NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN

Technical information on the National Register of Historic Places: survey, evaluation, registration, and preservation of cultural resources

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service - Cultural Resources

GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING, EVALUATING, AND REGISTERING AMERICA'SHISTORIC BATTLEFIELDS Themission of the Depabnent of the Interior is to protect and provide access to our Nation'snatural and cultural heritage and honor our trust responsibilities to tribes.

This material is partially based upon work conducted under a cooperative agreement withthe National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers and the U.S. Deparbnent of the Interior.

(Cover Photo). This monument commemorates the memory of the Confederate and Union soldiers who fought at Brices Cross Roads, Lee County, Mississippi, on June 10, 1864. Brices Cross Roads is the site where Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest defeated the larger Union force of Gen. S.D. Sturgis, thereby continuing to threaten the Union lines of communication during Gen. Sherman's Atlanta Campaign. (Photo by National Park Service). NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN

GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING, EVALUATING, AND REGISTERING AMERICA'SHISTORIC BATTLEFIELDS

by Patrick W. Andrus

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service National Register, History and Education

1992; Revised 1999 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments...... ii Preface ...... iii

I. Battlefields on theLandscape ...... , ...... 1 II. A HistoricalPerspective on Battlefield Preservation...... 2 III. 3 Why BattlefieldsHave Been Preserved...... IV. The Status of Battlefield Preservation ...... 4 5 V. Guidelines for Identifying,Evaluating, and Registering Battlefields ...... VI. 6 IdentifyingBattlefields ...... I)efiningthe Historic Context...... 6

Conducting HistoricalResearch ...... 6 Surveying the Battlefield...... 7 VII. 9 EvaluatingBattlefields ...... I)efiningSignificance ...... 9 Applying theNational Register CriteriaFor Evaluation...... 9 SelectingAreas of Significance...... 9 I)efiningPeriods of Significance ...... 10

Assessing Integrity...... 10 Applying theQualities of Integrity...... 10 IdentifyingContributing and NoncontributingResources ...... 11 AssessingOverall Integrity...... 11 SelectingI)efensible Boundaries ...... 13 Whereto Draw the Boundary...... 13 Discontiguous Boundaries...... 13 VIII. Registering Battlefields ...... 14 Registration...... 14 Name of Property...... 14 Oassification...... 14 Guidelines forCounting Resources on a Battlefield ...... 14 Function ...... 15 I)escription...... 15 Guidelinesfor Describing a Battlefield...... 15 Statement of Significance...... 15 Guidelines forI)escribing the Significance of a Battlefield...... 15 Boundaries...... 15 Maps ...... 16 Mapping the Battlefield...... 16 GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) Mapping ...... 16 Photographs...... 17 IX. Glossary...... 18 X. Bibliography...... 19 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This bulletin was prepared by Foster of the American Battlefield ment of Cultural Resources; Kathryn B. PatrickW. Andrus, Historian, National ProtectionProgram; Jean Travers and Eckert, Michigan Bureau of History; Register of Historic Places. The author Michael Auer of the Preservation Chere Jiusto, Montana Historical gratefully acknowledges the invaluable Assistance Division; James N. Haskett, Society; Nancy Miller, NationalConfer­ assistance of John Knoerl, Director, Colonial National Historical Park; Jock ence of State Historic Preservation Cultural Resources Geographic Infor­ Whitworth, Big Hole National Battle­ Officers,and Samuel D. Smith, Tennes­ mation Systems Facility, and Dale field; Paul L. Hedren, Fort Union see Division of Archaeology. Floyd, Historian, the American Battle­ Trading Post National Historic Site; Thispublication has been prepared field Protection Program. The author is Jerry A. Eubanks, Gulf Islands National pursuant to the National Historic also indebted to other colleaguesin the Seashore; Kenneth E. Apschnikat, Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, cultural resources programs of the Manassas NationalBattlefield Park; which directs the Secretary of the National Park Service. These include Cecil McKeithan and Kirk Cordell of Interior to develop and make available Lawrence E. Aten, Chief, Interagency the Southeast Regional Office; Brook information concerning historic Resources Division; Carol D. Shull, Blades of the Mid-AtlanticRegional properties. Thisbulletin was devel­ Chief of Registration,National Register Office; and Julie Corona, Rocky Moun­ oped under the general editorship of of Historic Places, Interagency Re­ tain Regional Office. Significant Carol D. Shull, Keeper, National sources Division; de Teel Patterson contributions were also made by Bill Register of Historic Places. Antoinette Tiller, Chief, PreservationPlanning Houston, Office of Territorial and J. Lee, historian, was responsible for Branch, Interagency Resources Divi­ International Affairs; Hugh C. Miller, publicationscoordination and Patty sion; and Edwin C. Bearss, Chief Director, Virginia Departmentof Sackett Chrisman, historian, provided Historian, National Park Service; staff Historic Resources; James E. Jacobsen, technical support for the original of the Interagency Resources Division, State Historical Society of Iowa; Elsa bulletin. Beth Savage, historian, and including Beth Savage, Toni Lee, Gilbertson, Vermont Division for Sarah Dillard Pope, NCSHPO historian, Marilyn Harper, Diane Miller, Patty Historic Preservation; Jay C. Ziemann, coordinated the revision and reprint. Chrisman, Jan Townsend, and Stephen Arizona Office of Historic Preservation; Comments on this publication may be Morris; Marilyn Nickels, and Maureen David Brook, North Carolina Depart- directed to Keeper, National Register of Historic Places, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, NW, NC-400, Washing­ ton, D.C. 20240.

ii PREFACE

Battlefields represent some of our cance of many battlefields derives from The battlefields of American history nation's most significant historic a brief and extraordinarily violent reflect important aspects of our culture properties. Our nation achieved moment in time, the basic principles for and heritage. These lands today face independence through the trialof identifying, evaluating, documenting, unprecedented threats to their survival. battle, and military action often deter­ registering, and protecting these Their loss would destroy an important mined the very boundaries of this historic properties can be applied more part of our sharedi historic experience. country. The momentous decision of broadly, particularly to significant This publicaton is designed to assist in whether we would remain one country historic rural landscapes. The charac­ the recognition of these important or two was settled by war. The great teristics that define a broad range of propertiesworthy of preservation. We clash of cultures between the first rural landscapes - natural features, should never forget the sacrifices made Americans and the later European land uses, vegetation, historic building on these fields. settlers was determined in military types - also define many battlefields. engagements. The threats to rural landscapes - Battlefields are an important type of changing land uses, loss of vegetation, Lawrence E. Aten cultural landscape. Theyare places that alteration to natural features, loss and (former) Chief have been profoundly marked by replacement of historic buildings - Interagency Resources Division human endeavor. While the signifi- also are occurring on many battlefields. National Park Service Departmentof the Interior

iii "Johnny, if a boy diesfor his countrythe gloryis his forever,isn't it?"

1 Confederate soldierWill Pope's dying words to his friendJ ohnny Green,Shiloh battlefield,Tennessee, A pril 7, 1862. "Throughthose motels and fried-chickenstands, Pickett'smen charged. Thefirst line falteredin the Burger King parking lot and regrouped next to the Tastee Freeze."

2

Tour guide standing on Cemetery Ridge, pointingto the west of Gettysburg National Military Park, 1991.

1 Travels to Hallowed Ground. A Historian'sJourney to the AmericanCivil War

2 Quoted in Emory M. Thomas, The Environmental Forum, (Columbia, S.C.: University of SouthCarolina Press, 1987), p. 52. Quoted in Edward T. McMahon, "Saving Our Senseof Place," (May /June, 1991), p. 16. iv I. BATTLEFIELDSON 'I HE LANDSCAPE

Throughout our history, warfare was absolutemonarchy and constitutional to deliver the Cuban peoplefrom virtually endemic in this country. From monarchical rule. Thirteenyears later despoticSpanish rule. The American the earliest days of settlementthrough the American colonists battled in the strugglefor democracyduring World World War II, generations of Americans defenseof libertyagainst what they War II (1941-1945) was fought in part on have witnessedor participated in the perceivedto be the despotismof the American territoryin the islands of the clash of arms on American soil. Britishempire. The independenceof Pacific and Alaska. The greatissues of liberty, democ­ America was then secured in the War of Battlefields associatedwith these racy, expansion, and the defenseof 1812, and with the War forTexas wars are found across the land. They all homeland and culture weresettled on Independencein 1836. The War with share common qualities - they are a numerous American battlefields. Mexico (1846-48)extended American significant part of our nationalheritage Warfare betweenthe American Indians institutionsacross the continent. All of and they face unprecedentedthreats to and the European ethnic groupsthat theseefforts paled in comparisonwith their continued existence. This bulletin settledthe countryspanned centuries. the American Civil War (1861-1865), is designed to provide guidance in the The colonial wars betweenFrance, when the very idea of America as a identification,evaluation, and registra­ Spain, and Great Britain,culminating in unified nation and the fontof liberty tion in the National Register of Historic the French and Indian War (1754-1763), was challenged and sustained in an epic Places of these importantcomponents of ended the titanic strugglefor world struggle. The Spanish-American War our national patrimony. domination betweenthe forces of (1898) was fought, among other reasons,

Battlefieldsmeet National Register CriterionA if they are associatedwith importantmilitary events. On January 17, 1781, in thesefields, stretchedacross the GreenRiver Road,Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan ledhis army of tough Continentals and backwoodsmilitia to a brilliant victoryover Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton' s larger force of Britishregulars. Thisvictory at the Battle of Cowpens playedan importantpart in the chain of British disasters inthe South which led to their ultimate defeat at Yorktown. ( Photo by Cowpens National Battlefield).

