Translation of Non-Standard Language in Crime Fiction Translation and Qualitative Case Study of Quite Ugly One Morning

TRANSLATION OF NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN CRIME FICTION TRANSLATION AND QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY OF QUITE UGLY ONE MORNING

Aantal woorden: 14.618

Eline Huysmans Studentennummer: 01308173

Promotor: Prof. dr. Lieve Jooken

Masterproef voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad Master in het Vertalen (Nederlands, Engels, Spaans) Academiejaar: 2016 - 2017

De auteur en de promotor geven de toelating deze studie als geheel voor consultatie beschikbaar te stellen voor persoonlijk gebruik. Elk ander gebruik valt onder de beperkingen van het auteursrecht, in het bijzonder met betrekking tot de verplichting de bron uitdrukkelijk te vermelden bij het aanhalen van gegevens uit deze studie.

Het auteursrecht betreffende de gegevens vermeld in deze studie berust bij de promotor. Het auteursrecht beperkt zich tot de wijze waarop de auteur de problematiek van het onderwerp heeft benaderd en neergeschreven. De auteur respecteert daarbij het oorspronkelijke auteursrecht van de individueel geciteerde studies en eventueel bijhorende documentatie, zoals tabellen en figuren. De auteur en de promotor zijn niet verantwoordelijk voor de behandelingen en eventuele doseringen die in deze studie geciteerd en beschreven zijn.

Preface First of all, I want to thank my supervisor, prof. dr. Jooken, for her excellent guidance and support during my research. Whenever I was in doubt, she was able to answer my questions and lead me in the right direction, while at the same time giving me the space to make my own decisions. She revised numerous versions of this thesis and provided me with helpful feedback. It is safe to say that without her, this thesis would not have looked the way it does right now.

Furthermore, I would like to thank my fellow students Robin De Wolf and Margot Schotte, with whom I have collaborated to translate Quite Ugly One Morning. Thank you for giving me the opportunity to conduct this research and to analyse your magnificent translations. It was a bloody pleasure reading them and I enjoyed discussing our progress and the translation problems we encountered throughout the year.

Last but certainly not least I want to thank my parents and my boyfriend Matthias for both supporting and distracting me when I most needed it. Thank you for reading my translations, for your critical feedback and your kind words. Your never-ending eagerness and enthusiasm lifted me up when I was down and your interest in this thesis and my progress kept me motivated.

The past year has been incredibly demanding, exciting, and interesting. A final thank you to everyone mentioned above, to my fellow students, and to my professors for accompanying me throughout this wonderful year.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 3!

2. THE AUTHOR AND THE CORPUS ...... 5! 2.1 CHRISTOPHER BROOKMYRE ...... 5! 2.2 CORPUS ...... 5! 2.3 QUITE UGLY ONE MORNING ...... 5! 2.4 WHERE THE BODIES ARE BURIED ...... 7! 2.5 RECEPTION ...... 7!

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 9! 3.1 DEFINING NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE ...... 9! 3.2 TRANSLATING NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE ...... 10! 3.3 DEFINING CRIME FICTION ...... 12! 3.3.1 History ...... 12! 3.3.2 Hard-boiled and Noir fiction ...... 13! 3.3.3 Crime thriller ...... 14! 3.3.4 Police procedural ...... 15! 3.4 TRANSLATING CRIME FICTION ...... 15! 3.4.1 Introduction ...... 15! 3.4.2 Cultural references ...... 15! 3.4.3 Humour ...... 17! 3.4.4 Suspense ...... 17! 3.4.5 Slang ...... 19!

4. METHODOLOGY ...... 21!

5. ANALYSIS ...... 25! 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 25! 5.2 QUOM AND STUDENTS’ TRANSLATIONS ...... 25! 5.2.1 Jack Parlabane ...... 25! 5.2.2 Sarah Slaughter ...... 28! 5.2.3 Jenny Dalziel and Inspector McGregor ...... 30! 5.2.4 Darren Mortlake ...... 31! 5.2.5 Summary of results ...... 33! 5.3 WTBAB AND VERBORGEN LICHAMEN ...... 35!

5.3.1 Standard language ...... 35! 5.3.2 Omission ...... 36! 5.3.3 Compensation ...... 36! 5.3.4 Partial translation ...... 37! 5.3.5 Non-standard language ...... 38! 5.3.6 Summary of results ...... 39! 5.4 COMPARING BOTH TRANSLATIONS ...... 40!

6. CONCLUSION ...... 43!

REFERENCES ...... 45!

APPENDIX ...... 49! APPENDIX I: TRANSLATION OF CHAPTERS 1-11 OF QUITE UGLY ONE MORNING ...... 49! APPENDIX II: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN QUOM: JACK PARLABANE ...... 50! APPENDIX III: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN QUOM: SARAH SLAUGHTER ...... 55! APPENDIX IV: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN QUOM: JENNY DALZIEL ...... 59! APPENDIX V: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN QUOM: INSPECTOR MCGREGOR ...... 61! APPENDIX VI: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN QUOM: DARREN MORTLAKE ...... 62! APPENDIX VII: NON-STANDARD LANGUAGE IN WTBAB ...... 65!

1. INTRODUCTION The crime genre is one of the most popular genres of fiction worldwide, both in printed and audiovisual media. From true crime television series such as Making a Murderer (2015), crime-related fiction series like Orange is the new Black (2013), Scandinavian ‘krimis’ like The Killing (2011) and The Bridge (2011), detective novels and thriller films, to crime podcasts such as Serial (2014) and biographies of serial killers. The list goes on forever. Moreover, the crime genre is not restricted to its country of origin as many crime novels are being translated into various languages. Alter (2010) writes that between 2005 and 2010 the translation of crime fiction has annually grown 12% (cited in Seago, 2014a).

Even though the translation of crime fiction is a large business, little academic research has been conducted on the translation of crime fiction (Seago, 2014a), and especially on the translation of crime fiction into Dutch. Similarly, little data can be found on the translation of non-standard language into Dutch, a genre-specific element of crime fiction. This thesis will combine both elements, as I will investigate how non-standard English used in the crime novel Quite Ugly One Morning (Brookmyre, 1996) is translated into Dutch by comparing students’ translations of this work to a professional, published translation of another of Brookmyre’s novels, Where The Bodies Are Buried (2011). The second chapter will provide a short introduction to the author Christopher Brookmyre, as well as an overview of the corpus. The third chapter develops a theoretical framework that defines the notions of ‘non-standard language’ and ‘crime fiction’. It also features a literature study of the translation of crime fiction and in particular the translation of genre-specific elements such as humour, slang and suspense. Chapter four presents the methodology of the present study: it elaborates the research questions and the methodological approach to select and analyse the data. In chapter five I will present the results of the analysis and compare the translation strategies used by the students and professional translator Jan Mellema. Finally, chapter six will summarise the findings and compare them to my own translation.

2. THE AUTHOR AND THE CORPUS

2.1 Christopher Brookmyre The Scottish crime fiction author Christopher Brookmyre was born in Glasgow on 6 September 1968. He attended Glasgow University and worked for The Scotsman and Edinburgh Evening News as a journalist (Holcombe, 2005). Brookmyre has published nineteen novels so far. His debut novel Quite Ugly One Morning (1996, hence QUOM) has been awarded the Critics’ First Blood Award for Best First Crime Novel of the Year (Little Brown Book Group, 2017a). In 2003 the novel was adapted into a television film in which Northern-Irish actor James Nesbitt took on the role of investigative journalist Jack Parlabane (Ferguson, 2013). QUOM was the first novel to feature Parlabane, who recently returned for the eighth time in Brookmyre’s most recent publication Want You Gone (Little Brown Book Group, 2017b). Other titles in which he appears are Country of the Blind (1998), Boiling a Frog (2002), Be My Enemy (2005), Attack of the Unsinkable Rubber Ducks (2008), Dead Girl Walking (2015), and Black Widow (2016). In addition to the Jack Parlabane series, three of Brookmyre’s novels feature the character of Angelique de Xavia, who works as a counterterrorism officer: A Big Boy Did It and Ran Away (2003), The Sacred Art of Stealing (2003), and A Snowball in Hell (2009). Another three novels feature Jasmine Sharp and Catherine McLeod, a private detective and a police investigator: Where the Bodies Are Buried (2011), When the Devil Drives (2012), and Flesh Wounds (2013).

2.2 Corpus To study the translation of non-standard language in crime fiction I have used the following publications and documents: two original books by Christopher Brookmyre (Quite Ugly One Morning and Where The Bodies Are Buried, hence WTBAB), a published Dutch translation of WTBAB by Jan Mellema (2011), and student translations of QUOM by Robin De Wolf and Margot Schotte. The following paragraphs feature a synopsis of both stories and some comments on their receptions.

2.3 Quite Ugly One Morning Jack Parlabane is a Scottish investigative journalist who recently moved back to Edinburgh after spending some time in Los Angeles and almost being murdered by a contract killer. Upon waking in his new flat, he accidentally locks himself out and tries to get back in through his neighbour’s apartment, stumbling into a murder scene featuring his dead, mutilated neighbour, Dr. Ponsonby. DC

Jenny Dalziel catches him as he is snooping around and takes him to the police office on the other side of the street. After being released, Parlabane meets Ponsonby’s ex-wife Sarah Slaughter as she wanders around the unattended crime scene. Parlabane invites her up to his flat, where she reveals she has found an empty ampoule in Ponsonby’s apartment. Parlabane confides that her ex-husband might have been killed for other reasons than merely a burglary-gone-wrong.

Already in one of the first chapters the reader finds out by whom and how Dr. Ponsonby was killed: by contract killer Darren Mortlake, on behalf of Midlothian NHS Trust administrator Stephen Lime. Darren was supposed to inject Ponsonby with potassium chloride in order to make it look like he suffered a heart attack. Unfortunately, his attempt failed and resulted in a fight in which Ponsonby bit off Darren’s finger, who then tied Ponsonby up, slit his throat and mutilated his hands and nose.

Parlabane and police detective Jenny Dalziel decide to work together, as neither of them believes the ‘burglary-gone-wrong’ theory. Sarah tells Parlabane that her ex-husband had a gambling problem and that he had amassed large debts. Ponsonby Senior had decided to help his son out and had cut Ponsonby Junior’s salary at the source: part of it was deposited into his father’s account directly by the hospital. As management was probably aware of Ponsonby Junior’s financial situation, Jack pays an undercover visit to the hospital and browses the files of board member Stephen Lime, unfortunately forgetting to re-encrypt them afterwards. He finds out Stephen Lime wants to close a geriatric hospital in order to sell the land and clear the Trust’s debts. Sarah finds out Lime knew about Ponsonby’s financial situation, that he had contacted him and paid him to kill elderly people who had been occupying beds in the geriatric hospital for years.

When Lime wants to check a document on his computer, he notices none of them are encrypted anymore. When he then discovers that Sarah Slaughter, the ex-wife of Dr. Ponsonby, had been checking files concerning deceased patients of the geriatric hospital, he knows something is up. Darren and Lime pay a visit to Jack and Sarah. It turns out they know all about his little scheme and Lime orders Darren to kill the two of them. Jack, however, is able to overpower Lime and holds him at gunpoint until Jenny and the other police officers arrive to arrest Lime and Darren. Eventually everything becomes clear: a broke Ponsonby was contracted by Lime to inject elderly patients with potassium chloride in order to free up beds, making it possible to close the geriatric hospital and sell the land, clearing the Trust’s debts and making a hero out of Lime. Afterwards Lime hired contract killer Darren Mortlake to kill Ponsonby and wipe all traces leading to him.

2.4 Where The Bodies Are Buried When her mother becomes ill and eventually dies, Jasmine Sharp drops out of acting school and is hired by her uncle Jim as a private detective. After her uncle has disappeared, the police are not very helpful and Jasmine decides to take the matter into her own hands as she tries to solve his vanishing. Meanwhile Detective Superintendent Catherine McLoad investigates the assassination of an important gangland member and discovers that some of her colleagues as not as righteous as they claim to be.

On her search for answers, following some of the leads her uncle was following, Jasmine meets Tron Ingrams, who is willing to help her. As both investigations move on, the two plots eventually overlap, involving a large, Glaswegian organized crime group (Mundow, 2012; Goudswaard, 2011).

2.5 Reception As QUOM was published in 1996 not many reviews can be found online. Nevertheless, as Brookmyre’s debut novel was awarded a Critics’ First Blood Award, we can assume it was well received by the general public. In general, Brookmyre’s style in Quite Ugly One Morning is characterized by satire, dark humour, political and social critics and a strong narrative. Something that recurs in almost every book review on QUOM is a remark on its humour, ‘Scottishness’ and pace: “it sparkles with dark Caledonian wit” and “crackles along at a breathless pace” (Hedger, 2009). Belgrave (2013) notices the abundant use of strong, explicit language. Goodreads user Noelle (2016) states that “the characterization is the best part of this book” ("Quite Ugly One Morning: Noelle's review", 2016, para. 4). A different user, who goes by the username ‘Wendle’, writes that “Brookmyres characters are, if looked at rationally, kind of over-the-top and unrealistically caricatural, but that doesn't stop them being brilliantly done, and, in more subtle ways, they do have a lot of depth” ("Quite Ugly One Morning: Wendle's review", 2012, para. 7).

For WTBAB, publishing company Little Brown decided to change Christopher Brookmyre’s name to Chris Brookmyre, as this was the start of a change of direction in his writing career. In this respect Tivnan (2012) writes that “the Sharp books are more serious than his other Tartan Noir books, whose comic flourishes can be seen not just in the pages but in the titles too” (para. 1). Indeed, in a book review published by The Guardian, Wilson (2011, para. 1) describes WTBAB as a “more conventional police procedural”. In another review, Marsh (2011) states that even though this novel tackles more serious subjects than the Parlabane novels, it is still filled with Brookmyre’s trademark wit and black humour. However, in her opinion Brookmyre introduces a rather large number of characters, which prevents the story from picking up its pace. According to Klein (2011), Brookmyre 7

has written a book that is “well-plotted, well-characterized, very well-written”. A reviewer named Karen (Book Review Quite Ugly One Morning, 2011) adds that “one of Brookmyre's talents has always been to create very believable, human characters” (para.4). In general, English reviews on Brookmyre’s first novel featuring Catherine McLeod and Jasmine Sharp are very positive.

