Spring 1990 Vol. 10, No. 2

An African-American Humanist Declaration Black Athena Martin G. Bernal

The American Judiciary as a Secular Priesthood Richard Taylor Why I Am Not a Jew David Dvorkin

WE'vE GIVEN uP ON YOU SHOULD DIcTAToRSHIP, WE NO LONGER TRY IT INSIST ON wHAT PEOPLE MUST SOMETIME. BELIEVE OR NOT BELIEVE. WE Now LET PEOPLE FOLLOW THEIR OwN CONSCIENCES.

WHAT ARE VDU WD,TIN6 DOWN "" ~'S¡ Steven Wisotsky Thomas Szasz Tom Flynn The Papal Peter Principle Gerald A. Larne

Also: The Salem Witch Trials and the Modern Media Andrei Sakharov: A Humanist Galileo Should We Teach the "Sacred"?

SPRING 1990, VOL. 10, NO. 2 ISSN 0272-0701 Contents 3 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 23 ON THE BARRICADES 57 IN THE NAME OF GOD NOTES FROM THE EDITOR 4 The "War on Drugs" / African-Americans for Humanism / Reflections on the Democratic Revolutions of Our Time Paul Kurtz EDITORIAL 5 The Salem Witch Trials and the Modern Media Vern L. Bullough ARTICLES 7 Lay Down Your Arms Thomas Szasz 7 Rethinking the War on Drugs Steven Wisotsky 12 Square Pegs, Round Holes Tom Flynn 13 An African-American Humanist Declaration 16 How Much Influence Can Humanism Have on Blacks? Norm Allen Jr. 17 The Quest for Humanist Values Ishmael Jaffree 18 Black Athena: An Interview with Martin G. Bernal Norm Allen Jr. 24 Announcing the Center for Inquiry Tom Flynn 25 Should We Teach the "Sacred"? Robert Gorham Davis 26 The Papal Peter Principle Gerald A. Larue 30 St. Paul and Moral Responsibility Johan Stohl 34 Why I Am Not a Jew David Dvorkin 37 The American Judiciary as a Secular Priesthood Richard Taylor 44 God in the CCU? Gary P. Posner 46 Sakharov: A Humanist Galileo Paul Kurtz 48 VIEWPOINTS What's So Good About Optimism? Don Stevens / Are Humanists Optimists? Tim Madigan I Secularism and the Public Eye, Ferdinand Lundberg 52 FILM Woody Allen on Reality, Morality Mary Beth Gehrman 54 BOOKS The New Humanism in the Soviet Union Paul Kunz / A Gay Accusé Vern L. Bullough I Books in Brief 56 READERS' FORUM On Altruism

Editor: Paul Kurtz Senior Editors: Vern Bullough, Gerald Lame Executive Editor: Tim Madigan Managing Editor: Mary Beth Gehrman Special Projects Editor: Brent Bailey Contributing Editors: Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, University of Richmond; H. James Birx, professor of anthropology, Canisius College; Jo-Ann Boydston, director, Dewey Center; Paul Edwards, professor of philosophy, Brooklyn College; Albert Ellis, director, Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy; Roy P. Fairfield, social scientist, Union Graduate School; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, University of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading University, England; Levi Fragell, executive director Human-Etisk Forbund, Norway; Adolf Grünbaum, professor of philosophy, University of Pittsburgh; R. Joseph Hoffmann, professor of humanities, California State University at Sacramento; Marvin Kohl, philosopher, State University of New York College at Fredonia; Jean Kotkin, executive director, American Ethical Union; Ronald A. Lindsay, attorney, Washington, D.C.; Delos B. McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn University; Howard Radest, director, Ethical Culture Schools; Robert Rimmer, author; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, University of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, psychiatrist, Upstate Medical Center, Syracuse; V. M. Tarkunde, Supreme Court Judge, India; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; Rob Tielman, professor, University of Utrecht; Sherwin Wine, North American Committee for Humanism Associate Editors: Doris Doyle, Steven L. Mitchell, Lee Nisbet, Gordon Stein, Andrea Szalanski Editorial Associates: Robert Basil, Jim Christopher, Fred Condo Jr., Thomas Flynn, Thomas Franczyk, James Martin-Diaz, Philip Mass, Molleen Matsumura Executive Director, CODESH, Inc.: Jean Millholland Executive Director, African-Americans for Humanism: Norm Allen Jr. Chief Data Officer: Richard Seymour Typesetting: Paul E. Loynes Audio Technician: Vance Vigrass Staff: Steve Karr, Christopher Garuccio, Robert F. Hanley Jr., Anthony Nigro, Alfreda Pidgeon, Ranjit Sandhu

FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published quarterly by the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.), a nonprofit corporation, 3159 Bailey Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215. Phone (716) 834-2921. Copyright ©1990 by CODESH, Inc. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by International Periodicals Distributors, San Diego, California. Subscription rates: $22.50 for one year, $39.00 for two years, $54.00 for three years, $4.00 for current issue; $5.00 for back issues. Address subscription orders, changes of address, and advertising to: F REE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. Manuscripts, letters, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to: The Editor, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. All manuscripts must be double-spaced and should be accompanied by a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. Postmaster: Send address changes to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005.

of a viciousness in Christianity that few people care to acknowledge"?

Letters to the Editor Sheldon F. Gottlieb, Ph.D. University of South Alabama Mobile, Ala.

On "eupraxophy" and centers ophy Centers already exist! In England we On American intervention call them pubs. Paul Kurtz's coined word "`eupraxophy" As our political ideals triumph over Soviet ("Eupraxophy: The Need to Build Secular Christopher Lyon arms in Central Europe, our arms mock Humanist Centers," Winter 1989) is diffi- Corona del Mar, Calif. those same ideals in Central America. cult to pronounce, awkward, and hard to President Bush instigates an expensive remember—not good qualities for a word undeclared war to "save Panama" by you're trying to establish. Faith versus fact unilaterally destroying the Panamanian He would be better served to drop the people and property, and Panamanian "prax" (from the Greek praxis, "conduct"), The article by Wendell Watters, "Moral sovereignty. which produces the static and is redundant Education: Homo Sapiens or Homo Reli- We dutifully applaud the decapitation of anyway, since wisdom surely encompasses giosus?" had as one of its major theses that their government in pursuit of a petty thug conduct. "Eusophia," or good wisdom, . . indoctrination with Christian god-talk who never posed a significant threat to well- rhymes with "utopia" and comes off the is incompatible with the psychological defended American interests. Their dictator tongue much more smoothly than "euprax- growth and moral development of human was their problem, not ours. Meanwhile in ophy." The "eu" in my suggested coinage beings." I should like to extend this thesis Central Europe, the powerful thugs who would also be a bit redundant, since wisdom and question one of Watters's conclusions. formed the front line of the Warsaw Pact, is inherently good or beneficial, but it is As a biology professor in the heart of which threatened American interests for worth retaining to gain a much-improved the Bible Belt, I find that the indoctrination forty years, are being peacefully swept aside word. of students with an ideology based on faith by their own people, without our "help." Ronald G. Crowe is what is incompatible with the psycholog- After a century of U.S. interference in Anchorage, Ak. ical growth and moral development of the affairs of Latin America, the last thing human beings. the oppressed Panamanians need is the huge I would guess that "eupraxophy" will take What I find detrimental to learning and investment in death, destruction, and civil its place along side "esperanto" as notable development is the inability of many college disorder our president has unleashed on contributions to the English language. students to distinguish between faith and them, courtesy of the U.S. taxpayers. But fact. Especially deadly to the intellectual the oppressed Central Europeans, who Russell E. Simmons development of students is their ready accomplished with the blessing of Gorbachev Raton, N.M. acceptance of faith, instilled in them by a what hundreds of billions of U.S. defense religious authority figure, as equivalent to spending failed to do, are now in desperate Paul Kurtz outlines his concepts for the certitude. Many students have dropped my need of the investments we are failing to creation of new buildings to advance classes because of my lectures on evolution make in their fledgling free economies. It's humanism. He envisions those "Eupraxophy and the difference between fact and faith, not just the Soviets who need to rethink their Centers" as special places where people can hypothesis and theory, science and religion. foreign policy. meet and congregate to interpret what we Others pray for my soul, and still others take William D. Searle know about nature and human life in the attitude that they must put up with Scottsdale, Ariz. meaningful terms, disseminate the scientific professor's quirks and all they have to do world view to the general public, critique is feed back to the professor what is taught religion, and deal with questions concerning without having to accept the teachings as "Dumbth" and nuclear power the meaning of life. The centers would true. This is especially true with respect to provide an environment in which moral the teaching of evolution. I feel compelled to protest Steve Allen's dilemmas can be discussed openly and I find it equally devastating that religious statement that "the safety record of the honestly; they would provide counseling authority figures resort to lies to support nuclear industry has been absolutely hor- services, particularly marriage and sex their indefensible positions, that massive rendous: it's gotten so bad that the industry counseling for those who are in pain and scientific illiteracy exists in the general is more or less collapsing under its own difficulty, and grief counseling for the public, and that the public is willing to accept weight" (" `Dumbth' and Critical Thinking," suffering that tragedy or death brings; they lies as truth. Winter 1989/90). This is an egregious distor- would allow for creative renewal and I am confused by Watters's statement tion. friendship, and help to arouse conviction and that guilt is central to Christianity. I wonder In the United States not a single iden- commitment. Their members would function if he ever considered hate and fear rather tifiable member of the public has ever been as a support group, providing bonds of than guilt to be central to Christianity. Some hurt, let alone killed, as a result of activities solidarity, rites of passage, and enjoyment of my Christian friends seem to think that by the nuclear power industry. I challenge through joyful and exuberant happiness, this is the case. Are hate and fear the Allen to cite a single example of such a case. laughter, fun and games. emotions that Watters was referring to when Of course there have been construction Forget the new buildings, Paul, Euprax- he said that "this [guilt] is symptomatic (Letters, continued on p. 60)

Spring 1990 3 treatment programs, including clean-needle distribution so as to prevent the spread of AIDS. In the current federal budget pro- Notes from the Editor posed by Bush, the lion's share of public funds goes to police interdiction, while education, research, and rehabilitation get short shrift. We should attempt to reduce The "War on Drugs" foe in American life. Some people need a the demand for drugs by emphasizing scapegoat, and drug users and traffickers positive humanist moral virtues, especially REE INQUIRY does not have a political have become the focus of all that is evil in the need for self-respect, self-reliance, and Fagenda. We recognize that our readers America. long-term happiness, as opposed to short- represent a wide range of political opinions Unfortunately, in the service of this anti- term pleasures that can have long-lasting and that they differ sharply on issues, drug campaign all too many people are negative consequences. candidates, and political affiliations. This willing to permit the search and seizure of When I was a youngster, the newspapers issue presents articles by Thomas Szasz, private property, and the sealing of our reported daily police raids on "dens of Steven Wisotsky, and Tom Flynn that borders by the military. America now has iniquity." The most evil people in the world advocate the legalization of drugs. My own more people in prison per capita than any then were not only bootleggers, but gamblers views are somewhat less radical. I believe other nation in the world, and about 40 and bookies, and the puritans of that era that the War on Drugs has unleashed a kind percent of the newly incarcerated are serving would swoop down on poker and crap games of self-righteous hysteria that may under- time for drug offenses. In the past few years and betting parlors, and arrest those mine the very fabric of American democracy about three-quarters of a million drug arrests involved in the numbers racket. Today the and may be worse than what it seeks to have been made annually, and about 75 government sponsors lotteries and off-track eradicate. It is even reminiscent of a new percent of these are not for producing or betting, and the Catholic church is able to fascism—and I use the term advisedly—in trafficking drugs, but for the mere possession keep solvent only by holding bingo games! the guise of stamping out "moral turpitude." of illegal substances, primarily marijuana. One person's permissible temptation is Let me hasten to say that I think it is Marijuana is legal in many countries, another's sin. At different times in history folly for anyone to use drugs, and that including the Netherlands, where it is sold we single out one kind of substance or addiction is a tragedy. Yet I submit that the openly in the shops. But the anti-drug activity as sinful, and condemn those who all-out war to achieve a "drug-free society" mentality has indiscriminately lumped all use or engage in it as benighted social is counterproductive. We ought to explore drugs together, and prohibitionists classify pariahs. But perhaps the rarest virtue in our rational alternatives. There are at least three even casual users as "dope fiends." For sin-conscious society is prudence and options: (1) prohibition, (2) legalization, and example, though cocaine is considered by common sense. I suggest that there is a (3) decriminalization, education, and re- many to be the demon incarnate, federal sensible middle ground in dealing with habilitation. statistics show that only 20 percent of the excessive drug use. Perhaps we should begin Absolute prohibition is the policy of very small percentage of the population that by attempting to reduce the current moral President Bush and his drug czar William uses cocaine becomes addicted. No doubt hysteria and to discuss rational ways of Bennett, as well as many in Congress. that figure is disturbing, but it hardly makes regulating drugs, ways that would not risk Prohibitionists wish to use all the powers cocaine the ominous social scourge that the creation of a police state or the compro- of the state to stamp out drugs. The current moral absolutists consider it to be. In fact, mise of our cherished constitutional liberties. War on Drugs is not new, however, and one the most dangerous drugs in America are would think that prohibitionists would learn alcohol and cigarettes: the toll in health and African-Americans for from history. They seek to intensify policies death exacted by these substances is humanism that have failed for decades. The results of enormous. today's drug policies are property crime, high In recent months a number of libertarians his issue of FREE INQUIRY presents a murder rates, corruption of public officials, and conservatives, including Milton Fried- Tbold new initiative in its "African- the spread of AIDS, and the overloading man, William F. Buckley, and George American Humanist Declaration." As a of our courts and prisons. The War on Drugs Schultz, have been calling for the legalization group, blacks are the most religious people even permitted the Bush administration to of drugs. Anything is better than the present in America, yet they are also among the most launch a questionable war on Panama, situation, they argue, and to legalize drugs disadvantaged. Christianity plays an inor- killing hundreds of GIs and innocent would at least remove the profit motive, and dinate role in the black community, and has civilians, wounding thousands, and causing thus much crime and corruption, from our undoubtedly had some positive effects; for great property damage. The capture of society. Many people object to legalization instance, it was a force in the civil-rights Manuel Noriega and his transport back to because they fear that it will encourage drug movement of the 1960s. But in our judgment, the United States for trial has raised serious use and increase the number of addicts, but Christianity has also had negative effects for questions of legality. Indeed, virtually every it is difficult to test this policy a priori. African-Americans, for it has cultivated an South American nation has condemned this There is a third option that would be far ethics of obedience rather than self-reliance, invasion, as have most countries of the less risky, and that is simply to decriminalize and has hardly rescued the inner cities from world. The entrapment of Marion Barry by drug use. This would be a policy of benign crime, violence, and despair. the FBI further illustrates the lengths to neglect; that is, we would not go all out in Recently Islam has been competing with which the prohibitionists are willing to go. pursuing adults for the mere possession or Christianity and making powerful inroads Today's "drug lords" have replaced the use of drugs. At a minimum, we should into the black community. But few African- Communists of the 1950s and the secular reduce the campaign against marijuana. This Americans have adopted a secular humanist humanists of the 1980s as the main satanic would free our resources for substance-abuse outlook. With this in mind, Norm Allen, 4 FREE INQUIRY working with the Council for Democratic been vindicated by history. Marxist- 1989). But few were aware of how massive and Secular Humanism, has founded humanists in Czechoslovakia, Poland, these animosities were. African-Americans for Secular Humanism, Hungary, and Romania also suffered great No one can hope to build a "new society" which seeks to spread humanist ideals. The personal risk by criticizing party control and by attempting to repress national aspirations group faces an uphill battle; unfortunately, demanding human rights in an open society. or destroy deep-seated religious identity. The many African-Americans find atheism, Today many humanists, such as Dubcek of right to freedom of conscience—whether to agnosticism, and secular humanism Czechoslovakia, have assumed positions of believe or not believe—must be respected. anathema to everything they have been power. It is an irony of history that the kind A powerful temptation for religiosity taught to respect. of humanistic democracy crushed by Rus- continues to persist within the human breast, A significant number of African- sian tanks in Czechoslovakia in 1968 has and ethnicity has proved to be more Americans have studied at colleges and moved to the forefront, demonstrating again recalcitrant and enduring than "class universities; a growing sector has entered that the deepest revolution of our time is interests." The blunder of the Soviets was into the middle classes and many are even the democratic revolution. that their fear of an open democratic society successfully entering politics. African- According to Stojanovic, Marxism has prohibited people of different racial, reli- Americans have made significant progress been so thoroughly discredited in Eastern gious, and ethnic backgrounds to share their during the past three decades, and we believe Europe that it is now all but dead as a viable cultures, move about, commingle, and that the ideals of secular humanism—self- alternative. No doubt Marx will continue intermarry, and thus the government failed reliance, self-discipline, science, reason, and to be read as a seminal thinker, but only to create a melting pot based on a more education—can help them to achieve even one among others; he can no longer be taken universal identity. Instead, by using methods more. It is time that an effort be made to as Holy Writ. of repression, party leaders succeeded only enlist African-Americans into the ranks of The outbreaks of hatred and violence in intensifying smoldering resentments and secular humanism. between nations in the Soviet Empire and irreconcilable hatreds in large sectors of their Related to this initiative are our efforts throughout Eastern Europe are quite a populations. It is questionable whether the to extend secular humanism to the Third surprise. Little did the world imagine the atheism imposed by Leninist-Stalinist World. The International Humanist and extent to which Armenians, Azerbaijanians, regimes will be replaced by genuine secular Ethical Union has placed a high priority on Georgians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Ukrain- humanism. Unfortunately, it is more likely the need to develop humanism in Africa and ians, and others would reject Marxist- that new waves of divisive ethnic religiosity Latin America. African-Americans for Leninist ideology, and turn on one another. and nationalism will emerge. Humanism has been working to assist new Seventy-two years of strenuous efforts by There is a lesson for all of us: We need humanist groups in Nigeria and Ghana. the Soviets to tame the passions aroused by to build a world community and new global Concomitant with this are our efforts to nationalism have not succeeded. We detected ethics in which there is some common establish humanist groups in Mexico and a glimmer of this during the International ground for all of humanity. In this noble Costa Rica. Though such modest projects Humanist and Ethical Union's 1989 dialogue venture the high ideals of humanism and no doubt pale in comparison with the with Soviet atheists (see FREE INQUIRY, Fall democracy should brook large. (PK) massive efforts to convert Africa and Latin America to Christianity, we are making some headway.