1 II. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEON BATTLEFIELDPRESERVATION

In 1925 the Anny War College in their consequences.4 Thebattle­ battlefieldsat Chickamaugaand reportedto Congressthat it could fields all over Virginiaare still Chattanooga,Congress, forthe first identifythe location3 of morethan 3,400 unmarked. time, approved the acquisitionof encounters, skirmishes, and battles in nationallysignificant historic property the United States. While thesenum­ Commemorationof battlefields from private owners,through purchase bers might indicatethat battlefields through the construction of monuments or by condemnationthrough thepower were ubiquitous, in the 19th century is an ancient practice and beganin the of eminent domain. As importantly, in there was a concernthat while the United Stateslate in the 18th century. January 1896 the power of Congressto memory of the valor displayedon these But the idea of preservingan entire enact thesesignificant historic (United preserva­ Statesv. battlefieldswould remain, knowledge battlefield was a new concept and tionGettysburglaws wasElectric unanimouslyRy., Co., upheld by of their actual locationwas rapidly virtually a singular American practice, the U.S. Supreme Court fading. Many of thesesites were located which beganwhen Congress5 established 160U.S. 668 in rural areas, unmarked, and undiffer­ the Chickamauga-ChattanoogaNational (18%)). Importantalso was the estab­ entiatedfrom surrounding fields, MilitaryPark in 1890. The events of the lishment of the policyof preservingthe orchards, and woodlands. Less than Civil War led to the creationof botha battlefields as nearly as possiblein their forty years after the Gvil War an system of national militarycemeteries condition at the time of the battle. observernoted that: and national military parks. In several instancesthe cemeteries becamethe 6 In addition, there have beennumer­ one could easily drive through the nuclei forthe later establishment of the ous efforts by State and localgovern­ whole [Shenandoah] Valley with military park, such as at Gettysburg. mentsand private individuals to hardly a reminderanywhere that on TheFederal government'sinvolve­ preserveor commemoratebattlefields. thesefamous fields on either side of ment in battlefieldpreservation had In a numberof instancesthe effortsof the turnpike were glorious deedsof important impacts on the development private citizensor veterans of the battle daring, superb achievements of of national historic preservationpoli­ to preservethe battlefieldpreceded that generalship, and battles farreaching cies.7 In the 1890s, actingto protectthe of government agencies.

3 The Origins and Evolutionof the MilitaryPark Idea

4 Ronald F. Lee, (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service,U.S. Department of the Interior, 1973), p. 5. "ThePreservation of the Past," An Address DeliveredBefore the Associationfor the Preservationof Virginia Antiquities, by 5Charles W. Kent, M.A., Ph.D., in the Houseof Delegates,Richmond, Virginia,on MarchThe 14, Yearbook 1901. of(Richmond: l.Andscape Architecture:Wm. Ellis HistoricJones, 1901),Preservation p. 13. 6 ReubenThe M.Origin Rainey, and Evolution'TheMemory of the Nationalof War: ReflectionsMilitaryPark on Idea, Battlefield Preservation." 7 (New York: Van NostrandReinhold The Origin Company and Evolution Inc., 1983), of the p.70.National Military Park Idea, Lee, p. 19. 2 The followingdiscussion is takenfrom Lee, pp. 36-37. III. WHYBATTLEFIELDS HAVE BEEN PRESERVED

The original motivation in rommemo­ establishthe first five Civil War parks properties, they "help maintain a ratingbattlefields was to memorializ.e and erectedmonuments adjacentto consciousnessof the8 past that is essen­ the bravery and self-sacrificeof the men their rights of way. tialfor the development of a coherent fallen in battle. President Lincolnnoted Battlefields were alsosaved for their cultural identity." Rather than glorify­ that theseplaces had beenconsecrated unique roleas schoolsfor military ing war or the worst elementsof by the brave men who struggledthere, study. The preservationof large areas passion that war can ignite, American and that the groundwas hallowed by as national military parks offers an battlefields serveas places of quiet the presenceof thosewho gave their unparalleled opportunityto study large contemplation on the courage and lives that the nation might live. The and small-scale maneuversof actual dedication of the participants and of the movement to constructmonuments combat on grounds that remain essen­ dreadful toll of warfare. dedicated to individual units in the tially unchanged from the time of battle. There are further reasonsto preserve 1880s gave many battlefields their The U.S. Army Center for Military battlefields. In many instances battles current park-like appearance. These History still facilitates"staff rides" on occurredon open agriculturallands and post-battlememorialization efforts have Civil War battlefieldsfor officers theseareas are still in agriculturaluse. acquired their own historical signifi­ attending professional military educa­ In promotingeconomic diversity, many cance. tion centers. States encourage the continued useof A seconduse of battlefields in the late A final reasonfor the early preserva­ agriculturallands, which frequently 19th century was as the sceneof national tionof battlefields was to protectplaces contributes to the preservationof the reconciliation as theseplaces of carnage that held profound historical signifi­ battlefieldsite. In areas experiencing becamemeeting places for formerfoes cance for the nationas a whole. In the rapid development the preservationof during the Civil War. As the passions of 1896 Gettysburg casethe U.S. Supreme these open spaces can add to the quality war cooled, large numbers of Union and Court held that not only was the of life for these communities by preserv­ Confederate veterans met at annual preservationof theseplaces a public ing the beautyof the rural landscape commemorations on battlefields. As use,but that it was closelyronnected and natural habitats for wildlife. The Oliver Wendell Holmes statedin 1884, with the welfareof the republic itself. It preservationof battlefields can also there was kept alive the memory that "in has beenobserved that battlefields merit provide economic benefitsto public and our youths our hearts were touched preservationbecause, like all historic private owners stemming from tourism. with fire. Itwas given to us to learnat the outset thatlife is a profound and passionate thing." In the 19th century, railroads were interested in promoting visits to battle­ fields. They lobbied Congress to

Beginning in the late19th century, battlefields becamethe focus of national reconciliation between the fonnerfoes of the AmericanCivil War. Shown here on July 3, 1913, are members ofthe Philadelphia Brigade Association,and Pickett'sDivision Association,reuniting at the stone wall of the Angle on the Gettysburgbattlefield, during the 50th anniversaryreunion of the veterans of the Battleof Gettysburg. (Photo by Gettysburg NationalMilitary Park).

8

3 Rainey, 'The Memory of War: Reflectionson Battlefield Preservation,"p. 78. IV. 'I HE STATUSOF BATTLEFIELDPRESERVATION

9

Estimatingthe number of American While thesenumbers may seemimpres­ in the Plains States, can beidentified. battlefields is a subjective exercise sive, many battlefields remain unrecog­ In the National Park System, there are whoseresult is determined by how nized and unprotected, and particular currently only five battlefields associ­ battlefields are defined. As noted periodsof our country'smilitary history ated with the colonial wars, threefrom earlier, the Army War College identified are under-representedin State or the War of 1812, and sevenbattlefields the location of more than 3,400encoun­ Federal holdings and in listings in the associatedwith the Indian Wars. A ters, skirmishes, and battles associated National Register of Historic Places. survey of 58 battlefieldsassociated with with the military history of our country. A recent review of National Register the Civil War noted that more10 than half Other calculations have produced listingsfor battlefieldsreveals that of a of them lack adequate protectionby widely different counts. One exhaustive total 236 battlefields listed in the public or private agencies. Develop­ Compendiumchronicler of ofCivil the War ofmilitary the Rebellion, action, National Register there are 62 battle­ ment pressures immediately outside of Frederick H. Dyer, in his 1909 book A fields from the entire colonial period. the parks posea threat to even those This number,encompassing military battlefields preservedin Federal counted 10,455 military actions in the action between1564 and 1783, com­ ownership. four-year war.Index Using to Battles another defini­ prises27 percentof the total number of An important stepin the preserva­ tion, the U.S. Army countedWar 8,700 of thesuch battlefields listed in the National tion of battlefields is that they be Rebellion:actions in A the Compilation of theof Official its late Register. Civil War battlefields, repre­ recognized by listing in the National Records19th centuryof the 128-volumeUnion and Confederate sentingfour years of fighting, comprise Register of Historic Places. Listing Armies. some35 percent of all National Register propertiesin the National Register often battlefields. Seriouslyunder-repre­ changes the way communitiesperceive Regardless of the definition, sented in National Register listings are their historic resourcesand gives there are hundreds if not thousandsof battlefields associatedwith the period credibility to State and localefforts to American battlefields, bothsmall and 1866to 1900, which covers the major preserve these resourcesas living parts large. periodof the Indian Wars in the trans­ of our communities. The information Since the creation of the first national Mississippi West. There are 21 battle­ contained in the surveys of these military park in 1890 sometwenty-nine fieldsfrom this periodlisted in the historic places and in the National battlefields, numerous forts and na­ National Register (9 percentof all Register nomination forms can beused tional cemeterieshave beenpreserved battlefields listed). One study of the for a variety of purposes,including by the Federal government. In addition, Indian Wars noted that the sites of public heritage education, planning by State park systems include more than almost 50 major engagements between local, State, or Federal agencies, and in forty battlefields and a numberof forts. soldiersand American Indians, mostly publications.

