of the Gospel.” In SLF, a direct connection is made between morality and justice. Chapter Five is titled “Principal elements of the Christian Message for Catechesis.” Part H of the chapter covers

40. The GDC cites CT 29f.

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“The Moral Life” and the paragraph on “The Specifics in the Teaching of Morality” states that

“the Christian has specific obligations in justice and in charity” and the concern for the temporal

and spiritual needs of others must be expressed in actions based on “the justice and charity due

persons whom God has created and made his adopted children” (105b). The moral dimension of

catechesis also specifically indicates the importance of both social justice and love of neighbor as

a hallmark of a mature Christian, exemplified by the responsibility “to seek to correct conditions

in society and the Church which hinder authentic human development and the flourishing of

Christian values” (38). Justice and charity are important not just because of the good they

produce in the temporal sphere, but also because they can help unbelievers find God by being a

powerful witness of God’s love (86).41 In these examples of moral formation in SLF and the

NDC, charity and justice are presented side by side.

The relationship of justice and charity is directly addressed in SLF. This directory notes

that in practice, justice and charity are often set in opposition. Justice is often viewed as secular

and obligatory while charity is seen as Christian and optional. However, in reality “both are part

of Christian social responsibility and are complementary” (165c). SLF maintains that justice is as

important to Christian discipleship as charity. The document continues by explaining that justice is

the foundation of charity: i.e., if I love my neighbor, it is absolutely required that I respect his or her rights and meet his or her needs. It is impossible to give of oneself in love without first sharing with others what is due them in justice. This can be expressed very succinctly by saying that justice is love’s absolute minimum. Conversely, justice reaches its fulfillment in charity; once the demands of justice are met, there is still room, in a Christian view of human relationships to go beyond what is due others by right and share with them in the self-giving manner of Christ. Charity excuses from none of the demands

41. SLF cites GS, 21.

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of justice; it calls one to go beyond justice and engage in a sacrificial service of others in imitation of Christ, the suffering servant. (SLF, 165c)

The focus on Catholic social teaching and justice themes is not to the exclusion of charity.

Justice is in fact the foundation of charity and a fitting and necessary complement to authentic

Christian love.

Although SLF acknowledges the relationship of justice and charity, it primarily addresses justice. It affirms that faith in God entails both the final goal of heaven but also “an obligation to seek solutions for human problems here and now” (86). The goal is to empower Christians to express their love of neighbor through “efforts to build a cultural, social, and political order based on peace and justice – locally, nationally, and internationally” and embraces a wide variety of issues in social justice, especially respect for life in all situations (105b). Scriptural celebrations of prayer outside of liturgy offer many benefits, one of which is helping to

“intensify the community’s commitment to social justice” (142).

The focus in SLF on justice more than charity is evident in Chapter Seven, “Catechesis for Social Ministry.” This chapter briefly explains the Biblical and moral foundations of Catholic social teaching, an overview of its development, and some of the contemporary issues. It states that “[t]he Old Testament contains an urgent, recurring summons to practice justice and mercy – a divine summons based on the precept of love” (152). Drawing from the New Testament, the chapter explains that the “ultimate ground and source” of Catholic social teaching is “the paschal mystery of [Jesus’] living, suffering, dying, and rising” (154). Catholic social teaching is based in Scripture and provides a “systematic investigation and explanation of the meaning of social responsibility in Christian life” (155).

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The chapter ends by articulating catechetical guidelines for justice, mercy and peace

(170). These begin with a general statement that catechesis for social ministry includes “efforts to motivate people to act on behalf of these [justice, mercy and peace] values” (170). Two of the

guidelines in the list speak especially well to the importance of using experiences of service as a

means of catechesis. Point nine states, “[c]atechesis seeks to move people to live justly,

mercifully, and peacefully as individuals, to act as the leaven of the gospel in family, school,

work, social, and civic life, and to work for appropriate social change” (170.9). Point ten adds,

“[c]atechesis includes activities (involving vital contact with the reality of injustice)42 which

empower people to exercise more control over their destinies and bring into being communities

where human values are fully respected and fostered” (170.10). Using service experiences in

catechesis for social ministry “supports the ministry of service, which is linked to efforts to

achieve social justice” (32).

The study of Catholic social teaching and action for justice are presented as important for

every member of the Church. Christians are “urged to study the Church’s teaching and to

become actively involved in seeking solutions according to their roles and responsibilities in

society” (159). SLF makes it clear that justice is a constitutive dimension of preaching the

Gospel.43 It states, “[a]ction on behalf of justice is a significant criterion of the Church’s fidelity

to its missions. It is not optional, nor is it the work of only a few in the Church. It is something to

which all Christians are called according to their vocations, talents, and situations in life” (160).

42. SLF cites Justice in the World (JW), III.

43. SLF cites JW, Introduction.

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This is to be carried out not only in direct actions for justice but also in personal examinations of

life style and patterns of consumption in affluent society (160).44 Catechesis should reflect the

reality that being Christian means working for justice.

National Directory for Catechesis

The NDC places the themes of charity and justice side by side a few times, similar to

SLF. The NDC explains that the human community is modeled after the Holy Trinity and shares a communal social nature. Because of this, Christians “are called to reach out and to build relationship of love and justice” (43, cf. Sharing Catholic Social Teaching, 1). Similar to SLF, the NDC notes that Christian faith and morality have a social dimension. The Church’s focus on justice stems from the application of “the Gospel command of love to and within social systems, structures, and institutions” (43C). The NDC states “[o]ur faith in the sovereignty of God and the destiny of the human person compels us to work for justice, to serve those in need [charity], to seek peace, and to defend the life, dignity, and rights of every person” (43B).

Beyond these references to charity and justice, the NDC, as in SLF, more often references justice alone. The NDC explains that “[t]he call to work for social justice is imbedded in the Gospel message of Jesus Christ” (43C) and applies to all Christians:

We are called to be leaven in society, applying Christian values to every aspect of our lives. Our society needs the witness of Christians who take the social demands of the Gospel seriously and who actively practice the virtue of social justice. Christians, by virtue of their Baptism, must be the “servant” leaders that Jesus Christ challenged the disciples to be. (NDC, 43B)

44. SLF cites JW, III.

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The NDC’s catechetical emphasis surrounding the seventh and tenth commandments “focuses on

social and economic justice, for ‘social justice is an integral part of evangelization, a constitutive

dimension of preaching the gospel, and an essential part of the Church’s mission’” (45G, cf.

Communities of Salt and Light, 3). Instruction on the social doctrine of the Church is stressed,

including “justice and solidarity among nations, the Church’s preferential option of the poor and

vulnerable, and the dignity of human labor” (45G). Similarly, the history of the Church’s social

justice efforts are to be highlighted, especially by “offering the example of the lives of the saints

and other outstanding Catholics who have embodied the Church’s commitment to social justice”

(45G). The substance of the Church’s social doctrine is to be integrated throughout Christian formation in the faith in both an integrated and comprehensive way as well as through occasional and informal settings (45G).

In the NDC, social justice is an important aspect of the entire process of formation, particularly in reference to the celebration of the eucharist, the Sacred Scriptures, and the social teaching of the Church. One fundamental objective of the new evangelization is “[t]o make the

evangelical and social justice dimensions of the Sunday Eucharist more explicit” (17E5).

Similarly, catechesis for the eucharist “[i]ncludes instruction on the implications of the Eucharist

for the Church’s mission in the world and for social justice” (36A3). Ongoing catechesis is meant to include “thorough examination of the Church’s social teaching” (19E). Lifelong catechesis and continual conversion to Christ should include “the study and exploration of

Sacred Scripture and the social teachings of the Church” (35D).

In addition to these references of learning about social justice, there are three references to forming the heart of the disciple and influencing their action in the world toward justice. The

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Church’s social doctrine should be taught “completely, faithfully, and enthusiastically, enabling

Christians to renew their own experience of Christ and also to revive others” (45G). Instruction

about social doctrine is meant to lead Christians to a deeper experience of Christ that can be

shared with others. This comes out clearly in the subsequent statement that social justice catechesis “[c]alls for a renewal of heart based on the recognition of sin in its individual and social manifestations, helping people to recognize their individual and collective responsibility to work for justice in the world and their dependence on God to achieve that end” (45G).45 Finally,

catechesis should encourage Catholics to consider social justice as a vocation or career (45G).

Teaching about social justice also includes the component of helping disciples live justly.

Throughout the NDC there is a focus on social justice not to the exclusion of themes of charity,

but as a fundamental way to live out Jesus’ commandment of love.

Throughout the catechetical directories, charity and justice are occasionally mentioned

together. The documents maintain that the two have a complementary relationship, such as

through the phrase in SLF that justice is the foundation of charity (165c). For the most part,

however, themes of social justice are expressed much more often than themes of charity. Justice

is an important part of catechesis both in learning about catholic social teaching and in working

toward justice through acts of justice, mercy, and peace. This is shown through phrases such as

studying the Church’s social teaching, demonstrating the social consequences of the Gospel,

summoning to practice justice and mercy, acting on behalf of justice as a significant criterion of

the Church’s fidelity to its mission, moving people to live justly, mercifully, and peacefully, the

eucharist’s implications for social justice, and supporting efforts to achieve social justice. In

45. The NDC cites JW, III.

116 addition, the documents make it clear that justice is the work of all Christians through phrases such as working for social justice is imbedded in the Gospel, recognizing the individual and collective responsibility to work for justice in the world, and the obligation to seek solutions for human problems.

Summary of Aspects of Christian Service in the Directories

The aspects of Christian service are presented similarly in the catechetical directories and the liturgical documents presented in Chapter One. Both the catechetical and liturgical documents stress the importance of discipleship through converting to Christ and conforming to

His way of life. The witness aspect of following Christ and sharing the Gospel with the world is clear in both as well. The liturgical and catechetical documents are also both concerned with the mission of charity through a focus on love of neighbor and charity. In addition, the example of the community and its role in formation is vitally important in both. Finally, the connection of themes of prayer and service in the liturgical and catechetical documents is highlighted both directly – in describing the important relationship between the two – and indirectly – by placing these themes together in many instances.

The one major difference in the treatment of the aspects of Christian service between the liturgical documents and the catechetical directories is the placement of emphasis on charity or justice. The liturgical documents emphasize themes of charity and personal commitment to love of neighbor. In contrast, the catechetical directories give greater prominence to themes of social justice, though not at the exclusion of charity. This is especially evident in the national directories, SLF and NDC. Beyond a personal call to charity, these two directories stress the

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importance of learning about the Church’s social doctrine as well as encouraging service and

other activities that foster justice in the world. The language of the liturgical documents implies

that Christians should focus on being charitable, while the language of the catechetical

directories places a much greater emphasis on working for social justice in addition to individual

acts of charity.

Explicit References to Service in the Catechetical Directories

While the aspects of Christian service can be seen throughout the GCD, SLF, GDC, and

NDC, this section will focus on the explicit mention of using experiences of service in catechesis

and demonstrate how this concept is most fully developed in the NDC. The GCD, SLF, GDC,

and NDC all affirm that one goal of catechesis is to instill knowledge of the social teaching of

the Church. They also all state that catechesis should motivate the individual to act in just and

charitable ways and that active, experiential learning is best. The NDC and SLF generally

develop these points more than the GCD and the GDC. In addition to these themes, the NDC

asserts that learners need experiences of service, not just information about justice, to be fully formed as Christian disciples. Examples of the importance of service46 as both a means and an

end of catechesis are readily apparent in the NDC, as will be demonstrated here.

46. The term service used in the catechetical documents corresponds to Christian service, the term used in this work. Christian service is any selfless act of love motivated by Christ to help one’s neighbor and create a more just and loving society. Christian service can include both direct service and social advocacy, together known as the two feet of social justice. See the introduction for a full explanation of Christian service.

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General Catechetical Directory

The GCD affirms a general awareness of social justice as a goal of catechesis, but offers no direct support for service in catechesis. The GCD states that catechesis is necessarily involved with pastoral activities such as social action (129), though service is not mentioned specifically.

Though the treatment of service is weak, the section on the importance of experience in effective catechesis (74) paves the way for using experiences of service as a method of catechesis in the later directories discussed below.

Sharing the Light of Faith

The importance of experience throughout SLF indirectly affirms the need for the experience of service in catechesis. Catechesis “includes both the message presented and the way in which it is presented” (5). It is good to teach about social justice, but it is better to teach about social justice alongside experiencing action for justice and charity. Further, the paragraph titled

“General Diversity of Catechetical Activity,” (39) states that “every pastoral activity has a catechetical dimension.” Catechesis does not need to be confined to a classroom, but can and does occur through the life of the parish. An opportunity for catechesis comes along with the community’s commitment to living out the call to serve and love their neighbor. Following the

GCD, SLF affirms that “[e]xperience is of great importance in catechesis” (176d). Experiential learning can “increase one’s desire to penetrate more deeply into life’s meaning. Experience can also increase the intelligibility of the Christian message, by providing illustrations and examples which shed light on the truths of revelation” (176d). Experience is especially beneficial in the

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catechesis of youth. Catechesis for pre-adolescents is “best presented through concrete experiences which afford the pre-adolescent opportunities to incorporate Christian values into his

or her life” (179). The guidelines for catechesis of children and youth state the importance of

including “continued opportunities for concrete experience of lived faith, in which the message

of salvation is applied to specific situations” (181). Meaningful social action is given as one

suggestion. All these references support the experience of service as a means of catechesis.

Several more references in SLF directly refer to service in catechetical formation. It lists

Christian service as one of the components of catechetical activity, which “include sharing faith

life, experiencing liturgical worship, taking part in Christian service, and participating in

religious instruction” (39, emphasis added). Catechesis should put the learner in direct contact

with the reality of injustice (170.10)47 to empower Christians to positively influence the world around them. Service is suggested as a means of pre- and post-baptismal catechesis (117) and as a part of confirmation preparation (119). Service is also listed as one of the ways that Christ’s

living presence can be experienced in the world (60f). SLF references Matthew 25:40: “I assure

you, as often as you did it for one of my least brothers, you did it for me.” It recommends

experiences of service as projects for intermediate grade students (229) and graduate students in

religious education programs (242). In SLF, catechesis has expanded beyond the classroom, and

expresses a broader view of formation. Service is not only mentioned as an outcome that the

learner will perform in the future, but is also recognized as an integral part of Christian

discipleship formation.

47. SLF cites JW, III.

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General Directory for Catechesis

The GDC follows the GCD in giving no direct examples of using experiences of service in catechesis. Indirectly, however, the GDC reflects a growing understanding of service experiences in catechesis. The GDC notes that catechesis goes beyond information to formation

(29) which is fostered by an apprenticeship of the Christian life (67). Apprenticeship, as noted above implies experiencing the life of a Christian, including service, along with others who are further along on the journey. The GDC states that the tasks of catechesis are fulfilled by the

“transmission of the Gospel message and experience of the Christian life” (87). The GDC continues by stating that liturgical formation must include the experiences of different kinds of liturgical celebrations in addition to explanations about liturgy. A similar connection can be made for formation in the social mission of the Church. Experiences of service should be used in addition to explanations of Catholic social teaching. Although giving more attention to service than the GCD, the GDC is weak in its presentation of service in catechesis.

National Directory for Catechesis

Like the GCD, SLF, and the GDC, the NDC also stresses the importance of experience in catechesis. The subsection on “Learning Through Human Experience” begins by stating that

“human experience is a constituent element of catechesis” (29A). Experiences of service and working for social justice, or their absence, can be formative. More specifically, living the

Christian way of life is the best methodology for catechetical formation. The NDC states

learning by Christian living is an essential component of catechetical methodology. The active participation of all the catechized in their Christian formation fosters learning by

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doing. As a general condition of Christian life, the faithful actively respond to God’s loving initiative through praying; celebrating the sacraments and the Liturgy; living the Christian life; fostering works of charity (meeting the immediate needs of those who are poor and vulnerable) and works of justice (working to address to address (sic) the injustice that exist in the systemic and institutional organizations of society); and promoting virtues from the natural law such as liberty, solidarity, justice, peace, and the protection of the created order. (29G, emphasis added)

Similarly, learning by apprenticeship is also affirmed (29H). The NDC encourages “an

apprenticeship in Christian living,” including “a special concern for the poor [and] particular care

for the alienated” (20.5). Not only should people be learning about what the church teaches on

social justice, but they should also be learning by serving, especially in the company of other

Christians. These examples of active discipleship as well as experiential formation opportunities

give a strong case for using experiences of service as a basis for catechesis.

The NDC gives a well-developed presentation of charity and justice as a goal of

catechesis and implicitly promotes using experiences of service as a means of catechesis. The

NDC states that faith compels Christians to “work for justice, to serve those in need, to seek

peace, and to defend the life, dignity, and rights of every person,” a mission that is “an essential

part of what it means to be a believer” (43B). 48 The discussion of the Seventh and Tenth

Commandments – thou shall not steal and thou shall not covet anything that belongs to your

neighbor – is tied to themes of social justice and service. The NDC states that catechesis

“[p]romotes action on behalf of justice, emphasizing the corporal works of mercy,” often integral

to service experiences. In addition, catechesis “[e]ncourages the practice of works of charity and

stewardship on the part of all Catholics, according to their understanding and ability.” No matter

what stage of formation a disciple is in, service should be emphasized. The NDC is also clearly

48. The NDC is quoting Everyday Christianity, 1.

122 speaking about service when it indicates that catechesis “[i]ncludes activities that bring Catholics into direct contact with the reality of injustice, enabling them to effect change for the common good and to foster respect for human and Christian values in society” (45G). Direct contact through service helps the disciple understand social justice on a deeper, more personal level.

While SLF focused on youth in describing the benefits of using service as a means of catechesis, the NDC broadens the scope to include adults as well. In discussing the current state of catechesis, the NDC asserts that “adult catechesis ought to include opportunities to learn and reflect upon how one is called to live out the basic principles of Catholic social teaching in family life, workplace, community, and the world” (3). This is an important shift from a focus on theory and knowledge to a greater link with practicality and everyday life. The first goal for adult catechesis shows the importance of service as a method of formation. Through a baptismal spirituality, “the Christian’s faith in Jesus is continuously deepened through participation in the sacraments, the works of charity and justice, and the prayer life of the Church” (48A1.1).

Disciples who serve others are formed through Christian service and thus incorporated into a complete life of discipleship. The directory also points out that given the social situation of the gap between rich and poor, catechesis needs to “put the needs of the poor and vulnerable first” to make a “significant impact on culture and affect the everyday life of Catholics” (4C). This encourages not only teaching justice, but living justly, both as individuals and as an institution.

Catechesis asks the tough questions of what it means to be an economically marginalized

Catholic, or a wealthy Catholic, and how that should affect one’s action in the world (4C). These examples point to a greater emphasis on the connection of catechesis with social justice performed through acts of service.

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The NDC gives several explicit references of using experiences of service in catechesis

for children, youth, and young adults. One suggestion is to provide elementary students with the

opportunity to “participate in Christian service projects and missionary activities” (61A4). The

NDC also states that “[a]dolescent catechesis is most effective when situated within a

comprehensive program of youth ministry that includes social, liturgical, and catechetical

components as well as opportunities for service” (61A5, emphasis added). As a way to reach out

to busy young adults, the NDC suggests “hands on social justice programs” such as service opportunities which tap into their “vast reservoirs of goodness, generosity, and enthusiasm” in order to “provide significant points of contact for young adults with the Church” (48C). The

NDC employs the broad approach of catechesis as formation and includes service as a beneficial

means of catechesis for the entire Church population.

Summary of Service in the Directories

There is a variety of ways that the general and national catechetical directories present the

importance of service in catechesis. Direct reference to service is absent in the general

directories, the GCD and the GDC. However, the GCD emphasizes the importance of experience

in catechesis and the GDC discusses the importance of apprenticeship and the experience of the

Christian life in the catechetical mission. Indirectly, these approaches allow the possibility of the

use of service in catechesis.

SLF and the NDC state that social justice should be encouraged and learned through

catechesis. Promoting experiences of service in catechesis is not prominent in SLF. However, it

does state that all activities of the Church have a catechetical aspect and that service should be

124 incorporated into catechetical programs, as presented above. The NDC makes the strongest case for the using experiences of service in catechesis. Social justice is presented as essential to faith and requires reflection on how it affects the daily life of the believer. Going even further, the document stresses an apprenticeship approach to Christian living and the use of service as a means to deepen faith. The NDC gives multiple suggestions for using experiences of service as an aspect of catechesis. The experience of living a Christian life through acts of charity and justice is a foundational element of effective catechesis.

Service in Other Documents Guiding Catechesis

While the catechetical directories help to give the general perspective on the principles and practices of effective catechesis, two other documents are important to this study’s focus on using experiences of Christian service in the catechetical endeavor. Renewing the Vision more specifically guides catechesis for young people in the United States context and has much to say on the topic of service. The Catechism of the Catholic Church contains the content of Catholic teaching surrounding justice and charity. Both documents will help to further inform the catechetical understanding of the importance of Christian service in the process of discipleship formation.

Renewing the Vision

While the national directories SLF and NDC guide catechesis of all ages, this study focuses specifically on catechesis of young people. In 1976, the United States Catholic bishops published A Vision for Youth Ministry, the guiding document for ministry to young people in

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both Catholic school and parish settings. Twenty years later in 1997, the U.S. National

Conference of Catholic Bishops published an update called Renewing the Vision: A Framework

for Catholic Youth Ministry49 (hereafter RV). RV addresses the changing climate of ministry with youth, offers a more holistic view of ministry, and includes insights from social science on adolescent development in addition to wisdom gleaned from other Church documents on catechesis. It also outlines the goals and themes of the Church’s ministry with adolescents and offers both direct and indirect support for using experiences of service in catechesis.

The most explicit instance of using experiences of community service in catechesis

comes in part three of RV which lists the themes and components for a comprehensive ministry

with adolescence. One of the themes is the ministry of justice and service. The document focuses

on the need for efforts at direct service and social action stating that “[d]irect service needs to be

coupled with action for justice so that adolescents experience the benefits of working directly

with those in need and learn to change the system that keeps people in need” (38). These actions

develop “assets, skills, and faith of young people” and incorporate “doing the right thing with

attention to why and how we do what we do” (39). Young people can grow as individuals and

increase their knowledge in addition to train as Christ’s disciple. RV lists the many benefits of

justice and service:

The ministry of justice and service nurtures in young people a social consciousness and a commitment to a life of justice and service rooted in their faith in Jesus Christ, in the Scriptures, and in Catholic social teaching; empowers young people to work for justice by concrete efforts to address the causes of human suffering; and infuses the concepts of justice, peace, and human dignity into all ministry efforts. (38)

49. Citations of RV refer to the page number.

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Service done well can potentially change the whole person as well as the ministry of catechesis

in general.

In addition to this explicit support for the using experiences of service, the entire document discusses goals and components of ministry with youth that can be enhanced by experiences of service. The first goal of RV is “[t]o empower young people to live as disciples of

Jesus Christ in our world today” (9). This includes not only learning what it means to be a disciple but also enabling youth to serve others and build the kingdom of God, which is best achieved through active means that go beyond the classroom. RV argues that “[w]e need to provide concrete ways by which the demands, excitement, and adventure of being a disciple of

Jesus Christ can be personally experienced by adolescents” (10-11). Following this lead, goal two focuses on active youth participation in the life of the Church, including serving those in need along with the entire Christian community. These intergenerational opportunities to experience the life of the Church also offer role models and mentors to young disciples and help them commit to being a part of the community (12-13). Encouraging catechesis that empowers youth to serve others in charity and justice, RV advocates using the experience of service as a central endeavor in catechesis to help form mature disciples.

Catechism of the Catholic Church

While catechetical directories guide the principles and practice of catechesis, the

Catechism of the Catholic Church (hereafter CCC) provides the content of faith that is central to

catechesis. Even as the catechetical directories were being written and revised on the universal

and local levels, the push for a universal catechism of the Catholic Church began. In 1985, John

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Paul II called for a Synod of Bishops to meet on the twentieth anniversary of the close of the

Second Vatican Council. During this Synod, the fathers expressed their desire for a catechism that would compile catholic doctrine covering faith and morals. The process of writing a catechism was begun the next year and involved extensive collaboration over a six-year period.

The result was the publication of the CCC in October 1992 (FD). John Paul II declared that the

CCC was “a sure and authentic reference text for teaching catholic doctrine” (IV). The stated aim in the CCC is to present “an organic synthesis of the essential and fundamental contents of

Catholic doctrine” and to be a reference for the development of local catechisms (CCC, 11).

The catechetical directories and the catechism are meant to work together in passing on the faith. The GDC explains that “[t]he Catechism of the Catholic Church and the General

Catechetical Directory are two distinct but complementary instruments at the service of the

Church's catechetical activity” (GDC, 120). In a similar acknowledgement, the CCC states, “[b]y design this Catechism does not set out to provide the adaptation of doctrinal presentations and catechetical methods required by the differences of culture, age, spiritual maturity, and social and ecclesial condition among all those to whom it is addressed” (CCC, 24). The CCC provides the doctrine and leaves the catechetical methods to local documents based on particular circumstances. Even though the CCC focuses on doctrine rather than principles and methods of catechesis, there is evidence throughout of the importance of love of neighbor, charity, justice, and working for the common good. All of these themes are incorporated into experiences of

Christian service.

In the CCC, the Church explains the important relationship between catechesis and service. An active faith life of love and justice is presented as a foundation for catechesis as well

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as a hoped for result of catechesis. The CCC takes a holistic view of catechesis that is similar to

the most recent catechetical directories. Citing CT 18, the CCC states that

catechesis is built on a certain number of elements of the Church’s pastoral mission which have a catechetical aspect, that prepare for catechesis, or spring from it. They are: the initial proclamation of the Gospel or missionary preaching to arouse faith; examination of the reasons for belief; experience of Christian living; celebration of the sacraments; integration into the ecclesial community; and apostolic and missionary witness. (CCC, 6)

Experiencing the life of the Church can be a moment of catechesis in addition to being the

foundation and fruit of catechesis. The CCC continues by listing moments that have a

catechetical aspect: “the initial proclamation of the Gospel or missionary preaching to arouse

faith; examination of the reasons for belief; experience of Christian living; celebration of the

sacraments; integration into the ecclesial community; and apostolic and missionary witness” (6).

The catechetical importance of the experience of Christian living, being integrated into the ecclesial community, and apostolic and missionary witness all point to the experience of

Christian service as an integral element of passing on the faith.

Part Three of the CCC, titled “Life in Christ,” focuses on the implications of faith in daily life, including teachings on the dignity of the human person, the human community, God’s salvation through law and grace, and expanded reflections on the Ten Commandments. This section gives the strongest evidence for the importance of Christian service in a life of faith. The introduction to Part Three states that a catechesis for life in Christ should include “the twofold commandment of charity set forth in the Decalogue” (CCC, 1697). This includes the cardinal virtue of justice (CCC, 1807) and the theological virtue of charity (CCC, 1822-1829). Taken

129 together, these virtues guide humanity to give God and neighbor their due based on Jesus’s commandment of love.

Part Three of the CCC, “Life in Christ,” also articulates the responsibilities of a disciple of Jesus toward society. The discussion on community begins with the challenge that “[l]ove of neighbor is inseparable from love of God” (1878). Christian faith necessarily has social implications. Paragraph 1913 stipulates that “all participate, each according to his position and role, in promoting the common good.” This includes the areas of personal and public life as well as the conversion of society (1914-1916). Paragraphs 1928-1948 give the practical implications of Jesus’s commandment of love of neighbor. Christians should look at their neighbor, including enemies, as another self (1931 and 1933). Quoting the parable of the judgment of nations from

Matthew’s Gospel, the CCC especially highlights cases of neighbors with greater needs, stating

“[t]he duty of making oneself a neighbor to others and actively serving them becomes even more urgent when it involves the disadvantaged, in whatever area this may be. ‘As you did it to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to me’” (1932). This entire section indicates the importance of forming disciples who serve others.

