International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017

India’s policy towards Nepal during Janata government

Tariq Rashid Wani & Bilal Ahmad Mir Research scholar school of studies in Political Science Vikram University Ujjain M.P India Email:- [email protected] Research scholar school of studies in Political Science Vikram University Ujjain M.P India Email:- [email protected] Abstract This paper attempts to highlight India’s policy towards Nepal covering all historical, political and economical aspects. The paper also focuses on visit of different political leader to Nepal, which reaches its heights place during this period.

Introduction and reciprocity had been generally welcomed in In the major turn of events, the ruling congress Nepal but the king was eager to have firsthand lost control of India for the first time since knowledge of how it was going to be independence in general election of the sixth implemented during his one day visit. He had a Lok Sabha in 1977. The Janata alliance of detailed discussion with Prime Minister Morarji parties won 345 seats was opposed to the ruling Desai, Vajpayee and Jagjivan Ram on the congress party. In this election the congress lost strengthening of the cordial relations existing nearly 200 seats. Prime Minister Indira Ghandi between the India and Nepal. After returning and her powerful son Sanjay Gandhi both lost from Delhi the general impression of the Nepali their seats. In March 24, 1977, Janata government was that the change in government Government came into power in India, headed of India would not make any difference for by Morarji Desai. He became India‟s first non Nepal. It was change in the government and not congress prime minster. Nepali King Birendra in the political system itself. The leaders of the accompanies with queen and the foreign both countries were agreed on the need to minister Aryal was the first foreign dignities to resume discussion at the earliest on the renewal visit India he reached India on 30 March to of 1971 treaty of trade and transit. inaugurate a world conference on religion, Both prime minister and foreign minister (Atal philosophy and culture. The king returned Delhi Behari Vajpayee) agreed to give a new in April for a day‟s stopover. The purpose over strength and shape to India‟s policy towards was not to take up any special issues but to immediate neighbours was described „the top mutual understanding of each other‟s problems priority‟ by the new government. Atal Behari and policies. The king wanted to know about the Vajpayee said that India‟s policy with attitudes and policies of the new Janata immediate neighbours is policy of „first priority‟ government which they adopt towards Nepal. or what he described as “Turning swords into Morarji Desai‟s statement affirming India‟s ploughshares” was made in Ministers of faith in „genuine non-alignment and policy of external Affairs first major foreign policy friendship with all countries, especially speech in the lok Sabha on 29 June 1977: “We neighbouring countries on the basis of equality have recognized that our first priority must be to

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 669 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017 promote a relationship of cooperation and trust subject have been used. A primary source with our immediate neighbour …We shall be includes policy documents, reports, official vigilant about our territorial integrity but pose statements and interview of policy makers. In no threat to their national personalities. We the secondary sources, the major works of believe it is in our separate and common interest different distinguished authors in the field have to forge, on the basis of geography, the sinews also been included and analysed. of economic cooperation in the subcontinent. If 3.2 Atal Behari Vajpayee visit we succeed we could ease the burden for all the The Janata Government tried to improve people, so that some of the swords can be turned cultural ties between India and Nepal. Atal into ploughshares and the entire region can be Behari Vajpayee reached Kathmandu on 14 July tackle better the common enemy poverty and on a three day official visit. Being a senior inherited degradation. minister of his party, who visited Himalayan On April 11, 1977 J.P Narayan publically urged kingdom. His visit gives first hand assessment king Birendra to release B.P koirala from the of each other view points on several important jail and initiate the process of democratic in issues and mutual interest between India and Nepal. Nepal sharply reacted to what they Nepal. He tried to assure the king that new thought India was meddling in their internal Janata government would not interfere in the affairs. King Birendra himself asked India to internal affairs of the kingdom, regardless of the desist from sermonizing to Nepal on matters of views held or expressed by the relatively small purely democratic concerns of Nepal. On May section of the ruling party about the system of 24 Tulsi Giri launched a blistering attack on government working there. Vajpayee was India, what he called “a full speed hate- Nepal reported to have conveyed India‟s regrets to the campaign in responsible circle in India” king over the statement made by the Nepalese showing “undue concern for the political system Tulsi Giri in which he said that there was a hate of this country.” Later India‟s denied the Nepal campaign in India. Vajpayee told the king allegation, on May 25 as imaginary. On June, 15 that king India was a democratic country with 1977 king Birendra hopped for “deep the Fourth Estate having full freedom and the friendship” with India. people have freedom of speech. He assured the Objective of the study king that no statement against Nepal had been 1. To analysis the Janata given at the government level and as such Giri„s government policy towards statements was unwarranted. King and Nepal Vajpayee agreed that contacts at the highest 2. To highlight political and level must be maintained so that differences. If economic relation between India any, could be sorted out by mutual discussion and Nepal. rather than airing them through the media The 3. To assess the visit of Indian view on foreign policy and on Nepal did not political leaders to Nepal change with the change of government. Atal Methodology Behari Vajpayee highlighted the close cultural The methodology undertaken in this research relations between India and Nepal, he stated paper includes historical and analytical that: “There is no other country in the entire methods. The historical records and official gamut of our international relationship with document were examined: primary as well as which India has such ancient and deeply secondary sources that are available on the intertwined relations as with Nepal. Indeed there