9 Soldier and Brave: Historic PlacesAssocia ted with IndianAffairs and the Indian Wars in the Trans-Mississippi West, RobertG. Ferris, ed., 10 The National Survey of HistoricThe Civil Sites War and Battlefield Buildings, Guide, Volume XII(Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, 1971), p. 46. 4 Frances H. Kennedy, ed., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990), p. xi. V. GUIDELINES FOR IDENTIFYING,EVALUATING, ANDREGISTERING BATTLEFIELDS

IDENTIFICATION

Thefollowing sections offer guidance • Apply qualities of integrity to State historic preservationoffices, • Classify contributing and noncon- Federal agencies, local governments, • Definingthe historic context tributing resources preservationprofessionals, and inter­ • Conducting historic research • Evaluate overall integrity ested individuals in preparingnomina­ EVALUATION• Surveying the battlefield • Selectingdefensible boundaries tions to the National Registerof Historic • Whereto draw the boundary REGISTRATION Placesidentification, forhistoric evaluation, battlefields. Theregistra­ • Discontiguousboundary National Register processinvolves the and tion of historic properties,and is most • Definingsignificance • Apply the National Register criteria efficiently undertaken in the following • Completing National Registerform sequence: • SelectAreas of Significance • DefinePeriod of Significance • Following registrationprocedures • Assessingintegrity in 36CFR Part 60.

Battlefieldscan remind us of the sometimes,xiinful choicesthat divided our country. The Battleof MooresCreek, in Pender County, North Carolina, was an important actionin the apening phases of the AmericanRevolution. Here on February27, 1776, Patriotforces clashed with and defeateda largerforce of ScottishLoyalists. This battlefieldcommemorates the deeplydivided loyalties in the Americancolonies between thosewho supportedindependence and thosewho remained loyal to their King. (Photo by North Carolina Division of Archives and History).

5 VI. IDENTIFYING BATTLEFIELDS

DEFINING THE CONDUCTING HISTORIC bloodiest day in American history. The HISTORICAL geographic componentof the context CONTEXT forthis battle is the campaignin North­ RESEARCH ernVirginia/Western Maryland, and the time framefor understanding the battle is the early fall of 1862. Sometimesthe significance of a battle The significance of a battlefield can is readily apparent, such as the victory In order to develop the historic only be understood when the battle is of the American and allied forces over context to evaluate a battlefield,the considered within itshistoric context. the Britishat Yorktown, Virginia, history of the military actionmust be The historic context of a battlefield is the during the American Revolution, which thoroughly understood. Information chronological period,the geographic led to peacetalks and the recognitionby should begathered on the factors - area, and the seriesof events which Great Britain of America's indepen­ military, social,economic, diplomatic - accountfor its occurrence and help dence. Other battles are important not that account for thebattle. The last explain its significance. Many indi­ somuch for the eventsthat occurredon sectionof this bulletin contains an vidual battles were part of a larger the day of the battle, but rather for what extensive bibliography on American military campaign that may need to be they setin motion. For example, Balls military history. It lists bibliographies described to place a battle in context. To Bluff Battlefield in LoudounCounty, on military history, general surveys of qualifyfor listingin the National Virginia, was the sceneof a Civil War military history and organizations, Register, battlefields can besignificant battle which accounted for a small specificstudies of military action at the local, the State, or the national numberof casualties. Yet this event had groupedchronologically, battlefield level. To be significant at the local level, a profound impact on the later courseof guides, military atlases,and special a battle must have beenassociated with the war. Thebungling of the Union studies. The bibliography is a general military events importantin the history commanders during that 1861 battle led list and is designedto lead the re­ of a town, city,county, cultural area, or radical Republicans in Congressto searcherto additional sourcesof region. Battlefields are significant in a create a Joint Committeeon the Con­ information. statewide context when they are duct of the War. This committee In addition to the general sources associated with an aspectof military undertook the first exerciseof congres­ included in the bibliography, primary history important to the State as a sional authority to overseeand investi­ and secondary sourcematerials on whole. Battlefields significant in a gate operationsof the Executive Branch American militaryaffairs are volumi­ nationalcontext are thoseassociated of the Federal government. Had there nous. General histories of American with a facet of militaryhistory that had not beenthis politicalresponse to the wars, official records of campaigns, , an important impact on the entire Battle of Balls Bluff, the battlefield today studies of specificcampaigns, biogra­ nation. would only beremembered as the site phies of leading participants, regimental The significance of battles cannot be of a minor engagement, rather than histories, military booksand manuals, understood in a vacuum. For example, beingrecognized as a National Historic historical militaryatlases, guide books the importance of the Union victory at Landmark. to battlefields, journals of military the Battle of Antietam in 1862 is best The National Register does not history, and diaries and reminiscences understood by knowing that in the late require a lengthy explanation of a of individual soldiersare generally summer of that year the Confederacy battle's context. The context statement available at libraries. A wide variety of had launched a coordinated invasion in can bedirect and to the point,as long as sourcesshould be consulted in conduct­ the West and the East, that at the time it provides a perspectivefrom which to ing historical research on a battlefield. President Abraham Lincoln was evaluate the relative importance of the A variety of manuscriptprimary desperatelywaiting for a Northern battle. For battles that are significant for sourcescan befound in numerous victory to issue his Emancipation what they setin motion, the later repositories throughoutthe country. Proclamation, and that the European important events should bebriefly and The National Archives and Records powers were closelywatching the generally described. Servicein Washington, D.C., has military situation while considering custody of the official recordsof the whether to offer to mediate the conflict United States Government. These (which implied recognizing the Confed­ recordsinclude military and other eracy as an independentnation). An agency documents, such as reports, awareness of the crucial nature of the correspondence,maps and photo­ outcome of the Battle of Antietamputs graphs, relating to battles. Many States into perspective, or context, the stagger­ and local governmentsmaintain 6 ing losses of 23,000casualties during the archives that also include pertinent documents. Hundreds of additional patternsaffected the flow or outcome of series of woodlots and fields. Before repositories, both public and private, the military action. Thefeatures attempting to draw a boundary for the include personal papers and other present on the battlefield should be battlefield it is vital to understand the manuscript collections that may contain recorded through inventory forms and nature of theopposing forces, the useful documents. Two guides to these photographs and located on a battle­ importance of the terrain to the direc­ archives and manuscript repositories field site map. Changes in the historic tion and outcome of the battle, and the are cited in thebibliography sectionof patternof land use should be noted. series of military actions before, during, thisbulletin. For detailed informationon undertak­ and after the battle. Understanding the Othervaluable sources of informa­ ing a survey see the National Register component parts of thebattle will assist tionon specific battlefields might Bulletin,Guidelines for Local Surveys: A in explaining the significance of the include books and periodicals on State, Basis for Preservation Planning. battlefield, in defining a boundary, and county, and local history, historic maps, In surveying a battlefield, a basic indetermining therelative importance period photographs, contemporary issue is where do battlefields start and of features found on thebattlefield. newspaper accounts, and local family end? Some battles were confined to Theseare features and locations where records. Historic maps may include the relatively small geographic areas while opposing forces, either before, during, location of farms, property lines, road otherswere fluid affairs with military or after the battle, took actions based on networks, mills, bridges, churches, activityextending over large regions. their assumption of being in the cemeteries, and inns. Thesefeatures In many instances military groups presence of the enemy. Refer to section may have played an important role in traveled long distances before meeting 7 for guidance on where to draw the the battle such as a headquarters, in battle. Some battlefield sites today boundary for a battlefield. hospital, or defensive position. appear simply as an undifferentiated Thefollowing is a partiallist of It is important to consult the State battlefield components: historic preservationoffice for informa­ tion related to the site or to the events with which it is associated. Once thegeneral historic context of the battleis understood, the battlefield itself should be surveyed. SURVEYING THE BATTLEFIELD