Reflections on the democratic Editorial revolutions of our time

evolutionary events in Eastern Europe Rand the Soviet Union continue to The Salem Witch Trials and unravel at a breathless pace. These dramatic changes hold forth tremendous promise, though unpredictable dangers may emerge the Modern Media to inflame the European continent. What is happening demonstrates anew that ideas Vern L. Bullough have consequences, and that what is unthink- able in one generation may suddenly take utbreaks of mass hysteria similar to that believed to fit the description of each new hold in the next. Owhich occurred during the Salem witch kind of dangerous pervert are exposed, Marxist humanism, which had consis- trials seem to be part of the recurring pattern pilloried, and often jailed, and then after a tently defended freedom against totalitarian of American history. The triggers vary, but time disappear from the public eye. repression, now has had remarkable influ- the results are the same: a significant number For many years after World War II, ence in Eastern Europe. For example, former of Americans are labeled as being sufficiently adherents of the political left were labeled president of Yugoslavia Milovan Djilas, deviant that the public must be made aware as Communists. Eventually many were Svetozar Stojanovic, and Mihailo Markovic, of the dangers of their existence. Individuals called before congressional committees, members of a group of Yugoslavian Marxist- shunned by their neighbors, and fired from humanists called Praxis-8, courageously Vern L. Bullough is SUNY distinguished their jobs. Ultimately most slunk off into advocated pluralistic democratic institutions professor and senior editor of FREE media oblivion. Obviously some of these twenty or thirty years ago, when it was INQUIRY. people were Communists, and some were extremely dangerous to do so. They have not particularly democratic, but the term was

Spring 1990 5 applied to vast segments of the population a child abuser. more than a hundred areas repeated vari- simply because they believed in such things Though photographs of missing children ations on the stories told in Manhattan as integration, racial equality, economic still appear on milk cartons and on some Beach. Included were charges that a child welfare, the importance of labor unions, and television shows, we have come to realize had been forced to eat a boiled baby, that so on. It seemed necessary to those in that almost all of the children allegedly a teacher had put a bomb in the anus of political power to remind people that those "kidnapped" were actually taken by one of a hamster and had blown it up, and who would "subvert" democracy—as anyone their parents during a custody fight. There that children had been forced to partici- labeled Communist allegedly would do— are, of course, a significant number of pate in various activities such as witch- had no place in our society. That the effort runaways, but the percentage has not craft rituals in graveyards, drinking urine to eliminate "Communists" posed a threat increased over the years and, if anything, and eating feces, and eating the raw heart to democracy and undermined many basic declined during the 1980s. There remain a of a dismembered deer. In most cases the constitutional guarantees was lost in the number of mysterious disappearances or charges were ultimately dropped, although hysteria over the "Red Menace." kidnappings, but again, the percentage has there were some twenty-three convictions at Today we see documentaries about the not changed. the latest count, most of which were excesses of the FBI during the Hoover One reason that talk of the "kidnapping" overturned on appeal. One of the most administration, and many of those who of children began to die down by the mid- recent cases to be tried was the first, the survived the purges have been "rehabili- 1980s was the growth of concern over child- Buckey case, in which a jury acquitted Ray tated"; several have even received significant abuse cases in schools. In the summer of Buckey and his mother, Peggy McMartin honors in recent years. Unfortunately, many 1983 Judy Johnson of Manhattan Beach Buckey, of fifty-seven counts of molestation died in ignominy before this happened. The complained to the police that her two-year- after deliberating for nine weeks over same type of hysteria that erupted over old son had been sodomized by Ray Buckey, evidence presented during a two-year trial. communism had burst forth before, and has a teacher at the McMartin Pre-school. An Buckey will be retried on thirteen of the since appeared again. The media, like the examination showed that the boy apparently charges on which the jury remained clergy during the Salem witch trials, had been molested, and within a few months deadlocked. repeatedly arouse our fears that something public hysteria had erupted. Before it ended, One result of this mass hysteria has been poses a threat to The Family and is a danger forty-one children were involved and 208 a radical change in the way that day-care to America. We then rally to denounce those counts were filed against seven individuals. personnel deal with the children. Many are involved, labeling them, and calling to them The charges made by the children were afraid to give the kind of cuddling and even more media attention until eventually gothic in their detail. They said they had touching that young children need. Many the bubble bursts, the hysteria ends, and witnessed devil worship; had been photo- emphasize the importance of having at least sanity again reigns—at least until a new graphed naked; had had sticks, silverware, two adults present if a child needs help in cause is found. and screwdrivers stuck up their bottoms; had the toilet. It is to be hoped that gradually Such hysteria propelled into the national been marched to mortuaries and cemeteries the nursery school profession will recover spotlight what would become two of the where they dug up corpses with shovels and from its trauma. Again, some children dominant themes of the 1980s: the so-called pickaxes; had been flown in airplanes; had undoubtedly were abused, but it is not kidnapping of massive numbers of children, been given red or pink liquid that made them certain that such abuse took place in the and the abuse of children in schools and day- sleepy; had been buried alive; had seen naked schools. In fact, research shows that most care centers. Both issues arouse all sorts of priests cavorting in a secret cellar below the children who are abused, are abused at home fears. Playing upon these fears has been an school; had seen a teacher fly; had observed or by close friends or acquaintances. It seems odd coalition that includes many of the same three abusers "dressed up as witches"; and as though the media were largely responsi- elements involved in the anti-Communist had seen Ray Buckey kill a horse with a ble for the hysteria. Self-proclaimed ex- scare of the 1950s and 1960s. "Conservative" baseball bat. perts jumped into the arena, many of them (read "reactionary") pro-family groups who Also in the summer of 1983, Christine knowing little or nothing about the topic, themselves fear the changing nature of the Brown of Jordan, Minnesota, charged that but proclaiming such nonsense that an American family have seized upon the James Rud, a trash collector living in abused child can be identified by a "fear of kidnap and abuse of children to drive home Brown's trailer park, had abused her young monsters" or by other equally normal be- their message that the place for mother is daughter. As the hysteria spread, encouraged haviors. in the home. Working parents, worried that by a prosecuting attorney, not only was We have begun to recover from this they are not doing justice to their children, Brown herself charged, but so were her sister hysteria, and to deal with the real problem are particularly susceptible to these issues, and brother-in-law, who had posted bail for of child abuse in a more rational way; but and their anxieties add fuel to the fire. Once her, and a number of individuals who spoke now the media are gripped by drug- and kindled, the fire is often hard to put out, in her defense, including an automobile substance-abuse hysteria. Suddenly, prop- since there is usually a kernel of truth behind painter and his wife, a policeman and his erty can be seized and sold, countries the charges. Children do disappear, and they wife, and assorted neighbors and friends. invaded, privacy violated, and many of the are abused. For someone to say that the Eventually the prosecutor was relieved of her provisions of the Constitution temporarily media are exaggerating is often dangerous, job and the charges dropped against all but set aside in the name of eradicating illegal since that individual may then be labeled James Rud. In the meantime several people drugs. Unfortunately, we never really deal a child abuser or a defender of child abuse. had lost their jobs, had gone into debt, or effectively with a problem during a period To point out that child abuse by all had had their marriages or family relation- of mass hysteria, since rational, systematic traditional definitions has been declining is ships destroyed. approaches are impossible at these times. not enough, since new definitions have Stories quickly spread around the coun- Perhaps as a nation we simply find such appeared that, if pushed to their logical try as zealous reporters explored their own rational approaches impossible during the extremes, make virtually everyone out to be cities and towns. Ultimately, children in initial stages of a crisis. • 6 FREE INQUIRY demagogic appeal that the prospect of stamping out evil by suitably dramatic means has always exercised, and will continue to Lay Down Your Arms exercise, on the minds of men and women. The Romans, barbarians that they were, had circuses where they watched gladiators kill one another. Our circuses—splashed across the front pages of newspapers and maga- Thomas Szasz zines, and flashed unceasingly on television screens—entertain us with our own civilized, or seven decades, the American govern- of "needs," has generated an unusually and of course scientific, spectacles: we are Fment has been waging a War on Drugs. intense ambivalence about a host of shown how "bad" illicit drugs—ingested, Seemingly, this war has received the pleasure-producing acts and objects, illicit injected, and inhaled by persons who want enthusiastic support of the American people, drugs being but one. In addition, perhaps to use them—injure and kill their victims; who have chosen to vote into office poli- because of our diversity as a people, it is and how "good" psychiatric drugs—forced ticians promising to prosecute it vigorously. difficult for us to find a stable basis for on persons who do not want to use them— However, inasmuch as drugs on a shelf are "congregating" as a nation, a circumstance cure them of their nonexistent mental inert substances, the War on Drugs cannot, that amplifies our collective craving for illnesses. At the same time, we are expected in fact, be directed against drugs; it can only moral crusades against scapegoats bearing not to measure the putative harm caused by be directed against those persons who sell, heavy loads of imaginary dangers. These illegal substances such as marijuana against buy, or consume the officially forbidden considerations support and underscore the the proven harm caused by legal substances chemicals. In that case, of course, the War importance of Kenneth Burke's wise obser- such as tobacco, or to compare the putative on Drugs becomes an exercise similar to vation that "The sacrificial principle of dangers of using prohibited drugs with the Prohibition or the Comstock Laws, wherein victimage (the `scapegoat') is intrinsic to proven dangers of enforcing their prohibi- a democratic people choose to abolish the human congregation." This principle tion. Finally, to top off this absurd spectacle, free market in a product or service that they explains why it is such a sad truism that, we are subjected to the public prayers of intensely crave. Obviously, such a prohibi- as Friedrich von Hayek puts it, "It is indeed the wives of presidents, beseeching their deity tionist effort cannot succeed unless draco- probable that more harm and misery have to save us not from temptation, but from nian measures are used to enforce it— been caused by men determined to use the dread disease of drug abuse—a travesty measures rarely employed by democratic coercion to stamp out a moral evil than by on both religion and science that neither governments. Not very surprisingly, the men intent on doing evil." In my opinion, theologians nor scientists dare to ridicule. effort fails, or more precisely, seems to fail. this is not just probable, it is quite certain. Wisotsky's book is a heroic attempt to stem Again, I say seems, because if a person simul- In short, we must not underestimate the the tide of this crowd madness. • taneously seeks and avoids an act or object, he may be said to fail or succeed regardless of whether or not he obtains the object of Rethinking the War on Drugs his desired aversion. In this exhaustively, indeed masterfully, documented study, Steven Wisotsky demonstrates the failure, on a truly gigantic scale, of the American Steven Wisotsky people's effort to deprive themselves of the drugs so many of them want. His hope-- he Reagan and Bush administrations repressive laws that include pre-trial deten- which I share, but about which I am Thave acted aggressively in mobilizing the tion and mandatory life sentences for some considerably less confident than he—is that agencies of the federal government in a drug offenders; urine testing for civil-service by documenting this massive failure, those coordinated attack on the drug supply from and private-sector workers; and dragnet who prosecute the War on Drugs might be abroad and the distribution of drugs within enforcement techniques such as bus hoard- persuaded to lay down their arms. the United States. The War on Drugs, em- ings and roadblocks directed against the What makes me temper my hopes about powered by Congress with an ever stricter public. Perhaps most tellingly in an age of such a rationalistic perspective on the War set of police powers and punishments, has budget deficits and Gramm-Rudman con- on Drugs is that it neglects certain key attained a vast global scale that includes the straints, total federal spending on the War elements in America's effort to become largest increase in law-enforcement person- on Drugs rose from approximately $1 billion "drug-free." Briefly put, in the United States, nel in American history; involvement of the to $9 billion during the 1980s. the Judeo-Christian (and especially Puritan) FBI, the CIA, NASA spy satellites, and the The crackdown has not been without struggle against temptation, combined with military; a projection of U.S. law- results. By nearly every bureaucratic stand- the passion for the immediate satisfaction enforcement power on the high seas and in ard, the War on Drugs is a huge success. foreign nations; a breathtaking expansion of It has set new records in every category of Thomas Szasz is a psychiatrist at the Upstate measurement—drug seizures, investigations, Medical Center in Syracuse, New York. This Steven Wisotsky is professor of legal studies indictments, arrests, convictions, and asset article is a reprint of his preface to Steven at Nova Law School in Fort Lauderdale. forfeitures. Wisotsky 's book, Beyond the War on Drugs This article was adapted from the forward Despite the administration's accumula- (Prometheus). to Beyond the War on Drugs. tion of impressive statistics, domestic mari- juana cultivation took off, and the black

Spring 1990 7 market in cocaine grew to record size. In Thus it is not simply that the War on government estimates. The flow of these a 1985 National Household Survey, more Drugs has failed to work; in many respects illegal billions through the underground than 22 million Americans reported having it has made things worse. In this country economy finances or supplies the incentives tried cocaine; roughly 5.8 million reported it has spun a spider's web of black-market for the pathologies described above: homi- having used it during the month preceding pathologies, including roughly 25 percent of cides, street crime, public corruption, and the survey. all urban homicides, widespread corruption international narco-terrorism. If these As if to mock the aggressive efforts of of police and other public officials, and street phenomena were properly costed out, one the War on Drugs, the rapid increase in crime by addicts. It has promoted subversive might well conclude that the War on Drugs supply and decline in price occurred in the alliances between Latin American guerrillas makes a net negative contribution to the face of President Reagan's doubling and and traffickers. Some Latin American and safety, well-being, and national security redoubling of the federal anti-drug enforce- Caribbean nations have been effectively interests of the American people. ment budget. Resources specifically devoted captured by drug traffickers; where capture to interdiction rose, military assistance rose, is incomplete, intimidation reigns. onfronted by these threatening devel- personnel levels at DEA rose, and substan- Of course, these pathologies were fore- Copments, both the public and the tial amounts of military equipment were sent seeable. They are a function of money. Drug politicians predictably react in fear and to Colombia, Bolivia, and other Latin law yields to a higher law: the law of the anger. The specter of uncontrolled and American governments for use against marketplace, of supply and demand. The seemingly uncontrollable drug abuse and trafficking operations there. naive attack on the drug supply by aggressive black-marketeering leads to frustrated Commenting in 1987 on the interdiction enforcement at each step—interdiction, reaction against the drug trade. The zeal to budget, the Office of Technology Assessment arrest, prosecution, and punishment— "turn the screw of the criminal machinery" concluded: results in a "crime tariff," reward for taking leads directly to the adoption of repressive the risk of breaking the law. The criminal and punitive measures that aggrandize Despite a doubling of federal expenditures law thereby maintains inflated prices for governmental powers at the expense of on interdiction over the past five years, illegal drugs in the black market. individual rights. the quantity of drugs smuggled into the For example, an ounce of pure pharma- The War on Drugs has substantially United States is greater than ceutical cocaine at roughly $80, just under undermined the American tradition of ever.... There is no clear correlation between the level of expenditures or effort $3 a gram, becomes worth about $4,480 if limited government and personal autonomy. devoted to interdiction and the long-term sold on the black market at $80 a diluted Since the early 1980s, the prevailing attitude, availability of illegally imported drugs in gram (at 50-percent purity). The crime tariff both within government and in the broader the domestic market. is thus $4,400 an ounce. This type of law society, has been that the crackdown on enforcement succeeds to the extent (prob- drugs is so imperative that extraordinary The social "return" on the extra billions spent ably slight) that demand is elastic or sensitive measures are justified. The end has come during the 1980s has been a drug-abuse to price. But because the crime tariff is paid to justify the means. The result is that problem of historic magnitude, accompanied to lawbreakers rather than the government, Americans have significantly less freedom by a drug-trafficking parasite of inter- it pumps vast sums of money into the black than they did only five or six years ago. What national dimensions. market—more than $100 billion a year by is truly frightening is the high level of public consent; according to the polls, a majority of the public is willing to sacrifice personal freedoms in order to wage the War on Drugs. Election-year politics in 1988 continued to ratchet the War on Drugs machinery tighter and tighter. On March 30, 1988, Q SEAT. BORDER To INTERDICT 3% Of DRvGS ENTERING U.S. Attorney General Edwin Meese sent a memorandum to all United States Attorneys © zo,000 TRooP INVASION OF PANAMA To DEMONSTRATE NEW ARMY encouraging the selective prosecution of SovNO SYSTEM To PAPAL NUNCIO "middle- and upper-class users" in order to © FAKE A NAVAL BLOCKADE OF COLOMpIAN COAST "send the message that there is no such thing © DEPLOY PRESIDENT as `recreational' drug use...." At about the INTO AND OUT OF same time, former Customs Commissioner COLOMAIA WITIIOVT GETTING HIM kILLEO William von Raab's "zero tolerance" initi- © AIRLIFT MILLIONS OF ative was begun to punish drug use in order Mon-IS ro EAT AU. THE to reduce "the demand side of the equation." COCAINE PLANTS IN S. AMERICA This means the seizure and forfeiture of the Nib " cars, planes, or boats of persons found in possession of even trace amounts of illegal drugs. These forfeited assets in effect represent fines far greater than would ordinarily be imposed for drug possession; but as civil forfeiture is in rem (that is, a procedure against a thing as opposed to against a person), no conviction or prose-

Q NEW PR,SoNS FOR MILLIoNI cution is required at all. OF ADDIcTED MOTIK Some examples: On April 30, the Coast