The expanded reflections on the fourth and seventh commandments include themes of service to the community and love of the poor that fit well with Christian service. The fourth commandment, honor your father and your mother, includes a section on the duties of citizens.

It is a Christian duty to contribute “to the good of society in a spirit of truth, justice, solidarity, and freedom” (2239). The seventh commandment, you shall not steal, covers the social doctrines of the Church. In this section, the requirements of love of the poor and social justice are reiterated. Christian behavior is once again challenged by the statement that “the demands of

130 justice must be satisfied first of all; that which is already due in justice is not to be offered as a gift of charity” (2446). Creating a more just society and helping the poor is not merely a nice thing to do but an obligation placed upon the disciple of Christ.

The increased focus on service and experience in the catechetical documents are mirrored in RV and the CCC. Direct charity and working for social justice are not only teachings of the

Church that need to be learned, but they are actions of the faith that need to be lived. Service is one of the ways recommended to foster holistic faith that is active in the mission of the Church.

The analysis of the preceding documents shows that there is an increasing emphasis placed on the use of service in catechesis. However, the best method of incorporating service into the catechetical endeavor is not very developed. Possible criteria to guide the complete integration of service into catechesis can be found in the idea of the pedagogy of faith.

Pedagogy of Faith

The developments in catechesis during the twentieth century are extensive and the ministry of catechesis continues to evolve. Judging by the abundance of catechetical documents on a variety of topics put forth by the US bishops in the second half of the twentieth century, catechetical renewal has been an important topic within the US Church (Marthaler 2008, 170).

Catechesis is central to the mission of the church. The question of not only what beliefs to pass on, but also why, how, when, and where continues to be discussed in parishes, dioceses, and universities. As the conversation has evolved to include experience and a variety of methods of catechetical formation, service has become more prevalent. Using experiences of service as one essential method of catechesis needs further exploration and emphasis. With the publication of

131 the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, alongside the CCC, social justice begins to take its rightful place within the life of the Church and her efforts to catechize. Experiences of service as a means of catechesis can only aid in this process. Opportunities to live the responsibilities of a Christian disciple through self-sacrificial love and action for justice can be used as a basis for understanding God’s love and all the teachings of the Church. Service as a method of catechesis can be fruitful in the overarching goal of life-long formation. The pedagogy of the faith will be used to frame and evaluate various methods of using experiences of service in catechesis. The pedagogy of faith was briefly introduced by John Paul II in Catechesi Tradendae

(1979) and later developed in the catechetical directories GDC and NDC. The pedagogy of faith provides a framework to guide authentic ways of fostering experiences of service which are fruitful and faithful means of catechesis.

Catechesi Tradendae (hereafter CT), or Catechesis in our Time, is an Apostolic

Exhortation written by Pope John Paul II in 1979, only the second year of his pontificate. CT was inspired by the 1977 International Synod of Bishops meeting in Rome which focused on catechesis. Its purpose was to build on the work of this Synod in order to set out a vision of catechesis for the Church (Regan 1996, 368). CT does not provide great detail about the pedagogy of faith, but it is mentioned in part VII of CT, “The Joy of Faith in a Troubled World.”

In this section, John Paul II cites many of the difficulties of faith in the modern world and gives assistance on how to overcome them. The first challenge is the indifference of the world (CT,

57), in which people ignore God or are suspicious about God because of advances in science. In this context, people of faith are called to stay firm in their unique identity as Christians so as to be witnesses to others. John Paul II continues by stating “[t]he irreducible originality of Christian

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identity has for corollary and condition no less original a pedagogy of the faith” (CT, 58). He

later explains:

Pedagogy of faith is not a question of transmitting human knowledge, even of the highest kind; it is a question of communicating God's revelation in its entirety. Throughout sacred history, especially in the Gospel, God Himself used a pedagogy that must continue to be a model for the pedagogy of faith. A technique is of value in catechesis only to the extent that it serves the faith that is to be transmitted and learned; otherwise it is of no value. (CT, 58)

Though John Paul II does not further elaborate on the pedagogy of faith in CT, the GDC

further explores the concept. The pedagogy of God, the foundation of the pedagogy of faith, is cited in previous Church documents including the GCD.50 However, the GDC expands the

understanding of the pedagogy of faith. Part Three of the GDC is titled “The Pedagogy of the

Faith” and includes “The pedagogy of God, source and model of the pedagogy of the faith”

(Chapter One) and “Elements of methodology” (Chapter Two). Chapter One is a major addition to the framework, and expands greatly upon the one paragraph on the pedagogy of God in the

GCD (33). The GDC emphasizes that the model and source of effective catechesis comes directly from the Triune God.

The GDC lays out the basic principles of a catechesis inspired by the pedagogy of faith. It begins with a relationship with God by focusing on the dialogue of salvation between God and the person as well as the “progressiveness of Revelation” (143). Catechesis should also bear witness to the power of truth and the love of God. The pedagogy of faith is also Christocentric as it places Jesus Christ at the core of catechesis, values the community of faith, and is rooted in interpersonal relations. In addition, it is comprehensive and multifaceted in its linking of words

50. Paragraph 33 discusses the “Pedagogy of God in Revealing and of the Church in Catechizing.”

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and deeds, teachings and experience. Overall, catechesis informed by the pedagogy of faith is

described as a “process or a journey of following the Christ of the Gospel in the Spirit towards

the Father” in order to reach the maturity of faith (143). The NDC relies heavily on the GDC for

its articulation of the pedagogy of God and the pedagogy of faith in Chapter Four, “Divine and

Human Methodology.”

Within the writings of CT, GDC, and the NDC several overarching themes of the pedagogy of faith can be articulated that guide using experiences of service in catechesis.

Catechesis should emphasize a personal faith in God over knowledge about God. It should also be Christocentric, having Jesus at its core and founded on incarnational and relational principles.

Catechesis should be comprehensive, linking all the tasks of catechesis, and multifaceted, including inductive learning, experiences, and the concept of apprenticeship. These important themes for a vibrant pedagogy of faith will be further articulated in the following sections.

Emphasis on Faith over Knowledge

The pedagogy of faith focuses on fostering personal and active faith over merely teaching knowledge about God. Through the process of a catechesis which aims at handing on the faith, the Church is obligated to ensure that those being catechized are active, not passive, recipients of not only the tenets of the faith, but of the very presence of Christ. Only then can a true conversion and change of heart lead people to “abandon themselves completely and freely to

God” (NDC 28B).

The GDC acknowledges that active participation is not only good for learning on a human level, but it also correlates well to the economy of Revelation and salvation. These

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realities are ultimately accomplished by God, but they also require an active human response to

fully participate in them. Believers are called to respond to God’s gifts through actions such as

works of charity, prayer, and participation in the sacraments and the life of the Church. Learning

while doing is one way that “subjects take on a commitment in activities of faith, hope and

charity, to acquire the capacity and rectitude of judges, to strengthen their personal conversion,

and to a Christian praxis in their lives” (157). These outcomes can be strengthened especially by

experiences of service which are connected to the faith tradition of the Church.

Christocentric (Relational, Incarnational, Focus on Love of Neighbor)

Along with being focused on fostering personal faith, the pedagogy of faith necessarily is

Christocentric. Personal faith revolves around a relationship with the Triune God through, with,

and in Christ. Because “[t]he definitive aim of catechesis is to put people not only in touch, but

also in communion and intimacy, with Jesus Christ” (5), the centrality of Jesus Christ is stressed

by John Paul II in CT. Jesus himself shows the way in this important aspect of catechesis. The

NDC declares that Christ’s relationship with his disciples is the model for all catechetical

methods (28A2). Citing Our Hearts Were Burning Within Us (Hereafter OHWB), the NDC

affirms that “[b]y following the example of [Jesus’s] self-giving love, we learn to be Christian disciples in our own time, place, and circumstances” (29B and OHWB, 46).

Pedagogy of faith is also Christocentric in the fact that it is incarnational. Just as God’s love is shown to us in a human way through human experiences in the person of Jesus, so to catechesis can and should use the everyday experiences of life in discipleship formation. A good

pedagogy of faith “does not confuse the salvific action of God, which is pure grace, with the

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pedagogical action of man. Neither, however, does it oppose them and separate them” (GDC

144). God works in and through human action to produce results only God can give, including

faith, justice, peace, and salvation. The GDC points to the law of love as the basis of the

pedagogy of faith stating the fundamental law for catechesis is “the law of fidelity to God and

fidelity to man in a single, loving attitude” (145). This is fostered in an incarnational way by

helping disciples recognize God’s actions in life through activities of listening, thanksgiving, and

prayer. These characteristics point to the possibility of using experiences of service as an entry

into a deeper conversion of faith in all its aspects. Connecting service and learning can help

fulfill the pedagogy of faith’s mission to open people to the religious dimensions of life while

proposing the Gospel to them (147). In this way, catechesis can “penetrate and transform the

processes of intelligence, conscience, liberty and action, making of existence a gift after the

example of Jesus Christ” (147). In other words, experiences such as service that open up people to the presence of God can be an entry to transforming and directing all catechesis.

Comprehensive (Links All Aspects of Catechesis)

The pedagogy of faith ensures that catechesis is comprehensive and not only focused on one specific aspect. In order to accomplish this, the GDC emphasizes the main tasks of

catechesis. The GDC states that one objective of the pedagogy of faith is “to develop all the dimensions of faith through which it conveys faith which is known, celebrated, lived [a life which includes service], and prayed” (144). The tasks of catechesis were more fully articulated in paragraph 85, where the GDC adds two other “fundamental” tasks to the tasks of promoting knowledge of the faith, liturgical education, moral formation, and teaching to pray. The first is

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education for community life, in which apprenticeship is offered as the way to develop a

Christian attitude. The second is missionary initiative, in which disciples are taught to live out

their faith [in serving others] and continue the mission of love and justice that Jesus began (GDC

86). These last two added tasks of catechesis further open the scope of catechesis beyond the classroom and mere knowledge of the faith. In the NDC, these two are included in the main list

Similarities between the Tasks of Catechesis (GDC and NDC) and the Ways of Training in the Christian Life (RCIA) GDC 85-86 RCIA 75 NDC 20 Fundamental Tasks of Four Ways of Pastoral Formation Tasks of Catechesis Catechesis and Spiritual Guidance 1. Promoting 1. Suitable catechesis, gradual 1. Promotes knowledge of the knowledge of the faith. and complete in coverage. faith. 2. Liturgical 3. Suitable liturgical rites and 2. Promotes a knowledge of the education. celebrations of the word of God. meaning of the Liturgy and the sacraments. 3. Moral formation. 2. Progressive change in outlook 3. Promotes moral formation in and conduct, manifest by means Jesus Christ. of the social consequences of faith. 4. Teaching to pray. 2. Learn to turn to God in prayer, 4. Teaches the Christian how to to and follow the supernatural pray with Christ. inspiration in their deeds. 5. Education for 2. To become familiar with the 5. Prepares the Christian to live Community Life.* Christian way of life, to bear in community and to witness to the faith, and to participate actively in the life practice love of neighbor. and mission of the Church. 6. Missionary 4. Learn to spread the Gospel and 6. Promotes a missionary spirit initiation.* build up the Church by the that prepares the faithful to be witness of their lives. present as Christians in society. * The GDC lists the first four tasks in paragraph 85, “Fundamental tasks of catechesis.” Tasks five and six are listed in paragraph 86, “Other fundamental tasks of catechesis.”

137 of tasks of catechesis, bringing the total to six (20). The six tasks of catechesis as presented in the

NDC also correspond to the four ways of pastoral formation and guidance given in the RCIA paragraph 75 for training in the Christian life during the period of the catechumenate, as is shown in the table above. Fitting well with the move toward experience and an active faith in catechesis, tasks five and six encourage using experiences of service in catechesis. The GDC affirms that teaching about discipleship and serving others is intertwined with the action of discipleship and serving others, stating that there is a “necessary correlation and interaction”

(149) between method and content.

Multifaceted in approach (Inductive, Experiential, Apprenticeship)

The pedagogy of faith is based on the pedagogy of God which is then manifested in various human methods of catechesis. The GDC begins the discussion of the pedagogy of faith with short sections on the pedagogies of God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the Church. God has spoken to people of various ages and cultures, and based on the pedagogy of faith, catechesis should as well. Catechists should imitate God, who as “a creative and insightful teacher, transforms events in the life of his people into lessons of wisdom” (139). Christ’s words, signs, and works continued the pedagogy of God and showed its fundamental traits (140). Following the example of Jesus, the pedagogy of faith “conducts a pedagogy of signs, where words and deeds, teaching and experience are interlinked” (GDC 143). The NDC declares that Christ’s pedagogy was multi-dimensional and his relationship with his disciples is the model for all catechetical methods (28A2). The pedagogy of Christ is now continued in the mission of the

Church, which “has produced an incomparable treasure of pedagogy in the faith” (GDC 141)

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through the power of the Holy Spirit. Discipleship in the footsteps of Christ and openness to the

Holy Spirit are integral aspects of the pedagogy of faith.

When discussing the human methodologies that are based on the pedagogy of God, the

directories acknowledge that no one method is adequate. The NDC states that “God’s own

methodology inspires a plurality of methods in contemporary catechesis” (28B). It continues by describing the fundamental law that determines what methodologies can be used: “Catechetical methodology must exhibit a twofold fidelity. On the one hand, it must be faithful to God and to his Revelation; on the other, it must respect the liberty and promote the active participation of those being catechized” (28B). The GDC simply states this by saying that using the pedagogy of

God, the Church “assumes those methods which are not contrary to the Gospel and places them at its service” (148). A variety of approaches are important in faith formation, using anything that helps fosters discipleship.

Many of the catechetical methods discussed in the GDC and the NDC have a direct relationship with the importance of linking experiences of service with catechesis. An underlying principle of using service as a basis for learning in catechesis is the inductive method of communicating the faith. Supported as a legitimate approach to catechesis, the inductive (also called existential and ascending) method “moves from human problems and conditions and enlightens them with the word of God” (151). Instead of starting with the doctrines of faith in order to later apply them to life, the inductive method starts with the experiences of the people and relates them to divine revelation. The NDC states that “the inductive method reflects the economy of Revelation insofar as we come to know God through his self-disclosure in the

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particular events of salvation history” (29). Throughout history God has been made known

through the everyday life of His people and this should continue in the process of catechesis.

Closely related to the inductive method is the importance of human experience in catechesis. Because human experience often points to God and eternal questions of meaning,

“experience is a necessary medium for exploring and assimilating the truths which constitute the objective content of Revelation” (NDC, 153b). People need to learn to discern the ways that God is interacting through everyday experiences. Because of this, “[i]nterpreting and illuminating experience with the data of faith is a constant task of catechetical pedagogy” (NDC, 153).

Experiences, especially experiences of Christian discipleship through a life of serving others, can be a powerful entry into the deeper truth of the proclamation of faith. Along with the inductive method and the importance of experience, the NDC speaks of the formative values of Christian

living. The NDC states that “learning by Christian living is an essential component of

catechetical methodology” (29G) and includes both works of charity and works of justice as

examples. Experiences of service can be a foundation of catechesis that is inductive and

experiential based on living out the Christian faith.

The directories also make it clear that discipleship is fostered through learning from a

Christian community. In fact, the NDC goes so far as to say that “[t]he effectiveness of

catechesis depends to a great extent on the vitality of the Christian community in which it is

given” (29C). If the community as a whole is living out its mission as disciples of Christ, it will

help individuals in the community do the same. What is true of the whole community is also

affirmed in individual relationships within the community. Apprenticeship, “a guided encounter

with the entire Christian life” (29H) is upheld as an effective method of learning. The

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relationship formed is the key to passing on the faith in this active manner. The GDC states that

catechesis is “an essentially ecclesial act” (GDC 78) and a community and individuals who are

examples of lives of service fosters the formative value of service for young members of the

community.

Value and Cautions of Using Educational Pedagogy on Catechesis

In CT, John Paul II states that advances in secular scholarship and developments in

educational pedagogy can aid catechesis. He acknowledges that education and teaching are

continually being reviewed and adapted to make them more effective. He affirms that this can be

fruitfully applied to catechesis, stating that “it is natural that techniques perfected and tested for

education in general should be adapted for the service of education in the faith” (CT, 58).

However, educational pedagogy should be embraced keeping in mind the uniqueness of faith.

For catechesis, “[t]he pedagogy of faith is not a question of transmitting of human knowledge,

even of the highest kind; it is a question of communicating God’s revelation in its entirety” (CT

58). Pedagogy from the realm of education “is of value in catechesis only to the extent that it

serves the faith that is to be transmitted and learned; otherwise it is of no value” (CT 58). Current

modes of education should be explored, but always using the criteria of the pedagogy of faith.

One important facet of the pedagogy of faith that will be useful in later attempts to relate

catechesis and service-learning is the originality of the pedagogy of faith. Catechesis can draw from sources of education to accomplish its purpose, but it “cannot allow itself to be inspired by ideological considerations or purely human interests” (GDC 144). Examples of this adverse effect include attempts to turn catechesis into political or social activism. In addition, when

141 service is brought into catechesis there is a danger of the false view that a human solution to social problems, whether political or social in nature, is possible through purely human efforts

(CT 52). To avoid this, a good pedagogy of faith “does not confuse the salvific action of God, which is pure grace, with the pedagogical action of man. Neither, however, does it oppose them and separate them” (GDC 144).

While there is an increasing awareness of the value of inductive learning, experience, apprenticeship, and other modes of active learning throughout the catechetical documents, an important caution articulated by John Paul II needs to remain in the forefront. In CT, he asserts that catechesis should include teaching about the faith and experiencing the faith, not just one or the other. He states that it is “useless to campaign for the abandonment of serious and orderly study of the message of Christ in the name of a method concentrating on life experience…. [N]or is any opposition to be set up between a catechesis taking life as its point of departure and a traditional, doctrinal and systematic catechesis” (22). Examples are given later in CT where John

Paul II writes of the catechetical potential of activities in the life of the church, such as mission trips, Catholic Action groups, and charitable groups (47). However, he also firmly emphasizes that these occasions should not “lack serious study of Christian doctrine” (47). When experiences of service are used in catechesis, it must lead into or flow from a more systematic program of religious instruction.

The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops recently released a document to aid in the systematic teaching of the faith to high school students in the United States. Doctrinal

Elements of a Curriculum Framework for the Development of Catechetical Materials for Young

People of High School Age was published in 2008 and gives an outline of the elements that

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should be covered throughout high school in various ministry settings, including Catholic

Schools and parish catechetical programs. While the document was not intended to give theories

or methods of catechesis to implement the framework, it does provide an overarching vision to

ensure that catechesis remains systematic regardless of what methods are used (USCCB 2008,

1).

Conclusion with Criteria for Integrating Service in Catechesis

The pedagogy of faith can evaluate the service component of a catechetical program, whether it is for confirmation preparation, high school religion class, or high school parish youth ministry programs. The pedagogy of faith as articulated in the GDC and NDC clearly indicates what should be included in these programs and what should not. Major aspects of the pedagogy of faith guiding service include faith over knowledge, thoroughly Christocentric, comprehensive in catechetical aspects, and multifaceted in approach. The pedagogy of faith warns that such service experiences should not be used for particular political or social ideologies, become a human centered basis for hope, or be the only aspect of catechesis.

Service used in catechetical situations should always have the goal of faith in God, not mere acquisition of knowledge. It should be based on divine revelation and respect the human response. Issues of justice and injustice are often beyond human understanding, so trust in the providence of God and the revelation of His love and justice provide the necessary background for a response of faith in many service situations. Service must also be Christocentric in three

important ways. First, the relationship between Jesus and his apostles is the model which should

be followed. This model is the key in all relationships involved including those among the

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students, teacher, service providers, those being served, and especially the relationship with God

in and through all these other relationships. Second, service should be incarnational and help

students recognize the presence of God working in and through the service experience. Beyond

the immediate goal of working toward and learning about social justice, service can foster the

capacity of the students to seek the presence of God in all of life’s experiences. Third, the great commandment of Jesus must be central to the process. With the goal of loving God and loving neighbor at the forefront, service is placed in the context of self-sacrificial giving.

The pedagogy of faith also encourages linking all aspects of the catechetical endeavor.

Catechesis seeks to foster faith that is known, celebrated, lived, and prayed, within community and with a missionary spirit. All of these aspects can and should be incorporated into a service program, beginning with a service experience of lived, apostolic faith in community that then moves to prayer, celebration, and a deeper knowledge of the faith. The link between service and prayer is especially important in the process. Because it aims to be comprehensive in incorporating the various tasks of catechesis, the pedagogy of faith encourages a multifaceted approach. The use of service in catechesis should include inductive learning based on student experiences. This active learning approach fosters discipleship formation and can especially be

enhanced through apprenticeship within the community of believers.

The pedagogy of faith also offers some difficulties that must be overcome in

incorporating service experiences into catechesis. Service can at times be used to promote

particular political stances or social ideologies. The Gospel of Christ transcends all of these

distinctions and no one political or social ideology fulfills this Gospel. While aspects of

particular ideologies should be critiqued for where they support or oppose divine revelation, any

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promotion of one human system must be avoided. In addition, though human acts of service are

good and necessary to promote love and justice in the world, students must be reminded that it is

God who ultimately is the source of all love and justice. Finally, catechesis cannot be reduced to

performing works of charity and justice. Experiences of service should be an integral and

integrated aspect of a comprehensive catechetical program. The principles of Christian service derived from the rites of initiation in Chapter One and the catechetical documents in Chapter

Two provide a foundation for a model of Catechetical Service-Learning. Another important

source of information for a model of Catechetical Service-Learning is the scholarship on service-

learning from the realm of secular education, which is the focus of Chapter Three.

CHAPTER THREE

Service-Learning: Brief History, Principles, and Practices

Chapter One articulated aspects of Christian service through the rites of initiation in the

Catholic Church. After a brief history of catechetical renewal, Chapter Two related these aspects of Christian service to the general and national catechetical directories. While there are some differences between the initiation rites and the catechetical directories focus of justice over

charity, from a liturgical and catechetical standpoint it is clear that service is seen as an important

part of Christian formation and discipleship. Because of the catechetical directories’ support of

using experiences of service in catechesis and the call to adapt learning principles from the

secular realm, the principles and practices of service-learning are now articulated to better inform

a model of Catechetical Service-Learning.

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the history of community service and

service-learning in the United States context over the past 50 years. The expansion of service-

learning practices and scholarship, especially the growth of service-learning organizations and

journals in the past 20 years, demonstrates the development of service-learning. The next section

defines important terminology using the scholarship from the field and articulates foundational

aspects of service-learning. Though service-learning research contains much variety, the

following section presents six principles of effective service-learning and addresses four

potential negative aspects of service-learning. The final section explores conceptual models of

service-learning in an effort to discover which principles, practices, and models of service-

learning are beneficial to a model of Catechetical Service-Learning.

145 146

Brief History of Service-learning

According to the Corporation for National and Community Service, volunteering and community service are “part of the fabric” of the United States of America. The report on

Volunteering and Civic Life in America found that 62.6 million American adults, or one-in-four, formally volunteered through a community organization in 2013. Their service totaled 7.7 billion hours. In addition, the report states that almost 63% of American adults engage in informal service, directly helping those in their community and neighborhood (Corporation for National and Community Service, Volunteering in America).

In analyzing data about volunteering and community service since 1974, the Corporation for National and Community Service reported on several trends. The percentage of adults volunteering has fluctuated from a low of 20.4% in in 1989 to a high of 28.5% in 2005

(Corporation for National and Community Service, Volunteering in America: An Overview of

Corporation Research). The growth in volunteering since 1989 has been due largely to three age groups: older teenagers (ages 16-19), mid-life adults (45-64) and older adults (65 and above).

The report suggests that volunteering through educational organizations is increasing while volunteering for civic and political organizations is decreasing. Religious organizations attract a greater percentage of volunteers (35.5%) than any other type of organization (Corporation for

National and Community Service, Volunteer Growth in America). The report also includes implication for volunteers, such as health benefits, as well as community factors that promote or diminish volunteering, such as rates of homeownership, community education levels, and length of commutes to work (Corporation for National and Community Service, Volunteering in

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America: An Overview of Corporation Research). The growth in the rate of older teens

volunteering corresponds to the rise in prominence of a specific type of volunteering promoted in

many educational institutions: service-learning.

The underlying principles behind service-learning have deep roots in American

education. The foundation of service-learning can be traced back to the land grant movement of

the 1860s and John Dewey’s philosophy of education (Stanton, Giles, and Cruz 1999, xii).

Contemporary service-learning began to take shape in the 1960s in higher education. In that

decade, several currents in education and society led to a rise in combining experiences of

service with learning. From the educational perspective, there was the rise of experiential

learning, based on Dewey’s theory of experience.1 Socially, there was a sharp rise in community

service with the advent of the Peace Corps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), as

well other more local efforts (Jacoby 1996, 11). The civil rights movement increased the demand

for the study and practice of social justice and a few educators began to connect the social

activism of the civil rights movement and the War on Poverty with the academic learning in

classrooms (Stanton, Giles, and Cruz 1999, 1).

The concept of service-learning became a distinct movement in education in the late

1960s. It is commonly held that “[t]he term service-learning first emerged in the work of

[Robert] Sigmon and William Ramsey at the Southern Regional Education board in 1967”

(Jacoby 1996, 12). Two years later there was a Southern Regional Education Board Conference

1. For a more detailed analysis of the roots of service-learning in Dewey’s writings, see Dwight Giles and Janet Eyler, “The Theoretical Roots of Service-Learning in John Dewey: Toward a Theory of Service-Learning,” Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning. Vol. 1 No. 1, 77-85.

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in Atlanta sponsored by local and national organizations2 to discuss combining service and

learning in a direct and powerful way (Learn and Serve America 2008). The conference gave the

basic vision for service-learning in its early days by defining service-learning as “the

accomplishment of tasks that meet genuine human needs in combination with conscious

educational growth” (Stanton, Giles, and Cruz 1999, 2). The conference recommended

encouraging students to volunteer, coupling volunteering with academic learning, and giving

academic recognition for the learning. In addition, the conference urged a wide variety of

agencies, from universities to the government to private organizations, to support this endeavor

through funds, planning, and implementation (Learn and Serve America 2008).

One task of the movement was to be able to articulate the distinction between

volunteering and service-learning. From 1971 to 1982, the National Student Volunteer Program

published a journal titled Synergist to explore themes of connecting service and learning. Robert

Sigmon, a promoter of experiential education and service-learning during the early years of its

development, wrote an influential and often quoted article in the Synergist in 1979. The article

outlined three principles which made service-learning different from volunteering.3 According to

Sigmon, service-learning contains the following principles: “1. Those being served control the

services(s) [sic] provided. 2. Those being served become better able to serve and be served by

their own actions. 3. Those who serve are also learners and have significant control over what is

expected to be learned” (Stanton, Giles, and Cruz 1999, 3). Early practitioners also discussed the

2. Some of the conference sponsors included the City of Atlanta, Atlanta Urban Corps, Peace Corps, VISTA, and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. See Learn and Serve America, “History of Service-Learning in Higher Education.”

3. See Robert Sigmon, “Service-Learning: Three Principles,” Synergist Spring 1979, 9-11.

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importance of student reflection on social problems as well as working toward societal change.