Prior to preparing a National Register nomination, it is essential to make an on-site inspection of the battlefield in order to evaluate its integrity and to determine boundaries. Many battlefields are in private owner­ ship and the surveyor should be sensitive to private property rights and receive theowner's permission prior to inspecting the land. While buried soldiers on many battlefields were later disinterred for reburial elsewhere, the surveyor should still be particularly alert to evidence of human graves on the battlefield and should be aware that a variety of Federal, and State laws relate to the discovery of human remains. Documentary evidence locating field hospitals on battlefields might indicate the possibility of burial sites existing on thebattlefield. If a suspected burial site is observed it should be noted, but not disturbed. Any potential burial site should be reported to theState historic preserva­ tion office and examined by an arche­ Battlefields may derive additional significance for their association with later effortsto ologist. memorialize the bravery and sacrificeof the participants. The movement to construct With theknowledge gained through monuments dedicated to individual units in the 1880s gave many battlefields their historic research, the surveyor should current park like appearance. Illustrated here is the monument commemorating the have an understanding of what features Michigan Thirteenth Infantry Regiment's participation in the Battle of Chickamauga were present during the battle and how (September 19-20, 1863). (Photo by National Park Service). the topography or historic land use 7 MOVEMENTS AREAS • farmhousesand outbuildings • fencelines and hedgerows • Theimmediate approachesto the • Engagement areas • stone walls battlefield • Areas of troopconcentrations • roads • Hanking movements during the • Areaswhere reserve troops were • fords battle positioned • fields • Retrogradesor withdrawalsfrom • Stagingareas • orchards the battle • Bivouac areas • woodlots • Attack movements during the • Areas whererearguard actions • watercourses POSITIONSbattle OTHERtookplace LOCATIONS • railroad lines • bridges • sourcesof water

Not all of thesecomponents are • Picket lines • Commander's observationpoints important in every battle, and there may • Battlelines and their viewsheds be others not included in the list that are • Skirmish lines • Signal stations and their viewsheds particularly importantto a given battle. • Artillery positions • Battle hospital sites Oncethese aspects of the battlefield • Burial sites have beenlocated and documented,the • Command posts(also called battlefieldcan beevaluated. headquarters) • Aspectsof thehistoric landscape Battlefieldscan be importantun der NationalRegister such Criterion as: A if theyare associatedwith significantadvances in weaponryor tactics. Fort Pulaski, a Confederate stronghold in Chatham County, Georgia,was bombarded into submissionby Federal artilleryon April 10-11, 1862. The massive damageinflicted on Fort Pulaskicon clusively demonstratedthe ineffectivenessof old-style masonryfortifications against the newl11-develovedrifled artillery. (Photo bu NationalPark Service).

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8 VII. EVALUATING BATTLEFIELDS

Criterion D Evaluating a battlefield involves area and secured the Northwest applies to properties consideringits historic significance, frontier for the new American republic. that have yielded or are likely to yield, determiningthe physical integrity of Battles may also be associated with informationimportant to prehistory or the battlefield,How to Apply and the defining National appropriate Register events important in social history, such history. Historic battlefields may boundaries.Criteria for Evaluation, National RegisterGuidelines Bulle­ for as the Civil War battle at Port Hudson, contain historic archeological properties tins,Completing National Register of Historic Louisiana where African-American associated with the battle. Battlefield Places Forms and soldiers fightingfor the Union made archeology should have a specific important contributions,or the 1771 purpose and be based on scholarship should be consulted for battle in Alamance, North Carolina and justifiable research needs. The detailed guidance on defining signifi­ between the State militaand the archeological study of human remains canceDEFINING and evaluating integrity. Regulators, which reflected the deep and historic artifacts on the battlefield social divisions between the settled may provide informationthat is not SIGNIFICANCE coastal areas and the Piedmont frontier. available elsewhere. An archeological Battles can also be associated with study may help confirmor disprove the events far removed from the scene of accuracy of earlier accounts of the APPLYING THE NATIONAL militaryaction. The American victory battle. For example, thestudy of REGISTER CRITERIA FOR over British Lt. Gen. John Burgoyne at distribution patterns of military hard­ EVALUATION the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, for ware, especially bullets and shrapnel on example, led the Kingof France to thebattlefield, will add to our under­ recognizeCriterionthe B independence of the standing of how the battle was fought. American colonies. An archeological examination at Little applies to battlefields Bighorn Battlefield NationalMonument To qualify for the NationalRegister, that are associated with the lives of in Montana revealed that theIndians a property must meet one or more of persons important in our past. Crite­ possessed a far greater amount of the NationalRegister Criteria for rion B will apply to a battlefield when firepower than was previously known. Evaluation. Battlefields may qualify for the battle was an important aspect of Thedistribution pattern of bullets theNational Register by meetingany of the person's life or career. For instance, found on the battlefield greatly added the National RegisterCriteria for the1880 fight at Tinaja De Las Palmas, to our knowledge of the progress of the Evaluation. They may be associated Texas, between the U.S. Army and the fight at the Little Big Horn. For many with events, (for example, military, Mescalaro Apaches, one of the last battlefields the likelihoodexists of diplomatic, or economic), that have major event in the Indian Wars in buried human remains at certain made a significant contribution to the Texas, is associated with the noted locations on thebattlefield. broad patternsof our history (Criterion Apache leader Victoria, and the 1811 Some military engagements had A), or they may be associated with the Battle of Tippecanoe was a milestone in naval operations conductedin associa­ lives of individuals significant in our the life of Gen. (and future President) tion with the land battle. Theriver past (Criterion B), or they may contain William Henry Harrison. For military systems played a particularlyimportant significant works of architecture or leaders, the battle should be considered role in the Civil War. Battlefieldsmay engineering (Criterion C), or they may in light of the person's entire military have associated archeological remains have yielded, or may be likely to yield, career to determine if Criterion B related to these naval operations which information important in our history applies to theGuidelinesparticular for Evaluatingbattlefield. and For itNominating may be appropriate Historic Vessels to include and Ship­ within (Criterion D). In considering the detailedDocumenting guidance Properties on applying AssociatedCrite­ with thewrecks boundary. to the National In these Register instances, of Historic importance of battlefields, they should rionSignificant B see Persons. Places be evaluated against all of the National Criterion C Register Criteria. A battlefieldwill be SELECTINGshould be consulted.AREAS OF listed in the National Register if it is applies to significant SIGNIFICANCE demonstratedCriterionA to meet at least one of the works of architecture or engineering. National Register Criteria. On battlefields may be found buildings applies to battlefields that are important examples of architec­ that are associated with events that tural styles, methods of construction,or have made a significant contributionto For each National Register Criterion significant works of engineering such as military the broad patternsof our history. These the trench systems found in battles that applies to a battlefield, an appro­ could be important military events, involving siege situations. In these priate Area of Significance should be such as the August 20, 1794, Battle of instances Criterion C applies to the selected. While is the most Fallen Timbers, in northwest Ohio, common Area of Significance, others battlefield. 9 which ended Indian resistance in the may apply. For battlefields associated with an important aspect of minority of Significance should be defined if Apply the National Register Criteria, pp. history ethnic heritage may apply. For there was a longer intervening span 44-49 and should be consulted before battlefields important for their associa­ between the battle and the attempting to evaluate theintegrity of a tion with later memorialization efforts memorialization effort) and the features battlefield. art or social history may be appropri­ at the site that contribute to this later A property, such as a battlefield, ate. If Criterion C applies to a battle­ significance should be identified. These important for its associationwith a field, then architecture or engineering might include statues, monuments, historic event or persons ideally might should be selected as an Area of tablets marking troop positionsor retain some features of all seven aspects Significance. For battlefields significant movements, or roads established for of integrity. Integrity of design and under Criterion D for important touring the battlefield. As with all workmanship, however, might not be as informationthat can be derived from an National Register properties, if the important to the significanceand would archeological study, archeology is Period of Significance is defined as not be relevant to the battlefield. A appropriate. See Guidelinesfor Complet­ extending to withinthe past fifty years, basic test of integrity for a battlefield ing National Register Forms for a com­ the property must be demonstrated to important for its associationwith a plete list of Areas of Significance. have exceptional importance. historic event or person is whether a participant in the battle would recog­ nize the property as it exists today. ASSESSING Generally, the most important aspects INTEGRITY of integrity for battlefields are location, DEFINING PERIODS OF setting, feeling, and association. SIGNIFICANCESome battlefields are significant For a battlefield, location is the place solely for the military event that where the historic military event occurred on the site. In these instances occurred. This aspect of integrity is the Period of Significance should be APPLYING THE QUALITIES present if the area defined as the defined to include the time of the battle OFIntegrity INTEGRITY is the ability of a property battlefield is the place where the battle and any time period immediately to convey its significance. Within the occurred. The location should be before or after the battle that is consid­ concept of integrity, the National documented using primary and second­ ered significant to the area's military Register criteria recognize seven ary sources and onsite inspection. The history. The significance of other qualities, or aspects, that in various location of a property, complemented battlefields may encompass a longer combinations, define integrity. Deter­ by its setting, is particularly important time span, particularly for those miningwhich of these aspects are most in recapturing the sense of historic battlefields where there were important important for a particular property to events. later events to memorialize the battle convey its significance requires know­ Setting is the physical environment and its participants. In such cases the ing why, where, and when the property of a historic property. Whereas location Period of Significance for the site should is significant. The seven aspects of refers to the specific place where the be extended to include these important integrity are: location, design, setting, battle occurred, setting refers to the later developments if the materials, workmanship, feeling, and memorialization effort followed soon association. The basic guidance on after the battle (or two distinct Periods evaluatingintegrity is found in How to In addition to being significant as the site of important military events, battlefields may be important under National Register Criterion B for their association with the lives of noted military leaders. The battle should be considered in the context of the person's entire military career to determine ifCriterion B applies to the battlefield. The Battle at Horseshoe Bend in Tallapoosa County, Alabama, fought in 1814, not only ended the Creek War and opened much of Alabama and Georgia to settlement by whites, but also established the national reputation of the victor, Gen. Andrew Jackson, as a military leader and Indian fighter. (Photo by Horseshoe Bend National Military Park).

