APPENDIX three

Cities of First-Century CE

In Chapter Three, we examined the transformation of one particular Anatolian citiy from the provinces of : the city of . One of the primary reasons why we focused so closely on an urban center from the central portion of Asia Minor was because this is often considered to be the area least affected by Hellenization and urbanization. In what fol- lows, we will briefly explore the progress of Hellenization/urbanization in other civic locations across Anatolia. Excluding the urban centers from the province of Asia, this survey will focus on the provinces of -Bithynia and Galatia- as a way of supplementing our previous discussion. For as we mentioned above, due to the scarcity of the material evidence, it is the combined voice of all urban communities from which we must construct our portrait of the average Anatolian city.1

A. Ancyra

The territory of ancient Ancyra has a long history. Unfortunately, very few archaeological remains from the Hellenistic territory have been preserved. The evidence that has been uncovered consists of a small number of coins (dating from the late-fourth to the early-second century BCE) along with a limited amount of pottery.2 But from the literary record it is clear that some type of permanent settlement existed even as far back as the time

1 One common feature shared by each of the cities of Pontus-Bithynia (and probably those of Galatia-Cappadocia as well) is the form of civic organization. Aside from those that were free cities (e.g., Chalcedon) or Roman colonies (e.g., Sinope, Apameia), each city would have possessed a constitution generally following the usual Hellenistic model (see Patricia N. Langer, “Power and Propaganda: Relations between and Bithynia under the Empire, 27 BC–260 AD,” [Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 1981] 18–44). This was due to the regulations laid down in the lex Pompeia. Therefore, rather than describing the political organization of each πόλις, we will restrict our discussion of urbanization (primar- ily) to monumental structures and social/religious activities. 2 Melih Arslan, “Greek and Greek Imperial Coins Found During the Çankırıkapı Excavations at ,” in Studies in Ancient Coinage from (ed. R. Ashton; RNSSP 29; : Royal Numismatic Society, 1996) 107–14 (108); Daniel M. Krencker and Martin Schede, Der Tempel in Ankara (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1936) 46. 364 appendix three of (Quintus Curtius, Alex. 3.1.22; Arrian, Anab. 2.4.1). Apart from a few passing references in the source material,3 though, little is known about the territory prior to the first century BCE. Upon his defeat of Mithridates VI, Pompey handed over control of Galatia to the surviving tetrarchs (Strabo, Geogr. 12.3.1). At this time and throughout the following civil wars, Ancyra remained the most important settlement of the tribe (cf. Pliny, Nat. 5.42). Yet, structurally, it was never more than a military stronghold.4 It would not be until the first century CE that Ancyra would become a thriving metropolis.5 With the sudden and unexpected death of king Amyntas (ca. 25 BCE),6 the kingdom of Galatia was annexed by and turned into a Roman ­province.7 Rather than simply maintaining the old tribal boundaries, however, the province of Galatia was divided up according to a new design, with Ancyra experiencing a significant increase in territory and prominence.8 The city received its official founding soon after Galatia’s annexation (ca. 25 BCE).9

3 Cf. Pompeius Trogus, Prol. 27; Livy, 38.24.1–25.1; Polybius, 21.39.1–2. 4 It is difficult to determine the extent of Ancyra’s urbanization from the testimony of Strabo, for he refers to it both as a πόλις (“city”; Geogr. 4.1.13) and a φρούριον (“fort/ garrison”; 12.5.2). The presence of the term πόλις might imply a fair degree of progress within this developmental process. Elsewhere the word is used not in a technical sense, but as a way of describing a settlement of substantial size which contains a consider- able amount of public amenities (Strabo, Geogr. 12.2.3; cf. Polybius, 21.39.1). However, the absence of public buildings prior to the city’s foundation would suggest the settlement was somewhat underdeveloped. 5 See Toni M. Cross and Gary Leiser, A Brief History of Ankara (Vacaville, CA.: Indian Ford, 2000) 70–77. 6 Dio Cassius, 53.26.3; cf. Strabo, Geogr. 12.5.1. On the basis of an era date on a coin from (BMC (G-C-S) 28, no. 23), William M. Ramsay, “Early History of Province Galatia,” in Anatolian Studies Presented to William Hepburn Buckler (eds. W. M. Calder and J. Keil; Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1939) 201–25 (201–204), has argued that the province was actually founded in 20 BCE. For a critique of this position, see Sherk, “Roman Galatia,” 958 n. 14. 7 On the administration of the province during the Imperial period, see William F. Shaffer, “The Administration of the of Galatia from 25 B.C. to A.D. 72,” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1946), and Sherk, “Roman Galatia.” 8 Mitchell, Anatolia I, 87–88. 9 Several inscriptions from Ancyra contain era dates (see Bosch, Ankara, nos. 133, 188, 211). But there is, nonetheless, disagreement as to whether Ancyra, Pessinus, and Tavium were founded at the same time (ca. 22–21 BCE; as suggested by Stephen Mitchell, “Galatia under ,” Chiron 16 [1986] 17–33) or whether they were established at different dates, with Ancyra and Pessinus being founded sometime around 25 BCE followed by Tavium a few years thereafter (as proposed by Levick, Roman Colonies, 193–94; Wolfgang Leschhorn, “Die Anfänge der Provinz Galatia,” Chiron 22 [1992] 315–36). The latter seems more fea- sible. This would provide Marcus Lollius, the first governor (25–22 BCE; Eutropius, Brev. 7.10; Festus, Brev. 11), time to set up the province, beginning with the capital in Ancyra and to form colonies (Antioch, Cremna, Lystra; see Levick, Roman Colonies, 29–41), and