In addition, the personal encounter with those being served and the formation of relationships

made service-learning distinct and was an important element in order to avoid a paternalistic

approach often found in volunteer programs (3). Through the 1960s and 1970s, “[m]any campus-

based service programs were started” (Jacoby 1996, 12). Though these early efforts often were

not sustained, many lessons were learned that helped to advance the practice and understanding

of service-learning.4

The service-learning movement realized much growth and development in the 1980s

because of support from a variety of newly formed organizations. Campus Outreach Opportunity

League (1984), the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (1985) and Youth

Service America (1985) were all established with a focus on community service. In addition,

Campus Compact: The Project for Public and Community Service was formed in 1985 to

empower colleges and universities to engage students and communities in the partnership

between education and service (Learn and Serve America 2008). Also, the National Society for

Experiential Education “worked with more than five hundred colleges and universities to

develop and strengthen experiential education” (Jacoby 1996, 14). Service-learning was

4. Kendall reports on some of the lessons learned from early efforts at combining service and learning in the 1960s and 1970s. First, the program needs to be integrated into the mission of the learning institution. Without this support, service-learning programs tended to wither and fade away. Second, the service has to go beyond just helping others and ensuring good outcomes for the students and must focus on the needs of the community organizations they are helping. The relationship between served and server must benefit all parties involved. Third, the service experience alone does not guarantee significant learning. There must also be structures that foster critical reflection (11-12). Unfortunately, with the resurgence in interest in service-learning in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many of the programs did not learn from these lessons and continued to struggle with similar issues as early practitioners (12-13). See Kendall, Jane C. “Combining Service and Learning: An Introduction for Cooperative Education Professionals.” Journal Of Cooperative Education, Vol. 27, no. 2, 9-26.

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becoming mainstream and institutionalized at many colleges and universities (Stanton, Giles, and

Cruz 1999).

Alongside these developments, there was a desire to outline effective principles and

practices of service-learning. In 1989 the Wingspread Conference was organized for this purpose. “Principles of Good Practice for Combining Service and Learning,” is the document

created by the conference after “extensive consultation with more than 70 organizations

interested in service and learning” (Honnet and Poulson 1989). After laying out a vision for

combining service and learning, the remainder of the document gives ten essential components

for good practice. Each component is given a brief explanation and an extensive list of examples

on the high school, university, and community level (Honnet and Poulson 1989). The key statement of the document, which has since guided efforts to refine and strengthen service- learning, is “[s]ervice, combined with learning, adds value to each and transforms both” (Jacoby

1996, 14, cf. Honnet and Poulson, “Principles of Good Practice for Combining Service and

Learning”).

The federal government created initiatives in the early 1990s to support service-learning.

The forming of the Office of National Service led to the National and Community Service Act of

1990. This legislation “authorized grants for schools to support service-learning and demonstration grants for national service programs to youth corps, nonprofits, as well as colleges and universities” (Learn and Serve America 2008). The Corporation for National and

Community Service was formed in 1993 and included direct funding for service-learning at the

K-12 and higher education levels (Jacoby 1996, 16). Also in 1993, Learn and Serve America was formed to combine Serve America, the AmeriCorps and Senior Corps programs. Learn and

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Serve America “provides direct and indirect support to K-12 schools, community groups, and higher education institutions to facilitate and support service-learning projects” (Learn and Serve

America 2008).

Service-learning scholarship and practice continued to expand and develop throughout the 1990s. Kendall and Associates published a three volume work in 1990, Combining Service and Learning, which “brought together a wide range of resources on service-learning in K-12 settings, as well as higher education, including many previously published and new historical, theoretical, policy-related, practical, and programmatic pieces, plus an annotated bibliography of the service-learning literature” (Jacoby 1996, 15). Barbara Jacoby of the University of Maryland is a long-time scholar in the field of service-learning whose publications include six books and numerous other articles. In 1996 she published Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices which was an influential volume in the development of service-learning. This book is “about the practice of service-learning in today’s higher education” (Jacoby 1996, xvii) and includes chapters from a variety of scholars covering three major topics: the foundations and principles of service-learning, designing a spectrum of service-learning experiences, and organizational, administrative, and policy issues. The book is intended for college and university administrators and faculty as well as community leaders to introduce them to service-learning and its benefits (Jacoby 1996, xviii-xxi).

A major milestone for service-learning came in 1994 with the inception of a scholarly journal, the Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, solely devoted to service- learning. In the inaugural issue, professors Dwight Giles and Janet Eyler of Vanderbilt

University, researchers in the field of service-learning, reflect on the service-learning movement

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up to this pivotal point in its history. They acknowledge that it is a “relatively new social and

educational phenomenon” which “suffers from the lack of a well articulated [sic] conceptual

framework” (Giles and Eyler 1994, 77). The authors cite three reasons why this was the case at

the time. First, people who work in service-learning are more focused on the practical processes and descriptions rather than theoretical frameworks. Second, service-learning had existed on the margins of the academic realm, largely ignored by those outside the field itself. Third, there

continues to be a resistance to theorizing service-learning as the emphasis continues to be on

practice (77). In addition to the journal, many conferences and publications from a variety of

disciplines began including scholarly speakers and articles on service-learning. Service-learning was developing as an academic discipline as well as an educational practice.

As service-learning continued to gain momentum in the educational realm, in the late

1990s the literature shifted from defining and explaining the philosophy and pedagogy of

service-learning to critiquing and assessing the movement. Service-learning had grown enough

for leaders to take a step back and reflect on the movement’s short history. This was the purpose

a 1999 book by Timothy Stanton, Giles, and Nadinne Cruz, Service-Learning: A Movement’s

Pioneers Reflect on Its Origins, Practice, and Future. Stanton and Cruz both worked for the

Haas Center for Public Service at Stanford University promoting service-learning. For the authors, the development in the 1980s that moved from experiments of connecting community action and academic learning with a small group of practitioners to a full-fledged national effort

was simply astonishing. They had obtained support from elementary through post-secondary

educational leaders, Congress, and the President of the United States. At the same time, they

acknowledge that much more work needed to be done to articulate the deeper connections

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between service and learning. Passing on the history of service-learning to the next generation of

leaders in the field was a primary concern (Stanton, Giles, and Cruz 1999, xvi).

Another important work in the evolution of service-learning scholarship is Eyler and

Giles’s book Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning? published in 1999. The authors combined service-learning theory with research on the effectiveness of service-learning. The

study’s sources included national survey data as well as individual student interviews. Working

with fifteen hundred students and over 20 colleges and universities, it was the largest scale

attempt to study the benefits and best practices of the service-learning that was already occurring

throughout the U.S. in post-secondary education (Eyler and Giles 1999, xvi).

The service-learning field began to diversify at the end of the twentieth century. Service-

learning began to use terms such as academic service-learning, community service-learning,

service-learning internships, and co-curricular service-learning all denoting particular types of

service-learning. In addition, there was less attention to definitions and more attention given to

the elements of quality practice and the impact on students (Furco 2009, xi). Service-Learning in

the Disciplines is a series of 21 monographs published between 1997-2006 that relates service- learning to specific academic disciplines. The series is meant to explain to faculty in diverse disciplines the benefits of incorporating service-learning. The American Association of Higher

Education sponsored the series. Examples of fields covered include teacher education, Spanish, architecture, accounting, biology, psychology, philosophy, management, and religious studies.5

5. For a complete list of the fields covered in the 21 volume series see Stylus publishing website, “Service-Learning in the Disciplines Series,” https://sty.presswarehouse.com/Books/SeriesDetail.aspx?id=35, accessed August 7, 2014.

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Jacoby’s 2015 book Service-Learning Essentials: Questions, Answers, and Lessons

Learned seeks to bring together the history and wisdom of service-learning. It gives input on important service-learning themes in a question and answer format. Topics include history and theoretical foundations, facilitating reflection, developing community partnerships, curricular

and co-curricular forms of service-learning, assessment and administration of programs, and the complexities, dilemmas and future of service-learning. The book also includes extensive references and “serves as a ‘one-stop shop’ for the best and most current resources for further information” (Jacoby 2015, xx).

Movements have recently developed in service-learning that place more emphasis on

activism and politics. Critiquing the desire of early pioneers to be apolitical, these new movements attempt to move from a focus on service and charity to a greater emphasis on civic

engagement and social change. The goal is to combine service and politics to increase students’

civic engagement and to promote social change. According to Marshall Welch, Director of Saint

Mary’s Catholic Institute for Lasallian Social Action and leader in the field of service-learning,

“[a]ction to bring about social change transcends the traditional apolitical approaches of service-

learning” (2009, 176). This new movement is called “service-politics.” Service-politics is

distinct from service-learning in the “subtle yet critical difference between application of

knowledge and skills to meet a need and action to promote change, combined with critical

reflection” (176). Service should promote change in addition to fulfilling a direct need. An array

of tactics beyond charity to effect social change is also included (177).

Another development in service-learning is “justice-learning” advocated by Dan Butin.

Justice-learning is a combination of service-learning and social justice education. Justice-

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learning allows students to “explore deeper, underlying issues that instigate the need for service

and activism while learning and working with the community” (Welch 2009, 178). An awareness of the complexity of issues that allow for oppression is key. In addition to Butin’s work, much has been written in recent years on education for social justice (Welch 2009, 178). Because the focus on social justice is relatively new, very little is known about the impact of combining service-learning with social justice (179). The very nature of making service-learning political or social justice oriented makes the endeavor inherently challenging, as it can be divisive. As service-learning and civic engagement continue to evolve the challenge of balance between charity and justice remains at the forefront.

A diverse number of challenges as well as areas for growth remain for service-learning.

In reflecting on almost 20 years of experience in service-learning, Jacoby notes that there has been growth in both the theory and practice of service-learning across the country, but contends that challenging questions at the heart of the movement still remain and need to be addressed.

Jacoby raises several questions surrounding service-learning theory and practice, and many of these questions have endured since the beginning of the movement. One issue is the lack of a standard definition of service-learning. Similarly, there is no agreement on qualifying criteria for service-learning. As the use of service-learning continues to grow, demonstrating the value of service-learning continues to be difficult, especially because one of the main effects is personal transformation. Other issues include the lack of equality of relationships between the campus and community partners, the critique that service-learning perpetuates the social status quo, and the effects of institutionalization of service-learning. Jacoby contends that these are issues that must

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be contemplated in theory and practice, and that the struggle to address these issues is where the

transformative nature of service-learning for students and communities is forged (2009, 91-102).

After half a century of practice and scholarship, service-learning continues to evolve. The

literature has shifted from the effects on the students to also include the impact on the

community organizations. In addition, the challenges and complexities often overlooked in the

early years of research are now being addressed (Furco 2009, xii). Issues of funding6 and institutionalization7 have also come to the fore. The growth in nontraditional students in higher

education is a new area of service-learning literature.8 Other new possibilities, such as on-line

“service-elearning” have added to the scholarly discussion.9 A major shift that is currently taking

hold is the advent of international service-learning, creating a whole new realm of opportunities

and challenges.

As service-learning has grown and developed throughout the years, there remains a

consistent core that continues to hold it together. Service-learning seeks the educational and

personal growth of the student through experiences and relationships built in the community. In

6. See Marybeth Lima, “Funding Service-Learning Programs,” in The Future of Service- Learning: New Solutions for Sustaining and Improving Practice, Jean Strait and Marybeth Lima, editors, 119-136. Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2009.

7. See Andrew Furco and Barbara Holland, “Securing Administrator support for Service- Learning Institutionalization,” in The Future of Service-Learning: New Solutions for Sustaining and Improving Practice, Jean Strait and Marybeth Lima, editors, 52-66. Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2009.

8. See Helen Rosenberg, Susan Reed, Anne Statham, and Howard Rosing, “Service-Learning and the Nontraditional Student: What’s Age Got to Do with It? in Understanding Service-Learning and Community Engagement: Crossing Boundaries Through Research. Judith Hatcher and Robert Bringle, editors, 157-178. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2012.

9. See Jean Strait, “Service-eLearning,” in The Future of Service-Learning: New Solutions for Sustaining and Improving Practice, Jean Strait and Marybeth Lima, editors, 155-171. Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2009.

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addition, service-learning aims to empower and transform communities through collaboration and relationships built among students, teachers, community organizations, and community members. As interest in service-learning increased, so has the diversity of views. Concomitantly,

service-learning scholarship has increased, leading to a surge in the development of

organizations and journals within the field.

Service-Learning Focused Organizations and Journals

Service-learning’s legitimacy in higher education is evidenced in the numerous

organizations and journals created in recent years to study its theory and practice. The National

Youth Leadership Council (hereafter NYLC) remains a leader in the practice of service-learning.

The NYLC mission is to develop young leaders, support educators, and advance the field of

service-learning (NYLC, What we do). The NYLC sponsors the Generator School Network and

the National Service-Learning Clearinghouse, “the Nation's #1 library of service-learning

resources. The Clearinghouse offers thousands of free online resources for K-12, higher education, community based organization, and tribal communities” (National Service-Learning

Clearinghouse, clearinghouse). In addition, 2014 marked the 25th Annual National Service-

Learning Conference convened by the NYLC and co-hosted by Youth Serve America. NYLC

also produced a journal, no longer in publication, titled The Generator: A Journal for Service-

Learning and Youth Leadership.

The Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning endeavors to “publish the highest

quality research, theory, and pedagogy articles related to higher education academic service-

learning” (Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, About). It is a national, peer

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reviewed journal geared toward post-secondary education faculty and administrators. The

Journal is published in online and print forms twice a year by OCSL Press, through the Edward

Ginsberg Center for Community Service and Learning at the University of Michigan (Michigan

Journal of Community Service Learning, About).

The International Association for Research on Service-Learning and Community

Engagement (hereafter IARSLCE) was established in 2005, building off the success of several

Annual International K-H Service-Learning Research Conferences. The first K-H Service-

Learning Research Conference in 2001 was the first conference to focus on service-learning

(IARSLCE, History). IARSLCE “is an international non-profit organization devoted to promoting research and discussion about service-learning and community engagement”

(IARSLCE, About Us). IARSLCE’s broad scope includes “research on service-learning and community engagement internationally and across all levels of the education system” from primary to post-secondary and further education (IARSLCE, About Us). IARSLCE began publishing a peer reviewed online journal in the fall of 2013 titled The International Journal of

Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement (hereafter IJRSLCE). The IJRSLCE is international and includes a variety of settings from K-12, to higher education, to community agencies (IJRSLCE, Focus and Scope). In addition, the IARSLCE Advances in Service-Learning

Research, published annually from 2002-2011, “contains current research on service-learning in

K-12 education, teacher education, and higher education” (IARSLCE, Publications).

Partnerships: A Journal of Service-Learning and Civic Engagement is another journal dedicated to service-learning. Partnerships is sponsored by the North Carolina Campus Compact and hosted by the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (Partnerships, Editorial Policies).

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Partnerships was first published in 2009 and has produced two journals per year since 2011.

Based on the understanding that engaged learning is based on effective partnerships, this peer

reviewed journal “focuses on how theories and practices can inform and improve such

partnerships, connections, and collaborations” (Partnerships, Editorial Policies).

There are several journals and organizations that research and support service-learning in

specific academic fields. The International Journal For Service Learning in Engineering,

Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship is a semi-annual, peer-reviewed, electronic journal published since 2006 whose mission is to combine engineering theory and practice for the benefit of the community through service-learning (Homepage). The

International Center for Service-Learning in Teacher Education (hereafter ICSLTE) was created

in 2003 and hosts a community of scholars around the world committed to teacher education. In

addition, ICSLTE hosts a conference to provide a forum to share research and practice ideas.

ICSLTE is housed at Duke University. The American Educational Research Association

produced the Journal of Research on Service-Learning in Teacher Education in the fall of 2010

and the spring of 2011, but publication appears to have ceased (Journal of Research on Service-

Learning and Teacher Education, Homepage). Reflections: A Journal of Public Rhetoric, Civic

Writing and Service Learning, is a peer reviewed journal published twice a year by New City

Community Press. It was established in 2000 and “provides a forum for scholarship on public

rhetoric, civic writing, service-learning, and community literacy” (Reflections, Homepage).

Other journals that are closely related to service-learning focus on topics such as civic

commitment and education outreach. The Community College National Center for Community

Engagement (hereafter CCNCCE) includes a focus on service-learning, though not in name.

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CCNCCE produces The Journal for Civic Commitment (Journal for Civic Commitment, Journal).

The organization also hosts an International Conference where the 2014 theme was

“Connectivity Through Service Learning and Civic Engagement” (CCNCCE, Conference). The

peer-reviewed Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement was established in 1996

at the University of Georgia and focuses on all forms of outreach and engagement, including

service-learning (Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, Homepage). The

University of North Carolina at Greensboro has an office of Leadership and Service-Learning

which maintains website of organizations and journals committed to community engaged

scholarship.10

Given the extensive growth and development of service-learning, there is an abundance

of resources to develop a solid understanding of service-learning which can then be applied in catechetical situations. The growth in combining service and learning in education led to a parallel growth in academic research and scholarship on the theory and best practices of service- learning. As seen above, this has included book, conferences, and journals all dedicated to the study and practice of service-learning. From this abundance of information, the next section begins by defining terminology and laying down the foundational service-learning concepts.

Next, six key principles of service-learning are explained and four potential negative aspects of service-learning are addressed. Finally, conceptual models of service-learning are presented.

10. See “Journals, etc. that publish Community Engaged Scholarship” University of North Carolina at Greensboro Office of Leadership and Service-Learning, http://olsl.uncg.edu/community- scholarship/journals-that-publish-community-engaged-scholarship, accessed August 5, 2014.

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Terminology and Overview of Service-Learning

Terminology

The term service-learning is used to describe a vast and diverse variety of experiences.

Even with the relative short history of the service-learning movement, the diversity of the scholarship makes it difficult to define. By 1990, 147 definitions of service-learning could be identified (Eyler and Giles 1999, 3), which has most certainly increased. As noted above, a variety of terms similar to service-learning are in use. The National Service-Learning

Clearinghouse website defines service-learning as “a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities” (What is Service-Learning).

An expanded definition of service-learning is “a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs, together with structured opportunities for reflection designed to achieve desired learning outcomes (Jacoby 2015, 1-2). In all its variety, the basis of service-learning is enhancing student educational and personal growth through experiences of community service while also improving the community through the time and talents students share.

Though the use of the term service in service-learning has been widely accepted, the problems associated with the term are not ignored. Cynthia Rosenberger, lecturer at the

University of Massachusetts, Amherst, notes that “[t]he dialectic nature of the language used to distinguish the parities in service learning – for example, those who serve and the recipients of

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the service – contributes to the perception of unequal and unbalanced relationships” (2000, 35).

To many people, service suggests inequality between the “servers” and “those served”.

Similarly, it can be used in the self-righteous sense of doing something for the less fortunate and

gives the connotation of being disconnected with social justice (Kendall 1990, 24). Service can

also carry the connotation of involuntary servitude (Jacoby 1996, 8). Lori Pompa, founder and

director of a service-learning model called “The Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program,”

articulates that “[t]he crux of the problem revolves around the issues of power. If I ‘do for’ you,

‘serve’ you, ‘give to’ you – that creates a connection in which I have the resources, the abilities,

the power, and you are on the receiving end. It can be – while benign in intent – ironically

disempowering of the receiver, granting further power to the giver” (2005, 176). Rosenberger argues that practitioners need to be aware of the issues of terminology and suggests alternatives, such as calling everyone “service learners” or “participants” and the overall term “community learning” or “community action learning” rather than service-learning (2000, 35).11 While

Jacoby acknowledges the problems associated with the term service, she notes that “it is the most common and accessible word to use (1996, 8). For the same reason and with the limitations of service in mind, this study will use the term service-learning.

Combining a community’s need for volunteers and the goal of student learning creates tension in how the two should relate. This tension is addressed in distinct ways in various

11. Other terminology recently used for practices similar to service-learning include “justice learning,” “community engagements,” and “civic engagement.” For a discussion of the changes in terminology, see Marshall Welch, 2009 “Moving From Service-Learning to Civic Engagement,” in Civic Engagement in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices, ed. Barbara Jacoby and Associates, 174-195. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. For a list of alternate terms, see Barbara Jacoby, 2015, Service-Learning Essentials: Questions, Answers, and Lessons Learned, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass: 10.

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service-learning programs depending on the area of focus. The weakest type of service-learning

is when service and learning goals are separate. Service is used as a periphery component that is

not integrated into the learning. When the service and learning is integrated, the focus tends to be

either on student learning over the service involved or, conversely, on the community needs over

student learning. Ideally, according to Eyler and Giles, service-learning creates a situation where

“two foci are in balance, and study and action are explicitly integrated” (1999, 4). Balancing the needs of the student and the community is difficult, but it is ultimately the most fruitful for everyone involved.

To signify this balance, a hyphen connects service and learning to create the term

“service-learning.” The hyphen is important because it represents the reflection, which ties

together the service and the learning (Eyler 2001, 35). The term “service-learning” indicates a

healthy tension and balance between the service and learning that is connected by reflection

(Eyler and Giles 1999, 4). Service-learning, when properly executed, creates a situation where

“experience enhances understanding; understanding leads to more effective action. Both learning

and service gain value and are transformed when combined in the specific types of activities we

call service-learning” (8). For service-learning to be authentic and effective, the needs of the

community and students should be integrated.

Foundations of Service-Learning

To successfully combine service and learning, service-learning must be built on a solid

foundation of theory and be very intentional in its practices. Service-learning is not just an experience of service that can teach a lesson. Service-learning has great potential to benefit

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students, educational institutions, and the community, but more than good intentions and hard

work are needed. In the Preface to Service-Learning in Higher Education, Barbara Jacoby writes,

“[w]hat distinguishes service-learning from other community service or volunteer experiences is the intentional integration of service and learning and the reciprocal nature of both the service

and the learning among all parties in the relationship: students, the community, and the

academy” (1996, xiiii). A deeper understanding of the theory and practice of service-learning will help produce the desired results (xvii-xiii).

Service-learning ascribes to the idea that education involves the whole person. The roots of service-learning are found in educational theories of Dewey, who “was convinced that learning is a whole hearted affair, liking emotions and intellect” (Eyler and Giles 1999, 8). Eyler

and Giles saw a deeper learning in their students beyond the memorizing of facts because it

“engaged our students’ hearts as well as their heads and helped them understand the complexity of what they were studying. It also provided opportunities to apply what they learned and think critically about assumptions they had never questioned before” (xiv). They argue that service-

learning is powerful because it “creates connections – between feelings and thought, between

studies and life, between self and others, and between college and community” (xiv). Service-

learning is truly holistic because there is an emphasis on both the affective and cognitive aspects

of education, combining personal and intellectual growth (10). Because of these claims, service- learning carries an implicit critique of education, taking the view that education currently does not empower students to make connections between what they have learned and the real-world

(Speck 2001, 4). More positively service-learning acknowledges that more can be done to connect students with the community in a constructive manner.

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Service-learning is based on the idea that education should serve the good of the entire

community, not solely the good of the individual. Thus, the community service aspect of service-

learning helps students understand their role in the greater community. Service-learning is geared

toward student participation, giving them the skills and experiences necessary to contribute to the

greater good (Eyler and Giles 1999, 11). In this way, service-learning can be characterized as a response to a perceived crisis in community. As universities and the greater culture have become dominated by materialism, individualism, and competitiveness, community has suffered.

Service-learning is a response to foster greater community within educational institutions and

with the greater community (Speck 2001, 6).

Service-learning practice is dependent on building relationships and opportunities for

reflection. Robert Kronick, professor of educational psychology and counseling at the University

of Tennessee-Knoxville, and his colleagues describe service-learning as “working with another

and being introspective about what is happening in those moments of being in relationship with

another” (Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 1). Reflection and relationship, combined

with the service experience, are what make this type of education valuable. The main characteristics that distinguish service-learning from community service or volunteer programs is the inclusion of reflection and reciprocity in the experience. Reflection should be designed to foster learning and development based on the service experience. Reciprocity places the focus on the needs of the community and the relationships forged through the service. It “encourages students to do things with others rather than for them” (Jacoby 1996, 8). While difficult and often

unpredictable, service-learning creates opportunities where not only the mind, but also the heart

are fed (Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 1-2).

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Service-learning is also founded on the idea that meaningful learning can and does occur outside of the traditional classroom. Jacoby states that “[s]ervice learning is both curricular and cocurricular, because all learning does not occur in the classroom” (1996, 6). She goes on to assert that while the structure and rigor of the classroom can foster the intended growth that is hoped for in service-learning, “skillfully designed and implemented cocurricular experiences can yield rich results” (1996, 6). While service-learning can be much more engaging than traditional learning, it is also more problematic and disruptive in many ways. It can be unnerving to operate outside of the bounds of the classroom and the safety of the campus. It can be an immense amount of work to implement a successful program. However, fostering the disorderliness of service-learning can also create the necessary conditions for transformation to occur (Butin

2005a, viii).

Dan Butin is a professor at Merrimack College, author and editor of over 80 academic publications, and an Associate Editor of the Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning.

Butin suggests that “service-learning is a culturally saturated, socially consequential, politically contested, and existentially defining experience” (2005a, x). Service-learning is culturally saturated because there are no neutral programs, neutral leaders, or neutral participants. The programs and the people of service-learning are shaped by the culture and especially by individual experiences of and responses to the culture. Service-learning is socially consequential because any interaction we have with the world has an impact on it, great or small. This is especially true of service-learning since relationships are at the core. Service-learning is politically contested in its attempt to change the status quo or make a difference in the world.

Changes in society are inherently political because the methods of change are often contested.

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Service-learning is existentially defining in that “it forces individuals (students, faculty, and

community partners) to take a stance. In so doing, individuals must (consciously or not) define

themselves by the decisions they make or refuse to make. One cannot remain neutral when engaging in service-learning” (Butin, 2005a, x-xi). Through the process of action and reflection, service-learning challenges everyone, causing growth, change, or resistance. Given such a complex situation dealing with weighty issues, the variety and evolution of ideas and practices in service-learning comes as no surprise.

Service-learning continues to evolve as theory and practice constantly inform one another to move the field forward. Suzanne Mintz, coordinator of service-learning initiatives at the

University of Maryland, and Garry Hesser, professor of sociology at Augsburg College, point out that the development of service-learning theory and practice form a give and take relationship.

Using the Wells and Knefelkamp Practice-to-Theory-to-Practice model, the authors suggest that service-learning is continually growing and developing its underlying theory as well as its applications. The Practice-to-Theory-to-Practice model applies well to service-learning as it was the experience of linking service and learning that later led to theorizing and extrapolating the underlying principles. These theories and principles lead to new practices, which are then the basis for further reflection on the service-learning theory (Mintz and Hesser 1996, 28). As service-learning continues to grow and develop as both an academic field and an educational practice, the symbiotic relationship between theory and practice continues.

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Principles of Effective Service-Learning

Though there is great variety in the service-learning literature, fundamental principles and

practices can be articulated. The principles form the structure of service-learning theory and lay

the foundation for implementation of best practices within programs. Six principles as the basis

of good practice will be articulated: fostering authentic relationships; encouraging reflection;

ensuring quality experiences; focusing on transformative learning; empowering students to take

ownership; and providing mentorship. Authentic relationships are the core element of service-

learning and need to be fostered among the students, teacher-mentors,12 community

organizations,13 and especially the community members.14 Encouraging reflection is perhaps the

single most important element of service-learning. It is a broad concept which encompasses a

wide variety of opportunities for reflecting on and analyzing the service experience. Ensuring

quality experiences is vital to cultivate an atmosphere where students can form authentic

relationships and reflect critically about themselves and the world around them. Focusing on

12. The term teacher-mentor will be used throughout this chapter to refer to adults in leadership positions in the entire process of service-learning. It refers primarily to teachers implementing service- learning in their classrooms, but also includes administrators responsible for setting up programs at educational institutions, and leaders at community organizations who work with the students at the service sites. This term is chosen because the educational aspect of service-learning occurs in many different contexts including the classroom and the service sites and an important aspect of service- learning is the guidance and support of adults in these various contexts who fulfill the role of both teacher and mentor to the students.

13. The terms community organizations and community partners will be used throughout this chapter to refer to the various service agencies and their employees and volunteers that provide the basic experience of service-learning for the students.