8 FREE INQUIRY Guard boarded and seized the motor yacht of opposition has been seen or heard since 2. Set specific goals Ark Royal, valued at $25 million, because the War on Drugs started. ten marijuana seeds and two stems were What accounts for this trend? Negative A creative definition or redefinition of the found aboard. Public criticism prompted a experience almost certainly plays the central problem would of itself carry us return of the boat upon payment of $1,600 role. There is little doubt that the perception toward a (re)statement of goals. Rational in fines and fees by the owner. The fifty- that the War on Drugs is a failure at policy-making is impossible without a clear two-foot Mindy was impounded for a week controlling drug supply, drug money, and articulation of the goals to be achieved. Part because of cocaine dust in a rolled-up dollar drug violence has spread significantly. of that impossibility arises from the incon- bill. The $80 million oceanographic research Uncritical acceptance of the War on Drugs sistencies between goals. For example, vessel Atlantis II was seized in San Diego is no longer possible. The perception that pursuit of the goal to attack the drug supply when the Coast Guard found .01 ounce of it has negative side-effects and breeds crime, creates a crime tariff that makes pursuit of marijuana in a crewman's shaving kit. It was violence, and corruption has spread even to the goal to suppress drug money more or returned also. But a Michigan couple the comic pages of the daily newspapers. But less impossible. Instead, the result of drug returning from a vacation in Canada lost the question remains: What should be done enforcement is a black market estimated by the wife's 1987 Cougar when Customs agents now? the government to be over $100 billion a found two marijuana cigarettes in her year, money that gives rise to homicidal husband's pocket. No charges were filed, but ne historically tested model of explor- violence, street corruption by addicts, cor- the car was kept by the government. In Key ing policy reform is the appointment ruption of public officials, and international West, Florida, David Phelps, a shrimp of a National Study Commission of experts, narco-terrorism. It is therefore essential to fisherman, lost his 73-foot shrimper to a politicians, and lay leaders to uncover facts, distinguish between problems arising from Coast Guard seizure because 3 grams of canvass a full range of policy options, and drugs and problems arising from drug cannabis seeds and stems were found aboard. recommend further research where needed. money. Legally, the boat is forfeitable whether or The model of the National Commission on not Phelps had any responsibility for the Marihuana and Drug Abuse in the early 3. Set realistic and principled drugs—though the 1988 Act softened the law 1970s deserves serious consideration. At the priorities based on truth somewhat by creating an exemption for very least, a national commission performs innocent owners. a vital educational function: public hearings he suppression of drugs as an end in On April 19, 1989, Bush called upon the and attendant media coverage inform the Titself is frequently justified by arguments House and Senate to vote promptly on a public, bringing to its attention vital facts that drugs cause addiction, injury, and even bill providing for capital punishment when and a broader array of policy options. The death in the short or long run. Granted that a death results from drug dealing, or when level of public discourse is almost certain all drug use has the potential for harm. But a law-enforcement officer is killed in the to be elevated. it is clear beyond any rational argument that course of a drug-related crime. Congress The overriding goal of such a commis- most drug use does not cause such harm complied. Other strong measures were sion should be to develop policies directed and is, like social drinking, without lasting debated and rejected. In June the admin- toward reducing both drug abuse and the consequence. Drugs are not harmful per se. istration declared its goal of a "drug-free black-market pathologies resulting from the Accepting the truth of that premise means America," and Congress wrote that into law billions in drug money generated by drug that not all drug use need be addressed by in the 1988 Act, setting 1995 as the target law enforcement. In pursuit of these goals, the criminal law, and that society might date. the commission's study might benefit actually benefit from a policy of benign At the same time that anti-drug extrem- from adherence to the following five neglect respecting some forms of drug use. ism began to rise, a movement began in the points. I have in mind the Dutch model, where opposite direction. Respected journalists and nothing is legal but some things are simply other opinion leaders began to break ranks 1. Define the drug problem ignored, cannabis in particular. The benefit with the War on Drugs. Today, a significant to the Dutch has been declining rates of body of opinion has emerged, outside the hat exactly is the problem regarding cannabis smoking throughout the 1980s, academic community, that is opposed to the Wdrugs in the United States? The lack despite its relatively free availability. The War on Drugs. The opposition transcends of an agreed-upon answer to this question Dutch claim that by stripping cannabis of the liberal/conservative split. Traditionally, is one of the primary sources of incoherence the allure of forbidden fruit, they have conservatives have advocated strict law in present law and policy. People now speak succeeded in making it boring. But in the enforcement, and liberals have been iden- of "the drug problem" in referring to at least United States there are approximately a half tified with a permissive approach to the drug five very different phenomena: (1) the mere million arrests a year for marijuana, almost issue. Now respected conservative spokes- use of any illegal drug; (2) teenage drug use; all for simple possession or petty sale men also have begun to dissent from the (3) the abuse of illegal drugs, that is, that offenses. Depending upon the age of consent War on Drugs. Clearly, the challenge to the which causes physical or psychological harm chosen, most of these arrests could be monopoly status of the War on Drugs is to the user; (4) drug-induced misbehavior eliminated from the criminal justice system, gaining ground. The Drug Policy Founda- that endangers or harms others, such as thereby achieving a massive freeing of re- tion and the Criminal Justice Policy driving while impaired; and (5) drug- sources for the policing of real crime. Institute, drug policy reform organizations, trafficking phenomena (crime, violence, and Because we live in a world of limited have been established in Washington to corruption) arising from the vast sums of resources, it is not possible to do everything. promote the cause of rationality in drug money generated in the black market in It is therefore both logical and necessary to control. The dissent has also begun to spill drugs. This confusion in the very statement make distinctions among things that are over to the political sector, at home as well of the problem necessarily engenders more and less important. I have in mind as abroad. Nothing approaching this level confusion in solving it. at least five basic dichotomies: (1) drug use Spring 1990 9 by adults (low priority) versus drug use by highway; in the workplace; and from unruly competent adults with access to necessary children (top priority); (2) marijuana disruptions in public streets, public trans- information are entitled to take risks of this smoking (low priority) versus use of harder port, parks, and other gathering places. kind as part of life, liberty, and the pursuit drugs (higher priority); (3) private use of Programs specifically tailored to accomplish of happiness. Why are drugs different? drugs at home (no priority) versus public this more focused goal make a lot more sense Only a truly totalitarian government use of drugs (high priority); (4) drug than futile and counterproductive "zero would legislate these matters. After all, if consumption (low priority) versus drug tolerance" approaches. Street-level law- the government is conceded to have the impairment (high priority); (5) occasional enforcement practices need to be reviewed power to prohibit what is dangerous, does use (low priority) versus chronic or depend- to see to what extent they may actually it not then have the power to compel what ent use (higher priority). encourage hustling drugs in the street to is safe? More specifically, if one drug can From these general criteria for drug avoid arrests and forfeitures that might be prohibited on the ground that it is dan- policy, I would recommend to the national follow from fixed points of sale. gerous to the individual, would it then not commission five specific goals for an Driving and workplace safety require be permissible for the government to decree effective, principled drug policy: more knowledge. Nothing should be that beneficial doses of some other drug must (1) Protect the children. This priority is assumed. Drug use, as the examples of Air be taken at specified intervals? self-evident and needs no discussion. I would Force pilots' use of amphetamines and The freedom of American citizens has simply add that this is the only domain in Sigmund Freud's use of cocaine show, does already been seriously eroded by the War which "zero tolerance" makes any sense at not automatically mean impairment. Even on Drugs. More civil liberties hang in the all and might even be approachable if with marijuana there is ambiguous evidence balance of future legislation and executive enforcement resources were concentrated on as to motor coordination. Responsible actions. Is the defense of Americans from it as a top priority. research is required. drugs to be analogized to the defense of the (2) Get tough on the legal drugs. It is (4) Protect public health. The emphasis Vietnamese from communism? Was it neces- common knowledge that alcohol (100,000 here is on the word "public." Policy should sary to destroy the city of Hue in order to annual deaths) and tobacco (360,000 annual be directed toward (a) treatment of addicts save it? The national commission should give deaths) far exceed illegal drugs as sources on a voluntary basis and (b) true epidemi- serious weight to this value in its policy of death, disease, and dysfunction in the ological concerns, such as the use of drugs recommendations. United States. Everyone knows that alcohol by pregnant women and the potential for and tobacco are big business—the advertis- transmission of AIDS by intravenous drug 4. Focus on the big picture ing budget alone for alcohol runs about $2 users. Addiction treatment is now shame- billion a year—and, what is worse, the fully underfunded, with months-long waiting resent drug policy suffers from a kind federal and state governments are in lists in many cities. Pof micro-think that borders on irrespon- complicity with the sellers of these deadly Purely individualized risks are not in sibility and is sometimes downright silly. drugs by virtue of the billions in tax revenues principle a public health matter and are in This typically manifests itself in proud that they reap. any case trivial in magnitude compared to administration announcements or reports to I am not suggesting prohibition of these those now accepted from alcohol and congressional committees of a new initiative drugs. That is wrong in principle and tobacco. Francis Young of the DEA found or accomplishment without regard to its impossible in practice, as experience teaches. no known lethal dose of marijuana. Even impact on the bottom line. The examples Nonetheless, there are more restrictive with cocaine, which has lethal potential, are endless—a joint strike force with the measures that can and should be undertaken. fewer than 2,000 deaths annually result from government of the Bahamas; a shutdown of One is to get rid of cigarette vending the consumption of billions of lines or puffs a source of supply; the Pizza Connection machines so that cigarettes are not so readily every year. In any event, harmfulness is not case, the largest organized crime heroin- available to minors. A second is to require the sole touchstone of regulation. trafficking case ever made by the federal or recommend to the states and localities (5) Respect the value of individual liberty government; a new bank secrecy agreement more restrictive hours of sale. A third is to and responsibility. The current administra- with the Cayman Islands; a new coca- levy taxes on these products consistent with tion's goal of a drug-free America is both eradication program in Bolivia or Peru; and their social costs—billions of dollars in ridiculous—as absurd as a liquor-free so on. But none of these programs or property damage, disease, and lost produc- America—and wrong in principle. A demo- "accomplishments" has ever made any tivity. These costs should be financed largely cratic society must respect the decisions noticeable or lasting impact on the drug by the buyers; at present prices, society is made by its adult citizens, even decisions supply. Even now, as the Godfather of clearly subsidizing them by providing police, perceived to be foolish or risky. After all, Bolivian cocaine resides in a Bolivian prison, fire, and ambulance services for road is it different in principle to protect the right is there any observable reduction in the accidents; Medicare and Medicaid re- of gun ownership, which produces some supply of cocaine? There must be insistence imbursement for therapy, surgery, and 10,000 to 12,000 homicides a year and that enforcement programs make a dif- prosthesis or other medical care; and many thousands more nonfatal injuries? Is it ference in the real world. other hidden costs effectively externalized different in principle to protect the right of The whole drug-enforcement enterprise from the smoker or drinker to society as motorcyclists, skydivers, or mountain needs to be put on a more businesslike basis, a whole. Such taxes would have the climbers to risk their lives? Is it different looking to the bottom line and not to isolated additional salutary effect of reducing the to permit children to ride bicycles that "achievements" of the War on Drugs. In fact, consumption of these dangerous products to "cause" tens of thousands of crippling the investor analogy is a good one to use: the extent that demand is elastic. injuries and deaths a year? To say that if the War on Drugs were incorporated as (3) Public safety and order. Here we need something is "dangerous" does not automat- a business enterprise, with its profits to be policies directed toward protection of the ically supply a reason to outlaw it. Indeed, determined by its success in controlling drug public from accident and injury on the the general presumption in our society is that abuse and drug trafficking, who would invest 10 FREE INQUIRY in it? Even if its operating budget were to use are down and will likely continue to go than drugs, is the root of the evil. be doubled, would it be a good personal down as people become more educated and Apart from the unique problem posed investment? If not, why is it a good social more concerned about health and fitness. by drugs in the ghettos, anti-drug hysteria investment? This kind of hardheaded But the trend is much broader, encom- is far too common, even among professionals thinking is exactly what is and has been passing cigarettes and liquor as well as illegal who should know better. A former director lacking throughout the War on Drugs. No drugs. One important factor is the aging of of the National Institute of Drug Abuse attention has been paid to considerations of the baby boom generation. That demogra- claimed that without the War on Drugs to cause and effect, or to trade-offs, or to cost- phic bulge leaves fewer young people behind restrain the people, we would have 60 to benefit analyses. New anti-drug initiatives and thus contributes to the aging of the 100 million users of cocaine in this country. are not subjected to critical questioning: population as a whole. An older population This is extremely unlikely. But rather than What marginal gains, if any, can be projected is simply one that is less likely to use party trading assertion and counter-assertion, the from new programs or an additional drugs. Another probable cause is the real question is epistemological: How does commitment of resources? Conversely, how resurgence in the 1980s of a post-hippie work the director know what he "knows"? Clearly, might things worsen? ethic and careerism among the young, a there is no empirical basis for his claim. It It is important to abjure meaningless, preoccupation with getting and spending. must therefore be an expression of fear or isolated "victories" in the War on Drugs and Drugs don't fit so well into the style of the perhaps a political maneuver, but clearly to focus on whether a program or policy late 1980s. something other than a statement of fact. offers some meaningful overall impact on To attribute these changes to law enforce- Why would the director of the public agency the safety, security, and well-being of the ment is at the least unprofessional. The most responsible for informing the public American people. In this respect, does it liberalization of marijuana laws in Califor- on drugs take that tack? Whatever his really matter that the DEA doubled the nia, Oregon, Maine, and elsewhere in the reasons, wild speculation is not the path to number of drug arrests from 6,000 to 12,000 early 1970s produced no observable rise in informed judgment and intelligent, workable during the 1980s? Or that the Customs consumption (either new users or increased policy. Why not truly confront the question Service dramatically increased its drug frequency) of marijuana compared to other of what less-restricted availability of cocaine seizures to nearly 200,000 pounds of cocaine? states. The connection between law and would mean in terms of increased drug use, Or that a kingpin like Carlos Lehder Rivas individual behavior at this level is remote. taking account of both prevalence and was convicted and imprisoned for life plus Government policies are no more respon- incidence? 135 years? Might it not be that the resources sible for the current decline in drug use than There are a number of ways in which devoted to those anti-drug initiatives were they were for the boom in the 1970s and this might be done if we truly want to know not merely wasted but actually counter- early 1980s. Drug use will almost certainly the answers. One way is to do market productive? continue to decline in the 1990s, no matter research. A standard technique of market Similarly, it is critical to pay scrupulous what law enforcement does, for roughly the research is to conduct surveys and ask people attention to cause and effect. Throughout same reasons that cigarette smoking and about what they desire in a product in terms the War on Drugs, administration officials drinking of hard liquor have declined— of price, quality, and other features. How have been making absurd claims about the without any change in law or law enforce- much will they buy at various prices? The effects of anti-drug policies. In 1988, ment. same techniques are adaptable, mutatis President Reagan asserted that the War on mutandis, to illegal drugs. Drugs was working. His evidence? Mari- 5. Substitute study for speculation What about the effects of the drug? Is juana smoking was down to 18 million cocaine addictive? Longitudinal studies persons a year and experimentation with he War on Drugs has produced a siege should be encouraged. Household Surveys cocaine by high-school seniors in the Tmentality. Senators from large states by the NIDA register only gross numbers University of Michigan survey declined by speak of invasions and national security and do not track users. (They do not even 20 percent. This is the classic fallacy of post threats. To a large extent, anxieties are cover group quarters, such as college dor- hoc, ergo propter hoc. focused on the sordid crack scene of the inner mitories and military barracks, where drug The same University of Michigan survey cities and revulsion at tragedies like cocaine use may be higher than average.) At present shows that marijuana consumption peaked babies. The fundamental fact of life is that we have almost no real-world knowledge of in 1979, three years before the War on Drugs the crack scene grew up and flourished under the experience of past and present cocaine even began. Cocaine is purer, cheaper, and the regime of the War on Drugs. The war users, except those unrepresentative few who more available than ever before. Yet the 1988 zone created by the confrontation between come forward as former or recovering National Institute of Drug Abuse Household cops and crack dealers is hardly an adver- addicts. Even the NIDA has conceded that Survey showed "current" (past month) use tisement for continuing the present we lack any estimate of the relative propor- of cocaine down by 50 percent, and past- approach. On the contrary, the ugliness of tions of addictive use versus experimental year use down from 12.2 million to 8.2 the crack scene confirms the folly of the War or other nonconsequential use in the total million, or roughly one-third. The survey on Drugs, since law enforcement is the only population of cocaine users. Isn't that critical reports that past-month use of all illicit drugs thing that props up the price high enough information in regulating the drug? "continued a downward trend which began to make it more worthwhile than selling Drug users should be systematically in 1979 and accelerated between 1985 and apples or pencils. The sale of drugs is the interviewed, but they will be loath to step 1988." The decline is substantial—from 23 only industry in the inner cities; and the forward in the current climate of repression. million in 1985 to 14.5 million in 1988. pathology we see there is a magnification Useful experiments might also be performed That decline obviously occurred before of the pre-existing pathologies of the unwed using volunteers from the prison population the user-accountability crackdown of 1988. mother and the unemployed single male (for example, those serving life sentences If use is down, it is not because of successful through the lens of the money to be made without parole) and perhaps volunteers from law enforcement. Most categories of drug dealing drugs. In short, drug money, rather the military services. How would people Spring 1990 11 behave and how would their health fare with situation in this country. Consider the is trying to avoid. In this moment of panic, abundant access to cocaine? Would it be used analogy of a panic stop in an automobile. the "logical" or instinctive thing to do widely or intensively or both? Finally, In a typical scenario, a driver observes a is to stomp the brake pedal even harder. But comparative studies from countries such as sudden obstruction in the road and slams that is absolutely wrong. The correct thing Holland can tell us a great deal about the on the brakes in order to avoid a collision. to do to stop the skid is to modulate the effects of more freely available cannabis and If too much force is used on the pedal, the brake pressure, releasing the pedal just heroin. We have a lot to learn from the sudden forward weight transfer will very enough to permit the front wheels to begin Dutch. likely induce front-wheel lockup. At that rolling again so that steering control is point, the car starts skidding out of control. restored. Thus, the correct and safe response Wherehere is a paradox here: the use of less If the driver turns the wheel left or right, is counter-intuitive, while the instinctive force may actually result in the car will simply keep on skidding forward response sends the driver skidding toward producing more control over the drug toward the very obstacle that the driver disaster. •

are not "ought" statements. The language of moral ideals describe our aspirations, not Square Pegs, Round Holes the physical world. Having decided what kind of world we'd like to live in, it is not enough simply to march out and pursue the desired end by force. First we must examine how the real world works, and plan to pursue our end by means that recognize the real Tom Flynn world on its own terms. Whether in discourse or in policy-mak- pposition to the Bush administration's it. Urine testing continues; so do "zero- ing, trying to pound the square peg of values OWar on Drugs is beginning to emerge tolerance" seizures of personal property into the round hole of reality almost always across a broad front and from every part prior to due process, indiscriminate police has unexpected results. Yet that is exactly of the ideological spectrum. It may be the searches of entire streets, and all the rest. what the drug warriors are up to. They only issue that brings together Alan Der- How far can it go? Last October, drug agents adopted the ideal of a drug-free nation showitz, Ira Glasser, Milton Friedman, and seized the mailing lists of garden-supply an ideal, incidentally, that not all Americans William F. Buckley. (Buckley called it as stores in forty-six states to obtain names of share—and have taken up the machinery of unwinnable as the war in Vietnam.) They people who had bought home hydroponic government to impose that ideal directly. and many others agree that most of the gardening equipment, which can be used to That approach failed here with Prohibi- damage drugs have wrought in our inner grow marijuana. When officers raided homes tion, resulting in a legacy of organized crime cities and in Latin America proceeds from across the country, they mainly rounded up and public disrespect for the law that haunts their illegality, not from their chemical dastardly tomato growers. us still. More recently, it has failed in Eastern effects. Critics suggest that legalization It seems increasingly obvious to everyone Europe, with the wholesale collapse of would not increase drug use; the experience but the administration that the War on totalitarian regimes that sought to stamp out of the Netherlands, where most drugs are Drugs cannot work. Why the myopia? Drug religion and redirect national economies by legal, bears this out, as does applicable U.S. czar William Bennett gives us a hint when government fiat alone. data. (For example, in a University of Alaska he writes, "I remain an ardent defender of Legislating morality almost never works, study, marijuana use among high-school our nation's laws against illegal drug use and for the simple reason that the world of ideals students dropped below the national average our nation's attempts to enforce them, and the world of reality seldom intersect in after private use of the drug was decrim- because I believe drug use is wrong... . predictable ways. This is often forgotten by inalized.) Critics also charge that the A true friend of freedom understands that leaders who prefer not to let reality encumber government stance obstructs promising government has a responsibility to craft and their vision of virtue, and it is from this programs, from nonjudgmental treatment uphold laws that help educate citizens about omission that the real iniquity of the drug centers to free-needle programs, that might right and wrong." war springs. combat the spread of AIDS and other In other words, never mind the logical- Humanists can play an important role diseases linked to drug use. They note that sounding rhetoric about lost productivity in the drug-war debate by stressing why it alcohol and tobacco killed almost half a due to drug use on the job. The real motive is pointless to legislate morality. It is million people last year, while less than 2,000 behind the War on Drugs is nothing other important to discuss the human and eco- died due to drugs—mostly in shootouts, not than the hoary authoritarian lust to legislate nomic costs of forcing drugs underground, from shooting up. Finally, critics call our morals. For most FREE INQUIRY readers, this and to be critical when antidrug zeal rides attention to the corrosive effects that is not news. But a closer look at the political roughshod over civil liberties. But these are "wartime" zeal has on civil liberties. and philosophical implications of this mind- symptoms, single chips from the politico- But the White House will have none of set reveals the real threat the War on Drugs moral "workbench" where square pegs are represents: a return to pre-humanistic ways being pounded one after another into a very Tom Flynn is coeditor of the Secular of thinking at the highest levels of round hole. We should strive to keep the Humanist Bulletin and director of the Center government. debate focused there, because nothing will for Inquiry. Humanists take for granted a distinction improve until Bush, Bennett, et al. can be that others sometimes forget: "is" statements persuaded to put away their hammers. •