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 670 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017 are probably no other two countries in the world would live perpetual peace. During Atal Behari whose destinies are so interlinked as ours.”On Vajpayee visited Nepal, both the countries July 26, 1977 the then minister of external discussed the possibility of expediting three affairs Atal Behari Vajpayee in response to a joint project –Karnali, Pancheswar and Rapti. calling attention notice in the Lok Shaba, stated 3.3 Prime Minister Morarji Desai’s visit to that, Hon,ble members are aware of my recent Nepal visit to Nepal between July 14th to16th 1977 at On 9th December Morarji Desai, on his first the invitation of his Excellency Krishna Raj official visited to Nepal in the hope that it would Aryal. I am very happy that Nepal was first contribute its mite in promoting better country that I visited, in the bilateral context. understanding between India and Nepal in the This fact reflects unique relations which are larger interest of stability in the south Asia. His found in history, culture, tradition, religion, visit opened new path for finding solution of the social and economic ties. The primary motive of pending problems. Two trade agreements were this visit was the promotion of good relations concluded at the end of the visit. The visit between the two countries, to continue the followed by a weeklong Colombo plan practice of dialogue with our new government at conference in Kathmandu during which king highest levels. While in Kathmandu we had an Nepali king Birendra had given a call to the exchange of ideas raging over a wide variety of countries of the region to evolve joint projects bilateral subjects. He also met Nepali Prime to optimise benefits of utilizing river waters for Minister Dr. Tulsi Giri, while Vajpayee the benefit of the people of the south Asia. It reiterated his commitment to the democratic was an interesting coincidence that, ten years way of India, at the same time, he also ago in October 1967 Morarji Desia and Kirti highlighted that the India would not interfere in Nidhi Bista had met in Nepal as deputy Prime the internal affairs of Nepal or any other Ministers respectively India and Nepal. On 9th country. He also talked with foreign minister of December 1977 they met again in Kathmandu Nepal in the friendly and cordial atmosphere in as prime minister. This was the kind of link with order to cover all matters of bilateral issues. the past, but there was another kind of link, less Indian external affair minister (Vajpayee) was welcome one. The problems which were in the confident in cementing the friendship and agenda of the two deputy Prime Ministers ten cooperation to mutual benefit; both the years ago were also present there at that time. countries have had a common interest in the This was some evidence of the slow progress stability of all the countries of the south Asia. discussions of the problems had made between Both the countries discussed the Nepalese ideas India and Nepal. Therefore, it was with some about the zone of peace, and he said that it is reservations that the two influential leaders the desire of his government to see the entire offered to tackle the bilateral problems for sub-continents an area of peace, steps are being mutual benefits. During the discussion, the most taken by new government to improve the important issue which took much time was the relations with all the countries especially with concept of zone of peace. This proposal was neighbouring countries. He also said that Nepali first time introduced by king Birendra in 1973 at government can give suggestions to Indian non-alignment summit in Algeria. government with open mind and reaffirmed that During the talk, the two sides did not agree on the treaty of peace and friendship between India this issue. Desai did not see any relevance of and Nepal, was accepted by both countries this concept. He was not opposed to the idea in