14. The term community member will be used throughout this chapter to refer to those who are on the other end of the service relationship from the students. See the section on Fostering Authentic Relationships for a presentation on the importance of service-learning relationships.

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transformative learning leads students beyond mere information toward personal and intellectual

growth that is possible through service-learning. Taking ownership empowers students to fully participate in the experience, engage their own learning, and address the needs of the community. Providing mentorship gives the students a guide who leads by example and provides a balance of challenge and support. Collectively, these principles and practices form the basis of effective service-learning.

Though these six principles and practices are listed and discussed separately in order to more clearly understand each one, it must be understood that they are highly interconnected and build upon one another. For a service-learning program to be strong, these foundational principles must be present and effective. An absence or weakness in any one area is a detriment to the others. For example, a lack of reflection undermines the transformative learning aspect as

well as the ability of students to relate to others and take ownership. A lack of a quality

experience inhibits the whole process from the start. These principles and practices are

interrelated and build upon one another to create meaningful, authentic, and potentially

transformative experiences of service-learning.

Fostering Authentic Relationships

The focus on authentic relationships in service-learning is distinct from traditional

learning which focuses on concepts or ideas. The power of service-learning lies in the interaction

among those involved; “[e]veryone involved in a service-learning encounter – community

members, students, instructor [teacher-mentor] – is impacted upon by the others and by the

shared experience itself” (Pompa 2005, 177). Transformation for the community and the students

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occurs through the forming of authentic relationships of mutuality and reciprocity. Kronick,

Cunningham, and Gourley state “[i]n listening and learning, receiving and giving, the service-

learning relationship is horizontal, lateral, parallel. It is not hierarchal” (2011, 23). Instead,

relationships of mutuality are formed through working together. Like any good relationship,

everyone involved should benefit. Important are the concepts of “reciprocity and mutuality

[which] convey the notion that both parties benefit from the interaction, both are teachers and

learners, and both are involved in developing and structuring the service project” (Rosenberger

2000, 34). Reciprocity also means focusing on the needs of the community and the primacy of

the relationships forged through the experience. It “encourages students to do things with others

rather than for them” (Jacoby 1996, 8). Thus, the heart of service-learning is authentic relationships forged between the students and the members of the community, including the people they serve as well as the community partners they are working with. Entering a relationship “implies a connection, an interchange, a reciprocity between people. Through personal interaction with others, especially those with a stark difference in life experiences, students engage more in the experience and learn more in the process” (Eyler and Giles 1999,

15). Because the service site is the unique aspect of service-learning, the relationships built at the site are of the highest importance.

Another important set of relationships is between the academic organization and the community service partner. This relationship is necessary to ensure the success of service- learning programs. Because most service experiences last only one semester, long-term, continuous relationships need to be developed between the educational institution and the service sites. This helps to develop quality placements for the students and effective help for the

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community partners. Eyler and Giles state, “[h]aving institutional support for the creation of a

continuing relationship between community groups and the [educational institution] should make

it easier for [teacher-mentor] to meet both student academic needs and community needs (1999,

191). Mitchell agrees that long-term partnerships are important because they allow for continual

dialog, evaluation, and feedback between the educational institution and community partners.

The community partners can rely on volunteers from the educational institution while providing

an atmosphere for continued learning and development of students. As educational institutions

and their students become invested in particular community partners over the long-term, students become more comfortable and vested in working with the community partners and also become a more valuable asset to the community partners (Mitchell 2008, 60-61). Maintaining relations on an administrative level is necessary to support students in forming authentic relationships with people in the community.

Fostering authentic relationships at the service sites can be challenging because of the inherent differences between the students and the community members. Differences in age, education, socioeconomic status, and life experiences need to be acknowledged. These differences between the students and the community members are often equated with deficiency within the community members. Some people view service as a way for privileged students to

“experience and uplift the unknowing underprivileged” (Forbes et al. 1999, 162). Even the term service itself can cause a focus on the differences and can reinforce the view of the community from a deficit perspective. In other words, it can solidify the students’ narrow worldview that they are the advantaged coming in to fix the community (Sleeter 2000, 267). Similarly, a statement like “helping the less fortunate” seems innocent, but it indicates a mindset where the

172 students structure the relationship in terms of differences. Though unintentional, an elitist attitude can be prevalent as student volunteers tend to be more educated and from a higher economic status than the average community member (McBride, et al. 2006, 310). Students should thus be taught the appropriate language to describe those with whom they are interacting.

Pompa asserts, “[t]here is a difference, for example, between ‘a homeless man’ and a man who is homeless, or between ‘a prisoner’ and a person who is in prison. Labeling or perceiving in such a limited way skews the person’s identity, resulting in a relationship with the liability, rather than with the person” (2005, 176).

Being more aware of the language used when planning and implementing service- learning, such as avoiding statements like “helping the less fortunate,” can help alleviate some of the obstacles to authentic relationships. Authentic relationships require acknowledging the differences between the students and community members. However, these differences should not become the basis of the relationships that are formed. Interactions based on these differences lead to inauthentic relationships of domination or subordination (Mitchell 2008, 58). Interactions between students and community members should create opportunities for everyone involved to see the similarities they share. Thus, it is important to focus on the positive capacity of the community in terms of strengths and resources (Sleeter 2000, 271). Only from this perspective can authentic relationships form between the students and members of the greater community.

Special attention must be given to foster relationships that are built on connection while not ignoring the reality of social inequalities. Tania Mitchell, assistant professor at the University of

Minnesota, states “students must be able to name the ways they are both like and unlike the individuals they work with in the service setting, and further how those similarities and

173 differences impact their interactions at the service site and (should this chance meeting occur) away from the service site” (2008, 59). For authentic relationships to form, students need to be made aware of and reflect on the underlying issues of privilege and power. Students must also recognize that they are both teachers and learners, givers and receivers in their relationships with community partners and those they serve. Authentic relationship building in this way helps students see the need for social change and begin to analyze the root causes of social problems

(Mitchell 2008, 59).

The student-centered goals of service-learning, such as pro-social attitudes and increased civic engagement, are dependent on the forming of authentic relationships. Certain conditions in the relationship between students and the community members must be present to have any hope of a change in student attitude and behavior. Conversely, their absence can lead to increased negative student attitudes toward the community members. Using contact theory, licensed psychologist and professor of education Joseph Erickson explains the conditions that support personal growth in students: equal status contact; pursuit of common goals; intergroup cooperation; support of authorities, customs, or law; and long-term contact. Equal status between the student and the community members is essential, though extremely difficult because of the implied lower status of those being served. A commonly pursued goal creates a bond in the relationship. Intergroup cooperation entails student recognition of their own groups, the community groups, and how these groups can have a constructive relationship. Groups include identity categories such as ethnicity, political affiliation, or nationality. Social customs, authorities, and laws (or rules at a service site) can help to encourage positive awareness of and social contact with other groups. Finally, contact should be long-term, either in intensity or

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duration, or both, as “[q]uick, casual, and/or superficial interactions generally promote

entrenched attitudes” (Erickson 2009, 112). Erickson concludes that “service-learning, designed and implemented in such a way as to meet these conditions, should be expected to enhance academic learning and attitude change over instruction that does not involve these components”

(115).

Fostering relationships is foundational to successful student learning as well as effective service to the community. The importance of relationships is listed as an integral aspect of successful programs in almost all the scholarship. According to Kronick, Cunningham, and

Gourley, the basic goal of service-learning is to “work with another to attend to the other, to learn about the other in order to serve the other effectively” (2011, 23). Relationship is at the center of service-learning. All the following principles of effective service-learning are based on experiences that foster authentic relationships.

Encouraging Reflection

Reflection is the most referenced core practice of service-learning throughout the literature. It is the key to transforming experiences of service into learning experiences. Eyler states that, “[r]eflection is the hyphen in service-learning; it is the process that helps students connect what they observe and experience in the community with their academic study” (2001,

35). Reflection should account for differences in student experiences, learning styles, and development (Eyler and Giles 1999, 206). Thus, effective reflection encompasses a variety of formats including written reflections, discussions, evaluations, and other means of processing the service experience. Written reflections such as journals afford many benefits. They allow

175 students to record basic observations and feelings as well as process and think more clearly about their experiences. They also create a record of the service-learning process which students can later use to see how their perspectives have changed. Written reflections can prepare students for class discussions, allowing them to think and reflect before asking them to share their experience in class (Eyler and Giles 1999, 175-176). Discussions can occur formally in class or informally in the context of service. Peer discussion groups can be especially fruitful by having students who had similar experiences think through the questions together (Yates and Youniss 1999, 56).

Students learn from one another’s reflections in the discussion process. Effective discussions begin at the level of feelings and observations and also include exploration of underlying issues and application of the academic learning objectives to the service experiences (Eyler and Giles

1999, 176-177). An important step of reflection is having the students and community organizations evaluate the experience. Evaluations ensure that the program is meeting the goals of the students, community organizations, and the academic institutions supporting the events

(McCarthy 1996, 121-122). Other components of reflection in service-learning can include

“[r]ole plays, panels that report on projects, and special projects developed for the community”

(Eyler and Giles 1999, 196). It can also include listening to local speakers or discussing current events that relate to the service experience or class learning objectives (Claus and Ogden 1999,

87).

Eyler and Giles provide a helpful framework for summarizing the research on reflection in service-learning. They succinctly present five principles of effective reflection using one word descriptions: connection, continuity, context, challenge, and coaching (1999, 183).

Understanding and implementing these aspects of reflection throughout the service-learning

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process provide the foundation for service-learning success. Each of these concepts is explained

below using the research of a variety of service-learning scholars and practitioners.

The first principle of effective reflection in service-learning is connection. Connection refers to engaging students in reflecting on the many links created through service-learning.

These connections include the relationships formed with those at the service site and integration of the service experience with classroom learning objectives, especially religious values in a faith-based context. The more connections students make through reflection, the more impact the service-learning has on the students.

An important connection that students should reflect on is the relationships they have developed through the experience. Reflection begins with basic observations and feelings about the experience, focusing on the people that they encountered. If authentic relationships were formed, as discussed above, the process of reflecting on these relationships can be highly transformative for the students. Reflecting on the relationships forged between the students and the community members often produces a deeper kind of knowing (Claus and Ogden 1999, 86).

The connection between service and classroom learning should be articulated prior to the beginning of the service experience. Before beginning a service-learning experience, researchers

Miranda Yates and James Youniss found that, “it is important to be clear about the educational purpose of service and the ways it relates to other life experiences” (1999, 53-54). Service- learning should be integrated with academic learning by connecting it with and applying it to specific, pre-stated course objectives. By doing this, service becomes integral to the classroom learning process, not just a required activity outside class time. Sandra Enos and Marie Troope of

Campus Compact’s Project on Integrating Service with Academic Study state, “[c]urricular

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service-learning works best when it is used to meet course objectives. If service is an add-on that is not designed to advance the objectives of a course or does not help students learn course content, it degrades the academic integrity of the course” (1996, 156-157).

Once students are engaged in meaningful community service, creating connections through application and reflection are integral steps to productive and meaningful learning.

According to Eyler and Giles, “[a]pplication refers to the degree to which students can link what they are doing in the classroom to what they are experiencing in the community and vice versa”

(1999, 170). Discussions of service experiences can be helpful, but must start, not end, with the sharing of observations and feelings and move on to linking the service with the academic material (177). Reflection should include the readings, discussions, exercises and other activities in the class in addition to the service experience (Rice and Pollack 2000, 124). When issues are raised at the service site, reflection should help students connect them with their academic learning. (Eyler and Giles 1999, 192). Guiding students to understand the link between academic material and their service experience has been shown to have a positive impact on learning outcomes, and the more quality reflection that occurs, the better the learning outcomes

(170-173).

Making explicit connections between service experiences and learning objectives is especially important in faith-based applications. Approaching service-learning from a religious perspective can guide the process to engender particular values. The educational institution must live out these values for the students to assimilate them (Yates and Youniss 1999, 54-55). To ensure that the experience is focused and structured toward the goal of the organizers, specific student outcomes of faith and values should be identified. Once the outcomes are articulated,

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“[t]he focus and design of a program [should] provide particular support for the outcomes it is

intended to achieve” (Albert 1996, 185). For example,

Spiritually and morally based programs should employ methods that help students examine their relationships with a higher spiritual power, the world, and people like and different from themselves. They may reflect on concepts that are integral to their particular religious orientation, like compassion, justice, and service. They may include prayer, meditation, and the study of liturgy or philosophical materials that foster religious or spiritual growth and commitment. (Albert 1996, 184)

Through reflection, a more effective integration of the service experience, academic learning,

and the underlying values that are being taught is achieved in the lives of the students.

The second principle of effective reflection in service-learning is continuity. Continuity

refers to ensuring that opportunities for reflection occur often throughout the entire service-

learning process. Professor Jeff Claus of Ithaca College and colleague Curtis Ogden, coordinator

of community service programs at Ithaca, agree that reflection is central to the entire service-

learning process. Reflection should be “an integral, necessary part of the service process, as

opposed to something that occurs somewhat artificially apart from service” (1999, 85).

Reflection can be as basic as being thoughtful about the experience and discussing it with others.

Some people will do this naturally. For most students, however, the reflection process needs

more explicit attention and should be routinely built into service-learning (Eyler and Giles 1999,

171). Students need explicit guidance for reflection to process the experience fully.

Eyler and Giles suggest using a cyclical pattern for continual reflection. The pattern begins with the students’ concrete experiences and moves to reflective observations. The next step is abstract conceptualization, which is an attempt to make meaning of the observations using other sources of knowledge such as academic course material. This leads to more informed

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service experiences based on the academic learning. The student “moves from feeling, to

observing, to thinking, to doing; the full cycle integrates the personal and the affective with the

intellectual and academic” (Eyler and Giles 1999, 195). One example of implementation is by

asking “What? So what? Now what?” Asking “what?” allows students to reflect on their

experience. Asking “so what?” leads students to connect the experience with the academic

material. Asking “now what” challenges students to change their views and behaviors based on

their reflections and academic learning.

Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley, apply theories of experiential learning to service- learning to argue for a similar cyclical process. Experiential learning puts students at the center of the learning process. This encourages the students to think about and question material rather than just accept the answer of the teacher. Experiential learning such as service-learning is an interrelated and fluid practice of sensing, reflecting, and acting. Students observe the world around them (sensing), process the sensed information through reflection, and act differently because of a change in knowledge or worldview (Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 26-

30). Reflection that helps students process the experience and leads them to action completes the cycle of service-learning.

Intentionally planned and executed reflection before, during, and after service helps students test and retest their views and knowledge, promoting continuous growth. Pre-service reflection includes giving students an orientation about the service they will perform as well as having them express their expectations and goals. This can be done through written reflection or group discussion activities. Reflection during service helps the students to be present to the activity. Topics for reflection could include prayer, the reasons they are serving, the desired

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outcomes for the service, and the relationships they are forming in the service. Encouraging the

students to make observations about their surroundings and their own feelings helps to facilitate

reflection during service (McCarthy 1996, 120-121).

Reflection before and during service lays the foundation for reflection after the service is

complete. Reflection after service should include a way for students to discuss and share their

reactions, emotions, ideas, and questions. Students can reflect on the meaning of the service and

ways they might like to continue to serve. The continuous reflection process can thus increase

student motivation for further service. Ideally, students should continue to reflect as they further

process the event. This is especially true of intense service experiences. Albert states, “[o]nce

students complete or return from an intensive service experience, it is critical that they have the

opportunity to continue the reflective process” (1996, 199).

The third principle of effective reflection in service-learning is context. Context refers to

how reflection is structured and where the reflection takes place. A focus on the context makes

the academic learning more concrete. Bringing the classroom concepts into the context of the

service site deepens the reflection and learning of the students. Eyler and Giles assert that “we

learn in ways that prepare us for using knowledge by using it on real problems in the real world”

(1999, 184). The context is central to the type of learning that service-learning provides. Where reflection occurs is also an important consideration. Reflection session at the service site with the community members can be a powerful experience for all involved.

The context of the service also affects the reflection process. Long-term and intensive service-learning experiences require more formal reflection at the site compared to one time or short-term service experiences (Eyler and Giles 1999, 184). In some service experiences,

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students have difficulty integrating their experience with their “normal” life. To lessen this

problem, continued support and reflection is needed. Some examples could be reunions to share

stories and pictures, service opportunities and other continued community involvement, and a

resource fair with other volunteer organizations present. Sharing their story with others is also

helpful (Albert 1996, 199-200). Opportunities that encourage the students to continue reflecting on and integrating their experience into their life are beneficial.

The fourth principle of effective reflection in service-learning is challenge. Challenge

refers to taking students outside of their comfort zone and helping them reconsider their

preconceived notions and current perspectives. Service-learning can create serious questions and thoughts in the minds of the students. Because of this, service-learning educator Gail Albert states, “reflection should be designed to help students recognize and integrate their learning, work on personal developmental issues, define their personal service ethic, and deal with their discomfort and dissonance” (1996, 190). Reflection challenges students to grow in their understanding of other people by beginning with basic observations and personal feelings. In deeper level reflection and application of academic concepts, the discussions and analysis should challenge students’ assumptions (Eyler and Giles 1999, 194). Implementing reflective writing assignments as well as group discussions are a significant predictor of positive outcomes in student academic and personal development. Reflection activities that challenge students within the academic environment are effective in improving the students’ critical thinking and analysis of issues (173-174). In this process, the questions that are posed are essential. Eyler and Giles state, “[t]he learning in the service-learning is in the questions. It is in the questions that service

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situations inherently pose, in the guided reflection provided by skilled teachers and facilitators

and by the interplay of existing knowledge with new and dissonant experiences” (1999, 207).

The challenge presented by the service experience and the reflection process is effective in fostering growth on both the personal and academic level. Eyler and Giles argue, “[t]he self-

exploration that often occurs in journal and in dialogue with [teacher-mentors] through journals

is particularly useful for helping students come to understand themselves and others better”

(1999, 174). In turn this often leads students to deeper questions and insights and ultimately to a

“perspective transformation” (174). Both personal reflections as well as critical reflections help

the students grow through the challenge. Personal reflection, including feelings, ideas, and

frustrations, is important for interpersonal growth. Critical reflection is crucial for cognitive

development to occur. Researcher Andrew Stelljes explains that “[c]ritical reflection includes a

deeper understanding of the historical, sociological, cultural, economic, and political contexts of

the needs or issues being addressed. It addresses the core topics and intended outcomes of a

course” (2008, 134). Ultimately, reflection should help students explore and critique their own

and society’s underlying assumptions about social justice issues (Eyler and Giles 1999, 198).

The challenge presented to the students through service and the reflection process must

not be too overwhelming. Eyler and Giles state, “[b]y using reflective activities that are too far

ahead of where the students are working, [teacher-mentors] may create situations where students simply do not see the value of the process” (1999, 206). Students should be supported as they

reflect on difficult situations and are challenged to look at issues in a new way. Balance is important because “students learn and develop when they are dealing with challenges they can manage” (199). Teacher-mentors play an important role in this balance of challenge and support.

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The fifth principle of effective reflection in service-learning is coaching. Coaching refers

to the support and guidance of the teacher-mentors throughout the service-learning experience.

Successful service-learning teacher-mentors find the right balance of challenging the students and allowing for uneasiness without overwhelming them (Eyler and Giles 1999, 183-185). Eyler and Giles state, “[c]hallenge is central to growth, but without adequate support it is likely either to discourage the student or lead to the rejection of new insights and information so that the student falls back on previous ways of viewing the world” (1999, 185). Coaching entails many different tasks: providing emotional support, a listening ear, a safe space, a forum for discussion, continual feedback, and gentle nudges to new learning (199). To be able to effectively coach students, teacher-mentors should know and experience what the students experience at the service sites to be better able to integrate it into the classroom (192).

An important aspect of coaching is creating reflection activities that allow students to be honest. Honest reflection must be fostered so students do not just say what they think the teacher-mentor wants to hear. Peer pressure, positive and negative, as well as teacher-mentor expectations can be obstacles to honest reflection. As Eyler and Giles point out, “[i]f we want to make full educational use of the advantages of immersing students in complex and messy real- world situations, we cannot create classrooms where it is unacceptable to share shock, disappointment, or confusion” (1999, 202). Guidelines for discussions that may help students honestly reflect and share include: reminding students that they are not graded or judged based on their questions, observations, and opinions; emphasizing the importance of speaking articulately and listening actively; ensuring that students respect one another even when they disagree; and inviting students to keep an open mind because there are typically no easy answers.

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Though reflection is acknowledged to be an integral aspect of service-learning,

implementing effective reflection is a constant challenge. Eyler offers a reflection map as a “tool

to help practitioners organize their thinking about integrating continuous reflective processes into

their service-learning practices” (2001, 36). Eyler’s reflection map includes suggestions for

student reflection alone, with classmates, and with community members that occur before,

during, and after service experiences. The reflection map provides a framework to help students

question their assumptions, identify questions that arise from the experience, and link the

learning of the classroom to the community experience in the context of being alone, with peers, and with community members. Eyler’s suggestions for reflective activities include: writing a letter to oneself before the service, including assumptions and expectations, to be read after the experience; facilitating group discussion on statements that relate to the service, such as

“Teachers in inner-city schools are less competent and caring than teachers in suburban schools;” assigning service-learning theatre to reenact and discuss critical aspects of the service experience; allowing student volunteers to participate in community organization staff meetings; and having students present what they learned to the community (2001, 36-42).

Incorporating the five C’s (connection, continuity, context, challenge, and coaching) of

effective reflection in service-learning promotes the overall goal of academic and personal

growth in students. Reflection should occur in a variety of forms, both in structured and non-

structured situations. The content should include personal observations and feelings, discussions

about relationships, and societal structures and issues. Reflection should guide students to make

connections between the service and the classroom learning objectives as well as connections to

life. Reflection should also be a continual part of service-learning, occurring before, during, and

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after service experiences. Having reflection activities in the context of the service site with

community members fosters learning and growth outside of the classroom. The service and

reflection activities should challenge students’ assumptions and beliefs while teacher-mentors

should foster environments that support students as they struggle through and learn from difficult

questions and situations. Effective reflection utilizing these foundational concepts helps to ensure

that service experiences are moments of learning and growth for everyone involved.

Ensuring Quality Experiences

One aspect of service-learning that greatly affects student engagement and learning is the

quality of the service experience. Meaningful service experiences foster the building of positive

relationships between students and community members, and require strong relationships

between the academic institution and the community partners. Students should engage in

challenging work with meaningful responsibilities at the service site. They should be given

realistic goals and partake in projects with visible results. Adequate preparation for students and

the community partners before the service begins is also necessary. Service sites that challenge

students to step out of their comfort zone can be especially fruitful.

Service sites that include meaningful interaction with community members and impactful

projects are foundational to a good service-learning experience. Quality service experiences

“compel us to go further, deeper, in an attempt to understand more fully” (Pompa 2005, 179).

The success of the experience is related directly to meaningful interaction between the students and the community members. Positive relationships with community service partners make the service more effective for the students and the community. Therefore, long-term relationships

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need to be built between the educational institutions and the community partners. The service

that the students perform also greatly influences the value of the experience. Responsible and

meaningful tasks need to be performed in a context where the students have the opportunity to

build relationships with the leaders of the community service organization and the community

members (Eyler and Giles 1999, 169). When choosing a site, the development and skills of the students as well as the needs of the community should be taken into consideration. (Albert 1996,

189). The community partners should seek to fulfill genuine needs and have realistic goals for

the volunteers (Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 143-144; Yates and Youniss 1999,

51).To foster further participation in service, short-term service-learning goals should include projects with visible results and community building with peers and support from the community

(McCarthy 1996, 115). Program design must take into consideration the needs of the community, the interests, skills and available time of the students, and the means and scope of reflection.

Preparation and integration are key factors in nurturing meaningful service experiences.

Before the service begins, students should learn about and understand the community they are working with. The underlying challenges the community members often face should be made known to the students so that the students can “work more effectively and sensitively” (Rice and

Pollack 2000, 131). In addition to knowing about the community, students should be prepared for the actual service they will be performing (Yates and Youniss 1999, 56; Eyler and Giles

1999, 192). Community partners should be given clear expectations for the students’ involvement as well as an understanding of the goals of service-learning (Mitchell 2008, 60)

A quality service experience often entails taking students out of their comfort zone. For personal growth to occur through the experience, the service should challenge students to

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question their preconceived views on the community population they are working with.

(McCarthy 1996, 115-116). Cultural differences between the students and the community

members are an opportunity for everyone to leave the comfort zone of their own culture and

engage with a new one. Students need to “reach out, learn, break out of [their] mold, leave

[their] comfort zone, and expand [their] understanding and appreciation of others. Then [they]

can connect with others, serve others, and be served by others” (Kronick, Cunningham, and

Gourley 2011, 9). One example is that of a young woman who worked on a medical mission in

Honduras. Because of the striking differences in culture and everyday life, the opportunity for

change and transformation were stark as well. She states that “[b]y stepping out of my culture, I

had the opportunity to examine my culture more objectively and to see it more clearly in a better

light” (113). On the other hand, Erickson argues that students should be made to feel as

comfortable as possible. Anxiety lessens the students’ ability to learn or develop personally in

new situations (Erickson 2009, 114). Thus, a proper balance of challenge and support is ideal for quality service experiences.

Focusing on Transformative Learning

The benefits of integrating experiences of service with traditional classroom instruction are often discussed in terms of transformative learning. One transformative benefit of service- learning is the acquisition of real world knowledge which deepens book knowledge. Students have the opportunity to discover and construct knowledge from their experience instead of merely learning from secondary sources. Even more so, transformative learning in service- learning often includes personal development. Students can gain new perspectives on the social

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order, shifting focus from short-term fixes to long-term solutions. Students develop their self- identity and are challenged to grow by being pushed outside of their comfort zone.

Transformative learning promotes development of the whole person, not just intellectually. Holistic human development, not merely intellectual development, occurs through the combination of action and reflection that forms the basis of service-learning. Service experiences help students “make sense of the world” through understanding, which is recalling information “when it is relevant to a new situation and use[ing] it in that situation” (Eyler and

Giles 1999, 15). Beyond merely teaching facts and encouraging memorization, “[s]ervice- learning pushes the student into a challenging environment demanding reflection and action”

(Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 34). When a student is ready for development to occur, the outside stimulus of service challenges the individual and precipitates change (McEwen

1996, 56). The learning in service-learning is useful, developmental, transformational, and geared towards citizenship (Eyler and Giles 1999, 14-18). Service-learning benefits include

“personal and interpersonal development, learning and application of knowledge, critical thinking ability, and perspective transformation” (182). Marylu McEwen, associate professor at the University of Maryland, argues that “[l]earning and personal development naturally complement each other in service-learning as well as in other experiential and classroom activities” (1996, 53). McEwen focuses on personal development, which “represents a redefining of the self in more complex and more distinct ways, yet at the same time putting all the parts together in an integrated fashion” (56). Eyler and Giles argue, “[i]f we want students who are lifelong learners, can use what they know, and have a capacity for critical analysis, then

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programs like service-learning, which help them construct knowledge from experience and

reflection, should form the core of their educational experience” (1999, 188).

Service-learning promotes a healthy sense of self-identity in adolescents. Because adolescence is a transitional period between youth and adulthood, young people need ideological guidelines and transcendent values to make sense of the world and form their own identity.