Where The Bodies Are Buried was the first of Brookmyre’s novels to be translated into Dutch, published under the title Verborgen Lichamen. For the Dutch version, Brookmyre’s name was not shortened. In general, book reviews of Verborgen Lichamen are less favourable than those of the original. Nevertheless, only few remarks are made on the translation itself. Van de Sande (2011, para. 5) describes how Dutch translator Jan Mellema made some of the dialogues sound “very odd” and recommends reading Brookmyre in English. Goudswaard (2011) notes that the large number of characters makes it difficult to follow the plot, a remark that appeared in reviews of the original version as well. This is also mentioned in Brown’s review (2011): as Brookmyre does not always use the same name for a character, but instead uses their first name, surname or nickname, it is very difficult to distinguish between them. Furthermore “the characters’ emotions are described in great detail, even though this does not add any value to the narrative” (Brown, 2011, para.3, own translation). Even though these critical remarks do not seem very positive, a number of reviewers describe WTBAB as a well-written crime novel: Goudswaard (2011, para. 7) states that “the story is well-written and (…) it is simply a fine novel”, which is confirmed by Vermonden (2011) as well.

3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Defining non-standard language According to Lung (2000), ever since the 1980s, significant socio-linguistic research has been conducted on the non-standard usage of English, in particular on the black vernacular in America and the Northern Irish language. Authors use non-standard language in works of fiction to portray characters, contextualise the narrative, and depict the characters’ socio-economic backgrounds, which “may imply a wide range of possible meanings and convey subtle information about the language users portrayed” (Lung, 2000, p. 274). Lung defines non-standard language usage as “a language style that deviates from accepted and recognised norms” (p. 268). She observes that consequently dialect, mispronunciation, deviations in tenses and verbal forms can be classified under ‘non-standard language’. Even though mainly the sociological aspect of non-standard language elements has been researched, Lung states that the usage of this type of language poses problems in translation as well.

Defining the concepts of slang, dialect and informal language is not an easy task. These concepts often overlap and as a result they are hard to distinguish from one another. Various definitions can be found in the literature, in particular for the concept of slang, but none of them captures the exact notion of what slang actually entails and which terms can be considered true slang. As Dumas and Lighter (1978, p. 5) state: “although the phenomenon has frequently been discussed, the term SLANG has rarely been defined in a way that is useful to linguists”. They conclude that what makes elements of slang special is, “their undeniable lack of dignity and their deliberate, widespread use within a social group (or many social groups) to defy social or linguistic convention” (1978, p. 16). Amari (2010) states: “it is widely acknowledged that slang is considered an alternative register of English which negates all that is polite, pious and noble, that it is bawdy, crass, cruel, racist and sexist and yet brims with humor, color and vibrancy” (p.1). His research is concluded as follows: “exactly how slang is defined and which terms should or should not be classified as such continue to be the subject of much debate among lexicographers and linguists alike” (p. 9). According to Galperin (1981, cited in Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010, p. 39) slang is a very ambiguous term, as it “indicates everything that is beneath the standard usage of current English”. Butkuviene & Petrulione use the term ‘slanguage’ to describe “a non-standard variety of language that could be prescribed to a form of slang or the language employing much slang” (p. 40).

On the other hand, dialect is defined in the Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (2008) as follows:

A distinctive variety of a language, spoken by members of an identifiable regional group, nation, or social class. Dialects differ from one another in pronunciation, vocabulary, and (often) in grammar. Traditionally they have been regarded as variations from a ‘standard’ educated form of the language, but modern linguists point out that standard forms are themselves dialects which have come to predominate for social and political reasons. (Baldick, 2008)

Concerning non-standard language, Vandepitte (2016) states that it “includes all varieties of language that are not standard languages, [such as] dialects, ethnic varieties of languages, slang, argot or marked use of informal and colloquial language” (p. 106).

In appendices II-VII an overview can be found of all non-standard elements in the corpus, labelled according to the metadata listed in Van Dale (2017), Oxford English Dictionaries (2017), Oxford Dictionaries (2017), etc. Nevertheless, since linguistic distinctions between regional varieties, i.e. dialect, and user-related varieties, i.e. slang, are blurred within the context of a literary work or work of fiction, I will not make any distinctions between slang and dialect in my analysis, but simply consider instances of both as non-standard language. In addition, I will also focus on the translation of colloquial language and expletives, as these are not considered standard language either.

3.2 Translating non-standard language According to Butkuviene & Petrulione (2010) there are three general translation strategies regarding non-standard language. The first one is softening, which is targeted towards the target text reader by using a fluent and natural use of the target language. Butkuviene & Petrulione state that “the majority of slangy items of the ST are replaced by words that belong to the standard language of the TT” (p. 40). A second option is literal translation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 2000, cited in Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010, p. 39), which means that the source text is translated directly into the target language, meaning that the style and register of every word should be maintained. If the target language contains equivalents of the non-standard language elements from the source text, this method should be preferred according to the authors. Finally Butkuviene & Petrulione mention stylistic compensation. By using this strategy, the translator aims to make up for the loss of a certain effect (in this case: non-standard language) “by recreating a similar effect in the target text using the means specific to the target language or text” (Baker, 1988, cited in Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010, p. 39). Butkuviene & Petrulione (2010) conclude that softening – and even omitting – of non-standard 10

language elements in translation occurs very often. The translator, however, should be aware that softening and omission may have a considerable impact on the way the source text is rendered and that, for example, the emotional impact on the target text audience might be different.

Horton (1998) describes a similar range of options: a) neutralisation of non-standard forms by using the standard target language, b) conversion into a broadly ‘comparable’ non-standard element, or c) employing non-standard language “without attempting to suggest a specific identifiable language variety” (p. 418). According to Horton, the third option is most frequently practised, as it is a compromise strategy between neutralisation and conversion.

Vandepitte (2016) distinguishes between translation tactics used at textual level and at micro level. At textual level, she suggests the ideal option would be to use a dialect in the target language that expresses the same connotations, status, and effect and has the same dialect characteristics as the source text dialect. She acknowledges this is impossible in most cases. Secondly, she proposes the use of a non-standard ‘equivalent’ in the target language by employing an existing regional dialect or sociolect, which does not express those same connotations. A third option is to use a scenic dialect, which consists of a general type of non-standard language belonging to a larger region than a dialect does. The translator may also use colloquial language, which is “used in different situations by a wide range of types of speakers to express any type of purpose” (p. 110) and is not related to a specific geographical area. A fifth possibility according to Vandepitte is the use of an artificial alternative: the translator creates an artificial dialect, which features non-standard grammar and a regionally unmarked lexis. Additionally, the translator may employ partial dialectalization, in which only lexical non- standard forms are used. Finally, Vandepitte suggests using standard language, which results in ‘neutralisation’ of the target text, making it “devoid of all features that are communicated by the dialect” (Berezowski, 1997, as cited in Vandepitte, 2016). In large part Sládková (2013) considers the same tactics as Vandepitte does. Nevertheless, she mentions an additional approach by Berezowski (1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013, p.28), namely partial translation, which consists in maintaining phrases or expressions in the source language because they are generally well known to the target audience, or because they appear in a third language.

At micro level, Vandepitte (2016) states that the translator can manipulate the spelling and pronunciation, grammar and morphology, and lexis to render non-standard language in the target language. Two additional tactics that can be employed are compensation – using non-standard forms

where the target text featured a standard form – and extended translation, in which the translator adds explanations and/or footnotes (Vandepitte, 2016).

3.3 Defining crime fiction

3.3.1 History As suggested by the name of the genre, crime fiction has always focused its plot on crime. Even though the term ‘crime fiction’ might immediately bring to mind the investigation of a crime, especially by private detectives, this aspect has not always been present in the genre. A number of authors and researchers agree on the fact that The Newgate Calendar (1773), which collected the news of what happened inside the Newgate Prison, was the first publication to print ‘crime stories’ (Worthington, 2010). The stories were very moralistic and served as a warning for people not to engage in criminal behaviour (Scaggs, 2005). At the end of the eighteenth century, crime fiction is incorporated into literature in the so-called ‘Gothic novel’ (Spooner, 2010). After the introduction of police forces, during the 1840’s, crime fiction’s focus shifts from the criminal to the investigator, most of the time policemen or police detectives (Worthington, 2010). This type of fiction turned out to be very popular, but its moment of fame was relatively short. Nevertheless, Worthington states that, as this genre shifted crime fiction’s focus from the criminal to the investigator, the perfect atmosphere was created for the private detective to appear on the scene (2010). Edgar Allan Poe is often considered to be the father of the detective genre, with The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841) as the first detective story, featuring private detective Dupin (Scaggs, 2005). In 1887, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle introduces the world to Sherlock Holmes, which marked the beginning of the detective narrative gaining popularity (Scaggs, 2005). In the period post World War I a new, typically British subgenre emerges: the Golden Age clue puzzle, which is embodied by Agatha Christie’s so-called ‘country house murder’ or ‘whodunit’ (Horsley, 2010). This generic shift coincides with the development of a very different subgenre in America: the hard-boiled detective story, which features a tough ‘private eye’ who has been turned cynical by an on-going cycle of crime in the city (Light, 1991 cited in Horsley, 2010). The genre is marked by frequent violence and dialogues laced with slang to reflect the dangerous city (Scaggs, 2005).

Even though several crime fiction genres mentioned above have not survived to date, a number of them have. In addition to this, new subgenres have seen the light as well. In the following paragraphs, I will give an overview of three genres that are still very widespread in the present day: hard-boiled

fiction, the police procedural and the crime thriller. The subgenres in this list, which is not in any way exhaustive, often overlap and are not always easy to distinguish from one another.

3.3.2 Hard-boiled and Noir fiction The hard-boiled genre and Noir fiction are very closely related. Generally, a distinction is made in terms of the character that the novel focuses on. In the hard-boiled genre, the novel is investigator- centred, whereas Noir fiction shows the reader the story from the criminal and sometimes the victim’s side (Tuttle, s.d.). Another aspect that marks Noir is its pessimism and a focus on societal failure (Simpson, 2010). Two popular contemporary subgenres of Noir fiction are Nordic Noir and Tartan Noir.

3.3.2.1 Nordic Noir Scandinavian crime fiction is also known as Nordic Noir or Scandi Noir and includes Icelandic, Swedish, Finnish, Danish and Norwegian crime fiction. What makes it so successful, according to many, is the Scandinavian authors’ “realistic, simple and precise style” (Borchers, s.d.). Even though the Nordic countries are “prosperous and organised, the stories usually unfold in bleak, chilling landscapes, permeated by a sense of isolation and loneliness” (Vestrheim, p. 15). In general, this subgenre is characterised by the environment and the hero’s personal life, which receives more attention than it does in other subgenres (Horst, s.d.).

3.3.2.2 Tartan Noir According to Taylor (2004), Tartan Noir refers to a genre that originated from Scotland in the 1990s. It features the typical hard-boiled, cynical anti-hero and is located in Scotland. Although the genre is denominated as ‘noir’ – which may create the illusion that this genre focuses on the villain – Tartan protagonists are often private detectives, as is the case in Quite Ugly One Morning with investigative journalist Jack Parlabane and in Where The Bodies Are Buried with private investigator Jasmine Sharp. Brookmyre’s work is indeed often described as Tartan Noir.

During an interview in 2002, Scottish crime writer Val McDermid described what made Tartan Noir so different from other subgenres:

We have this sort of dark Calvinist past and it's still in place in the present. We also have this wonderful black sense of humour and we love to party. We've produced some of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment, and also some of the worst slag-faced bigots in the history of 13

human thought. So there's always the dark pool of these opposites within us that produces a sort of dramatic tension. (Cited in Taylor, 2004, para. 2)

Many sources refer to William McIlvanney as the ‘godfather’ or ‘grandfather’ of Tartan Noir (Black, 2011, Johnstone, 2013, MacBride, 2016). He laid the roots for the genre in 1977 with his crime novel Laidlaw, which at the time “took to the mat with the American Hardboiled school” (Black, 2011, para. 6). Even though McIlvanney only wrote three crime novels, he is still considered the principal founder of Tartan Noir, as Laidlaw “acted as a hard-bitten blueprint for all Scottish crime fiction to come, inspiring a generation of writers to take on the genre in his wake” (Johnstone, 2013, para. 3). The term ‘Tartan Noir’, however, was coined only in the 1990s by either Ian Ranking or James Ellroy (MacBride, 2016). Johnstone (2013) provides the following anecdote:

So William McIlvanney is responsible for Tartan Noir – though he certainly didn't coin the phrase. That honour goes to James Ellroy who apparently described Ian Rankin as "the king of Tartan Noir". Ian tells it differently, though, claiming he suggested the phrase semi-jokingly to Ellroy in yet another signing queue, only for Ellroy to then inscribe his book with it. (para. 10)

MacBride (2016) wonders whether Tartan Noir is a true genre or if it is only a marketing strategy, but does not really provide an answer to his question. Johnstone (2013), however, agrees that a label or genre matters only to market a book. According to him, the elements that Tartan Noir works of fiction do have in common, though, are “a down-to-earth quality, an unflinching eye on the social context of crime, a focus on the bleakly, blackly comic side of life and death that we learnt from McIlvanney” (para. 12).

Ian Rankin is the United Kingdom’s top selling author in the genre (Black, 2011). About himself and his fellow Tartan Noir authors, he says: “we peer below the surface of the everyday city and show its complexity” (cited in Black, 2011, para. 9). Rankin believes Scottish crime writers nowadays are too varied to denominate all of them as Tartan Noir authors, even though many of them “share the dark traits the term infers” (Black, 2011, para. 10). Other popular authors that are considered Tartan Noir are Douglas Lindsey, Allan Guthrie, Stuart MacBride, Peter May, Val McDermid, Denise Mina and Irvine Welsh.

3.3.3 Crime thriller According to Priestman (1998, cited in Scaggs, 2005), what sets the crime thriller apart from other crime fiction is its different narrative effect and style. Instead of focusing on the crime and its

investigation, crime thrillers emphasise the danger that is threatening the protagonist. In addition to this, Symons (1993, cited in Scaggs, 2005) observes that the crime thriller focuses on the psychology of the characters and often lacks a detective or police character. Subgenres of the crime thriller include the psychological thriller, the gangster thriller, the legal thriller and many more (Scaggs, 2005).

3.3.4 Police procedural The police procedural focuses on the police force and their investigating a crime, in which the details of the procedure receive a large share of attention. According to Scaggs (2005), in this subgenre it is “the police detective as part of the state apparatus of the police force who safeguards society through vigilant and unceasing surveillance, in this way replacing the often questionable vigilante justice of the PI” (p. 89). A popular theme in police procedurals is the serial killer mystery.

3.4 Translating crime fiction

3.4.1 Introduction According to Seago (2014a), many of the research that has been conducted on the translation of crime fiction does not analyse genre-specific items. Since the publication of her article however, a number of studies have been conducted which do take into account these issues that are characteristic to the genre: cultural references, humour, slang and suspense. This chapter will provide a short overview of a number of recent studies that have been conducted on the translation of crime fiction, on both the genre-specific issues mentioned above and more general ones.