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 671 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017 principle but he would rather like to convert the in Indian markets. Both India and Nepal had entire south Asia into a peace zone whereas also agreed to include necessary arrangements Nepal wanted a part of it making India a co- to maintain supplies of essential goods needed guarantor of peace along with china. India each other, and India also to provided Rs. 12.45 thought on Nepal‟s proposal was more identical cores (Rs.18.05 cores Nepalese currency) for with the former„s attitude towards Pak‟s plea for the renovation and extension of the Chandra getting the south Asia region recognised as a canal system, construction of a pumped canal nuclear weapon free zone. Emphasizing that, the from western Kosi canal for lifted irrigation, entire sub- continent should be converted into a and construction and distribution system from peace zone. Desai felt that his propose would be western kosi canal in Nepal. In 1978 India better served if the countries concerned opted to agreed to provide Rs.320 million aid for the live in peace. construction of Davi-Ghat hydro-electric project After his visits, Prime Minister Desai while in Nepal. From 26th to30th July, 1978 a high speaking in parliament in 12th December, “My powered multi-disciplinary Indian delegation of visit, the discussions which I had, and the industrial experts visited Nepal and held general atmosphere of warmth, cordiality leads discussion with Nepal officials. After the me to believe that apprehension and misgivings completion of discussion, a memorandum of about India‟s attitude have been removed. The understanding on industrial and economic relations have to be resorted to one of trustful cooperation was signed and it was agreed to friendship, as is appropriate between countries develop trade and industrial cooperation for whose abiding compulsion must link them in reducing the trade deficit between the two peace progress.” The talk cleared the way for countries. India and Nepal agreed that the use of implementations the Indian Aided projects such Udaipur cement plant, development, and paper as Karnali, Pancheswar, Devi projects etc, in and pulp industries. India also agreed to share Nepal. Both the countries agreed to enhance industrial and technological expertise with cooperation in harnessing sharing river water Nepal. These developments gave further for mutual benefits such as, irrigation soil strength in their cooperation. conservation, power production and navigation India was very keen to see that the projects purposes. However, his visit repeated the view aided by it were duly carried out. The minister that in the presence of the treaty of peace and of state for works and housing, Ram Kinkar, friendship between India and Nepal, there was paid four visited to Himalayan kingdom little substance in the proposal for consulting beginning from17 February, 1978 to visit some Nepal into a zone of peace. India aided projects in the Nepal. He was keen 3.4 India’s policy towards Nepal during the central sector of Mahendra Raj Marg which 1978- 1980 runs nearly 300 km through the Terai region. By In March 17, 1978 India agreed to separate trade the time the projects would be completed in and transit treaties, satisfying long – term 1981, the expenditure on it was likely to go up Nepalese demand. These treaties helped the to Rs 45 crores against the original estimate of restoration of confidence in Indo- Nepal ties. Rs. 25 crores because of rise in the cost of The treaty of trade provides assistance in the construction material. The whole amount was industrialization process of Nepal. Indian offered by India. government had agreed to enlarge the scope of When Nepal signed the Memorandum of preferences for Nepalese manufactured products Understanding and Economic Cooperation with

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 672 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017