10 character ASSESSING OVERALL INTEGRITY how,of the place in which the should be classified as either contribut­ property played its historic role. It ing or noncontributingto the signifi­ involves not just where, the cance of the battlefield. To contribute to property is situated and its relationship the significance of the battlefield, a to surrounding features and open space. property (either a building, structure, Battlefields cannot be frozen in time. The physical features of a battlefield site, or object) must date from the The cataclysmic event that gave the sites that make up its setting can be natural battlefield's Period of Significance, their significance created a highly and manrnade. They include topo­ which usually means that the property unstable landscape of destruction. Even graphic features (the physical geogra­ must have been present at the time of where efforts to preserve the battlefield phy of the battlefield), vegetation (the were initiated almost immediately, as at the battle. Properties post-datingthe it pattern of fields and woodlands), battle may have significance in their Gettysburg, it proved impossibleto manrnade features (stonewalls, or own right (for example, an architectur­ perpetuatethe scene in the exact form fences),Feeling and the relationshipbetween ally important house built after the and condition presented during the buildings and open space. war), but they cannot be considered as battle. Instead, Gettysburg presents is a battlefields's expression contributing to the event that occurred several layers of history, including its of the historic sense of a particular before they were constructed. If later post-battle memorialization. period of time. It results from the events are considered historically The best-preserved battlefields appear presence of physical features that, taken significant (such as a post-battle much as they would have at the time of together, convey the property's historic memorialization of the battlefield) then battle, making it easy to understand how character. If a battle occurred in a rural the Period of Significance can be strategy and results were shaped by the district, then the presence of farm roads, extended to include thisperiod and its terrain. All properties, however, change agricultural buildings, and field systems important resources, or two distinct over timeand nearly allbattlefields will combineAssociation to convey the feeling of thearea Periods of Significance can be selected contain noncontributingproperties. The at the time of the battle. (one for the battle, and a second period impact of noncontributing propertieson is the direct link between for the era of the memorialization). a battlefield as a whole depends not only the important historic event or person Contributing resources may include on their number, but also on their nature and a historic property. A property all buildings extant at the time of the and location and the size and topogra­ retainsDesign, association materials,if it is theworkman­ place where battle (including buildings that served phy of the battlefield. While this is a theship event occurred. as headquarters, hospitals, or defensive subjectivejudgement thereare some and positions); structures such as the general principles for assessing integrity. refer to qualities associated with original road network on the battlefield; If the type of noncontributing property manmade properties. If a historic stone walls or earthworks used as reflects a continuing later development battlefield contains architecturally defensive positions, or bridges over of traditional landuse, then the impact of Howsignificant to Apply properties, the National then Register these Criteria important waterways, sites such as these properties may not be as great as qualities of integrity may apply. See burial sites, or objects such as statues that of modern properties that do not and markers. forIDENTIFYING more information. CONTRIBUTING AND NONCONTRIBUTING RESOURCES

If a battlefield contains a variety of contributing resources (buildings, structures,district. objects, or sites) and includes extensive acreage, it shouldsite. be classified as a Otherwise, the battlefield should be classified as a The battlefieldBattlefields will may usually be significant include under within its boundary numerous features that National Register Criterion C for the presence of important examples of military fortifications. Shown here are the ruins of the British Star Fort and Patriot siege lines laid out by the brilliant Polish military engineer, Thaddeus Kosciuszko, at Ninety Six in Greenwood County, South Carolina. These are rare surviving examples of 18th century military constructions. (Photo by Ninety Six National Historic Site). 11 The best-preservedbattlefields appear much asth ey did at the time of the battle,making it easyto understandhow strategy and resultswere shaped by terrain. Partidpantsin the Battle ofShiloh (April 6-7, 1862) would undoubtedlyrecognize the SunkenRoad and the Hornet's Nestdepicted here. Thiswas the site of ferociousfighting as Gen. UlyssesS. Grant's men desperately held this positionfor six hoursagainst elevenConfederate attacks. (Photo byNational Park Service).

reflectthe historic useof the land. For may have changed dramatically in areas factor in the battlefield retaining its example, in battlefieldslocated in rural of intenseextended fighting. In wooded integrityof feelingand association. If it or agriculturalareas, the presenceof areas, armies could useextensive can bedemonstrated that, despite the farm related buildings dating from amounts of wood forcooking, creating forestationof an area,the battletook outside the Period of Significance shelter, and in constructing defensive place in that particular spot,then the generally will not destroythe works. In areas where battles tookplace battlefield retainsintegrity of location. battlefield's integrity. It is importantthat in cultivatedfields, the abandonment of The impact of forestation on the the land retain itsrural or agricultural farms could befollowed quickly by battlefield's historic settingmust be identityin order forit to convey its forestation. weighed against itsretention of the Period of Significance. (Seefollowing As noted earlier, location, setting, other aspectsof overall integrity. Other paragraphs on the impact of reforesta­ feeling,and associationare usually the battles were fought in areas with heavy tion). Theimpact of modernproperties most importantaspe cts of integrityfor tree coverage which has since been lost. on the historic battlefieldis alsolessened battlefields. While forestationof a While the loss of historic forest covering if theseproperties are locatedin a battlefield that was openland at the time doeshave an impact on the battlefield's dispersedpattern. If a battlefieldis of fightingmay have an impacton its historicsetting, it will not necessarily characterized by rolling topography,the setting,it will not necessarilydestroy the destroy the battlefield'soverall integrity. impact of later noncontributing proper­ battlefield's overall integrity. The In assessingthe integrityof battle­ ties may alsobe lessened. Frequently, covering of former openfields with trees fields significant under Criterion D, if one of the greatest changes to the historic is a natural and reversible alterationto significant archeologicalfeatures are landscapeis the development of modern the landscape. In someinstances the present, integrity of setting and feeling roadways. The changes in theroadway abandonment of fields and thecoverage may not berequired. Intact archeologi­ circulation patternon battlefields should of the battlefield withtrees preserves cal deposits,and/ or human remains beevaluated for the impact on the manmade features associated with the might lie beneathmore recentfill or battlefield's integrity. battle, such as trenches, rifle-pits, or modernconstruction and integrity of The issue of changing forestation on a artillerypositions. The presenceof setting and feelingmay not benecessary battlefield is complicated by the fact that natural and manmade features associ­ for the propertyto retain its ability to forest12 cover during the historic period ated with the battle is an important convey important information. SELECTING DISCONTIGUOUS BOUNDARIES DEFENSIBLE of the enemy. Boundaries should include the areas where there was BOUNDARIES hostile action between opposing forces or areas where there was an action or reaction generated by an opposing force In some instances it is appropriate to WHERETODRAWTHE while m 1mmed1ate proximity to the draw boundaries that define the BOUNDARY enemy. For instance, boundaries should battlefield into two or more discrete or bed rawn to include areas where a discontiguous parcels. A discontiguous march of one enemy force encounters an boundary is appropriate when signifi­ opposing picket line, or where a cant action in a battle occurred in bivouac is attacked by the enemy, or a separated areas, and the land between While the decision of where to draw the areas is not important in defining the boundary will differ for each battle­ bivouac 1s established opposite an enemy picket line as prelude to fighting, the battlefield. For example, two field, there are some general guidelines. rmlitary forces meet in battle and the The boundary should encompass, but or a retreating force establishes a holding line along its retreat route and 1s main action is concentrated in one area. not exceed, the full extent of the battle­ One of the forces sends a smaller group field. Included within the boundary attacked. Generally, boundaries should not be to try to flank the enemy. This smaller should bethe location of the battle and group removes itself from the an a ropriate setting to convey its drawn to include the portion of the route pp taken to the battlefield where there were battle­field, takes a circuitous route s1gruf1cance. The inclusion of the setting around the enemy, and while crossing at around where the events occurred is no encounters. Although the route may bei mportant in understand­ing the a river ford to attack the enemy from the justified as imP?rtant to understanding rear, meets an enemy force holding the what the participants experienced and in tactics of the overall campaign, it 1s not necessary to defining the particu­ ford. This encounter leads to a brisk fight explaining how the geographic setting that halts the invading force and may have determined or influenced the lar battlefield. Boundaries should not be drawn to include retreat routes where prevents it from attacking the main action. It is not necessary to demonstrate enemy concentration - an important that soldiers fought on every square foot there was no pursuit. The boundary also should not include features, such as factor in the outcome of the battle. In of the battlefield. For example, where a this instance it may beappropriate to battle was fought in a valley formed by a bivouac area, locatedwa a y from the fighting and not established because of define the battlefield by drawing the two ridgelines, it may be appropriate to boundary into two parcels- a large area draw the boundary at the ridgelines the enemy's position. In some situations, archeological encompassing the scene of major because the topography determined the fighting and a smaller parcel defining course of the action. study may help determine the bound­ basic principle aries of a battlefield, particularly for the fight at the river ford. A is to include within Another instance where it may be the boundary all of the locations where battlefields of lesser known or docu­ mented conflicts. appropnate to draw a discontiguous opposing forces, either before, during, or boundary is where there are important after the battle, took actions based on sites associated with the battle, but their assumption of being in the presence geographically not connected to the b:3ttlefield. In some cases, headquarters sites or the sites of military hospitals were located apart from the battlefield. When this occursit is acceptable to Battlefielddraw a separate boundaries boundary should encompass,for these butrmportant not exceed, sites. the full extent ofarea in which fighting took place. In some instances this will include large land areas; in instances where the fighting was restricted to a small area, the battlefield may be no more than several acres. The latter situation occurs at Connor Battlefield (Tongue River Battlefield) in Sublette County, Wyoming, which m 1865 was the site of the most important engagement ofthe Powder River Indian Expedition, a punitive military campaign to stop Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho attacks on immigrant trails. The battlefield encompasses the site, along a bend of the Tongue River, of Arapaho Chief Black Bear's village, which was destroyed in the battle. (Photo by Wyoming Recreation Commission).