3.4.2 Cultural references Anderson (2016) conducted a study on the translation of cultural references, in which she analysed a French and an Icelandic crime novel. While focusing on the translation of typical cuisines, she explores if there might be standard strategies to use in such situations. A first observation considers the need to classify works according to their regional characteristics. As can be read in the previous chapter, these classifications include Tartan noir, Nordic noir, etc. In these national classifications, food plays a large role in distinguishing one country from another and establishing locality, often creating ‘strangeness’ in translations, as the reader of the target text is not familiar with the foreign

dishes. For example, in the Icelandic novel Anderson analysed, very few glossaries or notes were used to explain the reader of what these dishes consisted. Anderson concludes that this strangeness might be the result of authors not considering the fact that their work might be translated to other target audiences in the future, which is of course logical. One should not write to be translated. However, this results in the fact that absences will always exist in translations. Even though a translator can add a short explanation to an original term, “the reader can never actually live, or possibly even accurately imagine the smell, feel or taste of it” (p. 228), which results in a strong element of untranslatability (Anderson, 2016).

Similarly, Rolls et al. (2016) conducted a study on the translation of national allegories in crime fiction, in which they considered the extent in which these references are preserved in translations. Rolls et al. observe that cultural referents or culturèmes “are crucial in crime fiction texts, which are so pointedly anchored in their social and geographical realities and which, as a result, contain extremely precise descriptions of place” (p. 140). In translating cultural references, two possible options are proposed: if the aim is to “introduce a foreign author to a new readership, the transfer of culturèmes may be minimal, with preference being given instead to equivalent expressions in the target language and culture” (p. 140). However, if the translator must try to preserve the national element of the work, this could be done by adding in-text explanations or footnotes. Even though footnotes are generally frowned upon in English literature, Rolls et al. argue that crime fiction is “worthy of footnote” (p. 141) as the national and cultural references deserve an extensive explanation to the target text readers (Rolls et al., 2016).

Ruokonen (2010) analysed the cultural allusions in the Finnish translations of Dorothy L. Sayers’ detective novels. She distinguishes two general strategies in translating cultural allusions: retentive and modifying strategies. Three of the most frequently used retentive strategies are a) preserving proper names, b) minimum change, meaning that “the ST allusion is translated ‘literally’ on the basis of its contextual meaning in the ST cotext” (p. 155) and c) if a certain source text allusion already has a widespread translation, using it. To illustrate the strategy concerning proper names, she quotes a fragment in which an allusion to a character of one of Dickens’s novels is made. This novel had not been translated to Finnish at the time, thus resulting in the target text audience probably not being familiar with that character. However, the reference to the character included a common proverb, which could easily be understood by its context. Even though the target text audience probably did not fully understand the humour of the reference, “the cotextual meaning of the translated passage is still more or less coherent, as the main meaning is carried by the proverb” (p. 221). On the other hand, modifying strategies are used in case of “culturally unfamiliar allusions that have an incoherent

cotextual meaning in the source text (potential culture bumps)” (p. 223) which would confuse the target text reader if they had been translated using a retentive strategy. Examples of modifying strategies are omission, replacement and generalization (Ruokonen, 2010).

It can be concluded that cultural references play an important role in crime fiction, as they build the social and geographical reality of a work of fiction of this genre (Rolls et al, 2016). Depending on the aim of the translator, two general strategies can be applied: retentive strategies to maintain the cultural reference in the translation, or modifying strategies if a more literal translation would confuse the target text reader (Ruokonen, 2010). The translation of cultural references varies of course greatly depending on the source language and target language. Some languages, and consequently their cultures, might share a large number of cultural references, which might prove easier to translate, whereas other cultures differ so much that the translator has to apply a modifying strategy in most cases.

3.4.3 Humour In Hardboiled or overcooked? Translating the crime fiction of Léo Malet, Anderson (2014) analyses the use and frequency of humour in Malet’s work and compares it to its translations. Malet’s best- known character is private detective Nestor Burma, characterized by his very playful and humorous language, filled with puns, slang, running gags, register changes and intertextual references (Anderson, 2014). Puns are a first translation problem, as they often feature homonymic words, which most of the time cannot be equivalently transferred into the target language. Secondly, humorous historic references in running gags may cause significant problems as well. To overcome this problem, Anderson proposes the use of glosses and footnotes. Comparing Léo Malet’s work to its English translation, Anderson noted that Malet’s highly playful language was in large parts neutralized. Although readability is a crucial element, Andersons says, “translators still need to hear the unique voice of each writer and transmit that voice as best they can” (p. 40).

3.4.4 Suspense In their book The Voices of Suspension and Their Translation in Thrillers, Cadera and Pintaric (2014) study the transfer of narrative structure, plot and semiotic elements in translation. It includes several contributions on the translation of suspense. We will focus on Seago’s (2014b) Red herrings and other misdirection in translation. Seago defines a red herring as “a misleading plotline, rather than the technical devices and manipulative strategies which the author deploys” (p. 2). In her study she 17

explores the translation of inference (gaps in the story) and of manipulative strategies to hide the important clues from the reader and make them seem unimportant.

As for inferences, Seago distinguishes three types. The first one consists of two unconnected events or actions being seemingly linked, which in the majority of cases does not pose a problem to the translator. However, the second type, in which a word in the original text can be interpreted in two or more ways, can indeed be a translation problem. If the target language does not have such a homonymic word, the translator will have to choose the word with the correct meaning, revealing a clue where the reader of the original text is still in doubt. The third type consists of the author referring to the criminal in a gender-neutral way. In English for example, this is perfectly possible with the pronoun they, but it is not always in Dutch or German, which use gender-specific pronouns. Again, elements of the plot are being made explicit in the translation, where the source text author had deliberately left them implicit (Seago, 2014b).

For the manipulation of plot-significant information, Seago again makes a distinction between two types. The first type consists in the usage of main and sub-clauses. According to Sanford and Surt (2002, cited in Seago, 2014b, p. 9) “research has shown that information in main clauses is more easily remembered than information in sub-clauses”, thus resulting in crime authors often burying relevant clues in sub-clauses and putting irrelevant ones in main clauses. To keep the narrative intact, translators should be aware of this and not shift information from sub to main clauses. A second form of manipulation is seemingly redundant repetition and detail. These details are actually relevant to the resolution of the plot and should thus easily be recalled by the reader. If the translator rephrases sentences to make them more readable and fluent, these repetitions might disappear, which in its turn might result in the reader being confused by the resolution of the plot (Seago, 2014b).

In sum, according to Seago (2014b), we can distinguish two general strategies in the translation of suspense. The first strategy is literal translation of inference and plot-significant information in order to keep the clues hidden. This can be done by maintaining the information in a main- or sub-clause, according to how it appeared in the source text. The translator should also try to maintain seemingly redundant repetition, as this can be a device the author used to build suspense. Secondly, in some cases the translator cannot translate literally and has to adapt the source text, for example, when the source language uses gender-neutral pronouns whereas the target language uses gender-specific pronouns. Adapting these elements might result in hidden clues being revealed.

3.4.5 Slang Linder (2000) examined the translation of hard-boiled slang in three Spanish translations of Raymond Chandler’s The Big Sleep (1939). Brodovich (1997, cited in Linder, 2000, p. 275) on non-standard languages:

Many translators feel that these varieties must somehow be translated into the target language, yet they are language and culture-specific and have no exact equivalents in other languages and cultures.

It can be concluded that to many translators, translating slang poses great difficulties. In Linder’s opinion, slang elements should be translated in a way that they have an effect on the target text audience that is similar to the one they had on the source text audience. To achieve this effect, Harvey (1995, as cited in Linder, 2000, p. 280) distinguishes two techniques:

First, wherever possible, translators use the slang terms of the original for which equivalent slang terms exist in the target language; secondly, since this cannot always be done, in many cases they do not translate slang terms but prefer to compensate by inserting target language slang terms in other places in the target text.

The translation of elements of non-standard language such as dialect, slang, informal elements and expletives is the key focus of the present study. Chapter five provides a thorough analysis of the translation of non-standard language in both QUOM and WTBAB.

4. METHODOLOGY This master’s thesis contains both a practical part and a qualitative case study. The corpus to be analysed consists of the Dutch translation of Quite Ugly One Morning, which was produced in a collaborative project by three students: " Chapters 1 – 11: Eline Huysmans " Chapters 12 – 21: Margot Schotte " Chapters 22 – 32: Robin De Wolf I translated the first eleven chapters of Quite Ugly One Morning into Dutch, which can be consulted in appendix I. My fellow students Margot Schotte and Robin De Wolf each translated one third of the book as well and their translations constitute the first part of the corpus material to be analysed in the present study.

I would like to clarify a number of translation decisions concerning cultural references that I made in the course of translating QUOM chapters 1-11. (My translation can be found in appendix I, in the digital upload of this thesis via Minerva.) As the story takes place in Edinburgh, Scotland, the source text is filled with culture-specific references, some of them more specific than others. In general, I have tried to maintain as many cultural references as possible. For example, if certain neighbourhoods in Edinburgh were mentioned, I maintained the names and in some cases added an explanation (e.g. ST: ‘New Town’ – Translation: ‘New Town, de duurdere buurt van de stad’, appendix I, p. 32). In one case I slightly adapted a cultural reference where the source text alluded to British television host and cook Delia Smith. As most people in Flanders and the Netherlands do not know her, I changed her name to ‘Jamie Oliver’ (Appendix I, p. 72), another British television host and cook, who is indeed well known by the target text audience. In some cases, I omitted cultural references, as they would not make sense to the general target text audience when translated literally. For example, Inspector McGregor alludes to a Scottish mental hospital called ‘Gogarburn’, without mentioning the fact that it is a mental hospital. As a literal translation would leave the target audience puzzled, I replaced ‘in Gogarburn’ by ‘in een gesticht’ (Appendix I, p. 3). In another case, the source text referred to the Tardis from the popular British television series Doctor Who. Even though the series is popular all over the world, and certainly in Belgium and the Netherlands as well, I assumed that only a limited group of people would understand this reference. Because of this, I left the reference to Doctor Who out and changed it to a description for which no cultural knowledge is needed. In the source text we find “Postman must be built like the fuckin’ Tardis”, which I translated as “Heeft die postbode vier magen of zo?” (Appendix I, p. 2).

To prepare the corpus to be analysed I marked all elements of non-standard language in the English version of QUOM and the students’ translations, with the possible exception of unintended omissions. Next, the corpus was extended with the first nine chapters of WTBAB and the published Dutch translation Verborgen Lichamen. The selection of non-standard language elements and their translation can be found in appendices II-VII. In a final synthesis of my findings I will also briefly reflect upon my own translation choices concerning non-standard language but they are not studied in the analysis itself. To verify whether a word is considered non-standard and if so, which usage labels can be used to describe it (slang, colloquial, dialect, etc.), I have relied on online dictionaries by Van Dale (2017), Oxford English Dictionary (2017) and Oxford Dictionaries (2017), as well as the Dictionary of the Scots Language (2005) and Green’s Dictionary of Slang (2011). Even though these usage labels have been added to the appendix, I did not specifically distinguish between the various types of non-standard language in my analysis as linguistic distinctions between regional varieties, i.e. dialect, and user-related varieties, i.e. slang, are blurred within the context of a literary work.

The research questions covered in this master’s thesis are: - Which translation strategies did the student translators use to translate elements of non-standard language (Scottish dialect, slang, colloquial language and expletives) in the English version of Quite Ugly One Morning into Dutch? - How did translator Jan Mellema translate similar elements in his published translation of Where The Bodies Are Buried (Verborgen Lichamen)? - Are there any significant differences between the types of translation strategies used in the two corpora?

In both QUOM and WTBAB, Brookmyre uses a Scottish colloquial language variety, which is not a true dialect, but rather a heavily regionally marked form of Standard English. The language is marked by a regional lexicon, swearing, vulgar elements, colloquial elements and misspellings or so-called eye dialect (Horton, 1998), which is defined by Merriam-Webster (n.d.) as “the use of misspellings that are based on standard pronunciations (as sez for says or kow for cow) but are usually intended to suggest a speaker's illiteracy or his use of generally nonstandard pronunciations”.

To analyse the translation of the characters’ non-standard utterances, their voices had to be analysed and specified first. Selecting the non-standard elements of QUOM revealed that protagonist Jack Parlabane is the character whose speech and thoughts abound in non-standard elements. His speech

features a myriad of vulgar expressions, numerous expletives, Scottish dialect, slang elements and colloquial language. The character that has the second highest absolute frequency of non-standard elements is Sarah Slaughter, though her speech is remarkably less vulgar and less Scottish than Parlabane’s. As she was not born in Scotland but in England, her non-standard utterances include less Scottish dialect and slang, but instead consist mostly of colloquial language. As Jack and Sarah are the protagonists of the novel, their discourse is more extensive than the other characters’ discourses. As opposed to Sarah, two characters whose speech is marked by Scotticisms and slang are Jenny Dalziel and Inspector McGregor. Finally, a remarkable character with a very distinct speech in comparison to the other characters is Darren Mortlake. His use of Cockney dialect clearly gives away his English roots. In addition to this, he swears frequently and uses numerous vulgar expressions. Like Parlabane, he disposes of a large array of expletives.

I have chosen to analyse these characters’ speech for a few reasons. As Jack and Sarah are the protagonists, their speech contains the largest amount of non-standard elements. Furthermore, I have selected characters with a very typical speech pattern, such as the two Scottish police officers Dalziel and McGregor, and English contract killer Mortlake. For reasons of brevity and scope the analysis has not considered any other characters, such as Stephen Lime.

For the analysis of WTBAB, I deliberately chose not to separate the characters’ discourses but to combine them, as I only selected non-standard language elements from the first nine chapters. Considering the fact that this is merely an additional analysis to compare the students’ translations to, I chose to not study the non-standard speech in WTBAB as thoroughly as the non-standard language in QUOM.

5. ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction Before analysing the non-standard speech of five characters (Jack Parlabane, Sarah Slaughter, Jenny Dalziel, Inspector McGregor, and Darren Mortlake) I will briefly recapitulate the translation strategies covered in connection with non-standard language in chapter 3.2.

Three general translation strategies have been distinguished. The first one is softening (Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010), also referred to as neutralisation (Horton, 1998), which consists in using the standard form of the target language to render non-standard elements. A second applicable strategy is literal translation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 2000, cited in Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010), or translating word for word. In the context of the present study, this strategy can be used to maintain the style and register of the source text by using non-standard target language equivalents of the non-standard source text elements. The final general strategy in order to translate non-standard language is called stylistic compensation (Baker, 1998, cited in Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010). This strategy is applied to make up for the loss of non-standard language, i.e. by inserting non-standard elements where the source text author used standard language.