India in 1978, Indo-Nepalese economic thus cause the trade deficit of Rs. 95 crores. relations entered a new phase of economic Due to regular trade deficit, India agreed to growth through cooperation. Under the new make cement and coal available to Nepal at near agreement, India and Nepal decided to domestic prices. This was substantial gain to cooperate in a number of large, medium, small, Nepal. and cottage industries to be set up in Nepal. As In February 1978, Tulal Meherji Shreshtha a a result a cement plant at Udaipur, a paper and close follower of Gandhi in Nepal was given pulp industry, and other projects were being 1978 Nehru Award for international established in Nepal. The investment in these understanding. Due his illness he could not go areas will amount tors210 million according to to Delhi to receive the Award. The government the Ministry of Industry and Commerce of of India appointed P.C Chunder, the union India;20 these projects are expected to bring a education minister to go Nepal and present the total turnover of Rs 870 million and provide award personally to the renowned recipient. On direct employment to 10,000 people. (However, his one day visit to Kathmandu he met Nepal in any development projects carried out by India prime minister and foreign minister, Kirtinidhi in Nepal the bulk of the work force is usually Bista and Raj Aryal respectively. Kirtinidhi Indian.) Bista in his talk emphasised the need for closer Smuggling has been a big problem between cooperation in the field of education especially India and Nepal. India had agreed to keep issues technical and medical education between the related to smuggling across the border under two countries. The Nepalese prime minister, constant review. As extensive wireless network Kirtinidhi Bista paid an official visited to India covering at least 1500 miles of the border was to on 15 April for 11days. He stressed Nepal„s be set up in a bid to prevent the smuggling and policy of self reliance in economic also the numbers of checkposts had to be development. On July 30 both India and Nepal increased from 78 to 90 in addition to 22 land governments broke new grounds of bilateral stations on 1978. The Government of India, cooperation by agreements joint industrial decided to give ten percent of the seized goods ventures in cement, paper and metal industries. to local Panchayat on the border which might On September 26, 1978 George Fernandez, give some help to the authorities in their efforts. Minister for Industries visited Nepal and Nepal which had imported nearly Rs. 12.5 announced a package grant- in-aid assistance of crores worth of sensitive items had been advised Rs, 9 crores. to obtain only to supplies essentially items to On 20, October 1978, Indian External Affairs meet its domestic requirement. At present much Minister, Atal Behari Vajpayee paid a two days of those commodities found their way to India official visit to Nepal. It was his third visit and was being sold at a higher cost. Against Rs. during last 18 months; he said, signified the 4.5 crores of goods in 1975 and Rs.6 crores in importance the Indian government attached to 1976, the good seized in 1977 amounted to only the relations with Nepal. The primary objective Rs 2.7 crores. This shows the effectiveness of of his visit was to discuss with Nepalese leaders the new – anti smuggling drive started by the prospects of joint measure to control floods in Janata Government. During first ten month of the Himalayan Rivers which had caused the financial year, exports to India dropped by unprecedented damage in utter Pradesh (UP), 51 percent to Rs. 33 crores while imports from Bihar and west Bengal. The two sides agreed to India went up by 18 percent to Rs. 128 crores, set up commission for flood forecasting, for this