Service-learning can provide the opportunity to reflect on ideals and issues of the world (Yates and Youniss 1999, 45-46). The focus on helping others helps students grow in moral, social, and civic awareness (52-53). Through surveys and interviews, Yates and Younis found that “a large number of students wrote and talked about the service-learning experience as an identity-

defining experience that helped them to reflect on who they were as adolescents and who they

became as adults” (50).15

While service-learning promotes personal growth on many different levels, it has been

noted that affective and interpersonal development occurs prior to cognitive development. Direct

service experiences along with reflection are foundational for transformative student

development. Stelljes found that “exposure to and immersion in direct service experiences prior

to a service-learning program along with subsequent reflection was the mediating factor for the

preparation of the exemplars to develop cognitive skills” (2008, 124). Student development

typically followed the same path. Direct service created an emotional connection with a

community member which led to deeper reflection and engagement with social issues. This

15. The study was based on a mandatory service-learning program at a Catholic high school. In this case study, students served about 20 hours at a soup kitchen as part of a year-long social justice class. In class, the students had readings, events, and speakers related to social justice as well as time for personal reflection and class discussion (47).

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process supported cognitive development as well as a transformation in the students from

egotism toward altruism (125-126).

Service-learning is transformational because it is relational. It is through learning about,

through, and with others, especially those who are from different backgrounds, that the learner

gains knowledge. As noted above, “[i]n listening and learning, receiving and giving, the service-

learning relationship is horizontal, lateral, parallel. It is not hierarchal” (Kronick, Cunningham,

and Gourley 2011, 23). Working with others rather than just concepts or ideas engenders a much more communal view of education. Service-learning experiences can help students focus on people and work toward long-term solutions rather than short-term fixes. It helps students work with and not just for the community members. Service-learning teacher-mentors and students need to change the culture by working through the culture (122).

As discussed above, reflection is a vital aspect of service-learning. Reflection is especially important to transformational learning, which “is about thinking about things in a new way and moving in new directions” (Eyler and Giles 1999, 17). Reflection should help students challenge the status quo by encouraging them to ask why there are social problems in the first place. These questions are often brought on by service experiences. Reflection is a “process that may lead to transformational learning–changes in how students understand the social order–and to action to right social wrongs” (198). Coaching and feedback from the teacher-mentor are especially important to the type of reflection that leads to transformation (199).

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Empowering Students to Take Ownership

Empowering students to take ownership of the service-learning experience fosters positive outcomes. At the service sites, students should be given meaningful responsibilities and the flexibility to take initiative. Students will be more likely to take ownership if they have the opportunity to obtain leadership roles during service experiences as well as reflection exercises.

A student self-inventory of strengths and weaknesses can help students find their niche in their service and make it their own.

Students taking ownership of the service-learning experience is a vital component of a transformative experience. Service can become just another requirement that does not truly elicit change. It becomes transformative when a student-centered, activist approach is used (Claus and

Ogden 1999, 90). Claus and Ogden explain that “service learning will be most motivating, meaningful, and effective for young people when it provides them with opportunities (i.e., when it empowers them) to define, investigate, think critically about, participate in, and act to improve the communities in which they live” (70). When students take ownership of service-learning, transformation can occur within the students as well as the community. Personal and societal transformation is interrelated because “individual development occurs as a consequence and within a framework of working to create a better world” (70).

Service-learning teacher-mentors need to assume a position of guidance and mentorship

to give students the opportunity and necessary encouragement for them to take ownership.

Having a student-centered approach to service-learning empowers students to be leaders while teacher-mentors fulfill a support role. Student motivation is integral to successful service-

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learning programs. Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley argue, “[m]otivation is key. Perspectives are changed and frameworks are expanded most often as a result of the students personally engaging in challenges they view as significant” (2011, 140). Students are empowered and motivated when they are able to take initiative at the service site and have responsibilities to perform tasks that are useful to the community partners (Eyler and Giles 1999, 169).

Student leadership should be fostered throughout service-learning: before service begins, at the service site, and throughout the processes of reflection. Taking ownership should begin

prior to the service experience. Students should take a critical look at their own communities and

determine what they would like to see changed. In addition, Claus and Ogden suggest that

students reflect on their own skills and abilities and discuss ways they can use them to serve

others. Students should also work in groups with other students to challenge and support each

other and learn how to work together with peers (Claus and Ogden 1999, 77-80). Throughout the service-learning process, teacher-mentors should guide students to seek what they can contribute to the community, not what they can gain from the experience. Students and the community partners tend to have a better experience when the students have identified the skills they have to offer (Forbes et al. 1999, 165). At the service sites, students who are long-term, committed volunteers for community partners can serve as intermediaries between the educational institutions and the community, helping to train and manage new student volunteers (Tyron et al.

2008, 22). During and after the service experience, students can assume responsibility for leading their group onsite as well as leading post service reflection exercises (Albert 1996, 187). Taking ownership of the experience does not merely ensure that students have a good experience, but that their skills, talents, and abilities are used to help others.

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Providing Mentorship

Mentorship is an integral aspect of service-learning, making the role of teacher-mentors – teachers, service coordinators, and site supervisors – extremely important. Site supervisors model the actions, attitudes, and behaviors needed at their particular service site. Teachers, service coordinators, and site supervisors provide coaching to help the students grow through the experience. Teachers especially have a key role in mentoring the students and providing challenge, support, and feedback. These roles are all a combination of teacher and mentor, each in their own way. While the role of teacher-mentor can be time consuming, the presence of a quality teacher-mentor creates the potential for extremely effective service-learning for students.

Teacher-mentors in the classroom and especially at the service site set an example and educate primarily through their actions. The teacher-mentor’s passion and dedication can help to motivate students to succeed (Yates and Youniss 1999, 57). Teacher-mentors at the sites serve as models for students to imitate, creating an informal, yet valuable aspect of the learning process.

While the site supervisors’ influence is limited because of time and resources, “they can be models of moral commitment who offer their perspective on social problems and the dynamics of trying to alleviate these problems” (58). Thus, they help the students to begin the reflection process while the service is taking place. In addition, leaders of community partners often embrace the opportunity to mentor students (Tryon et al. 2008, 21). The role of teacher-mentor requires finding the right balance of challenge and support for the student within the service- learning process. As noted above, service-learning should challenge the students and take them

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out of their comfort zone while giving them the proper support to grow and develop through the

experience.16

The teacher-mentor role is crucial in developing student cognitive ability. Individualized

mentoring is an excellent way to foster student growth, but it also places a large burden on the

teacher-mentor. Teacher-mentors should strive to create environments in the classroom and at

the service sites where students can think, disagree, struggle, and develop confidence. The

teacher-mentor thus provides a supportive learning environment where students feel comfortable

debating and discussing issues with them, fellow students, and community members (Stelljes

2008, 132-133). Without dedicated teacher-mentors in the classroom and at the service sites, too

much responsibility is placed on the students to have a meaningful experience. Stelljas states

“[i]ndividualized mentoring provides the arena for students to focus on analysis, critical thinking,

and making connections between theory and service in a productive manner. Without

individualized mentoring, this process of making meaning is left to chance” (2008, 133). In

service-learning, it can be easy to focus on what the students are doing in the classroom and at

the service sites. However, the role of the teacher-mentor is an integral aspect of effective

service-learning that also needs adequate attention.

Summary

For service-learning to be effective in transforming the students as well as the

communities they are involved in, several interrelated principles must be included. First and

16. See footnote 12 as well as page 183 above for further explanation of the role of the teacher- mentor in providing a service-learning environment that both challenges and support students.

195 foremost is a focus on fostering authentic relationships. Service-learning is built on relationships, not only between the students and those at the service site, but also between the educational institutions and the community partners. Effective service-learning also includes a variety of reflection activities throughout the process that both challenge and support the students and engage their observations and feelings as well connections with the classroom material. Quality service experiences are crucial, including having challenging, meaningful projects with opportunities for student leadership. A focus on transformative learning emphasizes the lessons that are learned at the service site and fosters the potential for growth within the students.

Service-learning should also empower students to take initiative at the service sites and give them opportunities for leadership during service experiences and reflection activities. Finally, the role of teacher-mentor is essential to challenge and support the students through the process of growth and learning that service-learning provides. These six principles provide a firm foundation for service-learning programs. However, programs must also address the potentially negative aspects of service-learning that can occur.

Potential negative aspects of service-learning

While the service-learning scholarship most often focuses on positive attributes, the literature also addresses many concerns and potentially negative effects. Four main concerns about service-learning will be addressed. The first concern is the issues associated with requiring students to perform service and the negative consequences of making service-learning mandatory. The second concern is the duration of service, especially the problems for the community associated with short-term service. The third concern is the difficulty in addressing

196 the appropriate level of student development in working with large scale, required service- learning programs. The fourth concern is the difficulty in balancing traditional and critical service-learning. Traditional service-learning focused on addressing the immediate needs of people can perpetuate the status quo while critical service-learning focused on changing the structures of society is often viewed as too political or value driven. While each of these represent a challenge, good planning and execution can overcome these obstacles to create meaningful service-learning experiences for everyone involved.

Mandatory Service

One common critique of service-learning is the contradiction of mandatory service. It can be argued that the obligation to serve diminishes the value of the service. Community organizations can suffer the most when students have a poor attitude or unreliable attendance because of resistance to mandatory service. Negative stereotypes of community members can potentially be reinforced through service experiences. Failed projects can actually impede student learning. In addition, service-learning can be difficult to do well with large numbers of students. These concerns about mandatory service need to be recognized and addressed for service-learning programs to reach their full potential.

Enos and Troppe articulate well two sides of the debate on requiring service. Proponents argue that service-learning needs to be mandatory to make it an integral aspect of education rather than a fringe element. Service-learning provides an important enhancement of student learning and can make students more socially conscious, which could benefit all students.

Opponents argue that required volunteering could result in negative reactions from students and

197 end up harming the community. The difficulties of offering service-learning for large numbers of students can detract from the real aim of service. In addition, the amount of planning and work that is necessary to create positive and fruitful experiences for all involved can be easily underestimated. Any implementation of mandatory service-learning necessitates careful planning, including training and support of faculty and ongoing evaluation of the program by students and the community (Enos and Troope 1996, 170-172). The time and resources necessary to implement and maintain a service-leaning program can be immense. It can be argued that these resources would be better used in other capacities (Speck 2001, 10).

The potential problems with requiring service-learning include causing more harm than good in the community. Student motivation can be lacking because the service is mandatory.

When students oppose mandatory service, the community organizations are the ones to suffer

(Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 136). Teacher-mentors want “students to engage with issues important to them, not because they are required to do so, but because they have the desire to, or at least see the relevance of doing so” (Forbes et al, 1999, 165). In addition, the sheer volume of students needing service hours can create a burden on community organizations as well as on educational leaders to form meaningful connections with community partners. When the connections between the educational institution and community partners are superficial, the service work tends to be as well (Forbes et al. 1999, 164). Similarly, service-learning can become too focused on the learning and development of the students, leaving the community organizations and members as secondary concerns.

While resistance to service-learning can create problems in the community, the resistance can be used as an opportunity to engage students. Resistance can be on a personal level, as

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students are pushed “toward self-authorship because of the dissonance created between

previously held conceptions of self and new experiences, reflection on this dissonance, and new

learning that occurs as a result” (Jones, Bilbride-Brown, and Gasiorski 2005, 8). Resistance can

also be on a social level, as students confront their position of privilege and power (9). Being

attune to what students are resisting, why they are resisting, and the context of the resistance

helps teacher-mentors respond effectively to the resistance (16). Suggestions for overcoming the

resistance are similar to the principles of effective service-learning above, such as mentorship,

developmentally appropriate experiences, authentic space in the classroom for honest

discussions, developing relationships through direct service, the support of peers, and plenty of

support along the way (17-20). Being aware of and addressing the resistance of students can help

them realize and experience the transformative potential of service-learning.

Though the concerns about service-learning are legitimate, the negative aspects are less problematic than often characterized. For example, Eyler and Giles found in their surveys that only 17% of respondents indicated that mandatory service was a bad idea. On the other hand,

61% of respondents indicated it was a good idea (Eyler and Giles 1999, 181). Mandatory service-learning contributes to the development of citizenship. It also promotes academic development, including “personal and interpersonal development, learning and application of knowledge, critical thinking ability, and perspective transformation” (182). The formation that

service-learning fosters is helpful for all students and especially those who may not choose the

extra work that service-learning entails. Eyler and Giles state, “students who are most in need of

the developmental opportunities afforded by service-learning may be less likely to choose such

course options voluntarily” (182). Service-learning can also expand students’ educational

199 horizons because the type of reflection is much different than the usual way that students are asked to acquire and apply information and (Kronick, Cunningham, and Gourley 2011, 137).

Students need to be formed in this style of learning. Further, service to the community is a learned behavior that can and should be nurtured. Like other academic endeavors such as reading, homework, and studying for exams, the service requirement helps to ensure that students put forth the necessary effort. Service-learning has also been negatively characterized as a form of indoctrination into a particular way of thinking or acting. However, allowing for flexibility in choosing a service site can alleviate this perception (Speck 2001, 10-11). When implemented well, the benefits of service-learning outweigh the negative insinuation of mandatory service.

Duration of Service

The short duration of semester based service-learning classes is a major challenge for educational institutions and the community organizations they work with. The benefit to the community organizations is limited when student participation is confined to one semester.

Limited duration means limited impact on the community. Short-term volunteer experiences make relationship-building challenging, and can be potentially inappropriate for direct service.

Service-learning programs that operate based on an academic semester schedule place a greater burden on the community organization. There is little time for adequate training or meaningful projects, and students are less likely to embrace the mission of the organization. In addition, the academic schedule does not fit well with the needs of the community organizations.

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Critiquing service-learning includes assessing it from the perspective of the community

organizations. Elizabeth Tryon, Assistant Director of Community-based Learning at the

University of Wisconsin-Madison, along with her colleagues researched the impact of short-term

service on the community. The research is based on interviews with the staff of community

organizations who spoke of the challenges of short-term service-learning. Short-term service-

learning was defined as “placements that last a semester or less, and typically involve a few

hours a week of contact time” (Tyron et al. 2008, 17). While beneficial to student learning, these

parameters create unique challenges for the community organizations. The sparse contact

allowed little time to build relationships. Students were often resistant and disengaged, and many

did not embrace the mission of the organization (18-21). These challenges emerged frequently

during the interviews.

Another issue raised by the staff of the community organizations was the potentially

harmful effects of short-term direct service. Tyron et al. reports that

[t]here was agreement among 14 organizations [of the 20 interviewed] that short-term service is often a particularly bad fit or inappropriate for direct service, especially when working with youth. Oftentimes, programs for young people are aimed at corrective problems associated with lack of good role models and other inconsistencies in their lives. The short-term service-learners’ transient nature, and their potential to be unreliable and lack commitment, only exacerbates those problems. (2008, 19)

Service-learning students may be unreliable throughout the semester and non-existent after the semester, making mentorship roles with young people ineffective and potentially leading to emotional distress. Because of the transient nature of the students in short-term service-learning, community organizations were reluctant to take the time to properly train them (Tyron et al.

2008, 19-20). Mitchell’s research also reports on the problems of semester long service-learning

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courses, particularly a lack of continuity and the difficulty in forming authentic relationships

(2008, 60).

The potential for lasting change in the community can be minimized by short-term

service-learning. Tyron et al. reported that many community organizations felt that one semester

was not enough time to carry out a meaningful project that included reflection and evaluation.

Community organization leaders also stated that the semester schedule of educational institutions

does not fit the community’s needs (2008, 20-21). Mitchell argues that the goal of social change is often incompatible with short-term service:

The types of service experiences that allow students to consider social change and transformation may not bring immediate results and, therefore, may not offer the type of gratification that students involved in more traditional service-learning classes experience when the painting is completed, homeless person is fed, or child has finished the art project. Social change oriented service takes time. Social justice will never be achieved in a single semester nor systems dismantled in the two- to four-hour weekly commitment representative of many traditional models of service-learning. (2008, 54)

From the perspective of the community organizations, short-term service-learning faces many obstacles to becoming an asset to their mission.

The potential negative effects of short-term service experiences include adverse outcomes in the students of service-learning programs as well. Erickson, writing from the psychological perspective of the students, argues that long-term contact is necessary for any positive impact on students’ attitudes and behavior to occur. Further, “[q]uick, casual, and/or superficial interactions generally promote entrenched attitudes…. Without long-term contact (long-term either in intensity or duration, or both), service relationships can actually increase the degree and severity of attitude entrenchment” (Erickson 2009, 112-113). The limited impact of service can be due to the fact that students return to their own lives and culture at the end of the experience and never

202 truly grasp or grapple with the differences in culture that they experienced (Milofsky and Flack

2005, 168). The goal of service-learning programs to promote tolerance or respect is weakened by the semester-long format of many programs.

While short-term service projects present many challenges, the negative aspects can be mitigated when the service-learning program is well prepared and executed. From the perspective of the community partners, projects should be clearly defined and focus on an attainable goal. To increase positive outcomes in the students, projects should have visible results, challenge the students to step out of their comfort zone, and include reflection. Dedicated student volunteers who know the organizations and are committed to their mission can be used as volunteer managers, alleviating some of the burden that short-term service creates for community partners. These student volunteer mangers can be recruited and trained as intermediaries who manage new volunteers each semester. They would be able to introduce their peers to the mission of the organization, provide orientation for the service, and troubleshoot problems that the new volunteers might encounter.

While community organizations see many challenges in short-term service-learning, they also affirm many positive aspects. Many community organizations value the fresh perspectives of the student volunteers. Others found that project based service-learning was effective. The projects gave the students a set goal that used their talents, addressed a real need for the community organization, and could be completed in a semester’s time (Tyron et al. 2008, 21-22).

In addition, when students participate in projects with visible results, they are more likely to participate in additional service experiences. Community building with peers and support from the community organizations are also factors that foster further service in students (McCarthy

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1996, 115). Program design following the principles of effective service-learning (above) is

especially critical in service-learning that is short-term. Design must take into consideration the

needs of the community, the interests, skills, and available time of the students, and the means

and scope of reflection. Short-term service should support and challenge the students. Well-

planned opportunities for reflection before, during, and after the service experience must be

included (McCarthy 1996, 120-121).

Other suggestions have been made for making short-term service more meaningful for

everyone involved. Year-long service-learning courses where students work with the same

organization both semesters would cut in half the training burden of the community

organizations. Also, the relationship between the educational institution and the community

organization is crucial. Educational institutions should commit to sending the same number of

students to the same organizations each and every semester so the community organizations can

plan for their help. To ensure that the service meets the needs of the community, the community

organizations can write proposals for work to be done and the educational institutions then locate

the teacher-mentors or students willing to take it on (Tryon et al. 2008, 22-23). The identification

of needs to be addressed should be handled by the community organizations and their members.

Intensive and immersion experiences are service-learning options that can have lasting

positive outcomes. Intensive means that service is done at least 10 hours a week over a sustained

period while continuing their normal routine. Immersion means not only service in a community

but also living the life of the community. This typically refers to service in other counties or at

least other cultures (Albert 1996, 183). These service-learning experiences can be achieved during spring break or summer vacations. In articulating the benefits of intensive and immersion

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experiences, Albert concludes that they “often lead students into a lifelong commitment to

socially responsible citizenship” (1996, 182). Important considerations for effective intensive

and immersion programs include designing programs for specific student outcomes, assessing

student motivation and readiness, choosing sites that benefit the participants and the needs of the

community members, and incorporating effective reflection (183). A unique challenge in this

form of service-learning is the need for continued student support and reflection opportunities

once the experience ends. Reentry back into everyday life and culture can be as disturbing as the

service experience itself (199-200). However, when well-planned and executed, this types of service-learning can be very meaningful for the participants.

Developmental Level of Students

Matching the individual student’s level of development with the appropriate service

situation is a challenge of effective service-learning. Service-learning that aids student

development begins with an awareness of student motivations, level of personal development,

and preferred learning style. Assessing and addressing these factors can be aided by theories of

student learning and development. The students’ prior experiences of direct service and

reflection are other factors in addressing the developmental level of students.

Assessing the motivations of students is of primary importance. The planning and

implementing of service experiences is affected by the students’ motivation for being there.

Some participants are motivated simply by external reasons, such as the desire to fulfill a class

requirement or optional assignment. Others, for a variety of reasons, chose service as an

extracurricular activity without any external motivations. Many participants are motivated by a

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mix of external and internal factors. Students’ motivation can be especially diverse for

immersion service experiences. Students may participate to help others, have fun, gain

experience for a resume, desire a new adventure, or a combination of these and other factors. The

variety of motivations and developmental stages among participants can be a difficult challenge.

However, this challenge can be used to the program’s advantage. Service-learning leaders should

“design activities to capitalize on the range of students’ experiences” (Albert 1996, 187), such as

small group reflections, team projects for assignments, student led reflection exercises, and

student leadership. These activities can be enhanced by the diversity in motivation among

participants (185-188). Students can learn and grow through interacting with fellow students who

may have a different understanding of the importance of service.

Service-learning teacher-mentors must also be aware of and account for differences in

student development. McEwen states that “[k]nowledge about students’ learning and

development provides an important and valuable foundation for the intentional design of service-

learning experiences” (1996, 86). A student must be ready for development if it is to occur, and

the development must be precipitated by an outside stimulus which challenges the individual

(56). Service experiences can be the challenge that promotes student development if the

experience addresses the developmental level of the student. In addition, the reflection process attached to the experience needs to take into account student developmental levels. Eyler and

Giles write that “[b]y using reflective activities that are too far ahead of where the students are working, instructors may create situations where students simply do not see the value of the process” (1999, 206). Adapting service-learning experiences and reflection to the developmental level of the students creates a better possibility of success.

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There are several student learning and development theories that can inform service- learning. These theories include cognitive development, learning style models, psychosocial development, identity development, and models of career development (McEwen 1996, 57-58).

The students’ development in all these different areas affects every aspect of service-learning, including the service experience, the students’ ability to reflect on the experience, and their ability to connect the experience with course material as well as their own lives (86). For example, because of different learning styles, some students will enjoy reflection while others will struggle with it. Multiple methods of assessment ensure that students have the opportunity to use their strengths as well as develop their weak style of learning. In addition, the balance between challenge and support needs to be carefully considered and monitored because students are at a variety of developmental levels (87). Service-learning practitioners should choose aspects of student development to focus on and embed them into the service-learning objectives.

(87). Specific outcomes and expectations will aid the student, teacher, and community organizations alike.

In assessing the developmental level of students, one important factor is prior exposure to direct service experience incorporated with reflection. Stelljes’ findings suggest that previous service experience is an important stepping stone to the deeper critical analysis that comes through service-learning. Direct service experiences promote personal-development, an important step in cognitive learning. Cognitive development that occurs through intensive service-learning reflection and critical analysis is built upon affective development from other service and reflection experiences. After service-learning is completed, students need to be

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supported in their new level of development and potential long-term commitment to service

(Stelljes 2008, 132-134).

Traditional vs. Critical

Service-learning can be divided into traditional and critical ideologies based on their

focus.17 Most programs tend to ascribe to one or the other, either implicitly or explicitly. The

underlying principles and goals of programs show which ideology is dominant. The service

objective of traditional service-learning is to address and alleviate the immediate needs of

individuals. Traditional service-learning is often equated with charity. Soup kitchens, emergency

homeless shelters, and food pantries are all examples of organizations that focus on charity.

Student volunteers at these types of organizations would likely be a part of a traditional service-

learning program. Critics of traditional service-learning argue that it can perpetuate the status

quo in society and create long-term negative consequences. If short-term needs, such as

emergency food and shelter, are emphasized, community members become dependent rather

than empowered.

Many scholars and practitioners in the service-learning field have advocated instead for a

critical approach that focuses on societal transformation within service-learning. While the

traditional approach focuses on direct service to alleviate immediate needs, critical service-

learning aims to change social structures that create inequality. Mitchell states that the “critical

approach embraces the political nature of service and seeks social justice over more traditional

17. The terminology of traditional and critical service-learning is introduced and explained by Tania Mitchell in “Traditional vs Critical Service-Learning: Engaging the Literature to Differentiate Two Models” on page 51.

208 views of citizenship” (2008, 51). While the traditional approach has value in the development of the student, Mitchell argues that “[w]ithout the exercise of care and consciousness, drawing attention to root causes of social problems, and involving students in actions and initiatives addressing root causes, service-learning may have no impact beyond students’ good feelings”

(51). Critical service-learning emphasizes “the skills, knowledge, and experiences required of students to not only participate in communities, but to transform them as engaged and active citizens” (52).

Critical service-learning attempts to foster transformative service experiences beyond merely performing good deeds in the community and feeling good about it. Critical service- learning is thus distinct from traditional service-learning in the following ways. Critical service- learning emphasizes creating a balance between student development and social change. The crucial aspect of reflection includes focusing on personal views as well as social realities and structural causes of injustice. Critical service-learning necessitates more than one time or even semester long experiences (Mitchell 2008, 53-54). It goes “beyond simply doing service in connection to a course’s academic content to challenging students to articulate their own visions for a more just society and investigate and contemplate actions that propel society toward those visions” (56). Great care must be taken in the fostering of authentic relationships based on connections, not differences. Students need to be adequately prepared for the experience and community organizations need to clearly define their expectations of the students. Critical service-learning necessitates an ongoing, sustained relationship and dialogue between the educational institution and the community partners (59-61).

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Along with Mitchell, Claus and Ogden agree that the transformative approach which

empowers students to work for social change is the most important aspect of service-learning.

Service-learning becomes motivating, meaningful, and effective when students are empowered to positively impact their communities. Social change is primary and prior to student transformation because “individual development occurs as a consequence and within a framework of working to create a better world” (Claus and Ogden 1999, 70). Service experiences should be connected to societal issues and the history of the social justice movement. In this context, students can contemplate and struggle with their personal responsibility for social justice

(Yates and Youniss 1999, 62-63). The ultimate goal for Claus and Ogden is that students become agents of change in the world through critical thought and consciousness. They believe education should take a questioning perspective and not just perpetuate the status quo. Critical consciousness is especially important for service-learning “because it informs and guides service in a way that the service can be transformative of the world rather than simply adaptive. Critical awareness takes students beyond the act of feeding those who are hungry to questioning why people are hungry and working to help the hungry feed themselves” (Claus and Ogden 1999, 73-

74).

While critical service-learning has many benefits, a focus on societal change can also be problematic in service-learning. Because politics and societal values are often debated, choosing one position leaves critical service-learning programs open to criticism. Butin critiques the value and feasibility of putting justice or any other social value or political ideal at the center of service-learning. The meaning of justice, tolerance, and other similar terms used in service- learning are not agreed upon in society. Butin argues that service-learning from a political

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perspective “faces the dilemma of sliding into an ideological dogmatism that discounts

alternative explanations or political worldviews” (2010, 137-138). Butin calls the idea that

critical service-learning can have a goal that is shared by all participants the “myth of an agreed-

upon justice” (55). When justice or tolerance are placed at the center of mandatory service-

learning, the worldview of the teacher-mentor or educational institution is detrimental to the

program. Too many students will resist either actively or passively. Because people have

differing core values, social issues such as abortion, capital punishment, and even how to address

homelessness, health care, and issues of poverty become topics of debate rather than neutral

learning experiences. Thus, terms like justice or tolerance “become rhetorical gestures that are

empty of substantive meaning (Butin 2005b, 94). Instead, Butin advocates placing the emphasis on allowing the service experience to help students formulate questions, rather than answers, and engage in discussions, rather than learn pre-conceived conclusions, about the world around them.

This will be further explored in the section on conceptual models of service-learning.

Traditional and critical service-learning each have positive and negative aspects.

Traditional service-learning can have a positive impact on students while meeting the immediate needs of the community. Transformation typically occurs on the individual level for the students and potentially for those they interact with. However, traditional service-learning can also foster dependency rather than empowering community members. Critical service-learning intends to address the root causes of social injustice and transform society on a structural level. However, the idea of justice and how to achieve it is not universally agreed upon and can become an obstacle to service-learning. As seen in previous chapters, the Christian understanding of discipleship includes aspects of both traditional and critical service-learning. The RCIA, RBC,

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and RC focused more on traditional service-learning themes and the efforts of individuals toward acts of charity and love of neighbor. The catechetical documents of the Church focused more on

themes of critical service-learning and the transformation of society. However, SLF also

explicitly addressed the relationship between charity and justice and affirmed that “both are part

of Christian social responsibility and are complementary” (165c). Thus, service-learning that encompasses and addresses aspects of traditional and critical service-learning are best suited to application in Christian discipleship formation contexts. Christianity is meant to transform the individual and society. To foster this, service-learning programs in a Christian context need to balance the traditional service-learning attributes of addressing the short-term needs of the community with the critical service-learning focus of working toward societal transformation.