To apply these general strategies, the translator has to use a number of translation tactics, as they are referred to by Vandepitte (2016), both at textual and micro level. Some of the tactics suggested by Vandepitte at textual level are a) non-standard equivalent, b) a scenic dialect c) colloquial language, d) an artificial alternative, e) partial dialectalization, and f) standard language. Sládková (2013) mentions one additional tactic: partial translation. At micro level, Vandepitte (2016) suggests the translator can manipulate spelling, pronunciation, grammar, morphology, and lexis. Furthermore she mentions compensation and extended translation.

5.2 QUOM and students’ translations

5.2.1 Jack Parlabane Protagonist Parlabane’s speech and thoughts abound in non-standard elements, featuring a myriad of vulgar expressions, numerous expletives, Scottish dialect, slang elements and colloquial language. The non-standard elements selected from his speech can be found in appendix II.

5.2.1.1 Standard language 121 elements of non-standard language occur in Jack Parlabane’s speech, of which 60 have been translated using standard language. In other words, at least half of Parlabane’s non-standard speech is lost in translation.

The use of standard elements where the source text featured non-standard – sometimes very vulgar – elements softens the translation and makes it significantly more formal and refined than its source text. In fragment 36 for example, we can see that ‘completely fucking bonkers’ is reduced to the standard expression ‘van lotje getikt’. Consider the following fragments: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix II Anna was clever, sussed, streetwise, Anna was wel slim, bedachtzaam en vlot in 36 – 107 connected and going places, but he de omgang, en ze had connecties en zou het – 108 suspected that she was also – in a ver schoppen, maar hij vermoedde dat achter quaintly English way – completely haar prachtige lichaam ook een geest zat die fucking bonkers not too far beneath helemaal van lotje getikt was. (Chapter 24) her exquisite surface. (p. 205) II - 105 ‘Natural wastage, which I took to ‘Natuurlijk verloop, wat volgens mij betekent mean patients snuffing it, and what dat patiënten sterven, en wat was het andere was the other thing?’ (p. 191) dat er stond?’ (Ch 22) II - 109 ‘Ta,’ he said. (p. 190) ‘Dank je’, zei hij. (Ch 22)

In addition to this, the Scottish adjective ‘wee’ (appendix II, 124) is included at least thirteen times in Parlabane’s speech. If ‘wee’ is translated, standard language is used by adding a suffix ‘-(t)je’ or the adjectives ‘klein’ or ‘beetje’. In many cases however, it is omitted altogether.

5.2.1.2 Omission It was mentioned above that in a number of cases vulgar slang such as ‘fucking’ was translated using standard language. In other cases, the non-standard source text element is omitted completely. Of eleven occurrences in the source text, ‘fucking’ is omitted five times in the target text. As stated earlier, the Scottish adjective ‘wee’ is often discarded from the translation as well. In addition to this, several colloquial elements have been left out. Consider the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translations appendix II - 24 Fortunately, she was way too smart to Gelukkig was ze veel te slim om ook maar iets get involved any deeper than the meer dan een louter fysieke relatie te hebben physical with such a social, emotional met zo’n sociale en “gevoelige” herriezoeker – bollocks – all-round liability as als Parlabane. (Ch 24) Parlabane. (p. 205) II - 61 So no, Pork Boy, I’m not going to Dus nee, biggetje, vergeet maar dat ik hier voor 26

fucking kneel. (p. 260) jou ga knielen. (Ch 30) II - 63 It’s between your legs, Stephen, and Tussen je benen, Stephen. Er zal heel wat there’s going to be a fucking lot of verkeer door gaan in de gevangenis. (Ch 31) traffic through it when you go to prison. (p. 277) II - 85 ‘RIGHT!’ he bellowed, eyes flashing. ‘GOED!’ brulde hij met vurige ogen. ‘Het is nu ‘Enough of this pish.’ (p. 273) genoeg geweest.’ (Ch 31)

5.2.1.3 Compensation To make up for the loss of non-standard elements, the translator can insert non-standard language where the source text author originally used standard language. In this way, the style of the source text can be retained. In the translation of Parlabane’s speech, only four cases of compensation have been found. Observe the following examples: # in Source Text Students’ translations appendix Might as well begin at the top, he Ik kan even goed bij de hoogste pief II - 82 thought (…) (p. 179) beginnen, dacht hij (…) (Ch 21)

II - 112 Their security is abysmal anyway. (p. De bewaking trekt toch op niets. (Ch 20) 171)

5.2.1.4 Partial translation Partial translation (Berezowski 1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013, p. 28), or in this case, transferring non-standard English elements directly to the target text, is an excellent way to retain the source text’s informal, British character. In Parlabane’s speech, the translators have opted for partial translation only twice. In both instances the element is ‘fuck’, which is once used as an expletive, once as an intensifying adjective. The use of ‘fuck(ing)’ in colloquial Dutch is acceptable, as it is an Anglicism that is nowadays often used in Dutch spoken language, primarily between youths. # in Source text Students’ translations appendix II - 51 ‘Fuck,’ he said, angry at his political ‘Fuck’, zei hij, boos om zijn politieke stupidity. (p. 183) dwaasheid. (Ch 21) II - 58 How unstereotypical. Gay porn and Alledaags was het zeker niet. Homoporno en three hours of the fucking Golden drie uur de fucking Golden Girls. Girls. (p. 215) (Ch 25)

5.2.1.5 Non-standard language Finally, 56 instances of non-standard language were retained in the translation to a certain extent. These instances include expletives, Scottish, vulgar and colloquial language. As mentioned before,

Van Dale online dictionary only mentions whether a word is considered standard or non-standard language, which makes it difficult to label the Dutch translations. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that in these 56 instances, the translators have managed to preserve the colloquial character of the source text. # in Source text Students’ translations appendix II - 5 Alison Gifford’s got nae tits anyway. Alison Gifford heeft toch geen tieten. (Ch (p. 176) 21) II - 35 What a fucking grade-A cock-end. (p. Wat een eersteklas lulkop. (Ch 30) 258) II - 123 (…) the ratio of useful information to (…) de verhouding van nuttige informatie corporate wanking was not exactly tot bedrijfsbullshit was niet bepaald satisfactory. (p. 168) bevredigend. (Ch 20)

5.2.2 Sarah Slaughter The second most frequent occurrence of non-standard elements (65) can be found in Sarah Slaughter’s speech, though hers is remarkably less vulgar and less Scottish than Parlabane’s. As she is originally English and not Scottish, her non-standard utterances include less Scottish dialect, but instead consist mostly of colloquial language. The non-standard utterances by Sarah Slaughter and their translation can be found in appendix III.

5.2.2.1 Standard language Of 65 non-standard instances, the translators have rendered 39 in standard Dutch, resulting in a target text with only one third the amount of non-standard language as its source text. Consider the following fragments: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix III - 19 Now and again, one of them is bound Af en toe moet iemand het wel begeven. (Ch to cack it eventually. (p. 232) 27) III - 63 Apart from my refusal to get up the Op het feit dat ik niet zwanger wilde worden na stick (…) (p. 116) (…) (Ch 14) Both examples feature colloquial language, reflecting vivid imagery, which is standardised and consequently neutralised in the translation.

5.2.2.2 Omission In Sarah’s speech, only two cases were found in which non-standard elements have completely been omitted. Observe the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix III - 32 (…) when it’ll really be buying a few terwijl het eigenlijk zal gespendeerd worden more jobs for managers and some aan wat meer directeurjobs en planten om hun more fucking pot plants. (p. 190) kantoortjes te versieren. (Ch 22) III - 69 So the only way to get rid of them is Dus de enige manier om van ze af te geraken is placement. Buff and turf, as the yanks plaatsing. Oplappen en buitengooien.’ say. (p. 191) (Ch 22) In the first example, ‘fucking’ has been omitted, resulting in loss of condescension. In the source text ‘fucking’ intensifies how Sarah feels about the expenses of the Trust, which is rendered in a much softer way in the translation. In the second example, ‘as the yanks say’ was left out altogether. The colloquial expression ‘buff and turf’, however, is rendered colloquially in Dutch. In this way, the non- standard character of this sentence is partially retained.

5.2.2.3 Compensation and partial translation Two instances of stylistic compensation occur, which can also be considered partial translation. Because of this, those instances will be studied jointly in this paragraph. Observe the following excerpts: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix III - 46 (…) which took precedence over Dat was belangrijker dan quality time met zijn spending “quality time” with his new nieuwe vrouw. (Ch 13) wife. (p. 107) III - 56 I refused to come out that night, sent Ik weigerde die avond om uit te gaan, stuurde him off to the pub (…) (p. 109) hem alleen naar de pub (…) (Ch 13) In both examples, the English term, which can be considered standard language in the source text, has been copied literally to the translation. In Dutch however, ‘quality time’ and ‘pub’ are listed as Anglicisms by Van Dale and can thus be considered non-standard language. In Dutch, ‘pub’ refers to a British bar only, and not to any bar in general. Consequently, the British character of this sentence is retained in the translation. In addition to this, one instance of the expletive ‘fuck’ (appendix III, 27) was translated as ‘fuck’, resulting in an additional case of partial translation.

5.2.2.4 Non-standard language Finally, 25 instances of non-standard language have been retained as an instance of non-standard variety in the target text. In various cases, the translators have attempted to maintain the colloquial and vulgar character of the text and have succeeded in doing so. Consider the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix III - 30 You fucking arsehole. (p. 262) Vuile klootzak. (Ch 30) III - 53 Either you’ve got to shine dazzlingly (…) dan moet je ofwel oogverblindend in the field, or squeeze out some uitblinken in je job, ofwel moet je er wat koters sprogs (…) (p. 115) uitpersen (…) (Ch 14)

5.2.3 Jenny Dalziel and Inspector McGregor As opposed to Sarah, two characters whose speech is noticeably marked by Scotticisms are Jenny Dalziel and Inspector McGregor. As the scope of their speech is fairly limited, though similar, both character’s discourses will be combined and analysed together. Dalziel and McGregor’s non-standard speech can be found in appendix IV and V.

5.2.3.1 Standard language Of 51 non-standard elements, 24 are lost in translation by use of standard language. Furthermore, all instances of Scottish dialect in the source text are rendered in standard language in the translation. Brookmyre uses a number of misspelled lexical elements to indicate that they are pronounced in a certain way or dialect, a strategy called ‘eye dialect’ (Horton, 1998). In this case they are used to reflect the Scottish dialect and pronunciation. Nevertheless, the two characters whose speech is most marked by Scottishness have lost all of it in the translation. Consider the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix IV - 20 ‘Nae kiddin’,’ said Jenny. (p. 251) ‘Je meent ‘t’, zei Jenny. (Ch 29) V - 16 ‘No again’, muttered McGregor, ‘Niet weer’, mompelde McGregor met z’n closing his eyes. ‘Please God, no ogen dicht. ‘Alstublieft, niet weer.’ (Ch 29) again.’ (p. 253) V - 20 ‘Would you slow doon for fuck’s ‘Rijd eens wat trager verdorie’, zuchtte sake,’ gasped McGregor. (p. 248) McGregor. (Ch 29)

5.2.3.2 Omission In Dalziel and McGregor’s discourse the translators have omitted a limited number of non-standard elements. These omissions do not cause a change in meaning, but they do make the translation significantly less colloquial. 30

# in Source text Students’ translation appendix IV - 6 But as there was definitely no need for Maar omdat er echt geen nood was aan nog any more bloody tension (…) (p. 250) meer spanning (…) (Ch 29) V - 4 And that Parlabane bloke again, which En opnieuw die Parlabane. Dat was de druppel. was simply the last straw. (p. 278) (Ch 32) V - 23 (…) I’m not having the bastard slip the (…) laat ik hem niet door de mazen van het net net because we fucked up on some glippen door een of andere formaliteit. (Ch 29) rights technicality. (p. 252)

5.2.3.3 Compensation and partial translation No occasions of stylistic compensation were found in the discourse of Dalziel and McGregor, and only one instance of partial translation. # in Source text Students’ translation appendix IV - 16 Said he can pick locks in his sleep and Hij kan sloten kraken in zijn slaap en beklimt climbs buildings like fucking muren als fucking Spiderman. (Ch 17) Spiderman. (p. 142)

When we consider the number of non-standard elements that were translated using standard language, and the lack of stylistic compensation and partial translation, it can be concluded that large part of the non-standard speech in Dalziel and McGregor’s discourses was lost entirely.

5.2.3.5 Non-standard language Finally, of 51 non-standard source text elements, 19 have been retained in the translation. Even though it was mentioned above that a large number of non-standard elements have disappeared, the translators managed to maintain the informal character of the source text to a certain extent, by adding these 19 instances of non-standard language. Consider the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix IV - 12 ‘The evil bastard, let’s not forget, is Laten we niet vergeten dat de laffe klootzak in Lime.’ (p. 251) dit verhaal Lime is.’ (Ch 29) V - 9 ‘Would you slow doon for fuck’s ‘Rijd eens wat trager, verdorie’, zuchtte sake,’ gasped McGregor. (p. 248) McGregor. (Ch 29) V - 17 ‘Don’t say a word,’ he warned her ‘Hou je mond’, waarschuwde hij haar stil. quietly. ‘Not a fucking word.’ (p. 197) ‘Hou godverdomme je mond.’ (Ch 23)

5.2.4 Darren Mortlake The final character whose non-standard speech is worth analysing – as it is quite distinct from the other characters’ discourses – is Darren Mortlake. His speech is divergent as he is not Scottish, but 31

English, and consequently talks with a Cockney dialect. In addition to this, he swears frequently and uses numerous vulgar expressions and expletives. All 45 instances of non-standard language in Mortlake’s speech can be found in appendix VI.