13 VIII. REGISTERING BATTLEFIELDS

REGISTRATION names by the opposing forces, but it no longer possesses historic usually an accepted historic name integrity reflecting its character at A battlefield may be: (1) nominated emerges over time. For a battlefield,list that time or is incapable of yielding and listed individually using National the generally accepted historic name of important information about the Register of Historic Places Registration the battle (example, Perryville Battle­ period, or (c) it does not indepen­ Form,or (2) as part of a group of proper­ field). If there is more than one historic dently meet the National Register ties nominated in a multiple property name, enter the name that most closely criteria. format using National Register of connotes thesignificance of the property; Historic Places MultipleProperty enter other historic names under "other In cases where a resource contributes DocumentationForm. TheMultiple names." on the basis of significance unrelated to Property Documentation Form is a cover the battlefield, Section 8 of the nomina­ document and not a nominationin its tionform should explain how the own right; it serves as a basis for evalu­ CLASSIFICATION resource independently meets the ating the National Register eligibility of National Register criteria. For example, related properties. On it, the themes, The battlefield should be classified as a battlefield might contain a prehistoric trends, and patternsof history shared by either a districtor a site. If the battlefield archeological site that is significant in theproperties are organized into contains a variety of contributing its own right, or an architecturally historic contexts and property types resources (buildings, structures, objects, significant building constructed after representingthose contexts. The or sites) and extensive acreage, it should the battlefield's defined Period of nominationof each building, site, be classified as a district. Otherwise, the Significance. The form should explain district, structure, or object included battlefield should be classified as a site. how this site qualifies on its own under within thethematic group is made on In completingNational Register the criteria. Otherresources which date National Register Registration Forms. forms, the term "resource" refers to the from this earlier Period of Significance, Refer to Guidelines for Preparing National elements comprising a documented but which are not associated witha Register of Historic Places Fonns for property. Use the definition of "Cat­ defined Area of Significance (for guidance on preparing a Multiple egory of Property" to determine whether example, the memorialization effort) Property DocumentationForm. A the resources comprising the property should be counted as noncontributing. Multiple Property Documentation Form are buildings, structures, objects, or sites. can be used to submit nominationsfor a Then use the following definitionsto GUIDELINES FOR number of sites associated with a single classify component resources as "con­ COUNTING RESOURCES battle, or it can be used to nominate all tributing" or "noncontributing." ON A BATTLEFIELD eligible sites associated with a military · campaign in a defined geographic area. • A contributing building, site, Nominationsare processed according structure, or object adds to the Contributing and noncontributing to the regulations set forthin 36 CFR historic architectural qualities, resources are counted according to the Part 60, and are submitted to the Na­ historic associations, or archeologi­ guidance found in Guidelines for tional Park Service by the appropriate cal values for which a property is Preparing National Register Forms. The State or Federal Historic Preservation significant because (a) it was present acreage composing the battlefield, Officer. during the Period of Significance including the forests, fields, orchards, The following guidance supplements and possesses historic integrity etc., counts as one contributing site. Guidelines for Preparing National Register reflecting its character at that time, Buildings, structures,objects, and sites of Historic Places Fonns and is organized or is capable of yielding important substantial in size and scale or that are according to the section name of the information about the period, or (b) specifically discussed in the text are registration form. it independently meets the National counted separately. Register criteria. The followingexample of counting NAME OF resources is for a battlefield that is • A noncontributing building, site, classified as a district because it con­ PROPERTY structure, or object does not add to tains a number of contributingbuild­ the historic architectural qualities, ings, structures, and objects: a battle­ historic associations, or archeologi­ field consisting of the battle site, a The historic name of the battlefield cal values for which a property is trench system, eight farm buildings will be used to identify it in theNational significant because (a) it was not present during the battle, 12 monu­ Register files, the comprehensive present during the Period of Signifi­ ments constructed by veterans of the National Register InformationSystem. cance, (b) due to alterations, distur­ battle, fourteen modern residences, and Battles were frequently called different bances, additions, or other changes, a modern visitors' center, counts as one

14 contributingsite, one contributing areas and periods of significance. The structure(the trench system), eight GUIDELINES FOR important events and persons associ­ contributing buildings, twelve contrib­ DESCRIBING A ated with the battle are discussed in uting objects (if the Period of Signifi­ BATTLEFIELD relationship to the specific features cance extends to the battlefield's identifiedsummaryon the battlefield.paragraph The commemoration period), and fifteen • Describe the appearance of the Statement of Significanceshould begin noncontributing buildings. battlefield at the time of the conflict. with a describing A battlefield containing no buildings, • Describe the present condition of the overall importance of the battlefield objects,FUNCTION or structures counts as one site. the site and its environment. and should be followed with additional • Describe the natural features (if any) paragraphs supporting the significance Guidelines for Preparing National that contributed to the selection of of the battlefield, the event, and impor­ Register Forms the site as a place of battle, such as a tant persons associated with that event. series of hills used as a defensive includes a list of historic system. and current functions that should be • Describe other natural features that GUIDELINES FOR consulted to define both the past and characterized the site at the time of DESCRIBING THE present uses of the battlefield. Onlythe the battle, such as vegetation (fields, SIGNIFICANCE OF most predominant functions of the woodlots, orchards, etc.), topogra­ propertydomestic; should be commerce/trade; listed. Functions phy, bodies of water, etc. BATTLEFIELDS social; agricultural; industry/process­ that may apply to battlefieldscould • Describe any manmade features • How does the battlefield meet any ing/extraction;include: defense; monument/ associated with the battle, for or all of the National Register marker; landscape. example campsites, or trenches. See criteria? list on pages 6 and 7 for features • How does the event that occurred DESCRIPTIONand/ or typically found on battlefields. there reflect the broad patterns of • Describe the type and degree of American history and why is it alterations to the above features significant? since the battle, and their impact on • How does the battlefield meet any In thissection provide a narrative the historic integrity of the site. of the National Register criteria describingthe current and historic • Provide an explanation of how the considerations? physical appearance and condition of current physical environment and • Describe the Areas of Significance the battlefield including thesetting, remains of the battlefield reflect the with which the battlefield is major buildings, structures,objects, summary or Period of Significance and associa­ paragraph associated. sites, and features of the landscape. The STATEMENTtions for which the site OF is significant. • Define and justify the Period of narrative should begin with a Significance. that briefly describes the SIGNIFICANCE • Describe the major participants battlefield, notingits major physical and their role in the battle. characteristics and assessing its overall BOUNDARIES integrity. Additional paragraphs describing the battlefield should The Statement of Significance is a support the summary paragraph. narrative that describes why the battle was important by explaining how the The boundary of the battlefield battlefield directly relates to its historic should be delineated as accurately as For some battlefields, an appropriate context, NationalRegister criteria, and boundary is not readily apparent. In defining boundaries for battles fought in large open areas where no geographic features contained the battle and define the boundary, careful consideration should be given to original accounts of participants and secondary sources, and these descriptions should be evaluated during onsite visits. This view of the Battle of Rosebud Site in Big Horn County, Montana, illustrates the necessity of carefully researching boundaries. The battle was a major engagement in the 1876-1877 Sioux War, and took place over an extensive area of rolling, dry hills and breaks, interspersed with gullies and dry creeks. (Photo by John Popovich).