12 FREE INQUIRY An African-American Humanist Declaration

lavery and racism have taken their toll on the African- presented many conflicting ideas regarding the past, present, American community. It seems as though every possible future, and even the the identity of African-Americans. Never Ssolution to the problems that have resulted from these in the history of the United States has a people been plagued twin evils has been advocated or implemented on some level. with so many problems and so much confusion. But the problems have remained, and in some cases have Many strategies to end the confusion and solve the problems worsened. have been tried, with few positive results. But if more critical Many thinkers maintain that the history of African- thought had gone into the planning of these strategies, they Americans is unique. Unlike any other group, African- either would have been successful, or would never have been Americans were kidnapped from their homeland, enslaved, tried at all. and brutally victimized in every way imaginable by a strict There are still many questions that seem almost to defy system of segregation. Only during the past three decades answers. How much does racism affect American society has it become popular for mainstream Americans to oppose today? How limited or plentiful are the opportunities for racism. Segregation was "officially" practiced in the South African-Americans? What effects have the distortion, on a large scale until the 1960s. Thus slavery and segregation destruction, and suppression of African history had on have characterized most of the history of African-Americans. African-Americans and on the way they are viewed and treated (It must also be noted that the enslavement and segregation by the rest of society? How committed is white America to of a minority by a majority differs greatly from the oppression equality and the elimination of racism? If racism still exists of a majority by a minority.) Many other factors have been and cannot be eradicated, is there anything African-Americans attributed to the unique condition of African-Americans. can do to solve their problems? Do African-Americans have Some have boldly stated that unless these factors are an identity crisis, and must they pursue an identity other than properly recognized and understood, the quest for freedom, "American"? justice, and equality will be in vain. As Lyndon B. Johnson These questions are uncomfortable, and even frightening said in 1965, "Freedom is not enough. You do not wipe away to some. But they must be answered. And they are by no the scars of centuries by saying: Now you are free to go where means the only questions that must be answered. There are you want, do as you desire." arguments from all points of view and from people of all But not everyone agrees with this analysis. Some maintain backgrounds. But the best way to determine the proper course that opportunities for African-Americans have increased of action of society is through the free flow of humane ideas. dramatically. They believe that the legacy of slavery and rigidly If an argument or proposed solution is in error, the best way enforced segregation have been grossly exaggerated. They to detect the error is through the use of reason. But humanism claim that many of the problems attributed to slavery did will not live up to its full potential if most of its adherents not arise until a hundred years after it was abolished, and will not open their minds and honestly pursue the truth. that therefore slavery is irrelevant to today's problems. They Everyone must be willing to reexamine their beliefs and believe that racism is a relic of the past or an insignificant reassess the arguments they have rejected. factor in the problems plaguing the African-American And no matter how bleak the present or future looks, one community. They claim that liberal programs have been great must never despair of the human species. When one struggles failures, and further maintain that African-Americans could for the betterment of humanity, there is glory even in the solve their problems if they would only modify their behavior face of defeat. and emulate the good habits of other ethnic groups. Moderates, liberals, radicals, socialists, conservatives, oday the world needs a critical, rational, and humane anarchists, and others who cannot be categorized, have Tapproach to living. This is what humanism is all about. Spring 1990 13 African-Americans in general might not be familiar with rich and go virtually unmolested. the true humanist outlook—an outlook that is essential to Many controversial solutions have been proposed, in- the modern world. Because many scholars have viewed society cluding the decriminalization of certain drugs. Humanism can and history from a biased Eurocentric viewpoint, the be influential in the search for solutions to these problems significance of African-Americans to the humanist tradition and others that may arise from them. Humanism stresses has not been widely known. Racism and racial insensitivity abstinence from dangerous drugs, and moderation in the have affected the entire nation, humanists included. But a consumption of alcohol. It promotes self-love, and realizes new initiative has been taken to broaden the humanistic world that abusive and self-destructive behaviors interfere with the view by making humanism more attractive to African- pursuit of happiness. It acknowledges the need for Secular Americans. Organizations for Sobriety (SOS). Humanism incorporates a number of important ethical 3. Economic development. Although many African- principles, including: American religious institutions have made laudable efforts toward economic development, millions of African-Americans • A commitment to the application of reason and science have been attracted to Bible passages that teach that the to the understanding of the universe and to the solving accumulation of wealth is immoral and a complete waste of of human problems. time. By thinking freely and challenging long-held beliefs and • A concern with securing justice and fairness in society, and traditions, African-Americans can avoid economic stumbling with eliminating discrimination and intolerance. • A belief in enjoying life here and now and in developing blocks. Because African-Americans have always been at an humanity's creative talents to their fullest. economic disadvantage, many seek comfort in a possible • A belief in the cultivation of moral excellence. reward in the afterlife. But fatalism is always dangerous, and • Skepticism toward untested claims to knowledge. "wait for the rapture" is questionable advice. • Openness toward new ideas. 4. Organ transplants. The United States has an acute • A belief in optimism rather than pessimism, hope rather than despair, learning in the place of dogma, truth instead shortage of vital organs. Forty percent of the people awaiting of ignorance, joy rather than guilt or sin, tolerance in the organ transplants are African-Americans. But ironically and place of fear, love instead of hatred, compassion over sadly, largely because of deep spiritual beliefs, African- selfishness, beauty instead of ugliness, and reason rather Americans are the least likely to donate their organs. Openly than blind faith or irrationality. discussing and challenging religious beliefs may convince more African-Americans to become voluntary organ donors, Historically, the churches have been the most influential thereby helping potential organ recipients from all back- institutions in the African-American community, and African- grounds. Americans have been ardent believers. Church leaders have Further research could also be stimulated to help find out professed to have the solutions to the social, political, and why so many African-Americans are in need of organs. More economic ills with which African-Americans must contend. attention must also be given to diseases—such as sickle-cell But despite their claims—or perhaps because of them— anemia—to which African-Americans are prone. Ways to problems continue to plague the African-American commun- improve health care and insurance should also be addressed. ity. Great strides have been made during the past forty years, S. Self-reliance. Too much emphasis has been placed on but many problems have worsened, and new ones have arisen. faith in charismatic African-American leaders, and not enough More attention must be given to the importance of critical on individual responsibility, self-confidence, and freedom of thinking in the quest for freedom, justice, and equality for thought. Through humanism, African-Americans can learn African-Americans. to have at least as much faith in themselves as they have in their leadership, because ultimately, individual choices he African-American community is confronted by moral become crucial factors in the shaping and modeling of one's dilemmas that free thought, reason, good conduct, and life. proper action can best help solve. Examples include: 6. Unity. Humanism can teach African-Americans to unite 1. Unwanted pregnancy. Many religious leaders stress around goals that are common to humanity. To unite mainly abstinence and marital fidelity as panaceas for the social on religious grounds excludes some of the community's problems resulting from human sexuality. But most humanists greatest minds and impedes progress. believe that all rational and humane solutions must be discussed, including the use of contraceptives and abortion. he organizational aims of African-Americans for Human- Attention must also be given to education, family counseling, ism are to: and self-esteem building. 2. Alcohol and substance abuse. Alcoholism and drug abuse • Fight against racism in every form. are major problems in the African-American community. • Incorporate an Afrocentric outlook into a broader world These problems are of pressing concern, and solutions may perspective. require urgent, thorough, and rational measures. African- • Add depth and breadth to the study of history by acknowledging the great contributions made by people of Americans as a group have been unfairly maligned by the African descent to the world, with the purpose of building media and targeted by police and the government in the War self-esteem among African-Americans and helping to on Drugs. Yet many white drug dealers continue to grow demonstrate the importance of all peoples to the

14 FREE INQUIRY development of world civilization. • Develop eupraxophy, or "wisdom and good conduct through living" in the African-American community by using the scientific and rational methods of inquiry. Rational Centre • Solve many of the problems that confront African- Americans through education and self-reliance, thereby affirming that autonomy and freedom of choice are basic of Ghana human rights. • Develop self-help groups and engage in any humane and he 1987 World Book of Figures breaks down the rational activity designed to develop the African-American community. Treligious complexity of Ghana thus: Christianity, • Emphasize the central importance of education at all levels, 65 percent; Islam, 14 percent; Animistic, 12 percent; including humanistic moral education, developing a and others, 8 percent. "Others" represents Asian humanistic outlook, and providing the tools for the religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sekankar, development of critical reason, self-improvement, and and newer faiths that are finding their way into the career training. Ghanaian religious vocabulary. These many varieties of religion in Ghana have one Never has a large, significant international humanist common denominator: superstition. organization attracted great numbers of people of color. But From the cradle to the grave, Ghanaians are held this objective can be attained if we make a concerted effort hostage to interpreting everything in the language of to demonstrate how humanism is, has been, and can be relevant spiritualism. The history of the country is pregnant with to the entire world community. superstition. Even before the advent of colonialism in the fifteenth century, the natives of Ghana were religious. The traditional worship was basically African-Americans for Humanism animistic; it blended with Christianity and Islam, and Advisory Board the resulting structure has rendered Ghanaians impotent to use their creativity to solve problems. Dave Allen, writer, Washington, D.C. This is the society in which the Rational Centre of James Andrews, Professor of Mathematics, Florida State Ghana finds itself. Within the strong prison walls of University superstition, about fifteen million inmates have resigned Bonnie Bullough, Dean of Nursing, State University of New themselves to unsubstantiated beliefs, and the Rational York at Buffalo Centre is faced with the task of liberating them. Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor of History and Soc- This dream may sound impossible, considering the iology, State University of New York College at Buffalo mountainous hurdles facing the center: religious fanatics, lack of logistics, and virtually no money to Leonard Harris, Professor of Philosophy, Morgan State carry out its "crusade." University, Baltimore The center was founded by Hope Nuertey Tawiah, Norman Hill, Human Rights Activist, New York City whose "vision" flowered during his seventeen-year stay Ishmael Jaffree, Attorney, Youngstown, Ohio in the United States. Through extensive reading of both William Jones, Professor of Black Studies, Florida State theological and humanist literature, Tawiah arrived in University Ghana to meet a people absolutely bankrupt of self- Mike McBryde, Freelance Artist and Writer, Pittsburgh confidence. Through the exchange of ideas with two Emmanuel Kofi Mensah, Andrews University, Lagos, friends—Sackey Barnor and Nii Otto Kwame III, a Nigeria traditional chief—the idea of fighting the religious James Moss, Psychiatrist, New York City monster was conceived. Verle Muhrer, Penn Valley Community College, Kansas That was about five years ago, and the center is City, Missouri still in its embryonic stage. Its development remains Hope N. Tawiah, Chairman, Rational Centre, Accra, Ghana a dream, and not even a good dream, as a membership Charles U. Ufomadu, Bigard Memorial Seminary, Imo drive initiated a couple of years ago proves. But if there State, Nigeria is one continent that needs the "salvation" of reason, David M. Washington, Artist, Chicago it is Africa. Christianity and Islam have gripped the Fred Whitehead, Penn Valley Community College, Kansas helpless people of Ghana, and all of Africa. And that City, Missouri is where the challenge starts. Kwasi Wiredu, Professor of Philosophy, University of South The established humanist associations of North Florida America and Europe have a responsibility: Help the Rational Centre of Ghana to grow! Editor's note: If you are interested in joining African- Americans for Humanism, or would like more information, —Franz Vanderpuye please contact Norm Allen Jr. at FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box Ghana, West Africa 5, Buffalo, New York 142115, (716) 834-2921. •

Spring 1990 15 fill a void in the African-American commun- ity if it is relevant to African-American How Much Influence Can culture and history. This does not mean that most African-Americans (or most members of any other group) will be attracted to Humanism Have on Blacks? humanism, but humanistic ideals can be very influential if they are espoused by a dynamic, unified, rational, competent, intelligent, well-organized minority. Norm Allen Jr. Humanism has always been influential in the African-American struggle for freedom, inisters and moralists throughout the Many African-American celebrities are justice, and equality. Humanists were very Mcountry are bemoaning the shrinking Muslims. active in the UNIA, and were at the forefront influence of religion and dwindling church There are now five million Muslims in of the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s. attendance. Many polls have been conducted the United States, and by the year 2020 that They were heavily involved in labor struggles to determine how much influence church, number is expected to triple. and the civil rights movement. Thomas Paine school, family, television, and peer pressure Historically, Islam has had a profound and Robert Ingersoll were two of the most have on American youth. Church has impact on African-Americans, largely brilliant proponents of equal rights. Tradi- consistently ranked at or near the bottom because of the Afrocentric religious inter- tionally, humanists have been heavily in- of the list. Yet a November 1989 Gallup Poll pretation of leaders such as Noble Drew Ali, volved in every major movement geared revealed that 90 percent of all Americans Elijah Mohammad, and Malcolm X. And toward uplifting African-Americans in claim to have never even doubted the during the 1920s Marcus Garvey's Universal society. existence of God. Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) Humanism fosters a strong belief in life Information on spirituality and African- was the largest organization of people of and humanity. This belief is essential for the Americans is perhaps even more conflicting, African descent in the world. Its newspaper, growth of the African-American commun- and is sometimes misleading. the Negro World, was the best-selling ity, just as it is for every community. The Baptist church still has many publication of its kind, and carried many Humanism also emphasizes that science and African-American members. And because a religious writings from Muslims who were technology are important tools for the high percentage of its members are under sympathetic to its cause. development of society. This idea can attract thirty years of age, many expect their Yet at a November 1989 meeting, the more African-Americans to those areas, numbers to increase. National Conference of Catholic Bishops thereby making them more competitive in Islam has become increasingly popular claimed that two million African-Americans the job market. Another humanist value, among African-Americans. African- are Catholics, and six million are critical thinking, can be instrumental in help- American youth from all over the country unchurched. And there has been much ing African-Americans to choose the best have reclaimed Malcolm X as an inspiring dissension among African-Americans in the strategies for change. Humanism is commit- role model. Many consider Louis Farrakhan Catholic church. According to Auxiliary ted to an open and pluralistic democratic to be the most outstanding and influential Bishop John H. Ricard of Baltimore, three society and the eradication of racism and leader in the African-American community. hundred of the nation's 55,000 Catholic intolerance, which would obviously appeal He continually speaks of "trying to build priests are African-Americans. to African-Americans. The humanist com- an Islamic nation," and enlists the aid of The Reverend George A. Stallings Jr. of mitment to the separation of church and many Muslims throughout the world, Washington, D.C., has led the most well- state includes opposition to racist or racially including the Libyan leader Muammar known movement of African-Americans insensitive religious organizations that Qaddafi. The Muslim psychologist Na'im away from the Catholic church. Citing intend to force their views on others and Akbar is rapidly becoming one of the most racism and insensitivity within the Catholic reverse many of the gains made by African- sought-after spokespersons among African- hierarchy, Stallings has established the Imani Americans. And in opposition to negative Americans. African-American Muslim Temple for African-American Catholics theologies, humanism offers hope, optim- writers and businesspersons are thriving, and seeking a new rite that incorporates more ism, and a passion for life. Muslims are very influential in education. of their culture. Perhaps the humanistic values that would In Washington, D.C., an influential organ- Many people are not even sure what they be most beneficial to African-Americans— ization known as Operation Know Thyself believe. Many consider themselves "spirit- and humanity in general—are altruism and is actively engaged in an effort to revise the ual" but not religious, and many are individual responsibility. If these virtues curricula of the District's public schools by "religious" without being moral. were widely practiced, many of the world's focusing on subjects that are relevant to There is much confusion among African- most pressing problems could be eliminated. African-Americans. The group is headed by Americans about the role of religion. But Humanism stresses the fact that humanity Valencia Mohammed, an African-American it has been said that there is opportunity has prevailed and will continue to prevail Muslim. Meetings often begin with prayers, in confusion. Many people are searching for against overwhelming odds. No group or and in Mohammed's words, the organization meaning in their lives, and religion has been individual should ever despair of the human is "under the control of the Creator." unable to fulfill that need. African- race. Despite our failings as human beings, Americans who are not religious often feel we have made magnificent progress in many Norm Allen Jr. is executive director of as though they are alone among others of areas. We need not promise humanity a African-Americans for Humanism. their ethnic heritage. utopia. But in the words of Thomas Paine, An organized humanist movement can "We live to improve, or we live in vain." •

16 FREE INQUIRY The Quest for Humanist Values

Ishmael Jaffree

1982 I filed a complaint to keep prayer and other things began to subside and my family and I more less religious activities out of the public schools of Mobile, peacefully coexisted with the rest of the community of Mobile InAlabama. As a lawyer and an agnostic who strongly until 1989, when we moved to Youngstown, Ohio. believes in the separation of church and state, I was seeking to maintain the integrity of the Constitution and to keep public frican-Americans as a group are among the most religious officials from making decisions about my children's spiritual Apeople in the world. Religion offers us hope—hope that upbringing. A simple enough request, I thought. we will receive some benefits in the hereafter, though the cruel In a decision handed down in 1983, however, U.S. District realities of the present may seem like living hell. Many of Court Judge W. Brevard Hand ruled against me. On appeal our people have little hope that our lives on earth will improve, in 1985 the Supreme Court characterized Judge Hand's ruling and for some of us religion acts as an opiate. We African- "a remarkable deviation from principles firmly embedded in Americans are among the most repressed people, and religion our constitutional jurisprudence." The case set off a national helps us to cope with the everyday struggles of living. controversy about the nature of secular humanism and the But perhaps the susceptibility to religion goes beyond that. separation of church and state. The early heritage of African-Americans focused very much Initially, I encountered hostility in the African-American on the supernatural; this may contribute to the feeling that community; the press had reported that I was attempting to religion is the one thing that can give some hope that our take prayer—and by extension God—out of the public schools, miserable lives will improve in the future. It is my hope that the African-American community will often without focusing on the larger issue of the constitutional become less fragile. If we were stronger, we would not look principle of separation. That I would file this kind of lawsuit to other sources for the answers to our problems. We would was an embarrassment to the African-American community, realize that "the answers lie in ourselves and not in the stars." which expected me to be a "good Christian." We would not seek to use religion as a crutch; we would I received a great deal of flak from African-American not need to rely on a hoped-for deity to make our lives better. ministers, none of whom offered to debate me on the topic. We would realize that we can make things better for ourselves, I did have the opportunity to debate some Southern Baptists and we would cease being the followers that we are, believing and born-again Christians. These debates mainly centered on in some charismatic leader who has his or her own agenda. the First Amendment—that is, on freedom of religion versus We would no longer be led like lambs to the slaughter, simply freedom from religion—and were for the most part legal rather obeying commands without question or investigation. than theological. It is my wish that people would analyze things in a logical, Unfortunately, not everyone on the other side was so rational way and make logical, rational decisions based on rational. I was threatened, slandered, and vilified by mail and intelligent observations. I wish that people would be more phone and on radio talk-shows throughout the city. My open to the scientific method of inquiry and not so given children were ostracized from the schools to the point where to mysticism. they asked me to dismiss the case. Some of the judges disliked But these wishes may just be flying in the wind, because what I was doing, and so I found it difficult to litigate cases unfortunately we live in a community where people have a before them. This went on for about two years—again, until need for religion. People need their opiate. Indeed, it is true after the Supreme Court ruled in my favor. At that point that if religion did not exist, we would invent it. I believe in the expression, "Know yourself and you shall be free." People should learn to accept the consequences of their own acts or omissions. They should be aware that we live in the here and now, and that we are responsible for what happens to us. If more people realized that, then we would all treat one another better and it would be a better society in which we live. To the extent that I can, I encourage Ishmael Jaffree is a senior people to think for themselves and not allow others to do attorney with Northeast their thinking for them. And to my dying breath I shall always Ohio Legal Services. attempt to do just that. •

Spring 1990 17 Black Athena An interview with Martin G. Bernal

Norm Allen The Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization

NORM ALLEN: Who were the Greeks, culturally and beneficial than one that is more homogenous? physiologically? BERNAL: Certainly. Comparison and contrast are MARTIN G. BERNAL: Physiologically they were and are intellectually and artistically stimulating, so it's more likely Mediterranean, which is a thoroughly mixed population— that mixed civilizations will be more creative. Even when southern European, western Asian, and African. But certainly homogeneous, isolated populations produce great literature they were closer to North Africans than they were to northern or art or philosophy, it is most often when the people have Europeans in their appearance, so the Aryan image of the had extensive contact with the outside world through travel Greeks that we've had since the nineteenth century is or trade. For instance, Iceland is a remote island in northwest particularly misleading. Europe that is very isolated and homogeneous, yet it has Culturally the Greeks were influenced a great deal by Egypt produced great literature. Actually it has simply preserved and the Near East. I'm not trying to challenge the centrality in isolation the literature of a much earlier, more cosmopolitan of Greece to the European tradition, but I do challenge the period. nature of Greece itself. Greek culture is so exciting because ALLEN: Where did the ancient Greek language originate? it represents a mix of the native Balkan-Indo-European- BERNAL: There's no doubt that Greek belongs to the same speaking population with Egyptian and western Semitic language family that all European, North Indian, and Persian populations. The linguistic and cultural mix was extraordi- languages belong to, that is, Indo-European. However, it is narily productive in cultural terms. remarkable how few Indo-European roots there are in Greek. ALLEN: Was the Aryan model ever supported by the ancient Only about 50 percent of the Greek vocabulary can be Greeks? explained in terms of other European languages. Until now, BERNAL: No. There is no evidence for the Aryan model scholars have maintained that the remaining 50 percent derived in antiquity. The one thing that could possibly be of use to from the population that was there before the Indo-Europeans this hypothesis is the so-called invasion of the Dorians, but arrived, which for convenience is called simply "pre-Hellenic." these people came from within Greece—also they came after I believe that this construct is unnecessary, and that the Greek the Trojan war. Therefore we cannot say that the Dorians language can be traced to Indo-European, Egyptian, and were the Indo-European invaders, because they couldn't have Semitic roots. The language itself is thoroughly mixed, which been the first invaders. If they were the first invaders then is one of the reasons it's so rich and so suitable for poetry. Achilles and the other Homeric heroes were non-Indo- ALLEN: The anthropologist J. A. Rogers says its is easier Europeans, because they came before the Dorian invasion. to prove that the Egyptians were Africans than to prove that So there is no ancient authority for the Aryan model. the ancient Greeks were Europeans. What do you think of ALLEN: Is the type of mixed civilization you mention more that assessment? BERNAL: I don't think it's easier, but it's equally easy. Egyptians lived in a part of northern Africa that was connected by the Nile to central Africa; in a way, we could say they were more "African" than were Algerians or Moroccans, who were living beyond the mountains and deserts. And we know that ancient Egyptians belonged to a language family known Martin G. Bernal is professor as Afroasiatic; so linguistically and culturally there is no doubt of government and Near- of Egypt's African origin. Later, of course, Egypt was Eastern Studies at Cornell influenced by West Asia, in particular by Semitic speakers University, and the author of to the north and east. Black Athena: The Afroasi- As I said, Greek is basically an Indo-European language. atic Roots of Classical But also there was a massive Afroasiatic influence on Greek Civilization. language and on culture as a whole. So to that extent it is less European than Egyptian culture is African.