Summary

Four main obstacles need to be acknowledged and addressed for service-learning to thrive in any situation: implementing mandatory service effectively, setting a duration of service that is helpful for all involved, addressing the variety of developmental needs of the students, and balancing between traditional and critical service-learning. While mandatory service can be viewed negatively, the benefits have been shown to outweigh the negative aspects, and directly addressing students’ resistance helps them to grow through the process. The motivation (or lack thereof) of students should constantly be taken into consideration. The short duration of many service-learning experiences presents obstacles to student learning and the benefit of the community. Long-term relationships between the educational institutions and the community partners, as well as the leadership of committed student volunteers can help alleviate the

212 concerns raised by short-term projects. The variety of developmental levels of students involved in service-learning cannot be overlooked, but can instead be used as an asset to help students learn from one another when a variety of activities are used. Finally, focusing either traditional or critical service-learning each has its own difficulties. However, incorporating themes of traditional and critical service-learning in service experiences and reflection activities is most effective.

Moving from Theory to Practice: Conceptual Models of Service-Learning

Thus far, the theoretical knowledge of service-learning has been presented. This section addresses the difficult task of implementing service-learning. Butin explains some of the difficulties involved: “It is extremely difficult to pragmatically implement a powerful service- learning program. It takes foresight, time, organizational capabilities, creativity, networking skills, tolerance for ambiguity, willingness to cede sole control of classroom learning, and an acceptance of long-term rather than immediate increments of progress” (2005a, viii). The transition from principles to implementation is difficult. As a way of symbolizing the fluid and intimate relationship between theory and practice in service-learning, Mintz and Hesser use the image of a Kaleidoscope. Because of the tremendous variety in the particulars of service-learning and the numerous relationships involved, the product of the theory-practice relationship is constantly changing as is the picture seen in a kaleidoscope as it is turned (Mintz and Hesser

1996, 34).

Over twenty years ago, Robert Sigmon wrote a short paper titled Linking Service with

Learning in Liberal Arts Education, published in 1994 by the Council of Independent Colleges,

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which is still relevant today. In his work, Sigmon describes four types of service-learning that

articulate the relationship between service and learning. In the first type, service-LEARNING,

the service outcomes are secondary to the learning objectives. Service is added to the course,

such as “[L]earning to teach reading courses [which] are augmented by students doing active

tutoring” (Sigmon 1994, 1-2). The second type, SERVICE-learning, begins with a service that is

clearly stated as a need by the community, and the service outcome is primary. The learning

comes in acquiring knowledge to carry out the service. An advocacy project is given as an

example. The third type, service learning (without hyphen) has goals for the service and learning

aspects that are completely separate. There are typically service and learning intentions, but “the

two components [are] viewed as distinct and separate” (2). The service and learning do not

enhance each other. The fourth type, SERVICE-LEARNING, strikes a balance between service

and learning so that the needs of the community are linked to specific learning expectations.

With this type, “all parties to the arrangement are seen as learners and teachers as well as servers

and served” (2).

This framework of understanding service-learning has endured the test of time. As programs have grown and developed, principles debated, and practices tested, these four types can still be employed to assess service-learning. Of these four types, service learning (without hyphen), with little connection between the two, is seen to be a very weak form of service-

learning. SERVICE-LEARNING with the hope of total integration is the intended goal, but it is

difficult to achieve in practice. Most forms of service-learning tend to lean toward either service-

LEARNING or SERVICE-learning.

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A more recent work has noted similar typologies in service-learning. Service-Learning in

Higher Education: Paradigms & Challenges, edited by Moore and Lin, is divided into four paradigms based on scholarship trends. Two paradigms are based on the primary beneficiary of service-learning. The first is community engagement for community needs, which focuses on the needs of the community as primary, similar to SERVICE-learning. The second is community involvement for student learning, which focuses on the needs of the students, similar to service-

LEARNING. The third paradigm, the integrated ideal type, attempts to bring together the needs of the community and students, similar to SERVICE-LEARNING. A fourth, emerging paradigm focuses on international or interdisciplinary service-learning which reflects the broadening of the scope of service-learning in recent years (Moore and Lin, 2009).

Other ways of conceptualizing service-learning relate it to other areas of student development. Delve, Mintz, and Stewart correspond service-learning with personal development, including William Perry’s cognitive-development model, Lawrence Kohlberg’s moral development model, and Carol Gilligan’s model of the development of women’s moral judgment. The authors track student experiences in service-learning and show how they not only relate to these theories of development but also that service-learning can be the catalysts to help students move from one stage of development to the next. The authors offer goals and means for transitions through the service-learning process. There are four key variables: direct or indirect contact with others either alone or with a group, frequency of the contact, motivation of the students, and a balance of challenge and support (Delve, Mintz, and Stewart 1990, 11-14).

Stewart contributes an analysis of the connection between service-learning and learning styles of students using Kolb’s Experiential Learning model (Stewart 1990).

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Butin describes the current understanding of service-learning in an effort to respond to the developments within the field and the criticism from without. He articulates the three predominate ways that service-learning is currently conceptualized – technical, cultural, and political (Butin 2005b, 90-92; Butin 2010, 8-12). Butin argues that these three models encompass the wide variety of theory and practice in the service-learning field and usually one of the models is primary in a particular program’s objectives. Though each of the models has different intended outcomes, “all three modes are of the same ‘kind’ in that they all view service-learning as a type of intervention that facilitates a better process toward reaching a specific predetermined goal”

(Butin 2010, 49). The technical conceptualization is centered on student learning, the cultural conceptualization is centered on student development, and the political conceptualization is centered on social change.

However, it is unrealistic to approach service-learning with predetermined goals because of the complexity and uncontrollable nature of service experiences. Butin states, “no type of service-learning – technical, cultural, or political – can function without remainder; that is, no service-learning course can stay ‘true’ to its seemingly direct and transparent goals” (2010, 61).

Unlike a traditional classroom, the teacher-mentor has little control over what the students see and hear at the service site. In addition, the service can create a variety of emotions, thoughts, and questions in the students that the teacher-mentor never intended. These remainder aspects often shift the focus from the planned technical, cultural, or political perspective. These goals are thus inherently frustrated by the complexity of service-learning situations and many teacher- mentors abandon service-learning because their goals are not reached.

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Butin proposes a new model, a postmodern conceptualization, focusing on the process of

service-learning rather than predetermined goals. A postmodern view of service-learning

emphasizes “how the service-learning process creates, sustains, and/or disrupts the boundaries

and norms by which we make sense of ourselves and the world” (2005b, 91). Service-learning

should not aim for specific outcomes preselected by the instructor, but rather challenge the

students’ assumptions, thoughts, and beliefs. Butin calls this a “’self-consuming pedagogy,’ one that does not allow the student the security of his normal patterns of thought and belief” (2005b,

96). The difference between the postmodern model and the three goal-oriented models is clearly evident when each one is closely examined, including their limitations.

The first model, a technical conceptualization, focuses on the pedagogical effectiveness of service-learning for the good of the students. This corresponds to service-LEARNING from

Sigmon’s typology. Practices that focus on cognitive development, student learning objectives, and academic learning fall under this category. The technical model argues that service-learning is one strategy that teacher-mentors can use to improve teaching and learning. This model focuses on articulating best practices such as quality of placement, number of service hours, and reflection activities in order to achieve the intended outcomes. The technical model has gained the attention in recent years as service-learning strives toward institutional support and the need to link service-learning with enhanced cognitive outcomes (Butin 2010, 8-9).

The effectiveness of the technical model is limited because service experiences encompass much more than the course content the teacher-mentor intends. Feelings, thoughts, and questions that arise which do not address the specific goals of the course are seen as a distraction and a negative aspect. For example, the experience of tutoring children in math could

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raise questions about educational disparity or emotional attachment which the teacher-mentor will have to address, thus taking away from the goal of having students learn and practice their math tutoring skills. From the technical perspective, the class content and learning objectives are more important than the potential to transform individuals and societies (Butin 2010, 51-53).

The second model, cultural conceptualization, focuses on the significance of the service primarily for the students’ personal growth. This model also corresponds to Signmon’s service-

LEARNING. The goal of the cultural conceptualization model is student affective or moral

development and improved interpersonal relationships. The emphasis is not placed primarily on

student academic learning, but on the personal growth that can occur through the process. The hoped for outcomes include tolerance, respect for diversity, and engaged citizenship. This model is also seen as a way to repair social networks in an individualistic culture. Diversity in the service site is necessary to achieve the intended outcomes (Butin, 2010, 9-10).

The effectiveness of the cultural perspective of service-learning is likewise undermined by the uncontrollable nature of the service experience. From a cultural perspective, service- learning is meant to help students become more tolerant and respectful. However, the service experience can potentially “reinforce students’ deficit perspectives on the other. Students volunteering in a homeless shelter may see their worst stereotypes reinforced by violent, sexist, or demeaning behavior” which supports their prior convictions (Butin 2010, 53). The goal of using the service experience to aid in the personal growth of students is ultimately out of the control of the teacher-mentor. Instead, the goal of student personal growth is largely reliant on the students’ interaction with the people and situations at the service site (Butin 2010, 53-55).

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The third model, political conceptualization, focuses on issues of power and prejudice as

well as the transformation of society. Student academic learning and personal growth are

secondary objectives. This model corresponds to Sigmon’s SERVICE-learning. From a political conceptualization, service-learning is a way to “redress power imbalances, to legitimate

marginalize communities and groups, and to harness institutional resources for social change”

(Butin 2005b, 91). This perspective recognizes that service-learning has the potential to be both

transformative and repressive. Ideally, service-learning focuses on the power relationships of

individuals and institutions in order to empower others rather than serve them. A political

conception of service-learning readily acknowledges, while guarding against, the fact that

service can perpetuate negative perspectives of the students toward community members and

reinforce the students’ position of power (Butin 2010, 10-12). While the focus is distinct, the

cultural and political understanding of service-learning both have their roots in the civil rights

movement and traditionally have been the focus of service-learning.

According to Butin, the political perspective of service-learning relies too much on

unquestioned foundations that are inherently biased. He terms this the myth of an agreed-upon

justice. Goals such as tolerance or justice seem innocuous as the basis for making changes in

society, but articulating what tolerance means or how justice can be achieved in the specific

circumstances of life is political and often contested. When the pre-determined goal of the course is the instructor’s idea of justice and truth, it often leads to resistance from students and those in the community who have a different understanding of these principles. The hoped for change is thus often undermined from the beginning of the process because there is little agreement on the means, much less the goals, or societal change (Butin 2010, 55-57).

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The value and effectiveness of service-learning is enhanced by moving away from the predetermined goals of the technical, cultural, and political perspectives toward the process- oriented postmodern approach. There are four implications when postmodern service-learning is practiced that have a sequential impact. The best practices of service-learning are not universal but are best articulated within the local community context. While suggestions and guidelines are helpful, implementation needs to be adapted according to the specific circumstances. Therefore, there are no value free articulations of service-learning practices. Because the best practices are contingent on the local situation, they are influenced by the beliefs and judgments of those putting together the programs. Furthermore, these local articulations are developed in contrast to other definitions. Service-learning is implemented because of a perceived need to change teaching, student’s perceptions, or society in general. Ultimately, service-learning attempts to

“deliberately frustrate (if we open ourselves to it) the need to simplify and close off our experiences” (Butin 2005b, 98). When modeled from a postmodern conceptualization, the intended outcome is that students “are constantly encountering the dilemmas and ambiguities of living with and through the complexity of how life works” (98). The postmodern model of service-learning “operates from the presumption of service-learning-as-question rather than service-learning-as-answer” (Butin 2010, 63). Because of this, the limit of this model of service- learning comes from “students who are committed to making a difference. It is a difficult lesson that asking the right questions may be more productive than making a grab for the nearest answers” (138). The postmodern conceptual model of service-learning is in many ways the least structured way to incorporate service with learning, but in the space for questioning and exploring lies the most potential for student learning and growth.

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As service-learning continues to develop, the constant struggle is to create models that

balance the learning and development of the students with the needs of the community. Bringing

learning into the context of the world and out of the classroom is an unconventional educational

approach. The various goals and emphases of models that bring together service and learning

create a variety of models of service-learning. The focus can be on student learning, helping the

community, personal growth, community transformation, or a combination of these. However,

the predetermined goals of organizers are often frustrated by the inherent amorphous nature of

service-learning.

While it could be viewed as a detriment to using service-learning in catechetical formation, the postmodern conceptual model of service-learning is actually fitting in the realm of faith and discipleship. The central task of catechesis is to put people into contact with Christ, the mystery of salvation. Rather than focusing on particular goals or outcomes, service-learning that emphasizes the encounter with the other through service is in a very real way an encounter with

Christ. Service-learning from a Christian perspective is focused on fostering Christian values through an active catechetical formation process, and offering participants experiences of lived faith. Going beyond learning about God in the classroom, service-learning is one more way to help people experience God in life. Service-learning based on a postmodern conceptual model utilizes the principles of effective service-learning adapted for the local conditions and values of the organizations that sponsor it. Once these programs are in place, the experience itself becomes primary. This correlates well to catechesis. The end goal of catechesis is not merely to learn information, become a better person, or promote a particular societal ideology. The ultimate goal

of all catechetical programs and efforts is to lead people to an encounter with Christ. As seen in

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the catechetical documents, catechesis is aided by certain principles and practices, but is

ultimately directed and enlivened by the power and presence of the Holy Spirit in the lives of

individuals and the community.

Conclusion

Service-learning has been part of the landscape of education in the United States for

decades. As its practice has developed over that time, so too has the scholarship on the theory of

service-learning and how it is best implemented. Today, a wide range of educational institutions,

conferences, and journals are committed to service-learning as an integral aspect of education

that is transformative for both students and communities. Through the development of the

terminology and emphases of service-learning, the core idea remained the same: when service

and learning are combined, both are enhanced. This corresponds well to discipleship formation where learning about the faith and living the faith are both integral aspects.

As seen in the writings of scholars and practitioners of service-learning, there are common principles of effective service-learning as well as potential negative aspects that need to be addressed. Integral to service-learning are authentic relationships and intentional reflection.

The quality of the service site is also vitally important. The experience becomes more meaningful by focusing on transformative learning and empowering students to take ownership.

Teacher-mentors must provide the balance of challenge and support that is necessary for success.

The obstacles of mandatory service, short duration of most projects, the variety of developmental levels of students, and the problems associated with both traditional and critical service-learning can be a detriment to any service-learning program. However, when these challenges are

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adequately acknowledged and addressed, the benefits of service-learning exceed the negative

issues.

The next chapter presents current catechetical methodologies that address the service component of catechesis in various ways. The chapter assess the state of the use of service in

catechesis based on the theology of service articulated in Chapter One, the understanding of

service in the process of catechesis presented in Chapter Two, and the understanding of

connecting service and learning through the practice of service-learning explained in this

chapter. This analysis shows the catechetical potential for the creation of a model of Catechetical

Service-Learning.

CHAPTER FOUR

Service in Current Catechetical Methodologies

Additionally, the works of charity and justice as well as the promotion of solidarity, justice, peace and stewardship of creation build up the kingdom of God. Increasingly, we recognize that generosity of spirit and commitment to charity and justice are vehicles to bring people into relationship with Jesus and his church. Social justice and direct service opportunities provide powerful experiences with the person of Jesus, especially for adolescents and young adults. Service, when understood as serving Christ in others and as a means to share the Gospel, has the ability to bring the server and the one being served closer to Christ. --Committee on Evangelization and Catechesis, Disciples Called to Witness: The New Evangelization

The initiation rites and recent catechetical documents of the Church explored in Chapters

One and Two indicate a growing emphasis on the use of service as an effective means of forming

disciples. Chapter Three articulated service-learning’s principles and potential weaknesses to

better understand how to combine service and learning. As in the secular educational literature,

the potential of service as a tool for learning has recently become a consistent theme of religious

education and catechetical scholarship. The above quotation from the USCCB committee on

Evangelization and Catechesis’ 2012 publication Disciples Called to Witness recognizes the

potential of service to transform lives and hearts. It articulates the conversion that can occur

through service. At the same time, by stating that service and justice are methods which need to

be understood in the particular context of serving Christ and sharing the Gospel, the document

implies that service needs to be incorporated in an intentional manner to fulfill its potential.

Social justice has become a key component of catechesis, and many people view community

service as a valuable element in the formation of disciples. However, there is a need for a more

thorough analysis of the theory and practice of effective and comprehensive implementation of

service. 223 224

This chapter presents the current scholarship on the use of service in catechetical

situations and integration of service-learning into formation programs. It begins with general

acknowledgments of the transformative aspect of catechesis in the current catechetical literature.

Next, there is an examination of the vital connection of prayer, especially the liturgy, with

service and justice. Then, there is an articulation of the current state of catechesis for justice,

including two catechetical models that incorporate service experience. Finally, the chapter

presents the literature that specifically addresses service-learning in religious education and

catechesis.

Service and the Transformational Nature of Catechesis

Much of the current scholarship linking service and catechesis focuses on personal stories

of the positive effects of service. Many sources articulate the potential of service to be a

transformative experience for everyone involved. Service also supports justice as a central

component of catechesis. Further, service is shown to be a point of intersection that helps students combine intellectual knowledge with their experience to come to wisdom on a deeper level. While these sources affirm the value of service, most do not address the principles and practices involved in effectively combining service and formation.

One way that catechesis can be transformative is through an active response by the participants. Social justice is a learned response, and catechesis should promote action for the reign of God in addition to intellectual, affective, and moral transformation (Iannone and

Iannone 2010, 15). Education for peace and justice must include compassionately embracing others, especially the least, providing good mentors from the community, and developing skills

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to advocate on the behalf of others in addition to knowing the social teaching of the Church

(Brady 2010, 8). Some people narrowly view catechesis as knowing and following the law, but

in reality “catechesis has the potential to challenge the faithful to a radical change of their

personalities and the social structures in which they live” (Brancatelli 2004, 220). To foster this,

discipleship training needs to go beyond the information of the catechism and the formation of

socialization. If not, catechesis may end up perpetuating the status quo of the community rather

than empowering it to embrace the mission of Christ (223). For catechesis to be transformative,

it must flow through the paschal mystery; “Transformational catechesis helps Christians

encounter the paschal mystery at the same time that they encounter their own dying-death-

resurrection through a critical process of enlightenment and emancipation” (233, emphasis in

original). Transformational catechesis creates opportunities to experience Christ as the “other”

and helps disciples reflect on the encounter (234). The experience of service in catechesis can be transformative in the life of the participants by allowing them to enter more fully into the paschal mystery and encouraging them to go beyond knowing the faith to living the faith.

The use of service also challenges leaders to include justice and peace as central components of catechesis. While catechesis is concerned with actions in the world and not merely knowing the teachings, the classroom instructional model has been predominant for centuries. The basic assumption with this model is that the individual would apply knowledge of the faith in daily life. This is not necessarily so because many catechists are unable or unwilling to go beyond the basics of knowledge of the faith and “[i]t is simpler to teach about the content of the Bible, about God’s work in another age and another culture, than it is to discern and educate people about God’s work in this age” (Kennedy 1983, 471). This can result in a

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disconnection between what students learn and how they live and act. Experiences of service

engage people in the struggle for justice and foster interaction with people in the community,

which helps to bridge the dichotomy between learning and life. The participants can also identify

the key issues for further analysis and reflection (474).

Service can reinforce the catechetical aspects of knowledge and experiential

understanding, strengthening one of the primary objectives of catechesis: transformation as a

way of life. Religion empowers adolescents to come to a deeper understanding of self. Service in

a faith context is helpful in that it enables young people to discover who they are through the

action of discipleship (Youniss, Yates, and McLellan 1998, 71). Service helps to integrate

students into the faith tradition and to see themselves as actors continuing the tradition (76).

Connection of Prayer, Especially the Liturgy, with Service and Justice

The literature on catechesis emphasizes the link between prayer and service as was seen

in the RCIA, RBC, and RC, as well as the catechetical documents presented in Chapters One and

Two, respectively. The RCIA offers a comprehensive vision for connecting prayer and worship

with service and justice in catechesis. The rite stresses the importance of a holistic catechesis that fosters discipleship. One example is helping people explore the link between faith and service.

Mentorships and the example of the community are also vital. Within the RCIA and catechesis in general, the liturgy is the key link between faith and justice.

Connecting service experiences with prayer engenders a holistic understating of faith and worship connected to justice. A healthy liturgical spirituality “links the God we encounter at the table of the Eucharist (and in all other liturgy) with the God we encounter at the table of daily

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life” by being “God-centered, revelation-based, and concerned for the common good” (Irwin

1998, 163). Worship and authentic discipleship are connected. Put another way, “[w]orship

demands ethical responsibility. It was so in Old Testament times and it was so in New Testament

times. Worship calls for a set of ethical responses, and apart from these responses, worship has

no value” (LaVerdiere 1993, 16). Repeatedly, the prophets of the Old Testament address the

situations where people alienated ethics from worship. In reality, both ethical responsibility and

worship “flowed from Israel’s debt of gratitude,” (22) and could not be separated. The New

Testament expanded the obligation to care for others to include “all those for whom Jesus is

Lord, and that means the entire human race” (29).

Service also has an important connection to worship because it pulls the disciples beyond an individualistic view of faith. The reality of a pluralistic society often privatizes spirituality and separates it from the social context (Merkle 2008, 134). Contemporary literature on spirituality reinforces the individualistic view of religion (Seasoltz 1990, 55). Thus, in contemporary

worship in the United States cultural context, people often have an individualistic and therapeutic

emphasis. However, “being part of the body of Christ challenges us to identify ourselves with the

poor [in one’s local region] and with the poor around the world. We all share the same

Eucharistic master narrative, the same paschal mystery where life conquers death” (Hogan 2007,

30).

The RCIA provides a vision of liturgical and initiation catechesis that highlights the

integral connection between worship and action for justice. Holistic catechesis fosters

discipleship, “which entails movement toward others and away from self” (Clay 2004, 25).

Catechesis should not just talk about being disciples, but should give those coming into the

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church the experience of discipleship. Catechesis should “provide opportunities for initiates to

serve others, learn how to evangelize others by personal example and to discern how God is

calling each initiate to discipleship” (25). Reflection on these personal experiences of

discipleship can help catechumens continue to live their faith actively once fully initiated.

Service can help make more explicit the connection between initiation and the Church’s

mission in the world. In addition to meeting Christ at Mass and through catechesis, leaders

should challenge initiates to meet Christ in their careers and communities. To accomplish this

[w]e need to think creatively about introducing the service focus so integral to Catholic Christianity early on in the initiation process… [Catechumens] must be challenged to see that the Church is neither an end in itself nor a separate world unto itself; it exists for the sake of Christ in the world. The de-centering of the self, the kenosis of personal ego in order to serve others, is, after all, the way Christ taught us and showed us to live. (Connors 2005, 16)

The Sunday liturgy, particularly the Liturgy of the Word, is the primary way to form catechumens as disciples who serve. Other suggestions to reinforce this include learning about

Catholic social teaching, inviting social ministers to speak, and offering occasional service experiences for the participants of RCIA.

Explicitly connecting the service experience to faith and worship is important. Thus,

“[t]he real challenge when applying service/social justice to faith formation is making the connection between service and faith and membership in the Church” (Thelen 2005, 20). Service can deepen the experience of faith, because “[t]hrough the practice of service in the catechumenate process, and preparation and reflection on this faith activity, people on the journey to faith will encounter Christ” (22). The service builds from and flows back toward the encounter with Christ in the liturgy, particularly when the service includes preparation

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beforehand, incorporation of Scripture, fostering Christocentric relationships, and reflection that

relates the experience back to faith and worship. Service experiences provide “[t]he ‘actions’ of

faith [which] are some of the most important pieces for understanding and imitating the life of

Jesus and for integrating the principles of faith into life” (18).

The liturgy celebrates, expresses, and fosters the connection between faith and service.

Essentially, the connection between liturgy and life is based on the Catholic sacramental

imagination, which affirms that “all reality ‘is potentially or in fact the bearer of God’s presence

and the instrument of God’s saving activity’” (Irwin 1998, 164).1 Liturgical roles sacramentalize

and ratify the ministry that is already happening. In the early Church, the deacon assisted with

the gifts and at the altar because of his role as a minister of service, distributing the material goods of the Church to those in need. He would announce the general intercessions, which would always include petitions on behalf of people in need, because he knew the needs of the community most intimately from his ministry among them (164). In addition, the liturgy helps to shape our view of social justice and to be “hope-filled and confident even in the face of the worst oppression and life’s injustices” (166). Education about Catholic social teaching will only take

root in the context of eucharist (Hogan 2007, 32). When the formation of disciples empowers

them to better connect faith with life, spirituality and justice flourish.

The importance of mentorship in fostering faith through worship and service begins at

home with the family and then radiates out from there. Through RCIA,

[t]he catechumens and candidates ought to be formed and affirmed in their growing understanding of the domestic Church as the first place of service; that how we serve one

1. Irwin references the definition of sacramentality from The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism, San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995: 1148.

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another in the home is a way of living our faith, and from the domestic Church, our service is extended to our neighbors and beyond to the civic community and out to the world. (Gensler 2008, 20)

Service at home needs to be presented as the foundation of Christian service to the community.

Then through direct service and working for social justice, “the catechumens and candidates are

apprenticed into the service dimension of lived faith” (20). Grounded in the liturgy, the disciple

goes forth to serve in the domestic Church and the community.

The entire parish community also plays an important role in incorporating service into formation. Forming catechumens through service puts the responsibility squarely on the community to help the catechumens live out this important aspect of faith. In particular,

catechists are to listen to the experience of the participants, share the passionate voices of those in the community who work for justice, and create times and places for reflection, prayer, and meditation. Living an example of peace and justice helps to “apprentice people in ways of justice and transformation” (O’Brien 2005, 8).

Actions of service can also engender vibrant liturgical celebrations for communities of

faith. All genuine celebrations flow out of daily life and help people return to daily life renewed,

strengthened, and with deeper understanding. Liturgy, our most important opportunity to

celebrate God’s saving love in our lives and as a community, is similar. Active discipleship is a

significant aspect of all liturgical celebrations. Liturgy forms disciples to be servants through the

Liturgy of the Word, General Intercessions, Lord’s Prayer, Sign of Peace, Communion, and the

Dismissal. Disciples bring service experiences as part of the collection and the offering to the

Lord in worship. In order to fully express God’s freeing and loving presence in the world,

liturgy’s “celebrants, its assemblies, must be about the same sort of liberation. First of all they

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must acknowledge their own need to be delivered from alienation and isolation and then as

suffering servants they must, like Jesus Christ, lay down their lives for others” (Seasoltz 1990,

53). Being of service to others is a central aspect of both daily discipleship and communal

worship.

Catechesis for Social Justice

The link between faith and service and the connection of liturgy and justice is clear

theologically, but one of the challenges of forming people in social justice continues to be the

political ideological divide. Joe Holland, co-author of Social Analysis: Linking Faith and Justice,

describes this divide between the classic secular Left and the classic religious Right. While in

practice the divide may not be so straightforward, Holland states that the secular Left recognizes

the problems in society but rejects the idea that religion can adequately address these problems.