5.2.4.1 Standard language A number of source text elements that are considered vulgar slang were turned into standard language. As Mortlake is portrayed as a very uncivilized, rude character in the source text, the loss of vulgar slang causes his translated counterpart’s speech to be softer and more neutral. Consider the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix VI - 3 He had to get out of this fucking city as Hij moest zo snel mogelijk uit deze stad soon as bastarding possible. (p. 264) weggeraken. (Ch 31) VI - 10 (…) his knife, wallet and portable – for (…) zijn mes, portefeuille en gsm – vergeet die fuck’s sake don’t forget the portable. (p. in godsnaam toch niet. (Ch 23) 201) VI - 19 He could remember dying his hair, then Hij herinnerde zich dat hij zijn haar had eating his tea, then feeling hellish geverfd en daarna thee dronk, waarna hij knackered and deciding on an early doodmoe werd en besliste om vroeg te gaan night. (p. 201) slapen. (Ch 23)

In addition to this, the target text audience will probably not notice that Darren Mortlake is not Scottish, as his Cockney dialect is completely rendered in standard language. In the second example, ‘the Ole Bill’ is translated by the colloquial term ‘flikken’, but all of the Cockney elements are rendered in standard language. # in Source text Students’ translation appendix VI - 2 An’ I wannit in me room. (p. 155) En ik wil het in mijn kamer. (Ch 18) VI - 20 I’m doin’ what you ask. I’ve got me Ik doe wat jij me zegt. Mijn handen zijn ‘ands up. The weight of this dog’s omhoog. Ik kan het gewicht van de hond niet fuckin’ killin’ me, but I’ve got me meer aan, maar mijn handen zijn omhoog. Ga ‘ands up. Are you callin’ the Ole Bill je de flikken bellen of wat? (Ch 15) or what? (p. 127)

5.2.4.2 Omission Another strategy that causes the translation of Mortlake’s discourse to be much more neutral is the omission of ‘fucking’ as an intensifying adjective: of the 10 instances that have been found, ‘fucking’ was not translated once. Instead it was omitted, which considerably changes Mortlake’s general tone of speech. 32

5.2.4.3 Non-standard language As mentioned above, a large number of vulgar elements have been left out of the translation, softening Mortlake’s discourse. Relatively speaking, however, the translation of Mortlake’s discourse contains most non-standard elements of all characters analysed, as 30 out of 45 elements have retained their non-standard character. # in Source text Students’ translation appendix VI - 8 (…) and cursed that stuck-up cunt (…) (…) en vervloekte het bekakte klotewijf (…) (p. 155) (Ch 18) VI - 25 That old bitch at the B&B. (p. 198) Die ouwe teef van de bed & breakfast. (Ch 23)

A large amount of Mortlake’s non-standard speech consists of him talking with a speech defect, as his mouth is wounded by a knife. This was rendered very accurately by the translators. Observe the following examples: # in Source text Students’ translation appendix VI - 1 amgifackikillyou (p. 199) kguvrmoordn (Ch 23) VI - 18 hannassdent (p. 270) onglukjad (Ch 31) VI - 39 thassnofuckifunny (p. 270) snigrapg (Ch 31)

5.2.5 Summary of results Jack Parlabane’s translated voice has lost its Scottish character, mainly because of omissions and the use of standard language. In addition to this, a considerable number of vulgar elements and expletives have been omitted. Nevertheless, Parlabane’s translated counterpart is represented by use of colloquial language, which features a number of partial translations, retaining the British character of the source text to a limited extent.

In Sarah Slaughter’s speech, only one third of the non-standard language of the source text was transferred to the translation. The elements of non-standard variety that have been maintained in the translation preserve the colloquial character of the source text, though many colloquial expressions are lost. Unlike Parlabane, Sarah’s speech did not feature much Scottish dialect in the source text, and consequently, there is no loss of regional speech in her translated discourse, as it was not apparent in the source text either. In Sarah’s case, the translators applied partial translation in two instances.

In the case of Dalziel and McGregor, what sets them apart in the source text has been entirely lost in translation. The original Dalziel and McGregor are characterised by their Scottishness, which can be seen in the source text mainly through use of eye dialect. In the translation however, all Scottish elements are rendered in regionally unmarked, mostly standard language. In addition to this, omissions of colloquial language and the lack of compensation result in a softened discourse. It can be concluded that even though various non-standard elements have been retained in an accurate manner that represents the colloquial character of the source text, what makes them stand out in the source text, i.e. their Scottishness, is completely lost in translation.

Finally, Darren Mortlake’s voice differs from the other characters in the sense that he is English, and not Scottish. In the translation, however, his Cockney dialect is completely lost. On the other hand, the speech defect he suffers from in the last part of the novel is retained accurately in the translation. The use of standard language and omission of many expletives and intensifying, vulgar adjectives results in a softer, neutralised discourse. Mortlake’s character is in general portrayed as a more civilized and less rude person in the translation. Nevertheless, Mortlake is the character whose translated discourse relatively contains the largest amount of non-standard speech of all characters analysed, as 30 out of 45 non-standard source text elements have been retained, though not always in the same degree of vulgarity.

The present analysis has showed that most non-standard elements were translated by means of a limited number of translation strategies, i.e. use of standard language, omission, stylistic compensation, partial translation and non-standard language. In general these translation strategies have led to a softening (Butkuviene and Petrulione, 2010), or neutralisation (Horton, 1998) of the source text. Whereas the source text is marked by a regional lexis, the regional (both Scottish and Cockney) character of the source text has been completely lost in translation by omission or use of standard language, with the exceptions of a limited number of partial translations (Berezowski, 1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013, p.28) such as ‘fuck’, ‘shit’, etc. In this way, characters with a pronounced regional speech, such as Darren Mortlake and Inspector McGregor, are translated in a neutralised, regionally unmarked – though still colloquial – manner. In addition to this, many of the vulgar source text elements have been omitted or translated by means of standard language. Jack Parlabane and Darren Mortlake’s translated discourses, for example, are noticeably less vulgar. As mentioned above, their speech is still colloquial and to a certain extent vulgar language was maintained, but many instances of vulgar language have been lost entirely. It should also be noted that stylistic compensation was used only six times in the entire translation.

It can be concluded that De Wolf & Schotte managed to translate QUOM in a colloquial fashion. They have clearly paid attention to non-standard language, though the translation is definitely a softer, less vulgar version of its source text. Scottish and Cockney elements were generally rendered by colloquial, regionally unmarked language, as was the case for (vulgar) slang elements.

5.3 WTBAB and Verborgen Lichamen In this chapter, the non-standard language from WTBAB will be compared to Verborgen Lichamen, the published Dutch translation by Jan Mellema, which was also the first of Brookmyre’s novels to be translated into Dutch. From the first nine chapters of the source text, 158 instances of non-standard language have been selected and can be consulted in appendix VII. These elements deviate from the standard norm and include slang, Scotticisms, colloquial language and expletives. As mentioned before, in the analysis I will not specifically distinguish between the characters or between types of non-standard language.

5.3.1 Standard language Of the 159 non-standard language elements that have been selected, only 45 instances of non-standard language have been found in the target text, which implies that a large number of non-standard elements have been translated using standard language. Consider the following examples where the translator used standard language to transfer non-standard elements: # in Source text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 3 (…) annoyed at herself for acting like (…) boos op zichzelf dat ze zich als een puber a daft wee lassie. (p. 70) gedroeg. (p. 70) VII - 32 (…) as she blubbed in the passenger (…) toen ze naast hem in zijn Peugeot stapte seat of his Peugeot (…)(p. 16) (…)(p. 21) Not only have some elements lost their non-standard character, sometimes the connotation is completely altered. In the second fragment ‘to blub’ is actually a colloquial synonym of ‘to cry’, however, in the translation this verb is given a different meaning, i.e. ‘to get in’.

Moreover, all instances of eye dialect were translated using standard language, except one instance of ‘Glesca’ (see paragraph 5.3.4). # in Source Text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 63 “This being the Glesca polis, the cops “Zoals gebruikelijk binnen het politiekorps van 35

weren’t long in coming up with their Glasgow ontstond er al snel veel commentaar own alterations and definitions.” (p. op de term.” (p. 51) 50) VII - 80 “I’m not such a dinosaur that I cannae “Ik ben heus niet zo achterlijk dat ik niet zie see what he’s trying to do (…)” (p. 87) wat hij aan het doen is (…)” (p. 86) VII - 82 “When you hear hoofbeats on “Als je in Sauchiehall Street hoefgetrappel Sauchiehall Street, it’s gaunny be a hoort, is het een paard en geen zebra, en hoe horse, no’ a zebra, because?” (p. 39) komt dat?” (p. 42)

As WTBAB features private investigators, Brookmyre has these characters use jargon, which is defined by Oxford Dictionaries (n.d.) as “special words or expressions used by a profession or group that are difficult for others to understand”. For the jargon element ‘to get burned’, meaning that the subject of the private investigator knows he is being followed, translator Mellema employed a number of standard language translations. He did not use one single word or expression, but rather paraphrased what was meant. Consider the following examples: # in Source Text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 9 “Are you burned?” (p. 16) “Heeft hij iets in de gaten?” (p. 21) VII - 36 “She was burned like a vampire on a “Ze was erbij, gloeiend, als een verdwaalde sunlounger. At noon. In the desert.” (p. toerist in de volle zon. In de woestijn.” (p. 32) 30) VII - 137 “Not like Duntocher the week before, “En ook niet zoals in Duntocher, de week when she managed to get burned by daarvoor, toen het doelwit in de gaten kreeg dat following the subject twice around a hij gevolgd werd doordat ze op een rotonde roundabout.” (p. 7) twee rondjes achter hem aan bleef rijden.” (p. 13)

5.3.2 Omission A small number of non-standard elements have been left out of the translation altogether. By paraphrasing the sentence they appeared in, Mellema managed to leave the following elements out of his translation: # in Source Text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 27 It’s the Glasgow Omerta: the silence of Dat is hier in Glasgow een gouden regel: praten the bams. (p. 62) doen we niet. (p. 61) VII - 38 Wasnae very jammy tonight, by the Jammy betekent geluksvogel, maar dat was hij nick of him. (p. 45) vannacht bepaald niet. (p. 47) VII - 114 Lisa puts his post-shag puff at around Lisa schat dat hij rond tien voor twaalf naar eleven fifty. (p. 85) buiten is gegaan om een peuk te roken. (p. 84)

5.3.3 Compensation As described in paragraph 3.2, compensation is a commonly used technique to make up for the loss of non-standard language use, in order to retain the style of the source text. In this way, Mellema added a 36

number of non-standard words to his translation where standard language was used in the source text. Consider the following examples: # in Source Text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 4 ‘Have you seen a dead body?’ (p. 35) ‘Heb je wel eens een dooie gezien?’ (p. 38) VII - 55 (…) which had the paradoxical effect (…) waardoor hij er vreemd genoeg ouder of making him look older even than his uitzag dan zijn gehavende en afgeleefde kop scarred and lived-in face would deed vermoeden. Een kop die je met alle indicate; a face you would never get plezier kapot zou trappen. (p. 9) sick of kicking. (p. 3) VII - 56 (…) except that when McDiarmid (…) maar nadat McDiarmid na de wip even nipped out the back door for a post- naar buiten ging om een sigaretje weg te coital fag, he never came back in. (p. paffen, is hij niet meer teruggekomen. (p. 84) 84) VII - 150 The bastard should watch his step, see Die eikel kon maar beter uit zijn doppen he didn’t make the same mistake as his kijken, anders maakte hij nog dezelfde fout als ex-pal lying on the deck. (p. 3) zijn ex-maatje, die nu gevloerd in het stof beet. (p. 9) In the third example, the colloquial expression ‘nipped out the back door’ is translated using standard language. To compensate this loss of non-standard language, Mellema inserted the colloquial expression ‘weg te paffen’ even though the source text did not feature any non-standard language.

5.3.4 Partial translation In a limited number of cases, the translator applied the technique ‘partial translation’ (Berezowski 1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013, p. 28), which consists in maintaining phrases or expressions in the source language because they are generally well known to the target audience, or because they are rendered in a third language. Consider the following examples: # in Source Text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 12 Aye (p. 49) Aye (p. 50) VII - 63 This is Glesca (p. 39) This is Glesca (p. 41) VII - Shit (p. 10, 30, 56) Shit (p. 16, 33, 56) 117-119 VII - 132 There are secret deals get done (p. 89) Er worden geheime deals gesloten. (p. 88) The interjection ‘shit’ is used three times in the chapters analysed and was consistently translated as ‘shit’. As this interjection has been integrated in colloquial Dutch language, it is a well-known expression and the target audience will not take exception to this. The second example is the Scottish affirmation ‘aye’, which was found eleven times in the source text. In ten instances it was translated using standard language as ‘ja’, ‘inderdaad’ or ‘klopt’; only once ‘aye’ was kept. A similar strategy was applied to the translation of ‘Glesca’, a form of eye dialect for ‘Glasgow’: in the translation by Mellema, we find ‘Glesca’ once, whereas in at least five other instances, ‘Glesca’ is translated simply

as ‘Glasgow’. In the last example sentence, ‘deal’ is maintained in the translation. Even though ‘deal’ is listed in the Dikke Van Dale dictionary and can thus be considered an Anglicism in Dutch, it is labelled as ‘English: informal’, which is why I consider this a partial translation.

5.3.5 Non-standard language Finally, in only 33 cases, the translator used non-standard language to render non-standard source text elements. It should be noted, however, that in various cases, the language used in the translation is much softer than the source text language. For instance, where the source text features Scotticisms, the translator used informal Dutch expressions that are not bound to a specific geographical region. In this way, the informal register is maintained, but the regional character is less noticeable. # in Source text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 11 ‘I just thought, maybe the auld bastard’s ‘Volgens mij wil die ouwe lul Gallowhaugh still trying to keep drugs out of nog steeds drugsvrij houden.’ (p. 64) Gallowhaugh.’ (p. 65) VII - 128 He was a three-decades cop and a Hij zat al dertig jaar bij het korps en was een gossiping sweetie-wife to boot, but his enorme roddelkont, maar zijn informative info was usually reliable. (p. 89) was over het algemeen betrouwbaar. (p. 88) VII - 141 (…) With a very strong possibility that De kans is natuurlijk erg groot dat hij goed uit he’s playing it canny and we won’t get a zijn doppen kijkt en wij met lege handen naar thing. (p. 27) huis moeten. (p. 31) VII - 144 (…) but he was still an arrogant tosser (…) maar toch bleef hij in haar ogen een (…) (p. 75) arrogante lul (…) (p. 75)

The majority of elements that have maintained their non-standard character are terms of abuse. It should be noted that even though a number of these terms, such as ‘bampot’, ‘prick’, and ‘bastard’, occur multiple times, they are not always translated the same way. It can be argued that Mellema decided to compensate the loss of other non-standard elements, and hence translated these elements in various manners to broaden the non-standard vocabulary of the target text. Observe the following excerpts: # in Source text Mellema’s translation appendix VII - 25 Class A drug dealer, Class A bampot and Dealer in harddrugs, eersteklas klootzak en al long-term close associate of one Francis sinds jaar en dag gelieerd aan ene Francis Callahan. (p. 84) Callahan. (p. 84) VII - 110 Prick. (p. 3) De lul. (p. 8) VII - 159 Then the wee prick took the gun away Toen haalde die misselijke eikel zijn pistool again and started talking some more (…) weg en begon hij nóg een verhaal op te (p. 4) hangen (…) (p. 10) VII - 162 That the wee shite had insisted on being Dat die kleine koteklapper er vanavond per here tonight said it all. (p. 4) se bij wilde zijn, zei al genoeg. (p. 9)

5.3.6 Summary of results From the previous paragraphs it can be concluded that a large number of non-standard source text elements have disappeared in the translation. It does not come as a surprise that the loss of non- standard elements greatly affects the style of the target text. While the source text is heavily marked by vulgar and Scottish lexical elements, the translation maintains a language that is mostly standard and in limited cases colloquial.