18 FREE INQUIRY ALLEN: Various Afrocentric scholars have said that, root of the word, then you run into difficulties. And they properly speaking, there is no such thing as Greek philosophy; just can't find any answers. that is, Greek philosophy is nothing more than Egyptian philosophy. What are your views? The ancient Greeks and religion BERNAL: The Greeks admitted that they were philosophi- cally, mathematically, and scientifically indebted to Egypt. ALLEN: As secular humanists, we generally look toward Greek Platonic and Socratic thought looks very Egyptian to me, roots for our ideals. Your theory has a great impact on how and certainly they acknowledged their respect for Egyptian we view the ancient Greeks. philosophy and institutions. On the other hand, I don't think BERNAL: I think that in fact humanism is rooted in the we should say that the Greeks didn't add anything to Egyptian late-Egyptian religious concept that human beings can become philosophy. They lost some things, and they added some. "god." The belief that humanity has divinity within itself is Aristotle and the Sophists, and to some extent the Epicureans, essentially Egyptian or African, and was transmitted to modern show specifically Greek developments of a philosophical Europe through the hermetic texts. These texts drew on tradition that goes back to Egypt. Egyptian tradition, are mystical, and place great stress on ALLEN: Didn't Pythagoras study in Egypt? the divinity of humanity. Some of these texts were known BERNAL: He did indeed. Plato also spent time in Egypt. in the West and were referred to by the earliest humanists, But it's difficult to know whether the later Greeks went to but the big wave of neoplatonic thought came about during Egypt to gain status or to actually learn. Some certainly did the 1470s, after a mass of these texts was discovered. They learn. Eudoxus, probably the greatest Greek astronomer and were extraordinarily influential. They influenced magic, for mathematician, studied for more than a year in Egypt, and instance, which in a way is related to humanism in that the is reported to have learned the language and translated texts magician supposedly has the power to control outside forces, from Egyptian into Greek. Others, I suspect, just went there rather than praying to those forces. But they also had a more to get a gloss, to show that they had culture. But there's general influence. So though you could say that the atheist no doubt that the Pythagorean school shows many traits that tradition can only be traced back to Greek and Latin thinkers, are specifically Egyptian. humanism, in the centrality of the "person," is a very Egyptian ALLEN: You maintain that most of the etymologies you idea. studied have no other explanation, and that there are gaps ALLEN: How important was religion or spirituality to the in the structure of the rest of the analysis of Greek. How Greeks? was this dealt with before your book? BERNAL: I think it was very important. The idea we have BERNAL: We call everything that is not European or Greek of the rational, humanistic, or agnostic Greeks is culled from pre-Hellenic, though we don't know exactly what the pre- thousands of texts that mention belief in spells, witches, and Hellenic language was. And that's how it was explained, except so on, throughout Greek society. It's only in the late nineteenth that about 10 percent of the words were somewhat exotic, century that we came upon the idea that the Greeks were and were admitted to be loans, mostly from Semitic. But entirely rational; though the image was there early in the I argue that 80 percent of the non-European words are in eighteenth century, it was not fully developed. The Greeks fact Egyptian or Semitic. were sometimes cynical, sometimes humorous about the gods, ALLEN: So you're saying that it is only recently that this but that didn't mean they didn't have belief in or concern has been denied? for them. BERNAL: The Egyptian component was denied before ALLEN: What is the connection between Egyptian and ancient Egyptian was known. Some eighteenth-century Greek mythology? scholars were able to point out very interesting parallels BERNAL: The myths are very close indeed. Herodotus, for between Greek and Coptic, the language of Egyptian example, specifies that the names of most of the gods came Christians that was descended from ancient Egyptian. The to Greece from Egypt. Also, I think a lot of myths contain decipherment of the hieroglyphics wasn't accepted by classicists Egyptian puns, particularly when certain words appear that until the 1850s, by which time it was inconceivable that seem incongruous, as is quite often the case. Punning is seen Egyptians could have had a major influence on the formation as a deep, mystic connection between entities. of Greek as language. So no one ever really looked for the ALLEN: Many religious people have maintained that Greece Egyptian roots. The Semitic stituation was rather different fell because it abandoned religion. How accurate is this in that from the seventeenth-century onward scholars have perception? seen many parallels between Hebrew and Greek. So in the BERNAL: I don't think there's much truth in it. It's much late nineteenth century there were denials of previously less true than the argument that Rome fell because it became established etymologies. No substitutes, just denials. It was Christian, which is what St. Augustine inconclusively attempts absurd. to answer in City of God. The Romans weren't notably more ALLEN: If you deny that, what do you put in its place? religious than the Greeks. I think Greece fell because of its BERNAL: Etymological dictionaries of Greece all say lack of unity and its lack of economic resources in comparison "obscure," "unexplained," "unknown," "difficult to find," and to those of the surrounding areas. I don't believe that the so on. You get beautiful descriptions of the words and their relative lack of religion played a part in that. forms, and so forth, but when it comes to the subject of the ALLEN: Nineteenth-century historians claimed that

Spring 1990 19 Phoenicia fell for basically the same reason—because it became later. And that's why a lot of right-wingers have become pro- decadent and irreligious. Zionist: because this gives the Jews a home-land and a proper BERNAL: I think it actually fell because it was too close romantic role. They have become a proper people at last. to the land empire of Mesopotamia. The Assyrians, the That is apart from the notion of Israel as a bastion of Western Babylonians, and others put much pressure on it, which civilization. So you have this double appeal to the right in cramped Phoenicia's political and economic opportunities. regard to Israel. Greece survived because it was relatively isolated from the near East, where Phoenicia was crushed. Egyptian influences on Hebraic culture But nineteenth-century historians thought it failed, I think, because they believed the Semitic spirit to be essentially a ALLEN: How indebted were the Hebrews to the Egyptians? "feminine," passive one incapable of "hard" achievement or BERNAL: We have to be very careful about the historicity "masculine" activity. The two contributions that the Semitic of the Bible. I believe, with a number of other scholars, that "race"—they saw the name not in terms of language but of the so-called sojourn in Egypt is a folk memory of the Hyksos race—had given to the world were religion and poetry. But invasion, in which tribes from the northeast invaded Egypt whereas the Israelites had had a monotheistic religion, the and held most of it for 100 to 150 years. It's difficult to sort Phoenicians had had the most decadent type of sacrifice. So out because the inhabitants of Palestine were in contact with the Semites were not given the respect accorded the Jews the Egyptians from before 3000 B.C.E. Hebraic culture where religion was concerned. Nineteenth-century historians borrowed heavily from Egypt, but also in reaction to Egypt. believed the Phoenicians failed because they deserved to be The Egyptians, for instance, worshiped graven images, whereas crushed completely. A lot of the Nazi images for Jews of the Semitic speakers tended to worship at rocks and grottos the 1930s and 1940s were already being applied to Phoenicians that were unhewn. The Egyptians paid a great deal of attention in the 1850s and 1860s. For instance, the idea of the Jew to the preservation of the body and to mummification; the as a disease-carrying rat, as part of a people who moved from Semites on the whole were very casual about bodies, burying place to place without proper roots of their own, infecting, them as quickly as possible. Egyptians were very concerned mixing. This whole idea of cleanliness, that everything must about immortality and the soul, and no doubt the Greeks be put in its proper place with no intermingling, is essential were influenced by that, whereas the Old Testament pays to racist thought. It's a primary source of racism. This type virtually no attention to immortality. There are contrasts as of thinking made the mercantile people seem offensive, and well as similarities between the two cultures. But the Israelites 1 think that's why the Phoenicians suffered, and the Jews seem to have seen Egypt as wealthier and more sophisticated, and although they often felt hostile toward the Egyptians, they always respected them. Interestingly enough, I think the ways in which Hebrew and Phoenician differ from other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, Mesopotamian, or Ethiopian, is in the Egyptian influence they contain. Phonetic simplifications were made that would seem to be the result of high-status Egyptians trying to speak Semitic languages and not managing all of the subtleties of it. I think there was a major and continuing Egyptian influence on Israelite culture. ALLEN: Many people believe that the Hebraic culture gave birth to monotheism. How accurate is this perception? BERNAL: It is widely known that the earliest example of monotheism is that of Akhenaton, the Egyptian pharoah of the fourteenth century B.C.E. And the earliest trace of monotheism in Judaism is really from the eighth century B.C.E. You can see its development in the Bible out of the concept of a tribal or people's god whom the Israelites worshiped, which in no way denied the existence of the gods of other peoples. The idea that their god was a transcendent world god comes much later. I very much doubt that we can go as far as Freud did in his book Moses and Monotheism, and say that Moses took monotheism from Akhenaton's reforms in Egypt, but there seems to be no doubt that Egyptian religion had both polytheistic and monotheistic trends, and that Judaism borrowed from it. Interestingly, many of the ways in which Christianity Eighteenth Dynasty Pharaoh Amenophis III and his wife Tiyi, diverges from Judaism can be specifically attributed to parents of Akhenaten and King Tut. Illustration by Jay C. Allen. Egyptian influence. The god who dies and is revived three

20 FREE INQUIRY ported by religious groups ranging from Protestants to Hare Krishnas, argued that the tax conflicted with First Amendment On the Barricades rights. But the Justices saw it as a commercial issue, not a spiritual one. Wrote Justice Sandra Day O'Connor: "The tax is not a tax on the right to disseminate religious information, ideas, or beliefs per se; rather No dissent on International Year of naries and other institutions and putting it is a tax on the privilege of making retail sales of tangible personal property." the Bible Reading pressure on personnel to conform to fundamentalist views. Simmons taught that The House and Senate in November passed Jesus was "truly man," a sexual human being Ditto a joining resolution asking President Bush who was celibate and single. Early Christian to proclaim 1990 the International Year of doctrine considered it a heresy to deny either In a small town near Rough River State Park the Bible Reading in the United States. Bush Jesus' full manhood or his full divinity, in Kentucky, a young minister decided it was issued the proclamation on December 7. The though the church has sometimes stressed time to take a stand against contributing to congressional resolution passed by unanim- the latter and obscured the former. the support of the teaching of humanism in ous voice vote in both chambers, and was "The fundamentalists' agenda is against public schools. He offered to pay property backed by a coalition of evangelical Chris- theological education," said Simmons. taxes, but refused to pay school taxes in- tian leaders, among them D. James "They want to find anything on professors cluded in his bill. The state refused to allow Kennedy, a religious broadcaster and ardent who don't agree with them and get them him to make a partial payment, so Brother foe of church-state separation. dismissed for any reason. The whole issue Miller's church property is in arrears, and Calling the Bible "the word of God," the is part of a larger battle over academic could be sold on the courthouse steps. resolution says the Holy Scriptures have freedom and responsibility. ... We're subject In the Bethel Beacon, Miller wrote, "The "made a unique contribution in shaping the to a lot of harassment that should be public schools of our nation are the chief United States as a distinctive and blessed unnecessary and intolerable." proponents of religion of secular humanism, nation and people." which is a godless religion incompatible with Evangelism upswing predicted the faith and practice of a New Testament Bush: World on side of God Christian.... It is my firm belief that the The final decade of this millennium is likely religion of humanism is the culprit guilty President Bush, hailing moves toward to see a fresh burst in evangelism. Christian of undermining the morals and right democracy throughout Eastern Europe, said groups have already launched at least thinking of this great nation.... I feel that that "the world, increasingly, is on the side seventy-three projects to "present the gospel as a . . . lover of the Lord Jesus Christ, of God." Bush also said at a convention of to everyone" by the turn of the century, and I can no longer give monies or pay taxes the National Religious Broadcasters, "I the World Christian Encyclopedia predicts that will directly go to the promotion of this believe with all my heart that one cannot that there will be 1.74 billion Christians by godless religion." be America's president without a belief in next year-919 million more than in 1988, God, without the strength that your faith outstripping general population growth. Evolution gives you." He got a rousing response from This figure reflects what some call a the crowd of about 2,000 when he expressed "southernization" of Christianity, with more The Board of education of California has opposition to abortion and when he reiter- believers living south of the Equator than finally issued new guidelines in an attempt ated his support for a constitutional north of it. Confrontations are predicted as to quell that state's controversy over whether amendment permitting prayer in public well; for instance, Christianity is spreading to teach evolution as a fact, and whether schools. Bush's appearance was his fourth quickly in Africa from the south, while Islam to teach creationism at all. However, its before the group. is spreading from the north. When the twain characterization of evolution as an "accepted meet, violence may outshadow both of them. scientific explanation" but not a fact drew Probe reflects mistrust criticism from both scientists and religious Thou must pay thy taxes groups, and the foray will probably continue. A recent flap at Southern Baptist Theolog- ical Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky, the The word from on high is that freedom of Rushdie seeks tolerance flagship of the denomination's ministerial religion does not necessarily mean freedom education, reflects the mistrust pervading the from taxes. So learned the Jimmy Swaggart The author Salman Rushdie, in hiding for country's largest Protestant body. A student ministries last week when the U.S. Supreme the past year because of death threats from at the school, Clark Kirkbridge, circulated Court ruled unanimously that states may Islamic leaders offended by his novel The a letter accusing Professor Paul D. Simmons require religious groups to pay sales tax on Satanic Verses, appealed to Muslims to of "wrong teaching" in his course "The the merchandise they sell. The decision understand the book not as an attack on Church and Sexuality." The jarring result upholds previous rulings that force the their faith but as "a secular man's reckoning was an extensive investigation that separ- Swaggart organization to pay the State of with the religious spirit." In an essay in the ately interrogated nearly all of Simmons's California $183,000 in back taxes and British newspaper the Independent, Rush- students about his views. interest on nearly $2 million worth of die, who has been an atheist since adoles- A fundamentalist wing has dominated the pamphlets, tapes, records, and other items cence, wrote that the book was not intended 14.8 million-member denomination for ten sold to residents between 1974 and 1981. to vilify Islam, but "to show how the loss years, gaining control of trustees of semi- Lawyers for Swaggart's ministries, sup- of God can destroy a man's life." • Spring 1990 23

tion resources, or serving on a future advisory board. Readers may also be able to envision volunteer roles that we have not Announcing Center for Inquiry imagined. Please contact me at CODESH.

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Tom Flynn Publishing a magazine requires a good deal of hardware. But as anyone in the industry n its first decade, FREE INQUIRY has I have been named director of the Center knows, producing broadcast-quality radio Ibecome the nation's largest-circulation for Inquiry; I am also the only full-time staff and television programming requires even secular humanist magazine. Now it is member. Though I've been active with FREE more. By acquiring production equipment participating in a new project to bring the INQUIRY for several years on a volunteer through donation or at low cost, we are able humanist and skeptical viewpoints more basis, until joining the center I worked for to reduce our reliance on rental equipment forcefully into the electronic media. advertising agencies and video production and increase production values cost- The Center for Inquiry has been jointly houses as a writer and director. I have effectively. 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As a new and frankly experimental start- • Audio processing equipment: graphic rials on humanist and skeptical themes. up enterprise, the Center for Inquiry must equalizer, echo unit, delay unit, samplers, The center's pilot project, a radio public conserve its sponsors' funds. We have in- etc.; service annoucement featuring Steve Allen stalled complete audio and video duplicating • Professional full-track or two-track on the importance of critical thinking, is systems, equipment for audio mixing and open-reel editing deck; already in national release. 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The first three programs ces—for any of the following items. open reel for mastering, cassettes); include humanist-oriented stories on critical • Miscellaneous production equipment: thinking, Satanism, euthanasia, sexuality in Funding cables, headsets, patch bays, distribution the 1990s, Secular Organizations for Sob- amplifiers, etc. riety (SOS), and African-Americans for Donations to the Center for Inquiry are Video. Humanism. sorely needed to defray operating costs and • Professional three-tube or CCD field/ Also in production are four videos for the costs of program production. Please studio cameras; nonbroadcast distribution: an orientation make checks payable to CODESH with a • Professional portable VCR (3/4" U- video on SOS, a training tape for convenors memo indicating that your gift be directed Matic format preferred); of new SOS groups, a fund-raising video for to the Center for Inquiry. Such gifts are tax- • Good quality consumer or professional the Robert G. 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24 FREE INQUIRY days later is very clear in the Osiris tradition, as is the think these things are no more extreme and much less symbolism of the Eucharist. Iconographically, the represen- pernicious than much of what passes for perfectly normal tation of the Virgin Mary and the baby Jesus appear to come in everyday "white" scholarship. straight from representations of Isis and her son Horus, and ALLEN: Has it been your experience that humanist scholars a number of the saints in early Christianity have very clear have been as biased in their research as those who are more Egyptian prototypes. Although some of these were Hellenized religiously inclined? by the time of the formation of Christianity, I think that BERNAL: It depends on the issue. If you're dealing with the Egyptian component in Christianity is massive and has the biblical period I think humanist scholars have been much been systematically underestimated. more detached and more likely to build accurate models. On ALLEN: Why do you think that has happened? In the early the other hand, if your dealing with the Renaissance or the church history did the neoplatonic philosophers bring it about? eighteenth century, humanist scholars often have their own BERNAL: I think that even before the collapse of the axes to grind and the "cult" of the Renaissance of humanist Egyptian temple system, a large number of philosophies were scholars in the nineteenth century has a very Eurocentric slant growing up. The Neoplatonic, Gnostic, and hermetic to it. I don't think that humanist scholars are immune to philosophies merged with Christianity—particularly the satiric all forms of prejudice when dealing with history. I also would Gnostic texts. One thing that is characteristic of Egyptian not trust a Catholic historian with Catholic history. The religion and not Judaism is the emphasis on knowledge. In glorification of the Renaissance occurs, but no one can be Judeo-Christian thought the emphasis is on faith. And the completely detached from their own cultural influence. idea of knowledge—which again is humanistic in that human ALLEN: Will the day ever come when scholars from all beings attempt to understand and manipulate spiritual and countries and backgrounds will consistently work together other systems—is very different from the position of for an objective analysis of world history, or is this just a subjugation of the worshiper who accepts with blind faith blindly idealistic notion? whatever happens. Also, organizationally, monasticism started BERNAL: I don't know if things will ever be perfect, but in Egypt with a church hierarchy, rituals like the shaving of I think they are probably getting better. There are very priests' heads and things like that. Egypt provided the model interesting things happening in American education as of Western religion and religious institutions and structures. America ceases to be a white society. ALLEN: Many scholars maintain that they will not publish Scholarship and African-American history their findings on black history in white scholarly publications, fearing a loss of tenure, reputation, or credibility, or even ALLEN: Do you believe that the historical role of people of the destruction of their careers. Have you experienced this African descent is suppressed by the U.S. educational system? problem? BERNAL: There's no doubt, but it is not merely the U.S. BERNAL: Definitely. I had immense difficulty getting my educational system. The entire European-North American book published. In England, it was published by extremely system has systematically suppressed history. This was brave editors who decided to go it alone and not submit the absolutely necessary in order to maintain slavery and the post- manuscript for peer review. When it did quite well in England, slavery oppression of people of African descent. It dehuman- a number of presses in the United States were interested in ized them; anything that might attribute a high level of publishing it—but most of them sent it off to "experts" who civilization to blacks had to be suppressed and continues to turned it down. be suppressed. I'm not saying this was conscious, but it was I have every advantage going for me. Not only am I white, inconceivable to white scholars that blacks, whom they "knew" male, and middle-aged, but I'm British in America, which to have been the epitome of savagery and barbarism and to afforded me the role of eccentric. I know that if a black scholar have been rescued from this by slavery, could have been were to say what I am saying, people would think that he civilized. Therefore, evidence that Egyptians and Africans had or she had an ax to grind, and that's partially true—blacks been very civilized and had been central to the formation are interested in African history, women are interested in of Greek civilization simply was not recognized. womens' history, Jews are interested in Jewish history, and ALLEN: Do you believe that Afrocentric scholars can be so on. But it's untrue that white males are somehow detached as biased and dogmatic as Eurocentric scholars? What major and objective, and have no axes to grind themselves, whereas mistakes have you found in Afrocentric scholarship? everyone else is biased and partial. BERNAL: Yes, I do believe that Afrocentric scholars can So I have every advantage going for me and I think that be as biased and dogmatic as Eurocentric scholars. I'm less has helped. For instance, I was invited to the American worried by it because whites have nearly all the power at Philological Association, a body of professional classicists, the moment, and though I don't care for black racism I don't and they had a full session on Black Athena, which is something think that it is a menace to society in the way that white they never would have given a black scholar, even now. And racism is. Some black scholars will say that Socrates was twenty years ago they wouldn't have given it to anybody. black or that the entire Greek population was black or that I think that things are moving—not as fast as I had at first Beethoven was black simply because he may have had some hoped. But the failure of classical scholars to blast me out "black blood" in him, but I cannot support such contentions. of the water straight away is critical. They have not come Things have been pushed too far for my taste. However, I up with effective arguments to silence me, which means that