In fact, the classic secular Left tends to see religion as an obstacle to justice and therefore often

makes of secularization its own idol and a cornerstone of achieving justice. On the other hand,

the religious Right critiques the Left’s secular stance but often fails to recognize the prophetic message of justice and peace (Holland and Henriot 1983, xiv). In order to achieve social justice,

“[f]aith and justice need to become as one flesh in the service of both. The secular hunger for

justice from the Left needs to find its deeper root in spirituality. The spiritual hunger [for God] of

the Right needs to find God’s true face in justice and peace” (xiv). People often set up social

engagement and spirituality as opposed to one another, but they are better when integrated. For

justice to take root in society, the integration of justice and faith must occur within the life of the

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Christian community, most especially the laity (xix). Presented below are a few concepts combining faith and justice.

The pastoral circle is one way of integrating faith and justice. The pastoral circle has four

moments that are rooted in experience. The first moment, insertion, includes coming to know the

lived experience of individuals and communities, especially through direct contact. The second

moment, social analysis, examines the broader picture of these experiences and draws

connections between them. The third moment, theological reflection, provides further

understanding through the “light of living faith, scripture, church social teaching, and the

resources of tradition” (Holland and Henriot 1983, 9). The fourth moment, pastoral planning,

brings about a decision and action to respond to the situation. These experiences then call for

further insertion, analysis, reflection, and planning so the circle continues (8-9).

The Ignatian Pedagogy of experience, reflection, and action correspond to the pastoral circle but also add the dimensions of an end, or goal, of the endeavor as well as a focus on vocation. Experience, reflection, and action continually interplay in the learning process of

Ignatian Pedagogy much like the continual process of insertion, analysis, reflection, and planning indicated by the pastoral circle. The ultimate goal that is at the center of Jesuit education and the

Ignatian Pedagogy is the transformation of the whole person, intellectually, professionally,

psychologically, morally, and spiritually (Bergman 2011, 28-31). According to this standard,

“[t]he well-educated person is not only intellectually and professionally competent but also just, caring, compassionate, discerning, committed, and faithful” (90). This leads students to their deepest vocation – to love God and neighbor. More importantly, students realize that they are

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called to use their talents, interests, personalities, and circumstances to love and help others no

matter what career, location, or state in life they are in (31-32).

In the task of empowering individual Christians to work toward social justice, the role of

Christian communities should not be undervalued. Fear of entering into politics or a focus on

institutional survival can be easy excuses for parish communities to avoid addressing social

justice issues. However, all aspects of the life of the Christian community should encompass social ministry (Hessel 1992, 8). The false dichotomies of a spiritual life set against doing justice

or a private faith against public actions need to be overcome (24). Within Scripture, actions for justice are indispensable for spiritual growth; the Gospel call to freedom has personal and civic implications (26). In each of these examples, the experience of service can be the link between the teachings of the Church, the reality of the world, and the faith of the individual.

Catechetical Models that Incorporate Service Experiences

The need to educate for social justice has been a concern in the Church for many years.

Recent catechetical documents highlight this concern. The pastoral circle, Ignatian Pedagogy, and the insistence on fostering communities active in the pursuit of justice are positive steps in this regard. However, most catechetical methodologies do not focus on catechesis for social justice that includes the experience of service. Two exceptions to this are the writings of Maria

Harris and Thomas Groome, detailed below.

Maria Harris is one scholar that explicitly details the importance of service in catechesis.

Harris was a lifelong educator and scholar of religious education. After her freshmen year in college, she entered a teaching order, the Sisters of St. Joseph, and was sent to various schools to

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teach music. As she continued in her own studies, she became highly interested in religious

education. She earned a doctorate through a joint degree program in education and religious

studies from Columbia Teacher’s College and Union Theological Seminary. Thus, she brought

together her love for teaching and religion. Though she left the Sisters of St. Joseph in 1973, she

continued to study, work, and write in the area of religious education for the remainder of her

life. She was a professor of Religious Education at Fordham University and wrote many

influential books in the field2 (Smith 2005, 235).

The centrality of service in catechesis for Harris flows out of her understanding of the

curriculum for catechesis, explained in her book Fashion Me a People: Curriculum and the

Church. Harris states that curriculum is not merely a list of important concepts or a set of

resources to teach these concepts. Rather, curriculum is “an activity, a practice of a people”

(Harris 1989, 8). The process of living the curriculum helps the community realize and enhance

the important aspects of life. Within this process, God dwells and is at work.

The curriculum of the church calls for a particular way of living, referred to as the

Church’s pastoral vocation. Being a member of the body of Christ carries with it much

responsibility to carry out the mission and ministry of serving the world. The Church’s pastoral

vocation has three components rooted in baptism: priestly, prophetic and kingly. The priestly

function calls to mind the visions and the memory of the past to aid the present. The prophetic

component strengthens the community through sharing the vision and hopes of the future.

2. Important works in the field of Religious Education by Maria Harris include The D.R.E. Book, Teaching and Religious Imagination, and Reshaping Religious Education: Conversations on Contemporary Practice (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998), written with her husband, Gabriel Moran.

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Finally, the kingly element calls the church to shape their present communities to enhance the proclamation and living of the Gospel (Harris 1989, 26-27).

Education following the Church’s pastoral vocation has several distinct characteristics.

Primarily, education in the Church needs to be lifelong because the pastoral vocation of the

Church is lifelong. This understanding of education goes beyond prevalent practices of focusing

on children and relying on only one form of education, schooling. Harris states, “the truth of

education is that if it is assumed to be only for children, it will not be good for anyone –

especially not for children. Children will observe that they are the only ones being attended to

and will long for the time when they are done being ‘educated.’ They will think of education as

something that can be ‘finished’” (Harris 1989, 39).

Harris articulates five forms of the practice of curriculum based on the description of the

early Church community revealed in the second chapter of Acts of the Apostles. Harris states,

There we find in one place the most detailed description of the first Christian community doing what will in time become the classical activities of ecclesial ministry: kerygma, proclaiming the word of Jesus’ resurrection; didache, the activity of teaching; leiturgia, coming together to pray and to re-present Jesus in the breaking of break; koinonia, or community; and diakonia, caring for those in need. (1989, 16)

These forms, according to Harris, are the primary curriculum of the Church. They are the ways

the Word continually becomes flesh in the Church (23) and are thus integral and interrelated in

the process of education. Harris states, “should any of these be left out as full partners in the

education work of ministry, should any of these be downplayed, should any of these be exalted

to the denigration of others, we would not be able to educate fully. All are needed” (44). In

addition to these five forms, the framework for education ministry is an important consideration.

Harris sees the entire community as both responsible for the work of education and participants

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in lifelong learning. Beyond merely instructing, educating encompasses a broader range of

activities of church life and empowers people to live their discipleship fully. Thus, everyone participates in the teaching and learning process through the entire life of the community, focusing on empowering disciples for ministry in the world (46-51).

Of the five forms of education articulated by Harris, diakonia most intimately relates to

the use of service experiences in catechetical instruction. Though not separate from the other

four, taking a closer look at diakonia will highlight the value of service. Serving others has

always been central to the Christian vocation. In practice, many people perceive terms such as

ministry and service as the responsibility of only a few. In addition, being a servant to others is not always valued in a highly individualistic culture. However, gratitude is at the basis of our call to service based on the reality that we are “receivers of gifts and grace” (Harris 1989, 146).

Through baptism, God calls Christians to be servant-leaders in the world through their anointing as kings and queens. This understanding of discipleship is difficult in a culture of individualism and consumerism. However, “we need to relearn joyful appreciation of all we have received and all we continue to receive” (146). From this perspective, we are better able to live the compassionate response of Jesus in our lives.

Harris articulates four aspects of diakonia’s role in catechesis. First is social care, which refers to direct acts of charity associated with the corporal works of mercy, such as feeding the hungry and giving shelter to the homeless. It is social because all acts of care have an impact on society. It is unique from a Christian perspective because social care “makes us receivers as well as givers: the one who is caring is always a part of, and within, the caring activity” (Harris 1989,

148). Second is social ritual, which refers to the importance of gathering together in community

237 to pray for the presence of care, protest actions contrary to care in our society, and insist on services that are missing. The Church as a body, as well as individuals in the Church, should be caring. Third is social empowerment, which focuses all efforts of service “toward helping others help themselves and toward eliminating dependence” (151). Care should emphasize fostering the

“conditions where the needy are able to take responsibility for themselves” (152). Fourth is social legislation, which looks beyond the individual and seeks to transform the structures of society. These four aspects of diakonia help to fulfill the priestly, prophetic, and kingly aspects of baptism. Diakonia is “prophetic in its attention to care, priestly in its impulse toward ritual, and both of these in its attention to empowerment, [and] each of these forms is incomplete unless it is also political” (153). Social legislation completes diakonia’s call to work for positive social change on every level.

The decision to become engaged in the call to diakonia as both individuals and communities brings many positive results. It makes people more aware of the issues and less likely to ignore them. It helps people understand the interconnectedness of direct service and social advocacy and the importance of both. It emphasizes the importance of community in all aspects of diakonia. It fosters compassion for others in the sense of passionately living and working toward the goodness of all.

In addition to articulating the importance of diakonia, Harris also provides a model for centering the entire catechetical endeavor on social justice issues, including service to others.

Centering on a chosen social justice issue, participants spend twenty minutes a day in prayer on the issue (leiturgia). They also read about the issue to be better informed (didache). Participants then meet weekly to discuss the issue (koinonia) and report their experience and knowledge on

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the topic to the greater community (kerygma). Finally, they spend four to six hours weekly

engaged in direct service to address the issue (diakonia). This model of education involves all

aspects of catechesis and puts the experience of service at the heart of the process (Harris 1989,

157). Harris focuses on educating for social justice issues, but this model can also address other

topics of faith formation.

Thomas Groome’s writings on faith formation are also a source of wisdom for

incorporating service into the catechetical experience. Groome has been a leader in the field of

religious education for decades, and has been on the faculty of Theology and Religious

Education at Boston College for 40 years. For many of those years, he worked out of the Institute

of Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry and later served as the department chair. From the

time of his own dissertation work, Groome has articulated a holistic approach to religious

education through nearly 200 scholarly and popular articles and book chapters as well as seven

books3 (Horell).

Groome’s approach to religious education continues to grow and develop. Originally

referred to as a “shared Christian praxis approach,” Groome has recently used the more

straightforward and descriptive phrase “life to faith to life” (2011, 261-262). This model attempts

to overcome the split between faith and daily life which Gaudium et Spes refers to as “among the

more serious errors of our age” (43). Groome brings together both kerygmatic and experiential

catechesis by using both an inductive and deductive approach. His method “[i]s inductive in that

3. Important books by Tom Groome in the field of Religious Education include Christian Religious Education: Sharing our Story and Vision; Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Approach to Religious Education and Pastoral Ministry; and Will There be Faith? A New Vision for Educating and Growing Disciples.

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it engages people to reflect on their own lives and deductive in that it is committed to thorough

instruction in Christian faith, albeit in ways that echo as meaningful into people’s lives” (268).

Having people reflect on their lives is not merely a way to introduce the truth of Scripture and

tradition. It also acknowledges and helps people recognize how God is present and active in

everyday life (285).

The life to faith to life approach includes a focusing act and five movements. The

focusing act engages the participants with the chosen theme. It can be an activity, such as a

service project, a video or other multimedia presentation, or something as simple as a good

question. The focusing act gives people an initial sense of the topic by using activities, themes,

and examples that are familiar to the everyday life of the participants (Groome 2011, 304-309).

Movements one and two continue to invite participants to reflect on life as a source of encounter with God. Movement one encourages participants to respond to the theme from the perspective of their own lives. This question-based activity allows people to respond to the theme through journals, discussion, and other group activities. Movement two entails critically reflecting on the theme and using reason, memory, and imagination to help people articulate their own understanding of the topic (Groome 2011, 309-318).

Movement three moves the participants from life to faith by bringing the reflections of the first two movements to the Scripture and Tradition of the Church. It presents “to people’s lives the teachings and spiritual wisdom of the Christian Story and Vision… the intent is to teach it clearly, highlighting the truth and spiritual wisdom it reflects for our lives and the response it invites” (Groome 2011, 318). This includes both direct and user-friendly access to the Scripture and Tradition as well as the opportunity for catechists to be living representatives of faith.

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Movement three is ideal for parents to share their faith as well as peers to study and share the

wisdom of the Scripture and Tradition with each other (318-324).

Movement four and five return the focus to life once again, as participants are

encouraged to reflect on their lives in light of the Christian faith. The intent of the fourth

movement is to help participants see for themselves what faith means for their everyday lives.

Here participants respond to what they have heard in movement three and articulate how they

might appropriate it into their lives. Beyond merely asking for questions, this movement invites

people to articulate and even challenge what they have heard. Discussions can be fruitful for

difficult or controversial topics. Movement five “gives people an opportunity to choose and

decide how they might live in response to the teachings and spiritual wisdom they have

encountered in the Christian Story and Vision” (Groome 2011, 329). It is an invitation for

participants “to express their deepened convictions, renewed beliefs, new insights, best intentions

and resolves, expanded commitments, possible strategies, concrete plans, and so on” (331). A

shared ritual or prayer using Scripture, prayers, and symbols of faith can help to celebrate these

outcomes and enhance the personal prayer life of participants (324-333).

Groome argues that all aspects of religious education should form participants in social justice. He states, “the content, process, and purpose of how we do Christian religious education should enable all to grow in social consciousness and commitment to the works of justice and peace” (Groome 2011, 143). This is accomplished by educating justly, encouraging people to actively participate in the learning, and helping them to critically reflect on their own lives and social location. All of this needs to be done in light of the wisdom of the Christian faith. In order

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to make the education a part of people’s lives, educators must intentionally invite people to make

choices that are just in their everyday lives (144-145).

The writings of Harris and Groome are two important voices advocating for using service

in the catechetical endeavor. Each helps to bring service more to the center of the process rather

than an added component or a hoped for consequence of catechesis. However, neither interacts

with the principles and practices of service-learning which have the potential to further enrich the

process of using service in faith formation settings. Other scholars have written more specifically

on connecting service-learning in religious contexts, much of it from college level theology

courses. The next section will present select literature on the topic.

Service-Learning Centered Catechesis

In addition to the catechetical methodologies that tend to bring service into the center of

the catechetical endeavor, there are several resources that specifically connect service-learning to

catechesis and religious education. The series, Service-Learning in the Disciplines, includes one

book on service-learning in religious studies.4 In addition, several professors and teachers have

written on the use of service-learning in a variety of religious studies courses. Researching the

effectiveness of service-learning from a religious perspective has helped to improve the practice

of service-learning.

The American Association for Higher Education’s series on Service-Learning in the

Disciplines includes From Cloister to Commons: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in

Religious Studies. The chapters are written by a variety of experts on service-learning in theory

4 For more information on this series, see Chapter Three.

242 and practice in colleges and universities, both secular and private. The theoretical chapters focus on the unique perspective that religious studies can bring in bridging the gap between institutional mission and action in the community. One distinct aspect of service-learning from a religious studies perspective is that professors often use service-learning educational goals, to further the moral development of the students, and to encourage social action, even in secular universities (Glennon 2002, 18).

Several chapters from this resource focus on the practical aspects of service-learning, providing similar recommendations as general service-learning scholarship with occasional additional insight from the religious studies perspective. Beyond the value of holistically engaging the student, promoting more active learning, and contributing to the common good, service-learning provides the perfect context for addressing basic ontological questions of human existence that are central to religious studies: who am I? How am I to relate to others? What is my purpose in life? Service-learning often moves students beyond their comfort zone and challenges them in a variety of ways, which “creates a profound and fertile terrain for exploring a wide range of ontological, moral, ethical, spiritual, theological, and religious concerns”

(McGowan 2002, 86).

To capitalize on this opportunity, service-learning courses must effectively link the service and learning both conceptually and practically. Conceptually, the course objectives must specifically link to experiences that will enhance the learning. For instance, the course design should specify what questions of theology or ethics the service hopes to address. Practically, service experiences should include reflective activities throughout the semester that explicitly connect the experience with the deeper questions. It is not enough merely to assign journaling

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without a specific focus or related feedback on the connection between the service and the

learning (McGowan 2002, 88-89). Every aspect of service-learning can be enhanced through the

orientation to the basic questions of human existence that lie at the heart of religious studies.

Reflecting on these questions in light of service experiences, culture, and the students’ own lives

helps to foster the connections between service, learning, and life that can be transformative.

There are numerous other examples in the literature of professors formally incorporating service experiences into the design of their courses. Dr. Kathy Winings, Associate Professor of

Religious Education and Ministry at Unification Theological Seminary, articulates the difference between having service as an aspect of a course and offering a service-learning course. While many religious education programs seek to incorporate experiential education through service, few do so with the methodology of service-learning. Service is good, but “if nothing more is done with the experience, it can and often does, fade into the backwaters of the student’s memory, with the probable result of having learned little or nothing at all” (Winings 2005, 126).

Winings offers several elements of effective service-learning that once again mirror the secular literature. The first is establishing service sites that meet real community needs and offer students a sense of accomplishment (128). Interaction between the community and the students is important. Here Winings adds to the secular service-learning scholarship by pointing out the value of interfaith service-learning experiences. The community can serve as a neutral site where participants of diverse religious backgrounds can get to know each other and work toward a common goal (132). Winings also cites the importance of reflection throughout the service- learning process which is valuable because “participants are encouraged and challenged to reflect on and evaluate their deepest held beliefs, address their personal perceptions and stereotypes, and

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generally question what they hold to be true” (127). Because religious education includes how

we teach and not merely what we teach, service-learning greatly complements religious

education. While helpful, Winings’s analysis stops short of a comprehensive methodology

specifically for service-learning in the religious context.

Another example of service-learning in the college classroom context comes from Fred

Glennon, professor of religious studies at Le Moyne College, Syracuse, NY. Glennon incorporates service into his religious ethics courses for the transformational possibilities in both student understanding and life choices and actions. Service-learning is important “to help give students a more sophisticated understanding of social justice; and to help students develop a stronger sense of themselves as moral agents” (Glennon 2004, 30). Service helps the students develop a commitment “for the common good regardless of their chosen profession” (31). In addition, lasting learning about ethics occurs through reflection on concrete action more so than abstract thinking alone. Key is the importance of quality experiences of social action followed up by reflection in addition to reading about social justice. Active, student directed learning is best for social justice learning.

The projects Glennon assigns have many useful components of active learning. It starts with pre-experience essays with students reflecting on social justice and exploring their social location. Next, the students identify and research a social justice issue, followed by a minimum of 10 hours of service working on that issue. Finally, the students reflect on the experience

through presentations, research, and reflection papers (Glennon 2004, 33). When Glennon

analyzed the data from his students he found that the service experience combined with the

classroom learning had significant impact on student development. Most students cited a change

245 in their thinking about social justice (85%) and felt empowered as an agent of change (80%).

This occurred through all of the project components, from the service experience to the research to the presentations and discussions held in class (34-35). Combining all of these learning styles strengthened the whole endeavor.

Glennon looks beyond his ethics classroom to see the value of incorporating service into other disciplines. He states, “it would be useful to explore earlier applications of social justice action projects in the core curriculum rather than wait until students are seniors” (Glennon 2004,

36). The curriculum for a wider range of studies can and should incorporate service and justice topics.

There are examples of teaching a variety of topics through service-learning. A course titled “God and Human Suffering” explores the service experience and the universal human experience of suffering. Students learn and further reflect on “[t]he origins and meanings of classic Christian beliefs such as atonement, incarnation, resurrection, the suffering and death of

Christ, etc., as they impinge upon issues and realities of suffering and evil” (Johnson 2002, 113).

Another course uses service-learning to teach Christology. Service-learning is a “concrete way to focus on the life and ministry of Jesus” (Batten 2005, 108). As distinct from volunteer work, the course presents service as a calling for Christian disciples as well as a responsibility of citizens. The primary assignment was a journal, which included a history of the service site, an interview of a staff person, and notes and analysis of their experiences. The students had to record their observations as objectively as possible. Next, they analyzed their own thoughts and feelings and the situation of people they served. Taking a step back, the students then analyzed social and cultural factors. Finally, they had to link everything to class material. In the process,

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the students related biblical texts, first century history, and the potential responses of Jesus to

their service experiences, coming to a deeper understanding of Christ through the combination of

their learning and service experiences (110).

This method of teaching produced several benefits. The variety of learning styles helped

the diverse group of students in the class. The class used service as a text, citing it in small group

and class discussions. This also increased the level of active learning. The experiences of service

also helped to illuminate the students’ understanding of historical Jesus, from the sayings of

Jesus to expert opinions on the subject (Batten 2005, 110-112). Overall, the students were forced

to think, question, and learn on a much deeper and more personal level through service-learning.

Outside of religious studies courses, service-learning can be used to bring faith into areas where it typically is not prevalent. One example is a course that connects the service experience to labor and business ethics. In addition to direct service activities, students were encouraged to attend rallies and picket lines, and to interview workers to come to a better understanding of the labor perspective. To connect with the business curriculum, students had to apply theories of distributive justice to the situations they encountered and “reflect on real-life moral dilemmas they found in their research and conversations with workers” (Leahy and Bobo 2002, 129).

One framework that specifically connects service-learning and social justice comes from

Susan Cipolle in Service-Learning and Social Justice: Engaging Students in Social Change.

Cipolle is a teacher at Benilde-St. Margaret’s School in Louis Park, Minnesota and an adjunct faculty member in the College of Applied Professional Studies graduate program in curriculum and instruction at University of St. Thomas. In her presentation of service-learning, Cipolle clearly distinguishes among the concepts of community service, service-learning, and what she

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terms critical service-learning. She defines service-learning as “a learning strategy in which

students have leadership roles in thoughtfully organized service experiences that meet real needs

in the community. The service is integrated into the students’ academic studies with structured

time to research, reflect, discuss, and connect their experiences to their learning and their

worldview” (Cipolle 2010, 4). The second sentence in this definition is what separates

community service from service-learning. Cipolle goes on to define critical service-learning,

where students and teachers “examine issues of power, privilege, and oppression; question the

hidden bias and assumptions of race, class, and gender; and work to change the social and

economic system for equity and justice” (5).

For Cipolle, the underlying goal of service-learning is social transformation which is best effected by fostering critical consciousness in individuals. This includes developing a deeper awareness of self, a broader perspective of others as well as social issues, and the ability to see the potential to create change (Cipolle 2010, 7). Participation in service helps students clarify their values and expand their perceptions of others when they step out of their comfort zone and face injustice. When combined with greater information about injustice and personal reflection, students “develop a more critical, complex view of the world” (11) and the systemic causes of injustice. Finally, when students have the experience of making a difference in the life of another person, they feel empowered and competent to be an agent of change in the world (9-12). The role of the teacher is to “support students and create learning experiences where they gain factual information, critically reflect, and grapple with reality” (9).

Cipolle defines three stages of critical consciousness development. The first is charity.

This is a basic desire to want to help. Often service can be done to make the student feel good

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about themselves, at times to the detriment of those they serve. The second stage is caring.

Students move to this stage through building relationships with those they serve. Personal

connections tend to create compassion in the student. The third stage is social justice. Once

students care about those they serve, they are compelled to go beyond charity to work for

systemic change (Cipolle 2010, 13).

Cipolle’s advice to teachers guiding students through these stages of critical

consciousness development is similar to the pastoral circle or Ignatian Pedagogy. Throughout the

process, students need stage-appropriate information, experience, and reflection. Stage

appropriate refers to addressing the students at their stage as they progress from charity to caring

to social justice. Information is the course content, experience is the service, and reflection

should be continuous throughout the process, which is circular in nature. Cipolle’s method, like

the pastoral circle and Ignatian Pedgogy, combines experience, learning, and reflection in a

continual process that challenges the students to an ever-deeper level of love, knowledge, and

justice.

Scott Seider of Boston University studied the experiences of hundreds of students’

participation in a Catholic university5 service-learning program. The study affirms the positive

connection between service-learning and student engagement with theology. The program was

one of several options to complete the theology requirement at the university. The researchers

surveyed and interviewed the students about interest in theology and religious topics before and

5. The article used a pseudonym for the Catholic university that was the focus of the study. Boston University was not the university used for the study.

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after their experience. The control group was on a waitlist for the program but did not participate

(Seider 2011, 212).

The results of the study showed both the strengths of this particular service-learning

program and areas where it might be improved. Those who participated in the program had more interest in theology and taking theology courses at the end of the program. This correlated with students who reported a high degree of personal growth. On the other hand, the service-learning program did not positively affect the practice of religion (Seider 2011, 215). Those who participated in the service did not hold religion as any more important in everyday life compared to their counterparts who did not serve. Seider attributed this to a focus of the programs readings on themes of social justice to the exclusion of others such as religious practice (221). A greater focus on the connection between liturgy and service as described above could result in students seeing the importance of religious practice.

The service-learning program had several other impacts on the students who participated.

Because service placements put students in direct contact with situations of poverty, a significant result was the awareness it raised and the fact that it made these problems more concrete and real

(Seider 2011, 216). In connecting the service to the learning in the classroom, the experience influences the students’ reading and analysis of theological texts. They tended to focus more on

“individual and social responsibility for the poor and oppressed” (216).

Why did this program increase the students’ interest in theology? Seider theorizes that the program opened the students’ eyes to the problem of poverty and then used this new awareness to see the social implication of theology through the texts that they read and reflected upon

(2011, 218). In addition, the exposure to organizations and people committed to the alleviation of

250

poverty expanded their worldview to see poverty as a social justice and not just a personal

failing. They then began to see themselves as responsible for the well-being of others (219).

Finally, this whole process was facilitated by weekly discussions on their experiences in the

community and the course readings. The students valued a place to discuss issues of poverty with

their classmates and their teacher (220).

Conclusion

As social justice has become a more prevalent aspect of catechesis, there has also been an

increase in service experiences as part of the catechetical endeavor. Much of the literature in this

chapter attested to the transformative potential of service and the need to bring it more to the

center of formation. In addition, an important link in connecting service with catechesis is the

centrality of prayer, especially in the liturgical context. A more holistic practice of discipleship

emerges when learning, service, and prayer are all integral parts of catechesis. Further, the practice of discipleship through service leads Christians to embrace more fully their mission in the world, including further service. When disciples lead lives of service, it enlivens their prayer and worship. Their participation at liturgy then further compels them to live out their faith in lives of service. Liturgy and service also have the potential to draw people out of an individualistic mindset to a more communal view of faith, life, and justice.

From a practical perspective, there are frameworks for addressing social justice issues in an active way. These include the pastoral circle and the Ignatian Pedagogy. In addition, the writings of Maria Harris and Thomas Groome articulate methodologies for comprehensive and holistic faith formation that hold up service as an integral part of the process. While these

251 scholars do not specifically address or incorporate service-learning principles and practices, there are many others scholars and professors who, from their own experiences, give insight on how to best combine service and learning in a religious context.

The first four chapters expressed the importance of service in the context of Christian discipleship and learning from a variety of angles. Chapter One discerned a theology of service from the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults, the Rite of Baptism for Children, and the Rite of

Confirmation. Chapter Two expressed the understanding of service in the context of catechesis through the catechetical documents of the Church. Then, Chapter Three articulated the history, principles, practices, and drawbacks of service-learning from the secular literature. This chapter expressed the current state of catechesis in relation to the use of service experiences. The fifth and final chapter draws these sources together into a vision and model of Catechetical Service-

Learning.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

Aspects of Catechetical Service-Learning

Community service is an important aspect of American culture. The numerous instances

of service requirements in schools, both public and private, affirm the value of service. Service-

learning attempts to incorporate service experiences into the fabric of education so that students

are able to learn in real world contexts, develop as individuals, and provide valuable assistance to

the community. The continued rise in the use of service-learning as well as further academic

development of its principles and practices indicate the positive outcomes of this alternative

method of education.