If we compare the source and target texts, in general the target text is softened (Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010) or neutralised (Horton, 1998, Vandepitte, 2016) by the use of a fluent, natural – mostly standard – target language. Another cause of the softening and neutralisation of the translation is omission of non-standard elements.

In addition to this, in a limited number of cases the application of Horton’s third strategy (using non- standard language that is not specifically regionally marked) made the text remarkably less Scottish. In Vandepitte’s (2016) terminology this is described as using ‘colloquial language’: when the translator used non-standard language, it was regionally unmarked, thus causing the translation to lose its original Scottish character.

Nevertheless, Mellema has tried to balance the loss of non-standard language by adding non-standard elements to the target text where Brookmyre had originally used standard language, a strategy known as stylistic compensation (Butkuviene & Petrulione, 2010). In addition to this, Mellema translated a number of recurring expletives using various non-standard elements for the same source text expletive, thus expanding the non-standard lexicon of the target text. The translator managed to partially maintain the non-standard character of the source text by employing techniques such as ‘partial translation’ (Berezowski, 1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013) – maintaining English phrases or expressions – and usage of ‘partial dialectization’ (Vandepitte, 2016), when only lexical non-standard forms are used. On the micro level, the most important change can be noticed in the lack of phonetic deviation (Vandepitte, 2016), which is very present in the source text.

In general it can be concluded that the language in the translation is standardised to a colloquial form of Dutch, and that the Scottish character of the source text has been lost almost completely.

5.4 Comparing both translations

When comparing the analysis of the students’ translations of QUOM to the analysis of Mellema’s Verborgen Lichamen, it can be observed that in general the same translation strategies have been applied, i.e. use of standard language, omission, stylistic compensation, partial translation and non- standard language. The translators have mostly used colloquial expressions and standard language to render non-standard source text elements. In this way, both translations contain a colloquial variety of Dutch.

It should be noted, though, that in only the nine chapters analysed of Verborgen Lichamen, Mellema used twice the amount of stylistic compensation as De Wolf & Schotte did in the twenty chapters they translated. It can thus be assumed that the students are less inclined to compensate the loss of non- standard elements in their translation.

On the other hand, compared to Mellema’s translation, De Wolf & Schotte’s translation contains a remarkably higher amount of vulgar language and expletives. Nevertheless, in general, the language used in QUOM is of a more vulgar variety than the language featured in WTBAB. In order to demonstrate which translation maintained the use of vulgar language in the most accurate way – relatively speaking – a quantitative study should be conducted.

In addition to this, it can be concluded that both translations have lost their regional – i.e. Scottish and in limited cases English – character, caused by omission of regional elements and by using standard language. It should be noted that only in three cases did Mellema entirely omit a non-standard element from his translation; in all other cases it was translated using Standard Dutch or preserved by use of non-standard language. In the case of De Wolf & Schotte, the number of omissions throughout their entire translation is noticeably higher.

Though the Scottish character of the source texts is completely lost in translation, the translators could have retained the general, British character of the source texts – albeit to a limited extent – by application of partial translation (Berezowski, 1997, as cited in Sládková, 2013), for example, by maintaining expletives such as ‘fuck’ and ‘shit’, and the Scottish affirmation ‘aye’ in the translation. Nevertheless, both in Mellema’s translation and De Wolf & Schotte’s translation only a small number of instances can be found where partial translation was applied. Mellema only applied partial translation in two instances, whereas De Wolf & Schotte’s translation contains seven instances of

partial translation. Finally, it should be noted that there were no attempts in either translation to represent regional speech by use of eye dialect.

It can be concluded that in general both translations have been conducted by means of the same translation strategies concerning non-standard language: use of standard language, omission of non- standard elements, stylistic compensation to make up for the loss of non-standard language elements, partial translation to maintain the regional character of the source text, and use of non-standard language. Both translations feature a colloquial variety of Dutch, in which the Scottish character of the source text has been completely lost. The majority of non-standard elements have been translated using standard language. If non-standard language was used in the translation, vulgar source text elements and expletives were generally rendered in a neutralized, colloquial manner, though De Wolf & Schotte’s translation contains more vulgar elements than Mellema’s. The most remarkable difference between the two translations is the use of stylistic compensation, which Mellema applied in twice the amount of instances as De Wolf & Schotte, in only half the amount of chapters.

6. CONCLUSION The aim of this thesis was to study the translation of non-standard language in crime fiction. In order to investigate this, I have analysed the translation strategies used by students to translate non-standard language from Brookmyre’s crime novel Quite Ugly One Morning into Dutch, and afterwards compared these strategies to the ones used by Dutch translator Jan Mellema, who translated another one of Brookmyre’s novels, Where The Bodies Are Buried. Non-standard elements were selected from the corpora, after which the translations of these elements were analysed.

From the analyses it can be concluded that in general the students – De Wolf & Schotte – and Mellema, used the same translation strategies to render non-standard source text elements in their translations, i.e. use of standard language, omission of non-standard elements, stylistic compensation to make up for the loss of non-standard language, partial translation, and use of non-standard language. The majority of non-standard elements were translated using standard language. If non- standard language was used in the translation, vulgar source text elements and expletives were generally rendered in a more neutral, colloquial language variety. Nevertheless, De Wolf & Schotte’s translation contains more vulgar elements than Mellema’s does. The most significant difference between Mellema’s and the students’ translations is the use of stylistic compensation, which Mellema used twice as many times in only nine chapters as De Wolf & Schotte did in twenty chapters.

It can be concluded that both translations consist of a colloquial variety of Dutch, in which the Scottish character of the source text has been entirely lost. This corresponds with Levy’s (1969) observation that dialect is often completely lost in translation (as cited by Horton, 1998). Another observation by Horton himself (1998, p. 424) is very appropriate in this conclusion: “the language is standardised, no doubt wisely, to a universal colloquial form of German [in this case Dutch, of course], which manifests itself in a number of forms but is by no means as deviant as the original”.

Finally, I would like to reflect on my own translation of the first eleven chapters of Quite Ugly One Morning. As I have not selected and analysed the instances of non-standard language in my own translation like I have done for Mellema’s and De Wolf & Schotte’s, I can merely discuss the strategies I have deliberately applied. I have certainly attempted to retain as many non-standard elements as possible, and I believe the result of my translation is comparable to De Wolf & Schotte’s translations. During the translation process, I noticed the difficulty in maintaining the source text’s Scottish character in my translation, but similarly to De Wolf & Schotte, and Mellema, I have not discovered a specific strategy to maintain this regional character, and therefore, I assume it was lost in my translation as well. 43

References [Quite ugly one morning: Noelle's review] [Forum post]. (2016, September 30). Retrieved from https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/1745584232?book_show_action=true [Quite ugly one morning: Wendle's review] [Forum post]. (2012, April 11). Retrieved from https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/310619369?book_show_action=true&from_review_page=1 Amari, J. (2010). Slang lexicography and the problem of defining slang. Paper presented at The Fifth International Conference on Historical Lexicography and Lexicology, Oxford, United Kingdom. Retrieved from https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fd2d4042-0f65-4037-bfd3- 230c6193bc1d/datastreams/ATTACHMENT01 Anderson, J. (2016). Strategies for strangeness: crime fiction, translation and the mediation of ‘national’ cultures. The Translator, 22(2), 221-231. Anderson, J. (2014). Hardboiled or overcooked? Translating the crime fiction of Léo Malet. Journal of Specialised Translation, 22, 28-43. Belgrave, L. (2013, June 16). [Quite Ugly One Morning: Laura Belgrave's review] [Forum post]. Retrieved from https://www.goodreads.com/review/show/643179474?book_show_action=true&from_review_page=1 Black, T. (2011, September 08). The past, present and future of tartan noir. Retrieved from http://www.mulhollandbooks.com/2011/09/08/the-past-present-and-future-of-tartan-noir/# Book review Quite ugly one morning [Blog post]. (2011, September 06). Retrieved from http://www.austcrimefiction.org/content/where-bodies-are-buried-chris-brookmyre-0 Borchers, R. (s.d.). Nordic Noir: The rise of Scanidnavian crime fiction. Retrieved from https://theculturetrip.com/europe/sweden/articles/nordic-noir-the-rise-of-scandinavian-crime-fiction/ Brookmyre, C. (2011). Where the bodies are buried. London, Great Britain: Little, Brown and Company. Brookmyre, C. (1996). Quite ugly one morning. London, Great Britain: Little, Brown and Company. Brookmyre, C. (2011). Verborgen lichamen. Houten, Nederland: Unieboek | Het Spectrum. Brown, S. (2011, November 08). Lezersrecensie. Retrieved from https://www.hebban.nl/recensies/steyn-brown-over-verborgen-lichamen Butkuviene, K., & Petrulione, L. (2010). Translation peculiarities of slanguage. Studies about languages, 16, 39-43. Cadera, S. & Pintarić, A. (Eds.) (2014). The voices of suspense and their translation in thrillers. Approaches to Translation Studies, vol. 39. Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi.

Dumas, B., & Lighter, J. (1978). Is slang a word for linguists? American Speech, 53(1), 5-17. Ferguson, B. (2013, August 21). Christopher Brookmyre reveals film adaptation plan. The Scotsman. Retrieved from http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/books/christopher-brookmyre- reveals-film-adaptation-plan-1-3054782 Goudswaard, M. (2011, September 27). Verborgen lichamen [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://seventyeight.nl/recensies/verborgen-lichamen/ Hedger, N. (2009, March 01). Book reviews: Quite ugly one morning. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2648932/ Holcombe, G. (2005). Christopher Brookmyre. Retrieved from https://literature.britishcouncil.org/writer/christopher-brookmyre Horsley, L. (2010). From Sherlock Holmes to the present. In C. Rzepka & L. Horsley (Eds.), A companion to crime fiction (pp. 28-42). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Horst, J. (s.d.). What’s the secret of Nordic noir? Retrieved from http://www.norwayemb.org.in/PageFiles/648500/Nordic%20Noir_Horst.pdf Horton, D. (1998). Non-standard language in translation: Roddy goes to Germany. German Life and Letters, 51(3), 415-430. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468- 0483.00107/abstract Johnstone, D. (2013, August 11). How William McIlvanney invented tartan noir. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/aug/11/william-mcillvanney-tartan-noir Klein, Y. (2011, August). Where the bodies are buried. Retrieved from http://www.reviewingtheevidence.com/review.html?id=8916 Little Brown Book Group. (2017a). About the author. Retrieved March 30, 2017, from https://www.brookmyre.co.uk/about/ Little Brown Book Group. (2017b). Want you gone. Retrieved from https://www.brookmyre.co.uk/books/want-you-gone/ Linder, D. (2000). Translating slang in detective fiction. Perspectives, 8(4), 275-287. Lung, R. (2000). Non-standard language in translation. Perspectives, 8(4), 267-274. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0907676X.2000.9961395 MacBride, S. (2016, August 12). Tartan noir: a very strange beast. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1khlNTRKjnchr1WqG1K7tNV/tartan-noir-a-very-strange- beast Marsh, M. (2011, May). Where The Bodies Are Buried. Retrieved from http://www.reviewingtheevidence.com/review.html?id=8854

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Eye dialect. Retrieved from https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/eye%20dialect Mundow, A. (2012, July 18). Where the bodies are buried. Retrieved from http://www.barnesandnoble.com/review/where-the-bodies-are-buried Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). Jargon. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jargon Baldick, C. (2008). The Oxford dictionary of literary terms. Geraadpleegd van http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199208272.001.0001/acref- 9780199208272-e-307?rskey=ouqk25&result=301 Rolls, A., Vuaille-Barcan, M. & West-Sooby, J. (2016). Translating national allegories: the case of crime fiction. The Translator, 22(2), 135-143. Ruokonen, M. (2010). Cultural and textual properties in the translation and interpretation of allusions: An analysis of allusions in Dorothy L. Sayers’ detective novels translated into Finnish in the 1940s and the 1980s. Annales Universitatis Turkuensis B 330. Turku: University of Turku. Scaggs, J. (2005). Crime fiction. New York: Routledge. Seago, K. (2014a). Introduction and overview: crime (fiction) in translation. Journal of Specialised Translation, 22, 2-14. Seago, K. (2014b). Red herrings and other misdirection in translation. In S. Cadera & A. Pintaric (Eds.), The voices of suspense and their translation in thrillers. Approaches to Translation Studies, 39. (pp. 207-220). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Simpson, P. (2010). Noir and the psycho thriller. In C. Rzepka & L. Horsley (Eds.), A companion to crime fiction (pp. 187-197). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Sládková, P. (2013). Non-standard English varieties in literary translation: The Help by Kathryn Stockett (Master's Diploma Thesis). Retrieved from https://is.muni.cz/th/261866/ff_m/?lang=en Spooner, C. (2010). Crime and the gothic. In C. Rzepka & L. Horsley (Eds.), A companion to crime fiction (pp. 245-257). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Taylor, C. (2004, February 22). Paint it noir. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/22/books/paint-it-noir.html?_r=0 Tivnan, T. (2012, October 29). Christopher Brookmyre [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.thebookseller.com/profile/christopher-brookmyre Tuttle, G. (s.d.). Noir fiction. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20091027122738/http://geocities.com/SoHo/Suite/3855/ Vandepitte, S. (2016). Translating untranslatability. Gent, België: Academia Press.

Van de Sande, J. (2011, October 26). Lezersrecensie. Retrieved from https://www.hebban.nl/recensies/jonathan-van-de-sande-over-verborgen-lichamen Vermonden, J. (2011. October 28). Lezersrecensie. Retrieved from https://www.hebban.nl/recensies/jack-vermonden-over-verborgen-lichamen Vestrheim, E. (s.d.). What is Nordic noir? Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/8190109/What_is_Nordic_Noir Wilson, L. (2011, June 17). Crime fiction roundup. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/jun/17/crime-fiction-roundup-review Worthington, H. (2010). From the Newgate calendar to Sherlock Holmes. In C. Rzepka & L. Horsley (Eds.), A companion to crime fiction (pp. 13-27). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Appendix

Appendix I: translation of chapters 1-11 of Quite Ugly One Morning My translation of chapters 1-11 can be consulted via de digital upload on Minerva.