Spring 1990 21 what 1 am saying is being incorporated into other people's explanations for a mass of scattered data that academia is work, and has become a legitimate view within ancient history unable to solve—but having stated that general argument, and historiography. So I think that even black scholars will you can't go further with it. I think you can go further with soon be admitted, which is rather strange given the general what I'm saying. intensification of racism in American society. But in a way ALLEN: John Allegro's book The Sacred Mushroom and academia is continuing the movement of the 1960s away from the Cross really hurt his reputation. He relied heavily on racism, which is one of the few bright spots in what in many linguistic analysis. The layperson has to rely on other scholars. ways is an extraordinarily bleak situation. I hope it has a BERNAL: Allegro was attacking biblical scholarship, which wider significance, but one can't tell. is very much confused with religious beliefs and passions. ALLEN: How much support did you receive from the white But laypeople need not be afraid of the mysteries of language. intellectual community while pursuing this quest, and did you One of my mottos is that the obvious isn't always false. encounter any hostility or resistance? Academics depend on the obvious not being true; otherwise BERNAL: None and yes. The Government Department at they would be out of a job. If words in different languages Cornell was very tolerant about how I spent my time. I had look and sound similar, have similar meanings, and there is tenure; they couldn't do much about it. Though I wasn't doing no other explanation for their origin, it seems to me inherently research in the field in which I was hired, they were very plausible to suppose that they are connected in some way. nice about it, and I didn't get any flak from them. On the The general response to my work has been that the other hand, at the very beginning the Society for the historiography is fine and reasonable, the archaeology may Humanities gave me a year to work on Phoenicians and well be right, but the linguistics is wrong or crazy. And that's Greeks. When I started studying the Egyptians and applied a very satisfactory liberal response to what I am saying. for grants from the Society for the Humanities—four times Our view of European Greece was conceived in what we I applied to Guggenheim, Rockefeller, and others and received now consider to be the ideological error of the early nineteenth nothing at all. No awards. Often the themes at the center century, but that in itself does not make it untrue. Darwinism at Cornell were very appropriate to my work, yet four years was created in very much the same intellectual atmosphere in a row I was turned down there. I had no support at that of racism and laissez-faire capitalism, and has been quite useful stage. I also had some difficulties when I proposed to teach in understanding natural history. So the fact that classics was courses in the new subjects. One time a historian objected, created in that atmosphere does not in itself make it wrong. saying I wasn't qualified to teach these courses. I was forced But I argue that, in fact, classics does not provide a helpful to justify them to the Educational Policy Committee, which scheme. We can't understand much about Greece if we work seldom questions any courses; the last one had been some in the model that was set up during the nineteenth century. six years before. So my being questioned was quite exceptional. New scientific disciplines have been impinging on archaeo- I did receive personal support from a number of people who logical conventions—radiocarbon dating, neutral activation, told me I wasn't mad, which was quite important for me and so on have shown that conventions in ancient history psychologically. To challenge so much academic authority, have been wrong in many ways. And there's a good deal rows upon rows of books, does sometimes make one ask, more uncertainty and therefore flexibility among archaeol- Can they all be so wrong? Who am I to challenge them? ogists in response to what I'm doing. But when I started explaining my ideas, white friends would ALLEN: Do you believe that if the contributions of all say, Well, it sounds interesting. What's wrong with that? I civilizations to world progress were accurately taught in the also got consistent support from the Africana Center at educational systems of all nations, there would be a decrease Cornell, which offered to publish some of my materials before in prejudice and a corresponding increase in tolerance and anyone else did. But support has become much more general understanding? now. Before, I received virtually no invitations from other BERNAL: Yes, I do. I have that amount of faith in human colleges or universities, but that situation transformed once nature and in human society. the book was out. Now I have to refuse invitations to talk ALLEN: What advice would you give to students and almost every week. There is a great deal of interest at colleges, teachers of history who want an objective analysis of past and the administration of Cornell has become extremely and present events and how they affect the future? supportive. I still haven't received any major awards, but BERNAL: To trust their judgments, but to try to make them people are curious to hear what I have to say—even quite systematic and capable of argument. I know it is difficult. conservative people. A lot of blacks have "learned" this about Egyptians, Africans, ALLEN: You make a good point in your introduction about and others, but have not been able to sustain an argument the differences between "radical innovator," and "crank." It's about it, because whites have all these books and arguments a crucial point if you're going to say so much scholarship against them. You can say that blacks were at the center of is either wrong or misinterpreted. early civilization. That statement alone when asked to refute BERNAL: The way I distinguish myself from cranks is that white scholarship is a positive step, but I think African- my work generates immediately testable hypotheses. If I say Americans should go beyond that. They should be willing that Egyptian, Semitic, and Greek cultures are in direct to see contradictions within different black views and be juxtaposition to one another, you can test that in hundreds prepared to make some concessions, while maintaining the or thousands of ways. A good crank will provide coherent central core of their own beliefs. •

22 FREE INQUIRY PC-based); chargers, all sizes; FREE INQUIRY and the SKEPTICAL • Video-compatible graphics equipment • Power distribution equipment (heavy- INQUIRER have taken a bold new step in (i.e. Amiga computer or used paint-box duty extension cords, power strips, etc.); cofounding the Center for Inquiry. Our system); • Computer equipment (used PCs— ultimate goal is to create an innovative, self- • Raw stock (3/4" and VHS video- IBM-compatible preferred but Apple II, sufficient organization capable of designing, cassettes); Mac, Amiga, TRS-80 also usable), especially producing, and distributing programs to • Miscellaneous production equipment: with teleprompter hardware and software. advance the humanist and skeptical points tripods, cables, dolly, stands, grip equip- If readers can supplement our ongoing of view in the electronic media. Beginnings ment. searches for any of these items, it will be are exciting times, and I look forward to General equipment. most helpful and will free our resources for sharing the Center for Inquiry's accomplish- • Nickel-cadmium batteries and re- other areas. ments in future issues of FREE INQUIRY. •

leaving the land open for Christian settlers. Should We Teach the "Sacred"? And the John Winthrop who preached the much-cited "City Upon a Hill" sermon was Robert Gorham Davis responds to Norman Lear also responsible for driving Anne Hutchin- son from Massachusetts. When she was orman Lear, a long-time advocate of was interpreted by the New York Times as killed by Indians, he wrote that it was God's Nthe separation of church and state, a fundamental change of position indeed justice against heretics. shocked many last November when, address- as a kind of retreat. I mention these examples to suggest the ing the 5,000-member American Academy I question your use of the word "sacred." difficulties of teaching religion in public of Religion, he said that he had come to It was your theme that religion (undefined), schools not merely as objective history but, doubt whether human beings could solve or "spirituality" (even less defined), were as your talk recommends, for spiritual uplift. major environmental problems without "a Good Things. Hence you cited chiefly their I cannot imagine how the ordinary high- fresh examination of what we regard as milder aspects. What you mentioned is not school teacher would do it. I suppose that sacred in the universe. " In the same speech, religion at all as the great Christian there would be texts—you mention that Lear acknowledged that "over the past ten theologians Augustine and Luther and some are now being prepared, and I would years, the leaders of the Religious Right have Calvin understood it; nor is your "sacred" love to see them—but in the editing they called me an atheist, a secular humanist, a what scholars like Rudolf Otto or Mircea would soon fall under intense pressure from Christian-hater, and—this was Jerry Fal- Eliade took it to mean. all factions and sects and be reduced, I well's line—`the number-one enemy of the The sacred is powerful, but with fright- should think, to nullity. American family in our generation.' " ening supernatural power, subject to taboos I agree with you heartily about the threat Though he did not retract his criticisms of and to be approached cautiously, as nature to the environment of modern industrial the fundamentalists, Lear gave credit to the itself had to be by primitives. For example, developments. People are waking up to this, "rank and file of the Religious Right for the most sacred object for the Israelites was I hope not too late, but it seems to me to helping to focus a spotlight on the spiritual the Ark of the Covenant, supposed to be have little to do with religion. Jesus told the yearnings of our people." He called Amer- the actual dwelling place of God. On one people he was preaching to that God was ican culture "obsessed with material well- occasion when it was carried in a procession, going to bring about the end of the world being" and said that it is "skittish" about "Uzzah put forth his hand to the Ark of in their lifetime. any discussion of the sacred because of its God, and took hold of it; for the oxen shook Can "spirituality" be taught in the "skeptical, empirical norms." He restated his it. And the anger of the Lord was kindled schools? No, as I have tried to point out; opposition to school prayer, but called for against Uzzah; and God smote him there when used this way the term is vacuous, a renewed emphasis on teaching about for his error; and there he died by the Ark without content. Teaching spirituality will religion, likening spirituality to a river that of God" (2 Samuel, 6:6-7). not solve the many pressing problems that nourishes all the world's religions. Morality is a matter of relations with you listed. Can religion be taught? Yes, in Robert Gorham Davis, professor emer- society, religion our imaginative response to appropriate institutions where attendance is itus of English and Comparative Literature what is outside society. Sometimes religion voluntary. Can religion solve the problems at Columbia University and a humanist is supportive of civil morality, sometimes you mentioned? This can be answered only advocate, wrote Lear in response to his inferior to it, since it often reflects earlier, by examining the work of the various comments. That letter is excerpted here. less civilized periods. This is true of much denominations. As far as ecological or in the Old Testament and some in the New. nuclear threats are concerned, some funda- ear Mr. Lear: You speak of religion in relation to aboli- mentalist churches teach that the end of the DI apologize for writing at some length, tionism in pre-Civil War America, but world is God's will as prophesied in but the issue is a crucial one. I take particular neither the Old nor the New Testament Revelation. interest in its religious aspects. That is why opposed slavery. The Southern slave owners I think that you will open a Pandora's I welcomed the chance to join People for could quote the Bible in their defense. Box if you continue to follow the course the American Way, and why I was disturbed King James 1 thought it a beneficent act recommended in your speech to the Amer- when its distinguished founder made a of God that diseases caught from pre-1620 ican Academy of Religion, and that no good speech before religious educators that urged European fishermen and explorers had will come of it, admirable though your bringing God back into our schools, and that wiped out so many Indians in New England, intentions may be. • Spring 1990 25 The Papal Peter Principle

Gerald Larue

herever he goes, Pope John Paul II refers to himself and then James and John, to become followers. The four Was the Bishop of Rome, and as the successor to Jesus' men were partners in a fishing business at the Sea of Galilee disciple Peter. For example, in his address at Trinity College (Mark 1:16-20; Luke 5:10). In the account in Luke 5:1-11, on October 7, 1979, the pope claimed to be "bishop of the there is agreement as to the place of the call, and here Peter ancient Church of Rome, founded on the preaching and is clearly the central figure; Andrew is not mentioned and martyrdom of Ss. Peter and Paul." When he addressed Quigley James and John receive only summary consideration. Seminary South on October 9, 1979, he referred to his role In the Gospel of John (1:35-42), however, the initial contact as the "successor of Peter in the See of Rome and, therefore, between Jesus and his first disciples was made where John as pastor of the whole church." Because Roman Catholic the Baptiser was performing. In this account Andrew is the tradition is primarily based upon the Bible, it is important key figure; it was he who brought Peter to Jesus. Indeed, to examine the claims of the primacy of Peter in the light in the Gospel of John, it is Andrew who first proclaimed of the New Testament. Such an examination makes it clear Jesus to be the Messiah, while in the Synoptics, Peter is said that there are problems associated with the papal claim to to have first recognized Jesus' messianic status. Thus the authority on the basis of the Peter principle. tradition that Peter was the first disciple called to follow Jesus No biblical scholar will question the importance of Peter's is at best flawed, inasmuch as it rests upon a selective use role in the development of early Christianity. He was one of the Gospels. of the first followers of Jesus. He was part of the inner circle 2. Peter is always mentioned first in the list of the disciples, of the twelve disciples. His given name appears to have been so that to think of the disciples is to think first of Peter. Simon bar (son of) Jona (Matt. 16:17), but he is better known This is not so in the Gospel of John. Indeed, in the scene of the last supper Peter is an obscure figure and the focus to us by the name Jesus gave him: Peter (Greek: rock) or Cephas (Aramaic: rock). No clue is provided in the Gospels is upon "the beloved disciple" who occupies the place of honor as to why Jesus called him this, nor is there any way of knowing next to Jesus (John 13:21 ff.) and to whom Jesus' mother is later entrusted (John 19:26-27). It is clear that Peter does for certain just when Jesus gave him the new identity, because not have the standing throughout the Gospels that some the Gospels give differing reports (cf. Mark 3:16 and Luke Catholics would give him. 6:14 with Matt. 16:16 and John 1:42). The apostle Paul refers 3. Peter was the founding father of the church. to Peter, James, and John as "reputed pillars" of the early This idea is based on the statement Jesus allegedly made church. It is clear, as we shall see, that Peter was a person in renaming Simon: "You are Peter [Petros] and on this rock of authority in the developing church—a leading disciple, but [petra] I will build my church" (Matt. 16:18). The authenticity not the unchallenged head. of this pericope as reflecting a genuine incident in Jesus' life The Roman Catholic church gives authority to Peter and or his actual words has been challenged by scholars. It was to the papacy on the basis of several notions. put in Jesus' mouth by the author of Matthew, who apparently 1. Peter was the first disciple called to follow Jesus. believed that Jesus ought to have made the remark. As the This claim is based on the Synoptic tradition (Matthew, biblical scholar Martin Dibelius put it, "It is a sublime picture Mark, Luke). According to Matthew 4:18-22 and Mark I :16- that Matthew gives us. But it is a Christian, a post-Easter 20, Jesus summoned Simon (Peter) and his brother Andrew, picture!" Furthermore, the term "church" (ecclesia) reflects an organizational pattern that was not part of Jesus' teachings. In fact, Matthew is the only Gospel writer to use the word. Gerald Larue is professor The New Testament use of the term ecclesia appears primarily emeritus of archaeology and in the Pauline letters, the book of Acts, and the book of biblical studies at the Univer- Revelation, all of which were written as the Christian sity of Southern California at movement was becoming organized and expanding into the Los Angeles. Gentile world. According to most scholars, the Gospel of Matthew was composed during this period, around 85 C.E.

26 FREE INQUIRY It should not be surprising to find that the writer reflected that which is acceptable or unacceptable," or the right to speak the organizational pattern of the Christian movement during words of condemnation or forgiveness. Both comments are the half-century following Jesus' death. There is absolutely made in the context of passages that are believed to be the no evidence to suggest that Jesus ever had any intention of product of the developing church. It is reasonable to assume founding a "church." The historian Charles Guignebert would that by repeating the general statement made to the disciples go so far as to say that "Christ had neither founded nor desired and applying it particularly to Peter, the author of Matthew the Church."2 Regarding the actions of Jesus' followers after is reflecting his own belief in the growing status of Peter. their teacher's death, Guignebert writes: "It is plain that none It is important to note that in Matthew 18:19-20 the promise of them had any idea of founding a Church."3 of power and authority is given to any two or three believers In any case, the term "church" could not have meant to who gather together: Jesus what it means today, namely an organized community or body of believers with a trained clergy, a governing I say again to you, if two or three of you agree on earth hierarchy, set rituals, multiple meeting places, unity in belief, about anything they ask, it will be done for them by my and so on. Jesus was a Palestinian Jew speaking to Jews. Father in heaven. For where two or three are gathered in my name, I am there in the midst of them. If he said anything about the topic he probably would have used the Aramaic term qahela or perhaps kenishta rather than In other words, Peter had no more authority than any other ecclesia; both words refer to a community of believers, not disciple. In the Gospel of John (20:21-23) the resurrected Jesus to a structured organization. told his disciples: This play on the word for "rock" cannot be accepted as giving Peter any primacy. Indeed, Jesus quoted from Psalm "Peace be with you. As the Father has sent me, so I send 118:22 to refer to himself as the "cornerstone" of what was you." After he had said this, he breathed on them and said to develop (Mark 12:10; Matt. 21:42). The same reference to them, "Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins is found in a sermon attributed to Peter in Acts 4:11. The of anyone, they are forgiven; if you retain the sins of anyone, apostle Paul referred to Jesus as the "rock" (1 Cor. 10:4) they are retained." and as the cornerstone (Eph. 2:20). In early Christian thought, Jesus—not Peter—was the foundation of the faith. In Jewish The apostle Paul exercised this sort of authority when he Scriptures, Yahweh is referred to as the "salvation rock" (Dt. pronounced judgment on a Corinthian Christian who was 32:4, 15, 18; 1 Sam 2:2; 2 Sam 22:2; and elsewhere). When living with his "father's wife" (1 Cor. 5:3). Only when the one considers the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Roman Christian community began to grow did Peter's the Messiah, it would seem appropriate to designate Jesus, eminence develop. The papal claims are based on late traditions rather than Peter, as the founding rock of the faith. and do not reflect any special commission given to Peter by In the light of modern biblical research the use of this Jesus or in any New Testament teachings. particular statement to support papal claims is inappropriate. 5. Peter went to Rome and was martyred there by As a clergyman educated in biblical studies, the pope knows crucifixion during the Neronic persecution. His grave now what all Roman Catholic New Testament scholars know, that lies beneath the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral. the pericope represents the beliefs of the church that developed There is no solid New Testament evidence to support this after Jesus' death, and provides no real foundation for the claim, though there are some biblical passages that seem to papal claims to Petrine primacy. refer to the martyrdom of Peter. For example, in the epilogue 4. In the New Testament special authority is given to Peter. to the Gospel of John (21:1-25), which many scholars believe A careful examination of the texts demonstrates that WE'VE GIVEN uP ON nowhere is Peter given authority that was not identical to Dic.TAToMSH,P, WE No LONGER that given to all the disciples. He is not authorized to appoint INSIST ON WHAT PEOPLE MUST BELIEVE OR NOT BELIEVE. WE successors, nor are any references made to a succession from Not.) LET PEOPLE FOLLOW Peter. THEIR ONUN CONSc.ENCES. In Matthew 18:18 Jesus gives authority to the entire group of disciples:

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Spring 1990 27 is a late appendix to that work, the resurrected Jesus addresses of persecution. In 1 Peter 2:13-17, only evildoers are punished Peter: by the government. In 4:12-5:10, there exists the exhortation to avoid criminal activity that would bring punishment, but "In all honesty I tell you that when you were young you there is also an indication that Christians are encountering tightened your sash and walked wherever you wished, but difficulties and probably persecution because they are when you are old, you will reach out your hands and someone else will bind you and carry you where you do not wish Christians. Persecution of this type appears to have occurred to go." He said this to indicate the manner of death by which about 112 C.E. during the governorship of Pliny in the Roman Peter was to glorify God. provinces of Bithynia and Pontus (both of which are mentioned in I Peter 1:1). Thus the most acceptable date for this letter The Gospel of John is believed to have been written around is after 100 C.E., some thirty-five or more years after Peter the close of the first century C.E. The appendix, which is is supposed to have been martyred in Rome. The letter is in the same syle as the Gospel proper, may have been added best treated as a pious forgery. Although it cannot be used by the author a bit later. His statement about the "manner to substantiate Peter's presence in Rome, it may reflect a of death" suggests death at the hands of others and perhaps tradition that Peter was there. The appeal to 2 Peter and its statement, "Knowing that The pope and his followers continue to I must soon leave my mortal body as our Lord Jesus Christ perpetuate this legend with full knowledge of revealed to me" has no significance. It shows dependence upon the post-resurrection comment attributed to Jesus in the its fallacious basis. Their purpose can only Gospel of John. The letter was written some time after 150 be to protect their status and their claims to C.E. special authority. There is really no reason to reject the strong church tradition that Peter was martyred in Rome. At the same time, there is no reason to accept the notion that his bones lie beneath martyrdom. Despite efforts to interpret the phrase "reach out your hands" as a symbol of crucifixion, it cannot be used the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral. Excavations made as a clear substantiation of the later tradition that Peter's beneath the altar indicate that some time during the late second death was by crucifixion, head-downward. Nor is any hint century veneration of the spot may have begun. By the fourth provided as to where the death occurred, though there can century, when the cult of the martyrs was in full bloom and be no doubt that Peter was long dead by the time this gospel the emperor Constantine was busy identifying sacred spots was written. According to tradition he died in Rome during and building shrines on them, the site of Peter's burial place the Neronic persecutions sometimes between 64 and 68 C.E. was well-established in church tradition—but in actuality, no If the First Letter of Peter could be considered a genuine one knows for certain where Peter's bones may have been document from the hand of the disciple, then perhaps one deposited. The first Christians were not concerned with the could claim that Peter was in Rome. In 1 Peter 5:13, the cult of martyrs. They focused their belief on the return of final salutation reads: Jesus. It is not known whether they adopted the custom of Greetings from her [the Christian group] who dwells in visiting the graves of the dead. It is quite possible that the Babylon [Rome], chosen by God just as you are, and from exact place of Peter's internment was forgotten and that at my [spiritual] son Mark. a later date a spot was chosen in a pagan cemetery near the traditional locale of his death in the Vatican gardens. Such No one questions the use of the term "Babylon" as a sobriquet a pattern of choosing sacred locales is familiar to us from for "Rome." The reference to Mark as a "son" may signify accounts explaining how other sacred sites were identified, a close relationship that developed between the young man including Mount Sinai, the spot on Mount Nebo where Moses and the aging disciple (see Acts 12:12-17). However, many stood when he looked over the "promised land," the place questions have been raised about the authorship of the letter; of Jesus' birth, and the location of his burial cave, to name there is genuine doubt that Peter was the author or that his a few. There is no evidence that the bones of an elderly man amanuensis, Silvanus, penned his thoughts (1 Peter 5:12). For found in the excavation were those of the disciple Peter— instance, there is unanimous opinion among scholars that the but even if they were, it would in no way justify the papal letter shows a dependence upon Romans and Ephesians. It claim of descendance from Peter. has been said that this is due to the fact that Silvanus, who 6. There has been a regular succession of popes from the is mentioned in 1 and 2 Thessalonians, was a companion time of Peter. of Paul. He would perhaps be skilled in Greek (as was the The history of the early church, in Rome and elsewhere, writer of this letter), and would use the Greek Septuagint is clouded by the mists of time and obscured by a fog of rather than the Hebrew Bible as a source for Old Testament pious fiction. Just who founded the Roman church is not references. However, both Silvanus and Mark appear to have known. It is clear that Christians were there before Paul or been closer to the apostle Paul than to Peter (2 Cor. 1:19; Peter arrived. Paul wrote to the Roman Christians some time 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; Acts 15:40, etc., and Col. 4:10, between 54 and 58 C.E., and although he had never been to Philemon 24). Moreover, almost nothing is known of Peter's Rome (Rom. 1:10), he was acquainted with many members later life. of that church (Rom. 16). There seems to be some conflict concerning the notion Early Christians believed that Jesus was soon to return