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 673 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017 purpose experts of the two countries will meet expressed satisfaction with Nepal visit and free in the first week of December in 1978. and truthful talks with king, prime minister and Vajpayee met with his Nepalese counterpart foreign minister of Nepal. He said that Nepal Aryal, They discussed on bilateral and and Bangladesh would work together in river international issues. Aryal admitted that there projects. He further said that Nepal assured him, were no major problems between the two not do anything behind the back of India which countries, but some minor difference would would hamper or harm the growing cooperation always remain between neighbours which be between India and Nepal which had acquired a solved by mutual discussion and understanding. new depth and dimension. Nepalese leaders also He also said that the issue sharing of river water assured him that while they develop bilateral could not be included in the category of minor relations with other neighbouring countries differences. Vajpayee also met Nepal‟s home nothing would be done to harm India‟s interest. minister, K.B Singh with whom the problem of A two day periodic review of the India and Indian girls marrying with Nepalese‟s men was Nepal relations and bilateral cooperation began discussed. in New Delhi on 23 February 1979 at the The External Affairs Minister, Vajpayee‟s visit foreign secretary level. The differences between was considerable significance. Apart from India and Nepal in their respective attitudes to having serious discussion on bilateral issues he the china attack on Vietnam were obvious as had also assess the Nepal‟s view of how china reflected in the exchange of views between two was trying to improve Sino- Indian relations. neighbouring countries. India had criticized the Though he had two meetings with his china Chinese attack on Vietnam, expressed its counterpart in New York during the UN session solidarity with her and demanded immediate but he was more interested in utilizing this withdrawal of Chinese soldiers from the opportunity to ascertain the latest china‟s mood Vietnamese territory, while the government of from Nepali leaders. The Nepalese prime Nepal had expressed its genuine concern over minister had returned only last week from china the fate of Kampuchea and accused Vietnam of and Vajpayee was scheduled to visit china on interference in the internal affairs of the 30th October. During Nepalese premier Bista‟s country. India had criticized china but made talk in Peking the Chinese leaders did discussed only key references to Vietnam Vis-a- Vis on the proposed visit of Vajpayee to their Kampuchea. Nepal had ignored the Chinese country. He merely told Vajpayee that the action but denounced Vietnam in the context of Chinese leaders were looking forward to his Kampuchea. visit to Peking to sort out some of the In the bilateral relations, both the countries were outstanding Sino- Indian problems including the satisfied with the progress of various ongoing border issue. The statements of Nepal‟s prime schemes or project of Indian assistance to Nepal minister might be interpreted to indicate his in the fields of soil conservation, power impressions that the political atmosphere in the generation and industrial development. Chinese capital was now favourable for a In April, 1979, the students in Kathmandu meaningful Sino- Indian dialogue. Bista organized a massive demonstration, against the reported to have observed that the china leaders system, which was brutally suppressed by the appreciated the Janata Government‟s efforts to police. That spark-off unrest in the country. improve India‟s relations with the south Asian Faced with growing pressure from both inside countries. On the return from Nepal, Vajpayee and outside the system, King Birendra

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 674 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017 announced a national referendum to choose Improvement of the industrial estates in Palia either a reformed Panchayat system or return to and feasibility reports on a cement plants and multi-party system. three projects to be set up by HMT were Indo – Nepalese relation was again reviewed at completed during this year under review. the highest level when king Birendra The Janta Party leader, Chandra Shekhar, had accompanied by the Queen and the Foreign even urged the King to negotiate with B.P. Minister, K.B Sahi visited New Delhi on his 6 Koirala. Clarifying why India was interested in days official tour 19 September, 1979. King political developments of Nepal, he stated, "As Birendra‟s visit took place when both India and a neighbour, we have a vital interest in what Nepal had been preparing for a democratic happens in Nepal. We cannot forget that B.P expansion of popular will-the people of Nepal to .Koirala had fought the British imperialism and participate in the referendum ordered by the suffered imprisonment for our independence. It king to choose between the Panchayat and is natural therefore that the sympathies of Indian multi- party system. India has elected the people are with B.P. Koirala and with the parliamentary representative to form a new people of Nepal now fighting for the restoration government at the centre. Despite their of their democratic rights and civil liberties" preoccupation with these both India and Nepal What endures from the brief period of Janata shared more than passing interest in the king‟s Party rule is not a policy but the rise to visit. He visited Lucknow on 21Ist and on next prominence of its president Chandra Shekher as day he was in Varanasi to met utter Pradesh a “friend of Nepal and the Nepali people”. For (UP) chief minister, where Indo-Nepalese many in Kathmandu, including its powerful multipurpose projects were discussed. During political circles, Chandra Shekher remains the talks the delay in the construction of the pre-eminent Indian leader, whatever the swings schemes foe flood control, irrigation and power in his career at home. generation on the Ghagra, Rapti and sharda During the Janata regime, Kathmandu found it were figured. easier to do business with New Delhi because of The economic cooperation got an impetus the high importance and high uncritical during Birendra visit. The sides reached an acceptance that erstwhile Indian leadership gave agreement, included undertaking survey of three concept of “good neighbourliness”. The peace major projects within the time schedule to be was set by the then India‟s prime ministers drawn up shortly, of them the Karnali project on Morarji Desai„s affirmation in the Kathmandu the Ghagra River generated 3000 to 400 MW of on 10th December, 1977 that “India seeks to power was as much importance to India as to resolve problems through negotiations and, if Nepal. An amounted of Rs. 14.60 crores was needed be, by sacrifices and compromises so embarked for meeting on expenditure on that the entire region is devoid of fear and schemes in hand during current year. Two major tensions”. The Janata leaders were unusually project, central sector of Mahendra Marg and moderate towards all small neighbours. Without Devighat hydro- electric project were being taking any advantages in return from them, now executed on a turned key basis by India. The when Indira Gandhi returns in power in 1980 aerial survey of another road was completed there was general feeling that Kathmandu could during this year, for a hospital a sum of Rs. no longer take a satisfied view of such matters. 17.65 lakh was given and an agreement was The new government assured to continue to signed to supply iodised salt to Nepal. adopt a liberal policy towards the kingdom.

