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The Chemical, Mineralogical, Structural and Surface Properties of Selected Ugandan Clays and Their Application in Bleaching Oil

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The Chemical, Mineralogical, Structural and Surface Properties of Selected Ugandan Clays and Their Application in Bleaching Oil IJETST- Vol.||02||Issue||09||Pages 3126-3147||September||ISSN 2348-9480 2015 International Journal of Emerging Trends in Science and Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18535/ijetst/v2i9.01 The Chemical, Mineralogical, Structural and Surface Properties of Selected Ugandan Clays and their Application in Bleaching Oil Authors Mukasa-Tebandeke Is’harq-Zubair B.Sc. Dip Educ. M Sc.(Mak) Registration number 2000/HD13/1471U Submitted to the School of Physical Sciences GTRC, Makerere University for Registration for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry Supervisors: 1Assoc. Prof. S.A. Nyanzi, Department of Chemistry, Makerere University 2Assoc. Prof. G.W. Nyakairu, Department of Chemistry, Makerere University 3Prof. 3.J.M. Ssebuwufu, c/o Department of Chemistry, Makerere University INTRODUCTION traditionally mixed with water to form pastes or 1.1 Background gels applied externally for cosmetic or skin For a long time, clays have been used to clarify protection (Gomes et al, 2007, Carretaro et al, mineral and vegetable oils (Nutting, 1933; 2002, 2007) because of their high adsorptive and Siddiqui, 1968). Whereas vegetable oils for absorptive capacities. Clays were used to clarify human consumption are clarified using bleaching mead until recently when a brand sold in UK was earths (Adekeye and Bale, 2008; Ajemba et al, found to introduce arsenic and lead in the alcohol. 2012;Kamal et al, 2011; Mustapha et al, 2013; Clays and clay minerals remove organic pollutants Patterson, 1992; Proctor, 1988; Salawudeen et al from water (Tahir et al, 2013; Zadaka et al, 2007) 2007; 2014; Taylor, 1984; Zchau, 1981), other and aflatoxins (Jaynes et al, 2007). oils can be clarified using peroxides. Vegetable oils contain many impurities including Clays have been used for healing, cosmetic and peroxides, pesticide residues and heavy metal ions nutritive purposes since ancient times. Healing which can be harmful to man as well as carotenes, clays help the body rid of toxins. Bentonites tocopherols, phytosterols and squalenes which are gained popularity for internal and external nutritive (Cho-Ah-Ying, 1991; Goh, 1986; detoxification (Aufreiter et al, 1997). Clays as Peymaneh et al, 2014; Salawudeen et al, 2007; antibacterial agents were evaluated (Hui et al, Usman et al 2012, 2013); tocopherols and 2005; Tong et al, 2005; Williams and Hydal, tocotrienols which have vitamin E activity in the 2010) and those used in medicines are bentonites human body (Wang, 1999); phytosterols which (Carretero and Lagaly, 2007) kaolinites are used have pharmaceutical effects (Khor and Chieng, for digestive upsets absorbing acid and gases. 1997). Removal of carotenes, gums, pigments and Geophagic clays have high concentrations peroxides during the bleaching process renders the minerals as silica, calcium, magnesium, iron, oils less harmful and nutritive. sodium, potassium (Ekosse and Anyangwe, 2012; In Uganda clays used in the vegetable oil Gichimbi et al, 2012) so they act as natural industries are imported from South Africa, China, sources of minerals. Clay minerals are USA, or UK; spending foreign currency on Mukasa-Tebandeke Is’harq-Zubair et al www.ijetst.in Page 3126 IJETST- Vol.||02||Issue||09||Pages 3126-3147||September||ISSN 2348-9480 2015 materials that can be prepared from local earths in which would locally produce the earths since they Uganda. As all oil industries are private and there will not prevail. is lack of legislation enforcing use local materials, As the bleaching earths are imported, there must the owners of the industries cannot venture in be tendencies of lowering the standard of oil on research because it is expensive and will lower the the market in order to offset production costs. savings. This may lead to consumption of low grade oils The local populace in many parts of this country containing heavy metals, peroxides and pesticide produce oils by pressing simsim, groundnut, date residues by unsuspecting Ugandans. palms, cashew nut or/and sunflower paste, and use it without bleaching. This poses a threat of 1.2 Statement of the problem diseases arising from consumption of heavy Uganda is endowed with a big diversity of natural metals, peroxides and pesticide residues yet local resources which would be very instrumental in clays can be used to remove impurities from oils growth and development of the vegetable oil (Bakhtyar et al, 2011; Bastos-Andrade et al, 2014; industry. The country is rich in clay deposits as Mbah, et al, 2005; Naeem and Ahmad, 2008; well as plants which bear fruits that produce Mustapha et al, 2013; Nir et al, 2006; Nwabanne vegetable oils on commercial scale. However, and Ekwu, 2013; Salawudeen et al, 2007; 2014; these resources are largely untapped, neglected or Topkafa et al, 2013; Ujeneza et al, 2014; Usama et utilized haphazardly because the science of using al, 2012; 2013; Valenzuela-Diaz and Souza- local clays to bleach is limited. Santos, 2001; Veniale