28 FREE INQUIRY and establish his kingdom. There is no evidence that they (Acts 3:1), but according to a sixth-century tradition, he was were interested in establishing a historical succession of leaders. buried in Spain. James, Jesus' brother, who became the first As late as the middle of the second century C.E., the belief bishop (pope) of the Jerusalem church, was stoned to death in the second coming was prevalent. For instance, the writer in Jerusalem. Interestingly, a brief familial succession in the of 2 Peter was confronted by scoffers who asked, "Where leadership of the Jerusalem church appears to have developed. is the promise of his coming? For ever since the fathers died Jesus, of course, was the founder. He was succeeded by James, everything goes on just it was from the beginning of creation" and then by another relative, Simeon. However, after the (2 Peter 3:4). destruction of Jerusalem circa 70 C.E., church politics and Because the return of Jesus was delayed, the churches that church history ultimately centered power in Rome and preached his death, resurrection, ascension, and immediate Constantinople. The bones of James are supposed to lie coming-in-judgment had to develop organizational patterns beneath the high altar of the Cathedral of St. James on Mount to meet the needs of growth in membership and wealth. Zion in Jerusalem. The history of leaders in the Roman church is based on The cult of the martyrs and the belief in the magical efficacy writings from the second and third centuries. Assuming that of body parts and items associated with holy men and women they correctly identify those who became bishops, there is prompted churches to acquire skeletal parts and objects still no evidence of a succession from Peter. It is clear that associated with heroes of the faith to promote pilgrimages. by the time of Clement I, who was head of the Roman church It is quite possible that the tradition concerning the burial at the end of the first century, Rome was attempting to assert place of St. Peter and the theories of papal successions are some authority as a center of Christianity. A letter from related to this development in early Christianity. What is most Clement giving advice to Christians in Corinth substantiates disturbing is that educated Catholic clergy, including the pope, this notion. Numerous independent centers of Christianity continue to propagate this fiction as though it were fact. were becoming wealthy and powerful throughout the According to a January 1988 report in the Los Angeles Times, Mediterranean basin, and these groups were not always in the Vatican's powerful Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger endorsed agreement. Toward the end of the second century, creedal the historical-critical approach to the Bible but insisted that statements, a canon of scriptures, and the authority of the biblical interpretation "must incorporate the understanding bishops were beginning to emerge. It was during this period of the early church `fathers' and medieval thinkers. `Finally,' that the tradition of Petrine authority flowered to give a central he said, 'the exegete must realize that he does not stand in authority to the church of Rome; and the Roman Catholic some neutral area, above or outside history and the church.' "4 church has rested its authority upon that claim ever since. One can only respond that so long as biblical scholarship However, it is clear that we are dealing with a claim is fictional. must operate within a "faith" context, it can never be fully open and unbiased. o New Testament scholar will question that, together The pope and his clerical followers continue to perpetuate Nwith Paul, Jesus' brother James, the martyr Stephen, the legend of the Petrine foundation of the papacy and the and perhaps a few others, Peter was a powerful figure in church of Rome. They do this with full knowledge of the the early church. It is clear that by the time the New Testament fallacious bases for these claims. Their justification is an appeal writings were completed (during the second century c.E.), there to church tradition, not to the best findings of historical and were differing and perhaps competing traditions about the literary inquiry. Their purpose can only be to protect their relationship of the disciples to Jesus, while conflicting status and their claims to some sort of special authority. The movements were evolving within Christianity (1 and 2 John). problem is with the papal Peter principle. It is clear, too, that despite strong resistance, some effort was being made to place Peter in the forefront of the Roman Notes church. It was not until the fifth century that the church of 1. Dibelius, p. 92. Rome was widely accepted as having authority over other 2. Guignebert, p. 125. bishoprics, and despite the present-day claims made for Peter 3. Guignebert, p. 126. as "the first pope," that title was initially given to Pope Leo 4. See John Dart article cited below. I, who, as bishop of Rome (440-461), expressed in action the notion of papal supremacy over Christendom. Bibliography So far as the preservation of body parts of the disciples Dart, John, "Cardinal Tries to Mollify Jewish Leaders," Los Angeles Times, is concerned, one need only look at the religious fiction that Jan. 30, 1988. has developed around these religiously important people. Dibelius, Martin, Jesus, trans. Charles B. Hedrick and Frederick C. Grant (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1949). Paul's body was buried in Rome, but the location of his burial Grant, Robert M., Historical Introduction to the New Testament (Chicago: place is open to dispute. Andrew, who became the patron University of Chicago Press, 1963). saint of Russia, was supposed to have been martyred by Guarducci, Margherita, The Tomb of St. Peter, trans. Joseph McLellan (New York: Hawthorne Books, 1960). crucifixion in Greece. His body allegedly went to Constan- Charles Guignebert. Ancient, Medieval and Modern Christianity (New tinople, and was transferred to Amalfi, Italy, during the York: University Books, 1961). Crusades. His arm was supposedly taken to Scotland, where Kirschbaum, Englebert, S.J., The Tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, trans. John Murray, S.J. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1959). he became the patron saint. James, one of the first disciples, The Pope Speaks, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Huntington, Ind.: 0ur Sunday Visitor, was put to death by the sword at the command of King Herod Inc., 1979). •

Spring 1990 29 Paul wrote to the Roman Christians, "but the evil I do not want is what I do. Who will deliver me from this body of death?" St. Paul and Moral Responsibility (Romans 7:23). By way of an answer, Paul goes on to speak of being "freed from the [old] law of Johan Stohl sin and death" (Romans 8:2) through the indwelling presence and power of the mys- hortly after PTL leader Jim Bakker against principalities, against powers, tical Christ. What is now the classical Sconfessed his adulterous relationship against the rulers of the darkness of this Pauline and evangelical Christian affirma- with a former church secretary, a CBS News/ world" (Ephesians 6:12). Viewed through the tion is stated bluntly by Paul in Galatians: New York Times opinion poll interviewed apocalyptic paradigm, human struggles are "It is no longer I who live, but Christ who 505 people who "regularly watch" at least but a microcosm of a vast cosmic conflict lives in me" (2:20). For Paul, and for funda- one weekly evangelical program on televi- between the transpersonal spiritual forces of mentalist evangelicals, deliverance is possible sion. Among the more interesting queries good and evil that are moving us inexorably only when the divine presence invades and was whether "the devil was responsible" for toward Armageddon. At the heart of this displaces the natural man; paradoxically, a the Reverend Bakker's troubles. Fourteen view is the conviction that the fate of our person is (either) "free" as a servant of the percent of the respondents were undecided world does not rest in human hands, but indwelling Christ, or is "bound over" to on this question, but the rest split evenly will be determined by the apocalypse—the Satan. down the middle: 43 percent said the devil momentous final battle between Christ and was responsible, and 43 percent said the devil Satan depicted in Revelations. Psychological Implications was not responsible. Since this essentially Pauline view of One participant, a twenty-seven-year-old history and human destiny is deeply rooted hat are the psychological and moral factory worker from North Carolina, com- in the ancient world in which Paul lived, Wimplications of Paul's view of human mented that all Christians who "read their it might be dismissed as archaic and anachro- freedom? Following his conversion, Paul Bible know that the devil tempts people." nistic, or appreciated at best as an important rejoiced that his life had been surrendered She added, "He [the devil] is a spirit that part of Western intellectual history. What to Christ. By submitting to Christ, Paul in can make you do things that you normally is disturbing, however, is that Paul's theo- effect replaced one kind of possession with wouldn't do." Another respondent, a forty- logical and ethical "grid" continues to be the another: he moved from demonic to bene- six-year-old male claims agent for a New normative filter for the ideas and beliefs of ficent possession. But if Christ now pos- York railroad, said, "I believe the devil took modern evangelical and conservative Chris- sessed him, how could Paul function as a possession of him. It can happen to any- tians. Moreover, many non-evangelicals free and moral being? Psychologically, body." And a thirty-one year old real estate seem to be unaware of the degree to which Paul's submission, whether to the forces of salesman, also from New York, summed up Paul's moral and ethical thinking affects good or to the forces of evil, is an abdication the situation by saying, "Right now, we're their more humanistic outlook. My purpose, of personal responsibility and freedom. in the midst of a spiritual war between the then, is to identify specific ideas and beliefs Paul's model of the mature Christian is kingdom of God and the kingdom of Satan. in the Pauline legacy that undercut human- grounded in the need to be "possessed" by And we're losing." He went on to say that istic freedom and responsibility, and to argue the indwelling Christ. From a psychological recent events may be a sign of "the beginning not only that Paul's ideas may be morally and moral perspective, should not posses- of the birth pangs of the great tribulation, and psychologically inadequate for our age, sion by any "spiritual presence" be suspect? which will eventually usher in the kingdom but even dangerous. As with demonic possession, does not posses- of Christ." sion by Christ, too, call for an exorcism? For As bizarre as these statements may appear Paul's View of Freedom if Christ occupies the center of a person's to most readers of this periodical, they are existence, how is it possible to achieve per- important because they provide vivid anec- ny assessment of Paul's moral philoso- sonal identity, integration, or individuation? dotal evidence that the old Pauline world- Aphy ought to recognize the importance One cannot become whole by displacing view flourishes in twentieth-century of his personal experience in shaping his one's self. When Paul proclaimed "it is no America. Full-blown satanic cults and devil conception of human nature, and in particu- longer I who live, but Christ who lives in worship may thrive only in isolated pockets, lar his view of human freedom—a view that me," apparently he was testifying that the but large numbers of contemporary Chris- is thoroughly consistent with the idea that indwelling Christ had displaced Paul himself tians cling to the belief that our world is human life is caught up in an invisible spir- as the effective moral agent in his life. In locked in a great spiritual battle, and that itual battle between the forces of good and Paul's paradigm of selfhood, the indwelling human existence is in the hands of powerful the forces of evil. Because Paul believed Christ "enters" from without; he is not, apocalyptic forces. human history was part of a cosmic spiritual therefore, an integral part of Paul's authentic This evangelical/ Pentecostal world-view conflict, he came to regard human choice self. Indeed, Paul's surrender to the inner is shared by numerous groups that believe and action as the expression of spiritual Christ might be regarded as the major ob- "We wrestle not against flesh and blood, but warfare within the individual soul. Drawing stacle to Paul's personal individuation and inferences from his own experiences of spir- wholeness; for to surrender to Christ is to Johan Stohl is professor and chair of the itual bondage, which he symbolized as the curtail one's psychological growth into con- religious studies department at Albion Col- "indwelling power of sin and the Devil," Paul scious selfhood. lege in Michigan. believed all individuals were powerless to John Sanford speaks of Paul's rejection resist evil. "I do not do the good I want," of his "shadow"—the unknown negative, 30 FREE INQUIRY demonic side of his nature.2 It seems clear robbed of responsibility for their acts, they Politics. Will evangelicals continue to that Paul rejected his positive, divine shadow are also robbed of moral stature and of their seek to impose restraints upon human rights as well. Unlike the patriarch Jacob, who self-respect as human beings. in such areas as gender, sexual behavior, wrestled throughout the night with his "dark Paul's disavowal of moral responsibility childbearing, public education, publications, angel" and refused to "let go" until the angel contrasts sharply with the more humanistic the arts, and political expression? granted him a blessing, Paul turned away ethics of Jesus. Some years ago L. H. Mar- Public morality. Will insider trading be from acknowledging his own inner "dark shall, in summarizing his study of New Test- excused when the devil is responsible for it? angel." By rejecting and disowning his ament ethics, stated that Jesus believed men Can public figures involved in such scandals darker, unknown psyche, he also uncon- could (do good) if they would (wanted to), as the Iran/ Contra affair cop a plea by saying sciously dissociated himself from those posi- while Paul believed people "would if they they surrendered to the "will of a higher tive shadow energies that serve such an could." According to Marshall, Jesus in- authority"? The modern erosion of moral essential psychological function in achieving voked the natural capacity for creative love sensibility may be epitomized by Richard personal integration. Rather than being inte- in those he met, whereas Paul regarded Nixon's failure to feel (or admit) he was grated within himself, he rejected the nega- "natural man" as unable to respond with "morally wrong" regarding Watergate. tive shadow (his capacity for evil) as well love» Thus, for Jesus, human beings were Letting Jim Bakker off the moral hook by as the positive shadow (his capacity for responsible moral agents, capable of doing claiming the devil made him do it is equally— creative goodness), leaving a moral vacuum good, while for Paul they were morally weak, if not more—disturbing, however; for it to be filled by either Satan or Christ. caught in an ongoing spiritual conflict amounts to a fundamental denial of our The problem for Paul, then, is that the between the forces of good and evil. human capacity and obligation to accept indwelling Christ displaced Paul's self as the moral responsibility. center of his existence. Paul never conscious- Today's Dilemmas One of the overriding evangelical/ ly identifies himself as Christ, but his un- Pentecostal threats to a free, creative, qualified surrender to Christ has the psycho- y claiming he was not responsible for democratic society is the subtle insinuation logical effect of ego-displacement. Instead Bhis acts, Paul inaugurated the moral of the Pauline world view into all areas of of a paradigm of authentic selfhood, nur- excuse invoked by many people regarding our lives. Humanists need to expose publicly tured at ever deeper levels of integrity and Jim Bakker's adultery: the devil made him these two pillars of the evangelical move- love, Paul's moral paradigm calls for inau- do it! What is noteworthy is the tremendous ment: the belief in an ongoing cosmic, thentic displacement of the self. He does not potential for moral fallout in society caused spiritual war that is leading inevitably to a seem to have discovered what Sheldon Kopp by the millions of evangelicals, Pentecostals, worldwide Armageddon, and the conviction regards as the central psychological truth in and others who have adopted the Pauline that Christian freedom involves obedience Jesus' teachings, that "the only victory lies outlook. Implicitly, the opinion poll raises and moral submission to Christ. Both the in surrender to oneself." a moral warning concerning a number of belief in the inevitability of Armageddon and current issues on the humanist agenda, the insistence upon obedience to an invasive Moral Consequences including the following: spiritual presence represent a far-reaching Disarmament talks. Why negotiate in abdication of moral responsibility. or the humanist (including the Christian good faith if Armageddon is inevitable? If Fortunately we can become "born-again" Fhumanist) Paul's apocalyptic analysis of the "other side" represents the forces of sin humanists and join with others in making human existence, and his idea that to be free and death, is not God's (and our) ultimate this a better world. I believe most of us who one must surrender to Christ, raise trouble- victory assured? On the other hand, if call ourselves "humanists" in one sense or some questions about personal re- Armageddon is part of God's overall plan, another are committed to responsive human sponsibility. In particular, how can a person effective disarmament talks might interfere service grounded in humane ideals and be personally and morally responsible if he with His "timetable" for the world. values. We also are committed to the de- or she has "surrendered" to an inner spiritual Parochial education. Will public taxes velopment of heightened individual moral presence? Paul's model is a striking example eventually be used in private religious consciousness and personal freedom. To that of Sartrean "bad faith," an example of our schools to propagate an evangelical under- end, by consciously owning and integrating all-too-human temptation to avoid personal standing of human destiny, and to support the darker sides of our nature, we may even responsibility for our own actions.4 We are the conservative political gameplan? "exorcise" lingering vestiges of Paulinism in morally irresponsible, Sartre rightly insists, Textbook selection. How will the current ourselves. whenever we disown our deeds. When Paul skirmishes with public school boards turn claimed he was not responsible for doing out? For example, will evangelicals and Notes evil, nor for failing to do good, he in effect pentecostals insist upon teaching biblical 1. Dennis Hevesi, "Poll finds Devil is regarded abdicated moral ownership of his own acts. prophecy, or use the biblical apocalypse as as Powerful," Detroit Free Press, Tuesday, April What are the personal consequences of the framework for teaching history? Will the 14, 1987. Paul's moral philosophy? If our acts are not doctrines of creationism and the resurrection 2. John Sanford, Evil: The Shadow Side of our own, it follows that we can neither be of the body supplant physical evidence and Reality (New York: Crossword Publishing Co., blamed nor praised for them. Nor can we sound theory? Will texts include testimony 1981), pp. 67-84. 3. Sheldon B. Kopp, If You Meet the Buddha be held morally accountable for the conse- supporting the immortality of the soul, or on the Road, Kill Him (New York: Bantam quences of our acts. Thus the moral effect seek to represent human existence as an inner Books, 1972). of Pauline ethics is to excuse oneself from spiritual battle, or warn readers of demonic 4. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, personal responsibility as a moral agent and possession? trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), pp. 47-70. to have all questions of personal moral in- Jurisprudence. Will we be required to 5. L. H. Marshall, The Challenge of New tegrity ignored or dismissed as if they were accept "innocent by reason of demonic Testament Ethics (London: MacMillan and Co., of no importance. But when people are possession" as a legitimate defense? Ltd., 1956). •

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David Dvorkin

was recently accosted by an earnest young man who me—and I suspect for many other nonbelievers—the desire wanted to save my soul. When I told him that I was not to believe preceded any rational analysis of belief. At a secular humanist and an atheist, he looked at me in the time, though, the result was not liberation, but guilt. astonishment and confessed that he had never actually met The process of breaking away from their religion is often such a person. He was fascinated. a long and difficult one for Jews, a battle between growing What a relief, then, to turn to atheist and humanist journals dislike for the faith and growing guilt at what they are and encounter no such blindness, no such singlemindedness, contemplating. Finally, when the tension becomes so great no such ignorance that other views exist! Right? Unfortunately, that the emotional bond snaps, the intellectual examination not quite. of the belief begins. The main purpose for this process of Atheists, agnostics, humanists, freethinkers—call them reasoning is to find a solid, intellectual, nonemotional basis what you will—are almost all former Christians who measure for being a former Jew. Rejection of Judaism because of their shiny new nonbelief not against belief in general, but boredom or distaste seems reason to feel guilty, where as coldly against Christianity in particular. Thus it is mainly ex- rational grounds for such rejection are a defense against guilt, Christians who write the literature that, to the world at large, an answer to those who still call themselves Jews and accuse represents the views of nonbelievers—literature that is intended the ex-Jew of betrayal. to present the arguments against religious belief, but tends To be effective, though, the rational process must also guard instead to present the arguments against specifically Christian the ex-Jew against former coreligionists who argue that there belief. is no such thing as an ex-Jew. "Once a Jew," they will proclaim, This presents both practical and philosophical problems. "always a Jew." This is a powerful emotional weapon. Consider believing Jews who read such literature or hear a talk given by a spokesperson for nonbelief. The arguments Once a Jew, always a Jew against Christian belief will have no effect on them. Indeed, in all likelihood they'll go away confirmed in their religious hat does it mean to say, "I was a Jew but now am beliefs. Of course Christianity is nonsense! Jews have been Wnot' told that all their lives. Inevitably and unfortunately, this leads to the question, There is thus a need for a questioning of Jewish beliefs "What is a Jew?" I say "unfortunately" because this is a very that will appeal to both the emotions and the intellect of old question indeed, one for which Jews, non-Jews, ex-Jews, the Jewish believer, and present nonbelief as an alternative and anti-Semites have all produced their own self-serving to Judaism. answers. The assertion that a Jew is always a Jew rests on two bases: first, that Judaism is not just a religion, but a racial Becoming an ex-Jew identity, that cannot be shrugged off or rejected intellectually; and second, that no matter how ex-Jews choose to identify "firstfirst rejected my religion emotionally, and only later themselves, the world—the others, the goyim—persist in breaking with my spiritual upbringing. For identifying them as Jews, and so they may as well give up the fight and accept their Jewishness. Let's take the second idea first. For the past half-century, everyone's favorite example of evil goyim has been the Nazis. They did more than kill six million Jews; they killed the "delusion" that Jews can fit into Gentile society. How often I was told about the German Jews, those idolatrous seekers after assimilation, who looked and acted German and thought that was enough. But when the David Dvorkin is a computer time came, the Nazis remembered who was who. programmer/analyst, and The unspoken message was that the Holocaust was the the author of many books, German Jews' punishment for forgetting that they were really including Ursus and The Jews, not Germans. The spoken message was that the Captain's Honor. bogeyman will surely return—perhaps not German this time, but no less Nazi—and then those who have tried to forget