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 675 International Journal of Research p-ISSN: 2348-6848 e-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 01 January2017

Conclusion [8] S. K, Purohit ., Indian Foreign Policy( New In short during Janata party period, in beginning Dimension And Direction, Swastika Publications there was lack of understanding of each other‟s Delhi 2011 P.155 viewpoints was successfully eliminate and reinstates by good progress in various spheres of [9] .S .C. Singhals., “Foreign Policy Of India” Lakshmi Narain Agrwal Publication, Agra, 2008) Indo-Nepal cooperation. India was successful in Pp . 135-36 maintaining the peaceful relation with Nepal. The Janata government on the whole was quite [10] A. Srivastav. Indian Foreign Policy, Mohit successful in securing the progress of Indo- Publications, Ganpati Bhawan , New Delhi-11,2011 Nepal friendship and cooperation on the of P. 154 “Beneficial Bilateralism” Reference [11] S. M, Sharma, Indian Foreign Policy, [1] Http.// Www.Ipu.Org/ Praline- Annual Survey 1978,Foreign Research Center New E/Reports/Arc/India-1977-E PDF Delhi 2001-2002 Pp 44

[2] N. Jayapalan, “ Foreign Policy India,1947- 1987 ,Atlantic Publishers New Delhi, 2011 Pp 415 [12] N. P .Banskota, Nepal: Toward Regional Economic Cooperation in South Asia. Source: Asian [3] S.M. Sharma. , Indian Foreign Policy, Survey, Vol. 21, No. 3 (1981) P.349 Annual Survey 1977,Foreign Research Center New Delhi52001-2002 Pp 48 [13] S. M. Sharma.. Indian Foreign Policy, Annual Survey 1978,Foreign Research Center New [4] S.C. Gangal., Indian Foreign Policy , A Delhi 2001-2002 Pp 37- 38 Documentary Study Of India’s Foreign Policy Since The Installation Of The Janata Government On 24 [14] L.R Baral, Politics of Referendum: A Study of March 1977,Young Asia Publication New Delhi Groups, Personalities and Trends, (New Delhi, 1980 P 17 1983), P. 17.

[5] M.G. Gupta. Indian Foreign Policy: Theory [15] Prajulee, Ramjee., The Democratic and Practices. Y. K. Publishers, Agra, 1985, Pp Transition in Nepal, Washington: Row Man And .276-277 Littlefield, (2000), P 59

[6] S.M. Sharma, Indian Foreign Policy, [16] Ramachandaran .S, “Nepal As Seen From Annual Survey 1977,Foreign Research Center New India ,India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 30, Delhi, 2001-2002 P 50 No. 2 Published By: India International Centre, 2003), P. 87

[7] Sangeeta Thapliyal, Perception Of The Other Myths Or Realities and In Monika Mandal (Ed.) [17] S. M Sharma. Indian Foreign Policy, Indo-Nepal Relations Kw Publishers New Delhi Annual Survey 1980,Foreign Research Center New 2011 Pp 85 Delhi-110085 2001-2002 P. 42

Available online:https://edupediapublications.org/journals/index.php/IJR/ P a g e | 676