Appendix II: non-standard language in QUOM: Jack Parlabane Source text Page Label Translation Label 1 … as hell 206 Colloquial (argwanend) als altijd Standard 2 a helluva lot 159 Colloquial (ik weet) niet ontzettend veel Standard 3 a little more than bugger all 230 Slang (ik begrijp er) geen snars (van) Non-Standard 4 a one-off password 183 Colloquial eenmalig Standard 5 Alison Gifford's got nae tits anyway 176 Scottish Alison Gifford heeft toch geen tieten Non-Standard 6 arse 183 Vulgar slang klote Non-Standard 7 arse 183 Vulgar slang dommerik Standard 8 bastard 135 Colloquial smeerlap Non-Standard 9 bastard 251 Colloquial klootzak Non-Standard 10 bastards 187 Colloquial klootzakken Non-Standard 11 bastards 257 Colloquial vetzakjes Non-Standard 12 bent 169 Slang omgekochte Standard 13 bent 220 Slang corrupte Standard 14 big cheeses 162 Slang hoge piefen Non-Standard 15 blether 173 Scottish kletsten Standard 16 blinking flip 232 Colloquial wel heb je ooit Standard 17 bloody 132 Colloquial godverdomme Non-Standard 18 bloody 157 Colloquial verdomme Non-Standard 19 bloody 207 Colloquial verdomde Non-Standard 20 blootered 280 Scottish naar de kloten drinken Non-Standard 21 bog 159 Colloquial de plee Non-Standard 22 bog 217 Colloquial het toilet Standard 23 bollocks 167 Vulgar slang bullshit Non-Standard 24 bollocks 205 Vulgar slang / Omitted 25 bollocks 212 Vulgar slang larie Standard 26 bookies 134 Colloquial bookmakers Standard

27 bugger me with a blowtorch 131 Slang sodemieter op Non-Standard 28 bullshit 170 Vulgar slang lulkoek Non-Standard 29 cakewalk 177 Colloquial makkie Non-Standard 30 casing the joint 158 Slang de boel verkennen Standard 31 chubster 259 Colloquial kwal Non-Standard 32 chuck away 132 Colloquial weggooien Standard 33 clout 188 Slang macht Standard 34 cludgie 218 Scottish wc Standard 35 cock-end 258 Vulgar slang lulkop Non-Standard 36 completely fucking bonkers 205 Slang helemaal van lotje getikt Standard 37 cop 257 Slang flik Non-Standard 38 cop 261 Slang flikken Non-Standard 39 cuppa 230 Colloquial kopje thee Standard 40 did his worst for 210 Standard om zeep helpen Non-Standard 41 Doc 255 Colloquial dokter Standard 42 fatso 261 Slang knorretje Non-Standard 43 fiver 136 Colloquial een briefje van vijf Standard 44 flogging 229 Slang verpatsen Non-Standard 45 flogging 188 Slang Verkopen Standard 46 fluke 99 Slang om te bewijzen dat ik het echt kon Standard 47 folk 175 Colloquial mensen Standard 48 fuck 186 Expletive Verdomme Non-Standard 50 fuck 259 Expletive verdomme Non-Standard 51 fuck 183 Expletive fuck Not translated 52 fuck this (for a game of soldiers) 219 Vulgar slang oké, nu ben ik het hier echt beu Standard 53 fuck, fuck, fuck, fuck, fuck 257 Expletive Nee, nee, nee, nee, godverdomme Non-Standard 54 fucked 166 Vulgar slang verneukt Non-Standard 55 fucked 217 Vulgar slang (hij was) de lul Non-Standard 56 fucking 259 Vulgar slang godverdomme Non-Standard

57 fucking 262 Vulgar slang godverdomme Non-Standard 58 fucking 258 Vulgar slang fucking Not translated 59 fucking 186 Vulgar slang / Omitted 60 fucking 214 Vulgar slang / Omitted 61 fucking 260 Vulgar slang / Omitted 62 fucking 273 Vulgar slang / Omitted 63 fucking 277 Vulgar slang / Omitted 64 fucking 187 Vulgar slang vuile Standard 65 fucking 276 Vulgar slang gigantisch (gat) Standard 66 fuzzball 262 Colloquial baardaap Non-Standard 67 gee-gees 169 Slang paardjes Standard 68 get the fuck out 276 Vulgar slang zo snel mogelijk weg Standard 69 grand 139 Slang duizend pond Standard 70 grand 234 Slang duizend pond Standard 71 grotty 186 Slang stinkend Standard 72 gub 194 Scottish bek Non-Standard 73 happy as a pig in shit 205 Slang zo gelukkig als een varken in de stront Non-Standard 74 hard-on 183 Vulgar slang stijve Non-Standard 75 hard-up 234 Colloquial in geldnood Standard 76 It’s you’ll get yours, ya bastard 262 Scottish je krijgt je verdiende loon, klootzak Non-Standard 77 Jesus Christ alfuckin’ mighty 269 Slang Jezus Christus Maria Jozef Standard 78 knocked back 175 Colloquial hem afgewezen had Standard 79 knocking him back 175 Colloquial wilde niet met hem dansen Standard 80 lucky bastards 175 Colloquial gelukzakken Standard 81 manky 186 Colloquial vuil Standard 82 might as well begin at the top, he 179 Standard Ik kan even goed bij de hoogste pief Non-Standard thought beginnen, dacht hij. 83 pain in the arse 183 Slang kuttaakje Non-Standard 84 pish 215 Slang pis Non-Standard 85 pish 273 Slang / Omitted 52

86 polis 260 Scottish flikken Non-Standard 87 Pork Boy Colloquial biggetje Non-Standard 88 prick 166 Vulgar slang lul Non-Standard 89 prick 275 Vulgar slang klootzak Non-Standard 90 prick 184 Vulgar slang lul Non-Standard 91 prick 276 Vulgar slang klootzak Non-Standard 92 sad fuck 251 Vulgar slang zielenpoot Non-Standard 93 sad little wanker 262 Vulgar slang kleine, zielige idioot Non-Standard 94 scrote 194 Vulgar slang geldwolf Standard 95 scuzzball 167 Colloquial smerige Standard 96 shagged 206 Vulgar slang neukten Non-Standard 97 she tucked into 210 Slang zij wat (eitjes) opschepte Standard 98 shitey 132 Vulgar slang lullig Non-Standard 99 shmoozing 157 Slang sloeg praatjes Standard 100 short-arsed 205 Slang petieterig Standard 101 skint 133 Colloquial blut Standard 102 skint 234 Colloquial blut Standard 103 smart-arse 131 Slang wijsneus Standard 104 snog 175 Colloquial kussen Standard 105 snuffing it 191 Slang sterven Standard 106 spunk bubble 273 Colloquial makker Standard 107 streetwise 205 Colloquial vlot in de omgang Standard 108 sussed 205 Colloquial bedachtzaam Standard 109 ta 190 Colloquial dank je Standard 110 take the piss 132 Colloquial Bespaar me je gespot Standard 111 the biggest buzz 179 Colloquial het grootste nieuws Standard 112 the security is abysmal anyway 171 Standard De bewaking trekt toch op niets Non-Standard 113 tit 156 Slang idioot Non-Standard 114 to be packed off to 173 Colloquial naar… gestuurd Standard 115 to brass-neck it 207 Colloquial slaagden ze erin heel zelfverzekerd over Standard 53

te komen 116 to freak 179 Colloquial door het lint gaan Standard 117 toley 276 Scottish vent Non-Standard 118 turd 258 Vulgar slang etter Non-Standard 119 twat 159 Slang lul Non-Standard 120 twat 258 Slang eikel Non-Standard 121 vibe 100 Colloquial gevoel Standard 122 vomit 257 Standard kots Non-Standard 123 wanking 168 Vulgar slang bullshit Non-Standard 124 wee 98, 133, 168, Scottish klein / een beetje/ ° / wat meer / ° / Standard / Omitted 173, 186, 257, kleine / -je / -je / heel klein / -tje 260, 262, 271, 274, 275, 277 125 wee shite 277 Vulgar slang dikzakje Non-Standard 126 what the fuck 269 Slang wat is dat Standard 127 what the hell 205 Colloquial wat dan nog Standard 128 wifie 255 Scottish oude vrouwtje Standard 129 wobble-arse 259 Colloquial schommelbuikje Non-Standard

Appendix III: non-standard language in QUOM: Sarah Slaughter Source text Page Label Translation Label 1 a catch 105 Colloquial een goede partij Standard 2 a dope 117 Colloquial een uilskuiken Non-Standard 3 a sickie 108 Colloquial een zieke Standard 4 a tenner 110 Colloquial tien pond Standard 5 arsehole 189 Vulgar slang klootzak Non-Standard 6 arseholed 110 Vulgar slang strontzat Non-Standard 7 bastard 116 Colloquial klootzak Non-Standard 8 bastards 99 Colloquial klootzakken Non-Standard 9 bastards 188 Colloquial klootzakken Non-Standard 10 big noise 235 Slang lawaaimaker Standard 11 bloke 189 Slang kerel Non-Standard 12 bloody 106 Colloquial verdomde Non-Standard 13 bloody 237 Colloquial ongelooflijk Standard 14 bollocks 226 Vulgar slang larie Standard 110, 117, bookie Colloquial bookmaker Standard 15 141 16 buff and turf 191 Colloquial Oplappen en buitengooien Non-Standard 17 bugger 95 Slang drommel Standard 18 cack it 192 Vulgar slang doodvallen Standard 19 cack it 232 Vulgar slang het begeven Standard 20 cash cows 189 Colloquial geldschijtende ezels Non-Standard 21 crooks 140 Colloquial criminelen Standard 22 crumble 230 Colloquial mensje Standard 23 crumbles 189, 191, Colloquial (oude) wrakken Non-Standard 55

192, 227, 232 24 curled up her toes 225 Colloquial het begaf Standard 25 don’t give a shit 188 Vulgar slang geven geen moer om Standard drives them bloody 107 Colloquial maakt hen compleet gek Standard 26 nuts 27 fuck 137 Expletive fuck Not translated 28 fuck off 96 Vulgar slang donder op Non-Standard 29 fucked-up 116 Vulgar slang verknipt Non-Standard 30 fucking arsehole 262 Vulgar slang vuile klootzak Non-Standard 31 fucking bastards 187 Vulgar slang vuile klootzakken Non-Standard 32 fucking pot plants 190 Vulgar slang planten Omitted 33 fucking roast lamb 115 Vulgar slang fucking gebraden lam Non-Standard 34 grannies 232 Colloquial oudjes Standard 35 granny-dumping site 118 Colloquial een plaats om omaatjes te dumpen Non-Standard having my own crack Colloquial tijdens de examens (st) Standard 36 at the MRCP 114 37 he gives a fuck 145 Vulgar slang het kan hem iets schelen Standard 38 hot-shot 144 Slang uitblinker Standard meat and two veg 108 Vulgar slang alledaagse geneeskunde Standard 39 medicine not only can you not 190 Colloquial je zit niet enkel met hen opgescheept Standard 40 turf patients out nothing wrong with 103 Colloquial niks mis mee 41 that Non-Standard 42 oily little turd 236 Vulgar slang klein, vet misbaksel Non-Standard 43 on the nose 110 Colloquial precies Standard 44 pal 141 Colloquial vrienden Standard 56

45 poor bastard 114 Colloquial arme ziel Standard 46 quality time 107 Standard quality time Not translated 47 quid 107 Colloquial pond Standard 48 shirty 237 Slang nijdig Standard 49 short-arsed 144 Slang kleine Standard 50 slag off 119 Slang afgeven op verpleegsters Standard 51 snuffed it 222 Slang de pijp uit ging Standard 52 spineless git 144 Slang sukkel zonder ruggengraat Standard squeeze out some 115 Colloquials koters uitpersen Non-Standard 53 sprogs 54 the lads 110 Colloquial de jongens Standard 55 the major medical bods 106 Colloquial de belangrijke piefen uit de geneeskunde Non-Standard 56 the pub 109 Standard de pub Not translated the teensy-weensiest 223 Colloquial een ietsiepietsie klein beetje Non-Standard 57 bit 58 there's a surprise, huh? 103 Colloquial da's een verrassing hé? Non-Standard they will find themselves up to their 108 Colloquial waarin ze zullen verzuipen Non-Standard 59 necks in 60 this was donkeys ago 235 Colloquial heel lang geleden Standard 61 threaten to get heavy 116 Colloquial met geweld dreigen Standard 62 to flog 118 Slang jatten Non-Standard 63 to get up the stick 116 Colloquial zwanger worden Standard 64 to hack it 118 Colloquial geneeskunde aankunnen Standard 65 to turf patients out 190 Colloquial patiënten begeleiden Standard 66 was what hooked him 110 Colloquial daardoor werd hij verslaafd Standard 67 wee 106 Scottish kleine Standard 57

68 wee 222 Scottish kleine Standard 69 yanks 191 Slang / Omitted

Appendix IV: non-standard language in QUOM: Jenny Dalziel Source text Page Label Translation Label 1 aye 248 Scottish Ja Standard 2 aye 249 Scottish Nee Standard 3 aye 252 Scottish Inderdaad Standard 4 aye 279 Scottish Ja Standard 5 bimbette 134 Slang bimbo Non-Standard 6 bloody 250 Colloquial / Omitted 7 buggered off 249 Slang is ervandoor Standard 8 cop 143 Colloquial flik Non-Standard 9 cop 142 Colloquial flik Non-Standard 10 dippy 135 Slang idioot Standard 11 Doc 145 Colloquial doc Not translated 12 evil bastard 251 Colloquial laffe klootzak Non-Standard 13 for fuck’s sake 134 Expletive godverdomme Non-Standard 15 fuck 249 Expletive Jezus Standard 16 fucking 142 Vulgar slang fucking Not translated 17 fucking 135 Vulgar slang verschrikkelijk Standard 18 golly gosh 253 Colloquial allemachtig Standard 19 moody bastard 139 Colloquial humeurige klootzak Non-Standard

20 nae kidding 251 Scottish je meent het Standard 21 pal 142 Colloquial maat Standard 22 peachy 279 Colloquial tiptop in orde Standard 23 puke 254 Colloquial kots Non-Standard 24 shagging 250 Vulgar slang neuken Non-Standard 25 to fanny about 250 Slang erover leuteren Standard 26 wee 142 Scottish beetje Standard 27 wee 279 Scottish -tje Standard 28 you big poof 131 Colloquial jij mietje Non-Standard