15 possibleusing a measureddescription, manmade featuresfound on the battle­ • Retreats or withdrawals from the legal descriptions,tax parcel numbers, MAPPINGfieldand the flow of militaryTHEaction. battlefield lines and sectionson USGSmaps, or a • Flankingmovements during the sketch map drawn to a scalepreferably BATTLEFIELD battle MAPSno smaller than 1" equals 200feet. • Attackmovements during the battle • Pursuitmovements during or after the battlePositions sketch map There are many different approaches identifywhere battlelines A should beprovided to mapping battlefields,but to assist in were drawn. They arestationary points forthe battlefield indicatingits bound­ understandingmovements, the actionpositions, that occurred from which the various typesof move­ aries and the relationshipof all impor­ atareas, these sites other battlefield locationsmapping should mentsoccurred. They may include: tant features. Buildings, objects, include the structures, and sites should bemarked and importantin • Picket lines on the map, as well as road networks, explainingMovements the battlefield. • Skirmish lines major land uses,and trooppositions • Battle lines and movements. Eachresource that is identifythe maneuvers • Regrouping positions substantialin siz.eand scale should be of troopsthroughout the battle. They • Artillery positions labeled by name or number. may include the following: • Entrenched positions Forproperties with large acreage, • Unentrenchedtroop severalmaps drawn to differentscales • Approaches to the battlefield positions Areas may beused in place of one sketch map. A small­ define the places scalemap, such as a USGS within the battlefield where topographicmap in the military activity occurred. 1:24,000series, can be They• may include: usedto delineate the • overall propertyand may • Stagingareas beused to show bound­ • Engagement areas aries, circulation net- • Skirmish areas works, important natural • Holding actionareas features, isolatedre- Bivouac areas sources,and clusters of Troopreserve areas resources. Maps drawn to a larger scale,for example, Other locations are sites 1" equals 200feet, can then that played a role before, beused to show the during, or after the battle, but individual resources are too small to be defined as located within each an• area. They may include: cluster. A seriesof maps can beprovided to show • Command posts(also the flowof action during • called headquarters) the courseof the battle. • Signal stations Copies of historic maps Hospitals showing the land at the GEOGRAPHICObservationposts time of the battle, or maps drawn for histories of the INFORMATION campaign are significant records of battlefields, and SYSTEMS should be included with the nomination if avail­ MAPPING able. Historic maps should bereviewed Historicmaps can be a valuable sourceof information in identifying carefully for accuracy of fe,aturesand loc.ations of eventson battlefields. Historic maps may scale,and locationof contain information on roads, railroads, waterways,troop positions, features and troop locationsof he,adquarters,artill erypositions, entrenchments, and One importantway to movements. Refer to the hospitals. Theymay indicatetroop movementsduring the battle, the study battlefields is to make Bibliography sectionof loc.ationof home sites(with the owner's name), and local landmarks extensive useof maps. Maps this bulletinunder can show relationships (mills, etc.). To ensure accuracy,historic maps should be checkedand betweenbattlefields and land "Historical Atlases"for verifiedagainst written accounts. Shown here is amap of the Battlefield sourcesof maps. Guide­ use change. They can provide booksto battlefields at Droop Mountain, West Virginia(November 6, 1863), preparedby a regional picture or context frequently containmaps HenryTopping, an assistantto the engineers accompanyingthe Union forindiv idual battlefields. that are useful in under­ army. (Photo by West VirginiaAntiquities Commission). Maps convey important standing16 the relationship informationin easy to betweenthe natural and understand graphicimages. There is a vast amount of map (such as an entrenchmentline) as they ships among data,which in theabsence informationabout battlefields and are discoveredin the field. The stored of GIS, would bedifficult or impossible modem land usechange. Forexample, data can then beloaded into the GIS to to accomplish. Most Statesand a there are more than 2,300cartographic yield a map of the feature. Inaddition growingnumber of localgovernments items pertainingto theCivil War to beinghighly accurate (within 5 are creatingGIS databases. Participat­ housedin the Library of Congress. The meters), the resultingmap can then be ing in the exchangeof spatialdata National Archiveshas approximately comparedto historic military maps among theseentities not only cuts the 8,000Civil War maps in its collection. showing the same features. cost of acquiring databut it alsoserves Doubtless,a significantnumber of Finally, GIS enables one tofocus not to integrate battlefield informationinto historic maps existin Stateand local only on a particularbattlefield, but also thesegovernmental databases. For repositories.Even more map informa­ the larger regionalpicture. Thelatter furtherinformation on GIS, contact the tion exists todaywith respectto land ability is especiallysignificant because State historic preservationoffice. usechange. Census data on population in order to understand the importance PHOTOGRAPHS and other demographiccharacteristics, of a particular battle, it must often be data on roads, rivers,streams, elevation, seenin its larger regional context or land useand landcover, zoning, public frame of reference usually associated land boundaries,conservation ease­ with a particular campaign. Representativephotographs of ments,sensitive habitats, and bound­ While it is not required in the contributingand noncontributing aries of National Registerproperties are preparation of a nomination, GISis an resourcesfound on the battlefieldmust but a few of the items that appearon effective toolfor documenting battle­ beprovided with the nomination. maps. fields becauseof its flexibility in inte­ Copies of historic photographs,engrav­ The challenge in protectingbattle­ gratingmap information of various ings, and illustrations are important fields is to bring all this data together in scalesand details and because it has the documentationfor battlefields and a coherent and orderly manner. Often analytical powerto highlight relation- should beprovided if available. historic maps arenot at the samesize or scale.Maps frequently vary in the detail and accuracy of features. Thesepose problems in overlaying or comparing maps to each other. Fortunately,computer mapping programs known collectivelyas Geo­ graphic Information Systems (GIS) can help. GIS programs canaccept maps of different sizes or scales, store them for futureuse, retrieve them foranalyses, create new maps from the analyses,and print maps on paper,slides, transparen­ cies, and computer tapes. The analytical powerof GIS, however, is its real value with respectto documenting battle­ fields. GIS can rescalehistoric maps to becompatible with other historic maps as well as with modem maps. GIS can .assist in assessingthe coincidence betweencurrent land useand the area encompassedby the battlefield, noting thoseuses that have reduced or pre­ servedthe integrity of thesite. GIS can calculate statistics such as acreageof land parcels within battlefields, as well as identifythe owners of theseparcels. GIS can map what can be seenfrom within a battlefield, which in tum helps identifyareas outsidethe battlefield that could have a visual impact on the battlefield setting. GIS can assist in defining the boundariesof battlefields by creating a compositemap of battle­ Computerized mappingca n aid in evaluatingthe integrity of battlefields. This digitized field movements, trooppositions, map of Seeond-Ker-nstownBattlefisld (l<&rnsttJWn, Virginia, July 24, 1 4) showsareas engagement areas, and sites. 86 When GIS is usedin conjunction retaining integrityfrom the time ofthe battle(light shadedareas) a nd areaswhich havelost with Global Positioning Systems (GPS), integrity since the battle(dark shaded areas). The map overlays information taken from a directlink can bemade betweenfield Landsat photographs on current land use, patternsof road networks,a nd streamformations. survey and computer maps. GPSis a (Map by Cultural ResourcesG eographic Information SystemsFacil ity, National Park field survey instrumentthat can store Service). 17 the locational coordinates of features IX. GLOSSARY

Battle line Flanking movement Retrograde A formationwhere sold iers move out To pass around or turnthe rightor The forced withdrawal of troops of marchingcolumns andform into left of an enemy force. from an enemy or an advanced linesof battle or columnsof attackfor position. bothattack and defense. Observationpost Vantage pointused to observethe Rout Bivouac area enemy or a militaryengagement. A decisiveor disastrousdefeat. A temporaryencampment. Picketline Signalstation Commandpost A positionheld by a detachedbody Vantage pointused to transmit A site usedby a commander to of soldiers servingto guard an army informationfrom a forward area to a control the operationof his military from surprise. rear area. forces. Alsocalled "headquarters." Skirmish line Reserve area Disengagement An area where troopsare held back A small body of troopsdeployed in When one or bothmilitary forces from battle while the commander advance of a battle line to initiate voluntarily withdraws from combat. decideshow to usethem: to reinforce contact with the enemy. part of his line; counterattack the enemy; or to serveas a rearguard holding force against a victorious enemy.