et al, 2007). Clays from In addition, scientific data needed to develop Kajansi were successfully used to bleach cotton- bleaching earth mines is limited despite the fact seed oils (Dandy, 1967), however, clays from that the volcanic clays that are used to produce Kajansi, Kitetikka, Koki and Mutaka have been bleaching earths are available in Uganda in areas developed to make bricks and tiles ( Kirabira et al, of past volcanic activity. Further more, little is 2005; 2004; Nyakairu and Kahwa, 1998), not known about the quality of Ugandan clays in bleaching earths. bleaching the oils. Similarly, the quality of oils The economy of Uganda is largely agricultural, bleached using Ugandan clays is unknown. The needs to be diversified through value addition. possibility of developing local clays to bleaching The growing of oil seeds (such as cotton, earth can result from well documented research. It groundnuts, sunflower, cashew nuts, simsim, is the aim of this study to furnish such data that is pumpkins and palm oil dates started many years crucial to developing Ugandan bleaching earths. ago to boost the oil production in Uganda. Palm In this respect therefore, both clays and vegetable oil growing estates have been set up on the oils will be analyzed fully before and after Kalangala islands. Several oil processing factories interacting with each other to characterize a have cropped near towns up such as Mukwano, Ugandan bentonite. Gulu nanak, BIDCO, Nile agro processing and Mawokota soap works and the sales of oil made in 1.3 Significance of the study Uganda is quite high. In all these oil industries, The results from this research will provide bleaching earths are imported, though they could alternative ways of utilizing Uganda’s local use what is local since all other in-puts are local resources by availing data on the nature and and reduce on expenditure. means of converting clays of Uganda to industrial Importation entails spending the scarce foreign bleaching earths and quality of oils bleached using exchange, in addition to raising production costs local earths, which can be used in the local while promoting foreign industries from which the industries here and/or be exported. earths are imported. And this denies Ugandans The data will be used for setting up bleaching employment opportunities in such industries earth industries thereby increasing on the job Mukasa-Tebandeke Is’harq-Zubair et al www.ijetst.in Page 3127 IJETST- Vol.||02||Issue||09||Pages 3126-3147||September||ISSN 2348-9480 2015 market and tax base for the government. The v. To isolate and characterize the clay with information will save Ugandans from using raw or highest bleaching capacity using IR, DTA partially bleached oils thereby presenting a and XRD patterns. possibility of reducing health hazards caused by consuming heavy metals, peroxides and pesticide LITERATURE REVIEW residues in oils. 2.1 Clays Clays belong to a group of minerals collectively 1.4 Justification of the study called alumino-silicates. They contain aluminium The characteristics of Ugandan bleaching clays oxide and silicon dioxide as universal minerals remain unknown, yet these clays are on (Bailey, 1980; Hamza, 1966; Nguetrikam et al, worldwide demand. So there is urgent need for 2008; Woumfo et al, 2007) and have special comprehensive study to elucidate the surface, properties ranging from catalytic, sorption, ion structural, mineralogical, chemical and bleaching exchange, discoloring, filter aid to catalyst support properties of natural clays from Uganda. (Murray, 2000; Papp, 1971). Investors may get interested in developing the Methods of preparing bleaching earths were bleaching earth industry when knowledge from described by many authors (Dandy, 1965; this research is disseminated thereby increasing Motlagh et al, 2011; Nguetrikam et al, 2008; the job market. Nutting, 1935; Welsberger, 1968; Woumfo et al, 2007). Clays of Uganda are used for bricks, tiles 1.5 General objective and/or ceramics (Kirabira et al, 2005;2004; The general objective of the study is to determine Mathers and Mitchell, 1992; Nyakairu and the bleaching, chemical, mineralogical, structural Kahwa, 1998); they could be used to discolor and surface properties of selected clays from crude oils or as filter aids if researched on. Central and Eastern Uganda, and the quality of Clays were classified, (Longstaffe, 1981) and used vegetable oils bleached with them. The general to bleach (Adekeye and Bale, 2007; Boki and objective will be achieved from the following Ohno, 1989; Falaras et al, 2000; Kaufmann and specific objectives. Mukherjee, 1967; Liew, 1994; Morgan, 1985; Naeem and Ahmad, 2008; Nir et al, 2006; Norris, 1.5.1 Specific objectives 1982; Patterson, 1992; Peymaneh et al, 2014; i. To determine elemental, mineralogical and Salawudeen et al, 2007; 2014; Taylor, 1984; 1989; structural properties of selected clays from Usama et al, 2012; Valenzuela-Diaz and Souza- Eastern and Central Uganda. Santos, 2001). Soy bean, sunflower-seed, cotton- ii. To bleach vegetable oils using calcined seed, Olive, corn, soybeans and all other seed oils and activated selected and spent bleaching fall into the general family of oils known as clays at differing temperatures; record vegetable oils.
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