Appendix V: non-standard language in QUOM: Inspector McGregor Source Text Page Label Translation Label 1 Aye 195 Scottish Ja, juist Standard 2 Aye 252 Scottish Ja Standard 3 bastard 252 Colloquial / Omitted 4 bloke 252 Slang Gozer Non-Standard 5 bloke 278 Slang / Omitted 6 blood… 249 Colloquial / Omitted 7 bloody surprise 249 Colloquial grote verrassing Standard 8 Don't fuckin' push it 248 Vulgar slang Daag me niet uit Standard 9 for fuck's sake 248 Expletive Verdorie Non-Standard 10 for fuck’s sake 195 Expletive Godverdomme Non-Standard 11 Fucking skip lorry 249 Vulgar slang een vrachtwagen Standard 12 hame 278 Scottish huis Standard 13 I don't want to fucking know 278 Vulgar slang Ik wil het godverdomme niet horen Non-Standard 14 Jesus sufferin' fuck 249 Vulgar slang godverdomme Non-Standard 15 More fucking fingers 278 Vulgar slang Alweer verdomde vingers Non-Standard 16 no again 253 Scottish niet weer Standard 17 Not a fucking word 197 Vulgar slang Hou godverdomme je mond Non-Standard Scaring the fucking shite out 248 Vulgar slang Je jaagt me de stuipen op het lijf Standard 18 of me 19 shite 252 Vulgar slang miserie Non-Standard 20 slow doon 248 Scottish rijd eens wat trager Standard 21 spew 196 Colloquial kots Non-Standard 22 to get pissed 278 Colloquial om me te bezatten Non-Standard 23 we fucked up 252 Vulgar slang / Omitted

Appendix VI: non-standard language in QUOM: Darren Mortlake Source text Page Label Translation Label 1 amgifackikillyou 199 Speech defect kguvrmoordn Non-Standard 2 An’ I wannit in me room 155 Cockney En ik wil het in mijn kamer Standard 3 as soon as bastarding possible 264 Colloquial zo snel mogelijk Standard 4 bloody fucking sod it 264 Vulgar slang het zit me echt tot hier Standard 5 butafowt 270 Speech defect maarkdaht Non-Standard 6 coursafuckican. Issem? 270 Speech defect ntuurlk knik nog. Znet die twee? Non-Standard 7 cunt 265 Vulgar slang hij Standard 8 cunt 155 Vulgar slang klotewijf Non-Standard 9 cunts 198 Vulgar slang gozers Non-Standard 10 for fuck’s sake 201 Vulgar slang in godsnaam Standard 11 for fuck’s sake 267 Vulgar slang geen sprake van Standard 12 fucked 198 Vulgar slang geneukt Non-Standard 13 fucked up 198 Vulgar slang naar de kloten geholpen Non-Standard 14 fucker 203 Vulgar slang idioot Standard Fucking 198, 199, 201, Vulgar slang / Omitted 15 264, 266, 267 16 fucking rotten dinner 201 Vulgar slang voze avondmaal Non-Standard 17 grand 267 Colloquial (dertig-) duizend pond Standard

18 hannassdent 270 Speech defect onglukjad Non-Standard 19 hellish knackered 201 Slang doodmoe Standard I’m doin’ what you ask. I’ve got me ‘ands up. The 127 Cockney Ik doe wat jij me zegt. Mijn handen zijn Standard, weight of this dog’s fuckin’ killin’ me, but I’ve got omhoog. Ik kan het gewicht van de hond except 'flikken' me ‘ands up. Are you callin’ the Ole Bill or what? niet meer aan, maar mijn handen zijn = Non- 20 omhoog. Ga je de flikken bellen of wat?’ standard 21 K 267 Colloquial duizend pond Standard 22 kicked their fucking heads in 198 Vulgar slang timmerde op hun bakkes Non-Standard 23 nnibag 270 Speech defect nzak Non-Standard 24 old bat 201 Slang oude heks Non-Standard 25 old bitch 198 Slang ouwe teef Non-Standard 26 old bitch 264 Slang ouwe geit Non-Standard 27 old cow 198 Slang ouwe geit Non-Standard 28 old cow 201 Slang dwaze geit Non-Standard 29 old cunt 199 Vulgar slang dat kreng Non-Standard 30 pissed off 266 Colloquial woedend Standard 31 prick 268 Vulgar slang lul Non-Standard 32 puke 202 Colloquial kots Non-Standard 33 shit 267 Vulgar slang stront Non-Standard 34 shit 266 Vulgar slang vervloekte Non-Standard 35 shit 266 Vulgar slang / Omitted 63

36 sod it 264 Slang ik heb het gehad Standard 37 stupid cunt 267 Vulgar slang stomme uil Non-Standard 38 tart 198 Slang slet Non-Standard 39 thassnofuckifunny 270 Speech defect snigrapg Non-Standard 40 the Filth 201 Slang die smerige flikken Non-Standard 41 tiny old Jock granny of a landlandy 198 Colloquial kleine, ouwe Schotse bomma Non-Standard 42 to fuck around 201 Vulgar slang wortel schieten Standard 43 wa? 271 Speech defect wa? Non-Standard 44 What the fuck 202 Vulgar slang ach, wat maakte het ook uit. Standard 45 youcun 272 Speech defect vuilkltzak Non-Standard

Appendix VII: non-standard language in WTBAB ST pagina label Translation label 1 / 5 / kickte Non-Standard 2 / 8 / kont Non-Standard 3 a daft wee lassy 70 Scottish puber Standard 4 a dead body 35, 39, Standard een dooie Non-Standard 47 5 a wee bit of panelbeating 26 Scottish het uitdeuken en bijlakken Standard and a skoosh of spray paint 6 aboot 64 Scottish erover (las) Standard 7 angry wee dog 5 Scottish bozig keffertje Standard 8 are you all put oot because 63 Scottish zijn jullie pissig omdat jullie hier helemaal Non-Standard (pissig) you've come doon here naartoe zijn gekomen? 9 are you burned? 16 Jargon heeft hij iets in de gaten? Standard 10 arse 8 Slang kont Non-Standard 11 auld bastard 65 Scottish ouwe lul Non-Standard 12 aye 49 Scottish aye Not translated 13 aye 26 Scottish ja Standard 14 aye 27 Scottish ja Standard 15 aye 32 Scottish ja Standard 16 aye 35 Scottish was dat maar waar Standard 17 aye 40 Scottish ja Standard 18 aye 45 Scottish inderdaad Standard 19 aye 63 Scottish ja Standard 20 aye 65 Scottish ja Standard 21 aye 82 Scottish ja Standard 22 aye 86 Scottish ja / klopt Standard 23 ballsing up 54 Slang verprutsen Standard 24 bam 45 Scottish hij deugde niet Standard 65

25 bampot 84 Scottish klootzak Non-Standard 26 bampots 51 Scottish idioten Standard 27 bams 62 Scottish / Omitted 28 bang somebody up 85 Slang oppakken Standard 29 bastard 3 Slang eikel Non-Standard 30 bastards 65 Colloquial kleerkasten Non-Standard 31 bastards 26 Colloquial klootzakken Non-Standard 32 blubbed (in the passenger 16 Colloquial instapte Standard seat) 33 bob 61 Colloquial een paar centen Standard 34 bodies 51 Standard dooien Non-Standard 35 bollocks 64 Slang dat geloof ik meteen, maar niet heus Standard 36 burned 30 Jargon er gloeiend bij zijn Standard 37 butter sb up 36 Colloquial stroop om de mond smeren Standard 38 by the nick of him 45 Colloquial / Omitted 39 cannae hack it 61 Scottish hem niet bij kunnen houden Standard 40 cannaemisswhodunit 39 Scottish je-kunt-zo-zien-wie-het-gedaan-heeft Standard 41 chancers 75 Slang opportunist Standard 42 checking his six 24 Colloquial kijken of hij gevolgd werd Standard 43 clout 76 Slang mach Standard 44 clout 2 Slang macht Standard 45 coked-up neds 39 Scottish door de coke opgefokte mafkezen Non-Standard 46 cop 89 Colloquial hij zat al dertig jaar bij het korps Standard 47 cops 75 Colloquial collega's Standard 48 crappy wee (shops) 42 Slang + Scottish verwaarloosde winkels Standard 49 crooks 70 Colloquial criminelen Standard 50 don't kick the arse oot it 5 Scottish je hoeft zijn kop niet door zijn kont te douwen Non-Standard 51 doss down 44 Colloquial slapen Standard 52 dragged-out-of-bed look 40 Standard slaperige kop Non-Standard 53 dud 11 Slang dood spoor Standard 66

54 establish 16 Jargon verificatie Standard 55 face 3 Standard kop Non-Standard 56 fag 84 Colloquial sigaretje wegpaffen Non-Standard 57 fat arses 26 Slang luie kont Non-Standard 58 flaky 22 Slang grillig Standard 59 funny 16, 25 Jargon frons Standard 60 funny 30 Jargon frons Standard 61 get het up 8 Slang zich opwinden Standard 62 gig 75 Colloquial functie Standard 63 Glesca 39 Scottish Glesca, Glasgow Non-Standard / Standard 64 glesca polis 50 Scottish het politiekorps van Glasgow Standard 65 grand 86 Colloquial mille Standard 66 greetin' her eyes out 83 Scottish huilbuien Standard 67 guy 27 Colloquial vent Non-Standard 68 had been fly 4 Slang dathij alles in de pocket had Non-Standard 69 hadn't sussed 16 Colloquial wist niet dat… Standard 70 hankies 17 Colloquial zakdoekjes Standard 71 hanky 78 Colloquial tissue Standard 72 have pals 26 Colloquial kennen Standard 73 he was a bit of a crook 14 Colloquial hij was niet helemaal in de haak Standard 74 he's plonked there 88 Colloquial hij zat daar Standard 75 head 4 Standard kop Non-Standard 76 heid 39 Scottish / Omitted 77 hen 64 Scottish meid Standard 78 hen 71 Scottish meid Standard 79 his tea's oot 49 Scottish hij heeft zijn beste tijd gehad Standard 80 i cannae see 87 Scottish ik zie niet Standard 81 it's a bugger 82 Slang jammer Standard 82 it's gaunny be… no' a 39 Scottish het is … geen … Standard 83 jakey 44 Slang zwerver Standard 67

84 jammy 45 Colloquial jammy/geluksvogel Standard: explanation of the English pun 85 jammy sod 7 Colloquial + Slang hij had ontzettend veel geluk Standard 86 kudos 75 Colloquial dat moest ze hem nageven Standard 87 light sb up 48 Slang mollen Non-Standard 88 loch 61 Scottish vijver Standard 89 main drag 28 Colloquial hoofdstraat Standard 90 minders Slang kleerkasten Non-Standard 91 minders 61 Slang mannen Standard 92 minders Slang bodyguards Standard 93 munch 46 Standard wegkanen Non-Standard 94 writ large 61 Scottish stralen maar één ding uit Standard 95 pal 3 Colloquial maatje Standard 96 pals 32 Colloquial vriendinnen Standard 97 photie 45 Scottish foto Standard 98 pish-heid bampot 39 Scottish doorgedraaide idioot Standard 99 poky 24 Colloquial krap Standard 100 police stamped on their 10 Standard politiekop Non-Standard foreheads 101 polis 10 Scottish politie Standard 102 polis 48 Scottish politie Standard 103 polis 63 Scottish rechercheurs Standard 104 polis 74 Scottish politie Standard 105 polis 75 Scottish politiekorps Standard 106 polis 82 Scottish politie Standard 107 polis 83 Scottish politie Standard 108 polis 88 Scottish politie Standard 109 post-coital 84 Standard na de wip Non-Standard 110 prick 3 Slang de lul Non-Standard 111 punters 22 Colloquial bevolking Standard 112 punters 48 Colloquial klanten Standard 68

113 screw-up 12 Colloquial verprutst Standard 114 shag 85 Slang / Omitted 115 shag 38 Slang vrijpartij Standard 116 shagging 85 Slang naaien Non-Standard 117 shit 10 Expletive shit Non-Standard 118 shit 30 Expletive shit Non-Standard 119 shit 56 Expletive shit Non-Standard 120 skint 75 Colloquial geen cent te makken Non-Standard 121 skint 62 Colloquial geen cent te makken Non-Standard 122 smack 77 Slang heroïne Standard 123 smack 86 Slang heroine Standard 124 spitting feathers 87 Colloquial sprong zowat uit zijn vel Standard 125 sting (N) 54 Colloquial valsstrik Standard 126 straight on the batter 39 Scottish aan de boemel gaan Standard 127 sugar-coated bollocks 71 Slang stroopsmeerstadium Standard 128 sweetie-wife 89 Colloquial roddelkont Non-Standard 129 telly 40 Colloquial tv Standard 130 tenner 30 Colloquial tientje Standard 131 the brass 71 Colloquial het korps Standard 132 there are secret deals get 89 Colloquial er worden geheime deals gesloten Non-Standard done 133 this is glesca 39 Scottish this is glesca Not translated 134 to be jammy 7 Colloquial mazzel hebben Non-Standard 135 to do a runner 8 Slang ervandoor gaan Standard 136 to fly the coop 8 Slang de benen nemen Standard 137 to get burned 7 Jargon toen het doelwit in de gaten kreeg dat hij Standard gevolgd werd ; betrapt worden 138 to go bust 9 Slang failliet gaan Standard 139 to have eyeball 6, 11 Jargon in het vizier hebben Standard 140 to make any bloody sense 75 Colloquial totaal geen zin hebben Standard 69

141 to play it canny 27 Scottish uit zijn doppen kijken Non-Standard 142 to stone 77 Slang plat krijgen Non-Standard 143 to tote 30 Colloquial meezeulen Non-Standard 144 tosser 75 Slang lul Non-Standard 145 turf war 76 Colloquial bendeoorlog Standard 146 up for grabs 50 Colloquial hun slagkunnen slaan Standard 147 wasnae 26 Scottish (standaardtaal) Standard 148 wasnae 45 Scottish was niet Standard 149 wasnae aware 64 Scottish wist ik helemaal niet Standard 150 watch his step 3 Standard uit zijn doppen kijken Non-Standard 151 we ran aboot together 64 Scottish samen optrekken Standard 152 we're nane of us 64 Scottish we zijn geen Standard 153 weans 51 Scottish kinderen Standard 154 wee 38 Scottish - tjes Standard 155 wee chancer 36 Scottish + slang opportunist Standard 156 wee cock 3 Scottish + Slang kleine klootzak Non-Standard 157 wee flat 78 Scottish flatje Standard 158 wee heid 26 Scottish brein Standard 159 wee prick 4 Scottish + slang misselijke eikel Non-Standard 160 wee semi 31 Scottish heel klein huisje Standard 161 wee sesh 84 Scottish + colloquial namen ze samen even wat lichamelijke Standard oefeningen door 162 wee shite 4 Scottish + slang kleine kloteklepper Non-Standard 163 wee snippet 84 Scottish deze informatie Standard 164 wee visit 86 Scottish bezoekje Standard 165 well in the frame 88 Standard in de picture Non-Standard 166 what aboot it 63 Scottish en wat dan nog? Standard 167 whodunit 34,35,3 Colloquial detective Standard 8,39, 168 nick 61 Colloquial conditie Standard 70

169 you cannae fight on every 89 Scottish je kunt niet op elk front winnen Standard front