18 X. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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(Los Angeles, 1968). Ambrose,Stephen E. Crazy Horse and BATTLEOF BEECHER THE MODOC INDIAN WAR, Custer. (New York, 1975). ISLAND, 1868 1872-1873 Connell, Evan S. Son of the Morningstar: Custer and Littlethe Big Brisbin, JamesS. "Stand at Arikaree." Dillon, Richard H. Burnt-OutFires: Horn. (San Francisco,1984). Colorado Magazine (Fall 1964), 337-42. California'sModoc Indian War. (EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey,1973). Gray, John S. CentennialCa mpaign; White,lnnnie J. "TheBattle of Beecher The Sioux War of 1876. (FortCollins, Island." The Journal of the West5 Oanu­ Murray, Keith A. The Modocsand Colorado, 1976). ary 1966),1-24. Their War. (Norman, Oklahoma, 1959). ___. Custer's LastCampaign: Thompson,Erwin N. Modoc War: Its Mitch Boyerand the Little Big Hom THE WASHITA CAMPAIGN, MilitaryHistory and Topography. (Sacra­ Reconstructed. (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1868-1869 mento, California,1971). 1991). Greene,Jerome A. Slim Buttes,1876: Hoig, Stanley. The Battleof the THE YELLOWSTONE An Episodeof the GreatSioux War. Washita:The Sheridan-Custer Indian (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1991). Campaign of 1867-1869. (Garden City, EXPEDITION,1873 New York, 1976). ____. ''The LameDeer Fight: Braden, Charles. "TheYellowstone Last Drama of the Sioux War of 1876- White, Lonnie J. ''Winter Campaign­ Expedition of 1873." The Journalof the 1877." By Valor of Arms:Journal of ing with Sheridan and Custer: The UnitedStates Cavalry16 (October1905), AmericanMilitary Histo ry 3, No. 3 (1979), Expedtion of the NineteenthKansas 218-241. 11-21. VolunteerCaval ry." The Journalof the West6 Qanuary 1967), 68-98. Carroll, John M. ed. The Yellawstone ____. Yellowstone Command: Expeditionof 1873. (Mattiuck, New York, Colonel Nelson A. Miles and the Great 1986). THE REPUBLICAN RIVER Sioux War, 1876-1877. (Lincoln, 1991). EXPEDITION, 1869 Rolston, Alan. ''TheYellowstone Hedren,Paul L. FirstScalp for Custer: Expedition of 1873." Montana,The The Skrimishat Warbonnet Battlefield. Magazine of WesternHistory 20 (Spring (Glendale, California,1980). King, James T. ''TheRepublican 1970), 20-29. River Expedition... " NebraskaHisto ry 41 (September-December1960), 165--99 and ____. Fort Laramiein 1876: A 281-97. Chronicleof a Frontier Postat War. THE BLACK HILLS (Lincoln, 1988). EXPEDITION, 1874 . MASACRE OF THE PIEGAN ____. ed. The GreatSioux War, INDIANS, 1870 Gerber,Max E. "TheCuster Expedi­ 1876-1877. (Helena, Montana, 1991). tion of 1874: A New Look." North DakotaHistory 40 (Winter 1973), 5--23. Magnum, Neil C. Battlefor the Hutton, Paul Andrew. "Phil Rosebud:Prelude to the Little Bighorn. (El Sheridan's Pyrrhic Victory: The Piegan Jackson,Donald. Custer's Gold: The Segundo,California, 1987). Massacre,Anny Politics, and the UnitedStates Caval ry Expeditionof 1874. Transfer Debate." Montana. TheMaga­ (New Haven, Connecticut,1966). Sievers, Michael A. 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25 THE BATILE OF WOUNDED North AmericanReview KNEE,1890 U.S.Army War College Guideto ChiefJoseph. "Chief Joseph's Own the Luvaas,Battlesof Jay Chancellorsville and Nelson,andHarold W., Story." (April Fredericksburgeds. The 1879). The NezPerces: The U.S.Army War Tribesmen of the ColumbiaPlateau. College Guide to the Battle of Gettysburg. NebraskaHistory (CarlisleBarracks, Haines, Frances. Eastman,Elaine G. 'TheGhost Pennsylvania,The 1988); U.S. Army War College Dance War and WoundedKn eeMassa­ Guideto the Battleof Antietam, the (Norman, 1978). The Nez Perce creof 1890-1891." 26 Maryland(1986); and Campaign of 1862. Indiansand the Opening the Northwest. (January-March 1945),The 26-42. LastDays of the of Sioux Nation. Josephy,Alvin M., Jr., America's(1987).National Utley, RobertM. BattlefieldParks: A Guide. (New Haven, 1963). (New Haven, 1965). ForlornHope. THE CHEYENNE OUTBREAK, Stevens, JosephE. (Norman, McDermott, John D. 1897 Oklahoma, 1990). A PictorialGuide (Boise,Idaho, 1978). to the Military Museums, Forts, and THE BANNOCKINDIAN HistoricSweeney, Sites ofJames the UnitedB. States. WAR,1878 Underhill,Montana, Lonnie The E.,Magazine and Littlefield, of (New DanielWestern F.,History Jr. "The Cheyenne Outbreak York, 1981). The Bannock ExploringMilitary America. IndianWar of 1878. of 1897." 24 (October1974), 30-41. Thum, Marcella, and Thum, Gladys. Brirnlow,George F. THE LEECHLAKE INDIAN (New York, (Caldwell, Idaho, 1982). SeawayTrail Guide to 1938). UPRISING,1898 THE CHEYENNE INDIAN the War of 1812. Wilder, Patrick. CAMPAIGN,1878-1879 (Oswego, New York, The 1987). The Indians'Last MinnesotaRoddis, Historical LouisH. Bulletin "The Last Indian MILITARY ATLASES Fight; or, The Dull Knife Raid. Uprising in the United States." Collins, Dennis. 3 (February Atlas to Accompanythe OfficialRecords 1920), 272-290. (Girard, BATILEFIELD GUIDES of the Unionand Confederate Armies Kansas,1915). THE SHEEPEA TER INDIAN The OfficialMilitary Atlas of the Civil War, CAMPAIGN,1879 III. landmarksof (Washington, 1891-1895; reprintedas the AmericanRevolution: A Guideto I.ncatingBoatner,and Mark Knowing M. WhatHappened at New York, 1983). Atlasof Ameri­ C. The Sheepeater the Sitesof Independence. canHistory. Campaign,Idaho -1879. Adams, James T., ed. Brown,William (Harrisburg, (New York, 1943).British Head­ (Boise,Idaho, 1973). Battlefieldsof the Civil quartersMaps and Sketches. 1926). THE WHITE RIVER War: A State-by-StateGuide. Adams, Randolph G. Bowen, John. (Ann Arbor, ·CAMPAIGN,1879 (London, 1926).The AmericanHeritage PictorialAtlas of 1986). United States History. This isOur Land. History Today, Chandler, David. "Haunted Acres: (NewAtlas York, of Early1966). McClellan,Val J. Visiting Battlefields." American History: The RevolutionaryEra, (New York, 1977). Massacre:The XXVI (743-748) (November1976).A Tour 1760-1790.Cappon, Lester J., ed. Tragedyat WhiteRiver. Guideto the Civil War. Sprague, Marshall. Cromie, Alice Hamilton. (Princeton, 1976).The West (Boston, 1957). (New York, 1964, Point Atlasof AmericanWars. THE GERONIMO CAMPAIGN reviseded., 1975). Esposito,Vincent J., ed. 1881-1886 Battlefieldsof the Civil War. 2 vols. Hicks, Roger W., and Schultz, (New York, 1959). ' Frances E. Atlas of American Wars. Geronimo.A (Topfield, Massachusetts,1989). The Civil Kirk, John, and Westwood,John. Biography. War BattlefieldGuide. (Greenwich, Adams, Alexander B. Kennedy, Frances H., ed. Connecticut,1986). Atlas of (New York,The Geronimo 1971). Cam­ (Boston,1990). the AmericanRevolution. paign. Nebenzal,Kenneth, comp. Faulk, Odie B. (Chicago,1974). (New York, 1969).The Conquest of Campaignsof the American Apacheria. Revolution:Peckham,An Howard, Atlas of Manuscript and Marshall, Maps. Thrapp, Dan L. Douglas W. (Norman, Oklahoma, 1967). (Ann Arbor,Michigan, 1976).

26 Philips, Philip L. Listof Mapsin McClelland,Linda Flint, Keller, J. Americain the Ubraryof Congress. Timothy,Keller, GenevieveP., and (Washington,D.C., 1901). Melnick, RobertZ. NationalRegister Bulletin 30 - Guidelinesfor Evaluating and Symonds, Craig L. A BattlefieldAtlas DocumentingRural Historic Landscapes. of the AmericanRevolution. (Annapolis, NationalPark Service(Washington, 1986). D.C., 1990).

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Boyles, Fred. "HistoricLandscaping: Warnecke,Lisa. "Geographic Moores CreekNational Battlefield." Information Systems Usein State National Park Service,CRM Bulletin 9 GovernmentAgencies." GretchenE. Number4 (August 1986),9-10. Hayes, ed. Cultural ResourcesInformation Management Series. NationalPark Ferris, Robert G. ed. Soldier and Service(Washington, D.C., 1990). Brave. Historic PlacesAssociated with Indian Affairsand the IndianWars in the . Trans-Mississippi West.(Washington, 1971). Fox, Richard A., Jr., and Scott, DouglasD. ArchaeologicalInsights into the Custer Battle:An Assessmentof the 1984 Field Season. (Norman, Oklahoma, 1987).

'Toe Post-Civil War BattlefieldPattern: An Example from the Custer Battle­ field." HistoricalArchaelogy, 25, No. 2 (1991). Lee,Ronald F. The Origins and Evolutionof the MilitaryPark Idea. National Park Service(Washington, 1973).

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