Service is an integral aspect of Christian life. Called from the moment of their baptism,

Christians follow the example of Christ in their love of neighbor and lay down their lives in service to others. Catechetical situations such as confirmation preparation and Catholic high school religion classes often have service requirements. While these service experiences can be valuable in and of themselves, the individual believer as well as the faith community as a whole can benefit from a better method to incorporate service into the entire formation process.

Catechetical Service-Learning provides a way to incorporate the service into catechetical programs and the life of the entire community. Based on the themes from the rites in Chapter

One and the catechetical documents in Chapter Two, enlightened by the principles and practices of service-learning from Chapter Three, and guided by the pedagogy of faith in Chapter Two and current catechetical methods of Chapter Four, this summary chapter articulates a vision for

252 253

Catechetical Service-Learning. Catechetical Service-Learning is a method of combining service experiences with catechetical formation that is Christocentric and reflective, incorporating the communal and transformative aspects of learning through experience while addressing, through a faith-based approach, the limitations associated with service-learning.

Christocentric

The person of Christ is the central figure of Christianity and so too should be the central

focus of Catechetical Service-Learning. A Christocentric emphasis can encompass aspects of

service-learning from secular literature and deepen them through the incorporation of faith into

the entire experience. The main point of intersection is the relational aspect of faith and service-

learning. The proclamation of the Christian trinity affirms that God is not impersonal, but

instead an eternal communion of love. Human beings, created in the image and likeness of God,

are thus made for relationship and for love. Christianity calls people into intimate relationship

with God beginning with baptism. The Christian life includes the obligation to build

relationships of love of neighbor as a means of promoting peace and justice. Catechetical

Service-Learning is Christocentric and thus relationships are integral, both divine and human, to

the entire endeavor.

While the service-learning literature is not Christocentric, the centrality of human

relationships is evident. Authentic relationships on many different levels are necessary for

successfully combining service experiences with learning. The most important contact is

between students and community members in various contexts. Students learn through positive,

authentic interactions with people who are different from themselves. Finding commonalities

among the inherent differences is important. Any language or attitudes, whether intentional or 254 not, that disparages the recipients of service impede the formation of authentic relationships. The relationship between the educational institution and community organizations are an important support structure to foster student-community relationships. In addition, the relationship between the student and the mentor-teacher provides the necessary encouragement and support for growth to occur.

Building on this secular research, Catechetical Service-Learning fosters numerous authentic relationships, beginning with the participant’s relationship with God and including relationships with mentors and people at the service site. The foundational relationship is the participant’s relationship with Christ. Faith is more than merely an intellectual endeavor. It is relational, and like any relationship, it requires time and communication. Catechetical Service-

Learning empowers this type of active, relational discipleship. Participants encounter Christ through experience and come to know and follow Christ more fully. Catechetical Service-

Learning brings participants deeper into the covenant with Christ by incorporating the self- sacrificial aspects of the paschal mystery into life. The references from the RCIA, RBC, and RC presented in Chapter Two speak to the foundational importance of discipleship in the life of a

Christian and are summed up in the passage, “Whoever wishes to come after me must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me. For whoever wishes to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for my sake will find it” (Mt 16:24-25 NAB). The catechetical documents state that the object of catechesis is to put people in communion and intimacy with Jesus Christ.

Catechetical Service-Learning is an experience drawing participants toward a mature faith through imitation of the life of Christ.

Based on the foundation of the disciple’s relationship with Christ, Catechetical Service-

Learning is dependent upon the call to the mission of charity through love of neighbor. The 255

RCIA, RBC, and RC are full of references about loving God and loving neighbor, doing works of charity, living a life of love and service to others, and being responsive to the needs of others.

Disciples are called to follow the twofold command of Jesus: “You shall love the Lord, your

God, with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the greatest and the first commandment. The second is like it: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. The whole law and the prophets depend on these two commandments” (Mt. 22:37-40 NAB). The catechetical documents state that catechesis for justice should include service in the world.

Formation must include an emphasis on the Christian baptismal obligations of both charity and justice. The service-learning literature emphasizes authentic relationships. Similarly, relationships are fundamental to the Christian disciple’s practice of love of God and love of neighbor.

One vitally important aspect of Catechetical Service-Learning is making explicit the connection between discipleship and love of neighbor when incorporating service into formation experiences. Students and teachers can easily view service as a burden, a forced activity to fulfill a requirement, or something to check off a list. Service tends to have negative results when detached from the call of discipleship and love of neighbor. Catechetical Service-Learning grounds the service in the disciple’s relationship with Christ and the call to serve. The focus is not on the activity or service provided, but on the encounter with Christ in and through the other.

While the activity, such as serving a meal, is important, the deeper experience awaiting is the discovery of Christ who transforms lives when people authentically share of themselves with others out of love.

Catechetical Service-Learning that remains focused on the relationship with Christ and neighbor safeguards against a human centered view of service. Participants can have many 256

different reactions to their service experience. One negative reaction could be sadness or despair

at the situation of others, which could lead to abandoning the effort. Another response might be

to feel compelled to “fix” the situation. Catechetical Service-Learning focuses on the theological

virtues of faith, hope, and love necessary to continue to serve even in unfulfilling and sometimes

seemingly hopeless situations. Catechetical Service-Learning also acknowledges that no human

solution will ever completely solve the problems society faces. The Kingdom of God that is both

here and yet to come is the only complete fulfillment of justice and peace. When Catechetical

Service-Learning focuses on relationships, the love of Christ permeates the entire experience.

Reflective

In the context of a Christocentric worldview, Catechetical Service-Learning must also be

reflective from beginning to end. Beyond merely engaging in service, participants need to reflect

actively on the experience in a variety of ways. The literature cites “reflection” as the most

important aspect of quality service-learning. In addition to the service-learning principles and

practices of reflection, Catechetical Service-Learning reflection incorporates prayer and makes connections to liturgy. A comprehensive view of catechesis entails reflecting on how service can impact many aspects of faith. Reflection integrates the service experience as an essential dimension of the catechetical endeavor.

Catechetical Service-Learning gains much wisdom from the secular service-learning literature on why and how to incorporate reflection. Reflection is one of the fundamental aspects of transforming service situations into learning experiences. Ideally, reflection should occur throughout the process, that is, before, during, and after the service experience. Reflection should occur in many formats, including written journals, informal conversations, research and 257

presentations on related topics, group discussions, and evaluations. Leaders should use a wide

selection of reflection exercises when working with groups of students to account for different

learning styles and various levels of personal and academic development. Reflection should

include basic observations and feelings but also challenge the participants to explore underlying

issues and apply academic concepts to the learning experience. One goal is to help participants

make connections between service and learning as well as to challenge them to understand more

deeply within a supportive environment.

Beyond the beneficial aspects of reflection in service-learning described above,

Catechetical Service-Learning also includes spiritual and religious dimensions through prayer

and participation in the liturgy. Opportunities for reflection help participants understand more

deeply the Christ who awaits them in prayer and worship and who calls them forth and

strengthens them to live their lives as disciples in bringing peace and justice to others. The

holistic view of formation espoused by the RCIA, RBC, and RC refers to the importance of prayer and charity throughout the life of a disciple. The catechetical documents mention prayer and the practice of charity together as a way disciples strive to experience and follow Christ’s

perfect example of love. There is also reference to the strong connection of liturgy with the daily

activity of the disciple, including acts of charity and justice. Prayer, especially the liturgy,

strengthens disciples’ commitment to serve. Catechetical Service-Learning, like all forms of

catechesis, needs to be implemented in an environment of prayer.

Beyond including experiences of prayer and liturgy in the context of Catechetical

Service-Learning, another task is to create opportunities for reflection where participants

integrate their faith, the teachings of the Church, and their experiences of service. Reflection on

service experiences can help participants come to a deeper understanding of their Christian 258

discipleship. The sacramental principle affirms that every experience can be an encounter with

God and challenges participants to reflect on how every aspect of life can be a call to service.

Similarly, having participants reflect on the ethical and communal nature of liturgy can help

them enter more fully into liturgical celebrations.

The reflective aspect of Catechetical Service-Learning is beneficial because it is a vehicle to link all aspects of catechesis in an experiential and inductive manner. Service is an experience of participating in the life of the Church and allows participants to further learn and reflect on other aspects of catechesis. Moral formation occurs as participants reflect on social justice issues.

Scripture and Tradition shed light on a variety of service experiences. All service and reflection ideally occurs in the context of prayer. The writings of Maria Harris show the importance of reflection in linking social justice with catechesis. While experiences of service cannot be the only aspect of catechesis, the reflection process within Catechetical Service-Learning contributes to catechesis that is comprehensive and multifaceted.

Communal

Another focus of Catechetical Service-Learning is the communal aspect of the entire process. Faith is personal but not merely individualistic. Catechetical Service-Learning reiterates the importance of the community in many different aspects. The service-learning literature expresses the importance of quality service sites and mentorships for students. Building on this,

Catechetical Service-Learning also stresses the importance of a faith community of disciples who are engaged in service. Relationships between the participants and their sponsors, mentors, and others within the faith community emerge as an important aspect of formation. Catechetical

Service-Learning also provides the opportunity for participants to engage in the life of the faith 259

community and be a witness for Christ in the greater community. In these many different

aspects, Catechetical Service-Learning is an experience that involves the entire faith community.

The quality of the service experience is a major factor that affects the success of service-

learning programs. An integral aspect of a quality service experience is the opportunity for

students to form authentic relationships with a variety of people in the community, making direct

contact with those who are being served especially important. In addition, students need support

to be able to thrive in challenging situations that are outside of their typical experience.

Preparation, such as learning about the community prior to the service, also helps to enhance the

experience. Community organizations should give students meaningful responsibilities with

realistic goals. Selecting the service site and preparing the students for the experience is a time

consuming but necessary aspect of fruitful service-learning.

In addition to the importance of the service site, Catechetical Service-Learning is also greatly enhanced when students have the opportunity to form relationships with a strong faith community, both domestic and parochial. The RCIA, RBC, and RC refer to the necessity of the community to set an example of discipleship through word and deed. This example begins with the role of parents and successively broadens out to godparents, sponsors, and the entire community. The Catechetical Service-Learning participant more easily perceives the call to service when the entire community is serving. Similarly, catechesis is the responsibility of the entire community of faith and includes continual faith formation for the entire community. Thus,

Catechetical Service-Learning requires the commitment of the entire community of faith.

The most basic form of community, the dyad, is also important in Catechetical Service-

Learning. Students need mentors throughout the experience, and this role can be fulfilled by a teacher, sponsor, service coordinator, site supervisor or other caring adult active in service. 260

Mentors model the proper actions and attitudes at the service sites. They provide challenge, support, and feedback to students as needed. The mentorship role can be time consuming and not sustainable with a large number of students per mentor. However, the potential for student growth is immense when mentors invest adequate time and energy in the relationship.

Traditional relationships already in place in Christianity are a natural fit for the role of mentor within Catechetical Service-Learning. Within the RBC, the parents provide the primary mentor-type role for their child through their own words and deeds as Christians; godparents assist as additional mentors in the process of raising a child in the faith. Within the RCIA and

RC, the main mentorship responsibility falls to the sponsor. Their role is to model the Christian life as well as offer support and guidance before and after the sacramental celebrations. The catechetical documents call for the entire parish community to support and pray with those preparing to celebrate the sacraments. The GDC, NDC, and pedagogy of faith use the term apprenticeship to describe the importance of learning under the direction of someone who is living the Christian way of life. Grandparents, teachers, coaches, youth ministers, and other significant adults that have meaningful contact with participants are great candidates for mentoring within Catechetical Service-Learning.

Beyond the faith community, Catechetical Service-Learning engages participants to be an example of God’s love to the greater society. A comprehensive approach to catechesis includes having people participate in the life of the faith community and spreading the Gospel to others through the witness of their lives. The RCIA makes clear that those entering the Church actively learn to spread the Gospel and build up the Church. They are to share with others their joy and become for others Christ, the light of the world. The RC expresses the mandate to bear witness to

Christ before all. Scripture used within the rite give examples. In the stories of the resurrection 261

(Mt. 28:7; Mark 16:7; Luke 24:9) the disciples are told to tell others of the resurrection. In the

Great Commission in Matthew’s Gospel (28:18-20), the apostles are told to go make disciples of all nations. The promise of the holy Spirit gives the power to make the disciples witnesses to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8).

In addition to these examples from the rites and from Scripture prescribed for the rites,

the catechetical documents explain the importance of being a witness to the greater community.

Catechesis prepares people to spread the Gospel through dialogue with people and cultures that

are not Christian (GDC, 28). In fact, GDC affirms that the greatest means to bring people to faith

is through works of justice and charity (49). Thus, catechesis should encourage participation by

the baptized in the Church’s mission of being a courageous witness (NDC, 26A). Catechetical

Service-Learning is a unique opportunity for witness because of the participants’ contact with a

diverse group of people outside their typical realm of relationships.

Transformative

Catechetical Service-Learning that builds on service-learning principles and is

Christocentric, reflective, and communal naturally leads to a transformative experience. To

realize its full potential, Catechetical Service-Learning must continually foster transformation

and keep it at the forefront. Much of the impetus behind service-learning in education has been the desire to go beyond book learning and provide something that is truly transformative for both the individual and the community. One essential component from the service-learning literature is empowering students to take ownership of the process. The catechetical documents acknowledge the transformative power of service. In addition, the pedagogy of faith supports the 262

Catechetical Service-Learning goal of a transformative experience of faith over mere attainment

of knowledge.

The service-learning literature describes the transformative nature of service-learning

primarily in terms of the transformation of the learning process and the transformation of the

students. Service-learning helps students expand, reinforce, and critique book knowledge

through real world experience. The real world situations force students to think critically in

applying the knowledge that they have learned in the classroom. Service-learning transforms the learning process when students can form authentic relationships in the community and reflect on the experience.

In addition to a more experiential learning process, the transformative nature of service- learning also refers to the transformation of the individual. Student growth in service-learning is achieved in many ways. Service-learning can promote healthy self-identity through applying values to specific instances in the community. Participants grow in moral, social, and civic awareness. As students continue to serve and reflect on their experience, some of the outcomes are that they begin to focus on people rather than problems and search for long-term solutions rather than quick fixes.

One specific component of service-learning that fosters a transformative learning experience is empowering the participants to take ownership of the experience as much as possible. The goal is to foster students’ desire to improve their community. When the community partners give students meaningful responsibilities, the students tend to invest more in the experience. In addition, encouraging students to take the initiative in responding to challenges and seeking solutions empowers them to enter more fully into the experience. Having the students take inventory of their skills helps to place them into situations where they can succeed. 263

In empowering students to take ownership, the mentor’s primary role is motivator and supporter.

Another opportunity to empower student ownership is to give them leadership roles in reflection

exercises. Once committed to the mission of an organization, students can act as mentor and

guide to other students.

The catechetical documents acknowledge the potential for service to be a transformative

aspect of catechesis. Catechesis should include concrete experience of lived faith that applies

teachings to specific situations (SLF, 181). The NDC expands on this, affirming the value of

active participation in works of charity and justice (29G). Experiences that bring participants into

direct contact with the reality of injustice enable them to affect change (45G). Focusing on youth

ministry, RV explicitly speaks of the transformative power of direct service and social action.

These activities nurture a commitment to service, empower students to work for justice, and

infuse justice into all aspects of ministry (38). Ultimately, the transformative potential of

Catechetical Service-Learning goes beyond the transformation of the individuals to participate in

the building up of the Kingdom of God on earth.

The transformative nature of Catechetical Service-Learning functions as an important

reminder that catechesis should be a transformative experience for the individual and for the world. At times, people reduce catechesis to merely knowing the information in a school or academic setting. Catechetical Service-Learning builds on learning about faith and social justice by practicing faith through working toward a more just world and the Kingdom of God on earth.

It enables students to enter more fully into the paschal mystery. Handing on the faith requires active participants. Catechetical Service-Learning can help people receive not only the tenets of faith but also the very presence of Christ. Throughout Revelation we see God calling people into 264

relationship and an active response; Catechetical Service-Learning is an important way to foster

this dynamic in the lives of disciples.

Addressing the Limitations of Service-Learning

As service-learning has developed, critics have identified many limitations. The response

to these issues is diverse and depends on the understanding of the purpose and goals of service-

learning. Catechetical Service-Learning brings its own unique perspective to address these

limitations. While they cannot be completely resolved, Catechetical Service-Learning should

acknowledge and address them. The unique faith perspective of Catechetical Service-Learning

provides a response to the dilemma of mandatory service, the negative aspects of short-term service, the difficulty of addressing the developmental level of each individual participant, and the debate over whether programs should focus on charity or justice.

Some critics argue that service-learning is problematic because it forces people to serve.

Many argue that mandatory service is a contradiction and can be harmful for student development and for the community. In service-learning, the motivation usually comes in the form of a class requirement attached to student grades. In Catechetical Service-Learning situations, this type of motivation may or may not be present. More important, however, is the deeper faith perspective of the call to serve. Catechetical Service-Learning is an opportunity for students to live Jesus’s command, “you shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Mt. 22:30b; Mk

12:31b NAB). Further, the example of the good Samaritan illustrates the point that our neighbor is the one who needs mercy (see Lk. 10:29-37). The RCIA, RBC, and RC are full of examples of the demands of discipleship that is lived out in the mission of charity. A foundational aspect of

Catechetical Service-Learning is taking the time in prayer and reflection to explicitly link faith, 265

discipleship, and the call to serve others. These connections will not only help the participants

see the rationale for service but also help to connect other teachings of faith with life.

Short-term service projects, especially those that are only one day or one semester, create difficulties for service-learning programs because of the limited interaction and impact that the participants have in the community. There is little time for relationship building and it is difficult to complete a meaningful project. In addition, it is a burden on community organizations to train new volunteers on a regular basis. Catechetical Service-Learning faces many of the same obstacles. When possible, the faith community should make an enduring commitment to the community organization. Here the community is of vital importance. If the entire faith community is active in service, there will be members available to help train, guide, and support those who are participating in Catechetical Service-Learning. Further, when the faith community

presents service as a practice in daily discipleship rather than a requirement to attain something,

whether a sacrament or a school grade, participants will better understand the life-long call to

serve. An important consideration is taking the time to connect the scriptures and Christian faith

tradition with the service experience.

A challenge of service-learning is the need to address the various levels of development

in the participants. Variables in the participants such as such as learning style, personal

development, motivation, and prior service experience are important considerations in service-

learning. The difficulty is to connect the students with the proper service experience based on

their developmental needs. As discussed in Chapter One, the RCIA affirms the importance of

formation that is developmentally appropriate, including personal, faith, and spiritual

development. While this focus on the needs of each participant can be overwhelming, in

Catechetical Service-Learning the responsibility is shared by teachers and sponsors, as well as 266 parents, grandparents, coaches, and other committed, service oriented adults in the faith community.

The service-learning literature includes the benefits and challenges of programs that focus on charity as well as those that focus on justice. Charity focused, or traditional, service- learning includes activities that address immediate needs, such as soup kitchens and homeless shelters. This type of service-learning creates many opportunities for participants to build relationships in the community. Critics argue that this type of service-learning only perpetuates inequality in society and can make people dependent on others for basic needs. It tends to be more student oriented than community oriented. On the other hand, justice focused, or critical service-learning, includes activities aimed at the transformation of societal structures which create inequality. Service should challenge students to address the root cause of social injustice and empower change in others. Critics maintain that terms such as social justice are not agreed upon and that this type of service-learning can polarize students and communities. As discussed above, both approaches have positive and negative aspects.

Catechetical Service-Learning, based in the Catholic Christian tradition, affirms both the charity and justice aspects of service. The sacramental rites as well as the catechetical documents include themes of both charity and justice. The sacramental rites predominately use terminology such as charity, love of neighbor, and service. The catechetical documents more often use themes of justice. However, a full, well-balanced approach to Catechetical Service-Learning necessitates keeping both charity and justice at the forefront. The catechetical documents, especially SLF and NDC, affirm this by presenting charity and justice side by side. Further, SLF addresses the critique that charity and justice are separate or even opposed to one another. The document presents charity and justice as complementary and part of the Christian responsibility. 267

The disciple of Christ cannot rightfully practice one without the other, and can ignore neither

(165c). Thus, catechesis should motivate people to work for charity and justice and to include activities that empower them to do so (170).

Current faith-based social justice and catechetical writings provide ideas for incorporating social justice into formation. The pastoral circle is a process of experience, reflection, analysis, and planning as a way of addressing social issues. It includes faith, prayer, and the teachings of the church into the struggle for justice in society; however, it is not primarily a catechetical method. The Ignatian Pedagogy is more catechetical in nature and adds the dimension of vocation to help participants discern how God calls them to use their gifts in service of others. Thomas Groome’s method of life to faith to life provides a framework for incorporating service experiences into catechesis, but does not specifically focus on service in the process. Maria Harris’s vision most fully incorporates service into the catechetical endeavor.

However, the various ways of using service as a part of catechesis can be enhanced by learning from the principles and practices of service-learning.

The practice of Catechetical Service-Learning must incorporate both the charity and justice aspects. Service-experiences should include opportunities for direct action as well as societal transformation. The call of the Christian disciple is to take care of the needs of others and to reform societal structures so that everyone can reach their full potential. One caution given by the pedagogy of faith in applying service-learning to catechetical situations is that teacher-mentors must not allow the experience to be equated to political or social activism. The reality is that there is no purely human solution to social problems; such endeavors will always fall short. Salvation is grace, the action of God. Actions of charity and justice help to participate in that grace, but never replace it. Just as Catechetical Service-Learning should never solely and 268

independently focus on charity or justice, neither should it focus exclusively on the role of God’s

grace or on our participation in achieving God’s will. Integration of the two is needed; a both/and

approach is necessary. The service aspect helps move catechesis beyond a focus on the

individual and merely the transmission of doctrine. The learning and reflection from the

perspective of faith infuses the service aspect with the Christian ideal of intentionally working

toward justice.

General Conclusion

Community service is part of the fabric of American society. Service has also become a

standard component of education. One of the ways that service has increased in educational

settings is through the implementation of service-learning programs in elementary, secondary,

and post-secondary education. Because service is an integral component of the Christian life,

service as a dimension of discipleship should also be an important part of formation. While

community service is typically one component of confirmation preparation, youth ministry, and

Catholic school education, the integration of these experiences within the context of ongoing faith formation is often lacking. Why is service a valuable component of catechesis? What can be applied from the service-learning literature to better incorporate service and learning in catechesis?

A clear understanding of what it means to be a Christian provides the reasoning for why service is a valuable component of catechesis. Beginning with the rites that guide the formation and celebration of new members into the church and strengthening them through the power of the Holy Spirit, Chapter One presented Christian service through the lens of the RCIA, RBC, and

RC. The texts of the Praenotandas and Rubrics, Prayer, Intercessions, and Scripture options 269

inform the basis of Christian life and the Christian service aspects of discipleship, witness, and

mission of charity. In addition, the community has an important role in being an example of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity. Further, these rites make evident the connection of

prayer and service.

The Christian service aspects of discipleship, witness, and mission of charity first

explained in the Introduction and developed throughout the remaining chapters are important to

Christian life; therefore, catechesis should foster these attributes through formation. As presented

in Chapter Two, the catechetical documents of the Church in the last 50 years demonstrate an

increasingly important role for service experiences as a part of catechesis. These documents

reiterate the importance of the Christian service aspects of discipleship, witness, and mission of

charity in the task of catechesis. The catechetical directories show an increasing awareness of the

importance of experiential learning in general, culminating with the explicit mention in later

documents of the role of service within catechesis. In general, the catechetical documents focus

more on justice whereas the RCIA, RBC, and RC focus more on charity. However, as made clear

in SLF, both justice and charity are necessary. Like the RCIA, RBC, and RC, the catechetical

documents emphasize the importance of connecting prayer and service.

Having articulated an understanding of service and its use in catechesis, Chapter Three

presented the secular literature on service-learning. A brief history of service-learning over the

past 50 years as well as an overview of organizations and journals dedicated to service-learning

showed that service-learning continues to advance as a major component of education. Based on

the research of principles and practices, the chapter developed six aspects of effective service-

learning as well as four critiques of service-learning gleaned from the literature. The basis of service-learning is fostering authentic relationships among the students, community members, 270

and teacher-mentors. Opportunity for quality reflections before, during, and after the service

experience is also extremely important. Other important variables are ensuring the quality of the

service experiences, focusing on transformative learning, empowering students to take

ownership, and providing mentorship. The critiques of service-learning expressed areas of

concern that present challenges; however, these can be addressed and overcome to provide a quality experience for students and community organizations.

Chapter Four provided an overview of current catechetical methods that relate community service and catechesis. The catechetical literature recognized service as one important and potentially transformative aspect of catechesis. In addition, the importance of

connecting service with prayer, especially the liturgy, adds a depth dimension to service-learning that was not present in the secular literature. There was also a presentation of several methods and examples of incorporating service into catechesis. None, however, incorporated a systematic understanding of Christian service and service-learning principles and practices.

Chapter Five combined the above wisdom into a model of Catechetical Service-Learning.

This model includes four foundational aspects that draw on the insight of the sacramental rites of

the Church, the recent catechetical directories and documents, the service-learning literature, and

other catechetical resources. The chapter presented Catechetical Service-Learning as a method of

combining service experiences with catechetical formation that is Christocentric and reflective,

incorporating the communal and transformative aspects of learning through experience. The

basis of Catechetical Service-Learning is authentic relationships, beginning with the students’

relationship with Christ and including relationships in the community. Reflection opportunities,

including prayer and worship, enable students to make connections between their experiences

and the content of faith. Service in the context of the faith community provides support and 271

mentorship for the students as well as an opportunity for them to witness to their faith in Christ

to the greater community. When students take ownership of the service and experience Christ in

the other, Catechetical Service-Learning becomes transformative.

Approaching service from the basis of faith helps to address the limitations associated

with service-learning. The Gospel call to serve transforms the negative connotations of mandatory service to focus on fulfilling the mission of Christ as His disciple. The presence of a faith community that serves mitigates the difficulties of short-term service-learning programs

and mentors provide support when there is a large group of participants in the service experience.

A focus on justice and charity, rather than one over the other, incorporates short- and long-term solutions. Catechetical Service-Learning as presented here is not a complete program but rather a model that needs to be applied to particular circumstances. While not containing a detailed

implementation plan, the model does offer a framework of Catechetical Service-Learning that

can strengthen existing catechetical programs or form the essential components of a service-

centered method of catechesis.

Utilizing this model of Catechetical Service-Learning could have positive implications

for a variety of catechetical ministries. It is a way to incorporate more fully service experiences

into confirmation preparation programs while at the same time encourage deeper reflection on

the meaning of confirmation and providing more significant contact between the candidates and

their sponsors. It can be effective in youth ministry programs by providing lived experiences of faith to youth and connecting them with the faith community. Catechetical Service-Learning can also assist Catholic School religion classes connect their classroom study of religion with community service through intentional reflection on the experience, thereby strengthening the connection between faith and life. 272

There are many possible pathways to implement this model of Catechetical Service-

Learning. Catechetical leaders can use the model to evaluate current methods of catechesis and their incorporation of service in forming Christians. In addition, the model presents principles

than can improve these current methods. For instance, are service experiences Christocentric? Do current methods utilize reflection in an effective manner to foster transformation? In addition, further study could assess the possibility of making service and reflection a core foundation of catechetical activity along with Scripture and Tradition. An important task is to identify specific

Scripture passages, teachings of the Church, and reflection questions and activities to connect service explicitly with the catechetical mission of the Church.

Service is integral to Christian life and thus an important aspect of catechesis. It is an opportunity to encounter God, deepen one’s faith, and positively impact the greater community.

Catechetical Service-Learning provides an active experience of faith that forms people to follow

Christ as a way of life, become a witness for Christ in word and deed, and fulfill Christ’s mission of charity.

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