34 FREE INQUIRY what they really are will suffer the appropriate punishment. because they share the ethnic heritage of certain people famous So you may as well accept your dreary fate and go to shul, for their outstanding accomplishments, they can walk a little because you're trapped anyway, no matter how much you taller. may try to escape. But why should I be proud of the accomplishments of In this view, the evil goyim are simply God's tool for someone else who happens to belong to my ethnic group? punishing Jews who forget their proper place in the world. Let's say that A is a famous violinist and also a Jew. If This whole attitude rests upon the ghetto mentality that the I brag about A's Jewishness, I am saying one of two things. Jew belongs on the bottom of the heap, and that those who If I'm saying that A has an innate musical superiority "in forget this and "get above themselves" will suffer for it. In the blood," then I'm devaluing the years of hard work and short, this might be called the argument from intimidation. practice that surely went into developing A's virtuosity; I'm To this I say that I'd rather be free and take my lumps also implying that virtually any Jew willing to work a bit than accept subservience. No low profile for this atheist. If could become just as brilliant a violinist. I suspect that A it's true that the goyim see me as a cur, why should I live would feel otherwise, knowing that a high technical and artistic down to their expectations, physically deprived and mentally level is attained only through the combination of talent, hard imprisoned? More realistically, why should I deprive myself work, and self-discipline. How thoughtless and cruel to ascribe of a life of freedom and openness just because some day what A has achieved to the spiritual superiority of long-dead someone might try to reduce me to the status of a cur? ancestors! The first argument used against the self-proclaimed ex- But, just for the sake of argument, let us assume that Jewish Jew—that Judaism is a racial identity that one cannot blood really does confer superior talent for the violin. (My unilaterally shed—at least has the appearance of intellectual own tin ear is a strong counterargument for this assertion.) grounding. Such talent would then be a pure accident of heredity, no As most of us use it, the word "race" means whatever more meaningful than a Levantine nose. Why should one we want it to in the heat of the moment. But history be proud of it any more than one should be ashamed of demonstrates the futility of trying to trace racial bloodlines, an inherited drawback like Tay-Sachs disease? since it is largely a story of invasion, conquest, and ethnic Perhaps, on the other hand, some traits ascribed to genetics and sexual mixing. Some Jews may still hold that their actually occur simply because fostering them is encouraged ancestors managed to remain aloof from all of this in certain ethnic communities. If we are proud of these traits, homogenizing, but this is to choose mythology over history. and see them as proof of our "superiority" to other peoples, And given the history of this century, it is a myth that Jews then we're really saying that we can rank ethnic groups along should be particularly eager to see discredited. a spectrum from inferior to superior—and moreover that the We are left, then, with Jewry as an ethnic community as traits possessed by our ethnic group are the ones that determine well as a religious one. This is undeniably the case, though how a group ranks. This is, to say the least, self-serving. The I can't see that anything significant follows from it. Ex-Jews very idea of such ranking of ethnic cultures is a socially were raised in an ethnic community. So what? Does this mean dangerous one, as Jews should know all too well; they should that they must always consider themselves part of that group? be the last to indulge in it. Is an individual to be pigeonholed for the rest of his or her Let us consider the second possibility: that when I remind life by an accident of birth? If Western civilization has made everyone of A's Jewishness, I'm really saying that as a fellow one single important contribution to the world, it is the concept Jew, in some sense I partake of A's achievement. This is of of individuality: individuals are what they choose to be, not course absurd. Was I there during all those hours of practice? what their community ordains them to be; we represent only Did I share in A's frustrations and disappointments? This ourselves and are not mere cells in some familial or ethnic claim to kinship is nothing but a cheap and scurrilous attempt organism. This, to my mind, is the true essence of humanism. to take credit for what someone else has done, and it deserves I can't resist commenting here on a particularly silly no further consideration. rationalization that is becoming popular among American The whole nonsense of ethnic pride doesn't even take into Jews. Some of them, uncomfortable with the religious dogmas account the lone genius who stands out strikingly from his with which they were raised but unable to overcome the guilt or her family and immediate culture. The greatness of such they would feel if they simply declared themselves ex-Jews, a person is clearly unique, an accidental combination of specific have chosen to call themselves "ethnic Jews." It seems to me genes and environmental factors that mocks the idea that that they seek the comfort of belonging to a group, and cannot ethnic heritage can take credit for genius. We should indeed imagine the feeling of liberation that one gains by defining honor such people for their accomplishments, but we should oneself purely on one's own terms. honor them—not their cousins or ancestors. More than they seem to today, anti-Semites used to accuse Ethnic pride Jews of harboring the belief that they are indeed God's chosen people and are therefore destined to rule all other peoples. thnic groups are given to falling into the trap of ethnic (Just where are those Elders of Zion, and how do I get in Epride, and the more an ethnic group feels despised by touch with them? I think I could rediscover my faith very its neighbors, the more it resorts to this tack in self-defense quickly if rewarded with my own country to rule.) I've never and self-justification. Thus most children are instructed that encountered any Jews who expressed a desire to rule the world,

Spring 1990 35 but the sad secret of Jewish culture is that the first part of simply a deliberate, fully conscious ploy for silencing critics. that old anti-Semitic charge is essentially true. Many Jews Consider how many years it took before American Jews do believe themselves spiritually superior to the rest of the gathered the nerve to criticize Israeli policies in the occupied world. Call it being God's chosen people or call it belief in territories. They were afraid of being labeled "Jewish anti- the innate superiority of Jewish blood, the result is the same: Semites," a wonderful phrase designed to make Jews who contempt for the goyim. This is simply the converse of ethnic criticize their own people feel particularly guilty. And it works. pride, its morally reprehensible flip-side. Who can forget the Six Million? Who can forget the There are a number of bizarre misconceptions traditional Holocaust? Criticize anything Jewish, and we'll link you to Jewish society believed and still believes about non-Jews. the Nazis. And you'll run for cover. Included are that Gentiles are in large part brutish, sexually promiscuous, lazy, and given to excessive emotion. 've always found it interesting and annoying that, though When I was young enough to believe what I was told, Ithe literature of disbelief is quite nasty enough toward I swallowed all of this nonsense. (Took it as Gospel, you Christianity and its dogmas, it handles other religions with might say.) I knew all about goyim because I had been told kid gloves. This is especially true for Judaism. about them by my parents, the one set of authorities a child I suppose this attitude arises from a fear on the part of believes without question. Later I discovered something writers of sounding anti-Semitic. If they were to attack Judaism amazing: goyim of my age were remarkably like me. It was head-on, with the same hostility and scorn they display toward a short step from there to the realization that what I was Christianity, the charge of anti-Semitism certainly would be being told was simply the Jewish equivalent of anti-Semitism. used in response. It is significant that we don't have a word for this widespread Even when I still considered myself a Jew, I grew form of ethnic hatred, so I may as well coin one: "anti-goyism," increasingly uncomfortable with the use of that ploy to silence a hatred and fear of all the rest of the world. critics. Now that I am a member of the community of Is it true, as I was taught, that virtually every goy is an nonbelievers, the ploy more than discomfits me, it angers me. anti-Semite? I'll answer that with another question: is it true The use of the "anti-Semite" label cannot be allowed to that virtually every Jew is an anti-goy? Not quite, but surely continue to undermine the efforts of those who see all religion many are. as a mental trap and a social danger. Am I overdoing it? Am I seeing anti-goyism even where Philosophically, there's a broader issue involved in this it doesn't exist? Blame that on my training to keep a sharp matter of supposedly anti-religious arguments being actually eye on my neighbors for signs of anti-Semitism. no more than arguments against Christianity. In my mind, But then, anti-Semitism is so useful. Many Jews are quick at least, the issue is not whether or not Christianity is a to see it everywhere. Perhaps this could be called simply a philosophically acceptable belief system, but rather whether manifestation of the old persecution complex, self-pity. But any form of superstition is acceptable. If we undertake to I'm afraid it is a deeper and more sinister matter. 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36 FREE INQUIRY The American Judiciary as a Secular Priesthood

Richard Taylor

he long and acrimonious battle over the nomination the judiciary, possessed of all the trappings of despotism, of Robert Bork to the Supreme Court, together with nevertheless constitutes the bulwark of those freedoms we Tcourt rulings on such matters as abortion, flag associate with democracy. Most people cannot even name desecration, and so on, have forced thoughtful people to half the members of the Supreme Court, and fewer than 10 confront questions that have long been kept in the background. percent know the name of its chief justice. Yet it is these The issues raised by Bork and his sometimes merciless few officials who bestow or withdraw the most basic of interrogators went to the heart of the question of the judiciary's freedoms, profoundly affecting the lives of all of us. role and the constitutional status of certain rights and freedoms Why? How is this possible, in the light of the almost we have come to take for granted. Some of these, such as universal assumption that democratic freedom must be the presumed right of privacy and a whole spectrum of grounded in the will of the people as expressed by vote, freedoms associated with private morality, are nowhere representation, and accountability? mentioned in the Constitution, yet they are considered The answer is that the American judiciary is a kind of constitutional rights. Bork, in casting doubt upon the priesthood, albeit a secular one. It rests its power on the constitutional basis of those freedoms, sent a chill into the elements found in every priesthood, and draws its inspiration hearts of those for whom such freedoms are precious. That from essentially the same sources. his position appeared unassailable on purely rational and We all know that judges wear priestly robes, are members legalistic grounds made it more frightening. But the most of an authoritarian hierarchy, and conduct their functions in places that resemble temples, but few persons have ever valuable result of all the commotion is that it allowed us reflected on why the judiciary looks so much like a priesthood. finally to focus on the role of judges, to see that the function The resemblances are no accident. A religious priesthood and of the judiciary is not simply to interpret written enactments, this secular one draw their power from precisely the same but to defend and even, to a large extent, to create our liberties. element in human psychology, which I shall call the habit This is highly paradoxical, for the judiciary is the least of deference. The interesting difference between the two is democratic branch of our government. Its members often how that power is used—to stifle freedom, in the case of exercise power that reaches beyond that of any other institution a religious priesthood, and to foster it, in the case of the of government, seeming sometimes to approach the very power secular one. of a god; and yet, once appointed, they have no responsibility or accountability to anyone but themselves, often conduct their business in utter secrecy, and usually serve for life. And The unique and essential elements of a priesthood therein lies the paradox: that this relatively obscure institution, et us consider, then, the features distinctive of a priesthood, Jland note exactly how they are duplicated in our judiciary. Six such features, some more important than others, come readily to mind. I. Priestly hierarchies. The first is that every priesthood is divided into ascending classes with respect to both prestige and authority, with few persons or sometimes only one at the top, few at the intermediate levels, and many at the bottom. The authoritarian character of a priesthood thus distinguishes it significantly from other formal hierarchies, such as, for Richard Taylor is professor example, the hierarchy of titled nobility or of recognized chess of philosophy at Union Col- experts. The degrees of prestige are preserved in hierarchies lege, and the author of many such as these, but the degree of authority is not. There is, books, including Good and for example, only one world chess champion who stands above Evil and Having Love the numerous masters, grand masters, and so on, but who Affairs (Prometheus). imposes nothing upon them. A pope or an ayatollah, on the other hand, is not merely elevated above the other levels of

Spring 1990 37 priestly hierarchy in prestige; he has also the authority to mistaken if five of its members declare, from the bench, impose on them what is to be held and taught as doctrine. something to be law, even though what is thus enunciated He declares to the others what the teachings are; they do may appear entirely novel and heretofore unheard of, even not declare them to him. And once these are authoritatively by other judges who stand lower in the hierarchy. The enunciated, then the rest of the hierarchy, down to its vast promulgation of the exclusionary rule of evidence, which has foundation, falls into step. What is promulgated from above no constitutional basis whatever, is a typical case in point. is received below not merely as something interesting, learned, Of course this court can modify its own previous declarations, inspired, or possibly profound. It is received as something as can the papacy; but until this happens, what was first to be heeded not because of its rational content (for it is enunciated holds as law (in the case of the court) or as doctrine likely to have none), but solely because of its source. (in the case of the church). Indeed, the court need not even cite the Constitution, or any enacted law, or any other text hat our judiciary also has this sacerdotal character is for its determination, though it usually does. Similarly, the Talmost too obvious to belabor. Our court structure is pope need not cite Scripture or any other text for his thoroughly hierarchical, its ascending classes differing with pronouncements, though he usually does. The declaration respect to both prestige and authority, with a very few—only itself, emanating from the apex of either hierarchy, is sufficient nine, in fact—at the top, few at intermediate levels, and many to guarantee its theological or legal correctness. To this it at the lowest levels. These courts are unabashedly and correctly should perhaps be added, even though it should be obvious, referred to as higher and lower. Nor do the higher members that such infallibility holds, in either case, only within defined of this hierarchy merely enjoy greater honor and prestige, areas. Neither the pope nor the Supreme Court speaks with as do the different levels of an archaic nobility or of chess the least authority in matters of history, science, or art, for experts: it is, as with any priesthood, a hierarchy of authority example. They also sometimes contradict each other. The as well. Thus the Supreme Court declares to all what the church and the court do not speak with one voice on such law is, and the rest, down to the justices of the smallest matters as the legitimacy of divorce, abortion, and so on. jurisdictions, fall into step. What is promulgated from above But each is powerless to overrule the other. is received below not merely as something interesting, perhaps 3. Sacred texts as the basis of authority. The third and, profound, learned, or even inspired; it is received as what strangely, least noticed point of resemblance between the two is to be heeded, solely because of its source. And, as the priesthoods is that to a degree, each rests its authority upon vast laity of the church is expected to fall into step with the a body of literature, the central part of which is deemed priesthood with respect to the content of the faith, the vast somehow sacred or inspired. This central part is, of course, citizenry of the nation is expected to heed the orders of the the Bible in the case of the church, and the Constitution in judiciary with respect to the law of the land—though of course the case of the judiciary. Each is deemed to be the official not all do, in either case. foundation of these respective institutions, the source to which 2. Papal and judicial infallibility. This immediately suggests either type of priesthood reverts, whenever possible, in the second point of resemblance. The pope cannot err in any resolving some matter of the faith or of the law. The declaration he makes ex cathedra in the realm of faith and qualification "whenever possible" is made here because both morals, nor can the United States Supreme Court err in any canons are in some respects incomplete and obscure, and as declaration from the bench concerning the content and scope a priest must sometimes look beyond the mere letter of the of the law. Neither of these is really a very far-reaching claim, scripture to find its "true meaning," so also must a judge and both are quite incontestably true, despite the antagonism look beyond the letter of the Constitution. Note further, they arouse in the minds of those who do not understand however, that in neither case is the sacred text considered them. to be the whole of the inspired literature from which the faith Thus, if the pope declares something to be a part of the or the law is to be drawn. Covering Holy Writ are layer upon faith, and perhaps cites scriptural authority for his declaration, layer of commentary and interpretation, most of it emanating then it simply follows that what is thus declared is a part from the priesthood itself over a long period of time and of the faith. His declaration is quite sufficient to make it such, now deemed authoritative in its own right and beyond serious and this is not open to challenge even by those who stand question. And similarly, covering the Constitution are layer outside that faith. Similarly, if the Supreme Court declares upon layer of wise commentary and judicial interpretation, something to be a matter of law, and perhaps cites most of which, too, emanated from this secular priesthood constitutional authority for that declaration, then it simply itself over a long period of time. Suggestively, even the follows that what is thus declared to be a part of the law terminology is to some extent the same within both hierarchies. is a part of the law. The law as thus enunciated is not open Thus, the earliest authors of these secondary texts and to challenge even by those who stand outside that law, that commentaries are called the "Church Fathers" in the one case, is to say, beyond its jurisdiction. The members of this court, and the "Founding Fathers" in the other. Indeed, whenever it has been often noted, are not made members because they one sees the word "father" used as a term of veneration and are infallible, but rather, they are infallible because they are not in its literal sense, one can be fairly sure of being confronted the Supreme Court, an authority beyond which there is no with some kind of priesthood. appeal. The corresponding description of the pope is, of course, Of course no established priesthood of long standing rests also correct. There is no way the Supreme Court can be its doctrinal teaching on one primitive text, such as the Bible,

38 FREE INQUIRY the Koran, or the Constitution. As the church appeals to contracts, yet states do so by prohibiting foreclosures, a much richer source referred to as "tradition"—which includes exempting beleaguered banks from certain obligations to even the opinions of unordained theologians—so the judiciary depositors, and so on. The Constitution prohibits any member appeals to the common law and a vast quantity of adjudicative of Congress from holding any other office under government, law, as well as to the opinions of unsworn laymen and yet some are officers in military reserves. The explicit jurisconsults, venerable for their learning and judicial prohibition of involuntary servitude is not allowed by the temperament. courts as a basis for challenging conscription, and the The similarity in the roles of the Bible and the Constitution constitutional provision that no states may enter into any within the religious and the secular priesthoods is worth agreements or compacts with one another without the consent stressing. Priests, for example, as well as lesser functionaries of Congress is at times simply disregarded, as when Maine in the church, swear their belief in and fidelity to the Bible, and New Hampshire, for example, enter into an agreement treating it as sacred, not just for its content, but in its own to settle a boundary dispute. Thus as the Bible is interpreted right. Similarily, officers of government declare their fidelity by priests to mean more or less what they want it to mean, to the Constitution and swear to uphold it, and are even so is the Constitution interpreted by judges, its gaps being required by law to do so. The Bible is thus much more than filled by their wisdom, and the more bizarre of its explicit an important book to a priest, and the same veneration for provisions being treated as though they do not exist. the Constitution is nourished in the hearts of judges. Thus Fundamentalists vs. liberals. The fourth point of no one was surprised to learn that Justice Hugo Black arranged resemblance between the two priesthoods is significant in its to have his Constitution accompany him to his grave, as implications; namely, that both contain highly zealous and doubtless many other judges have. vocal groups dedicated to the literal interpretation of their Again, the church feels most secure when its teaching can respective and sacred texts. Thus the "fundamentalists," as be clearly rooted in Scripture. This is sometimes impossible, they call themselves, attempt to extract the entire doctrine however, either because Scripture is silent on the matter at of religion from one primitive and uninterpreted text—the issue, or because absurd results would follow from certain Bible—which they declare to be complete and true in every of the more bizarre things to be found there. In this case part. Some of its stories and allegories, including those that recourse is found in the tradition. There is, for example, are of a mystical character and profoundly meaningful to those virtually nothing to be found in the Bible concerning the human who understand and appreciate them, are reduced to absurdity "soul," but much to be found in the tradition, going back by the fundamentalists, who imagine them to be literal to St. Augustine and St. Gregory of Nyssa and the other descriptions of past events. Fundamentalists think that they "fathers," so here venerable tradition is made to suffice. At have elevated religion by such simplifications. To treat the same time, certain arcane biblical references, important Scripture otherwise, they say, amounts to rewriting it, inserting to ancient culture but of no importance any more, are more into the revealed truth one's own fond notions of what should or less treated as if they were not contained in Scripture at be there. They thus take comfort in what they call the all. The legends surrounding the Arc of the Covenant are "inerrant," that is, literal, truth of the Bible. Religious liberals, a case in point. on the other hand, appeal to the spirit of these texts, which, We should not, then, be surprised to find the same problems with support from the Scripture itself, they say gives life, while presented by the quasi-sacred texts upon which the judicial the letter or literal interpretation kills. This liberal reading system rests. The Supreme Court and the lower appellate of the texts enables people, of course, to find there precisely courts feel most secure when they can point to an explicit the lofty and noble principles they happen to favor, and that provision in the Constitution for a ruling on a point of law; they assume must somehow be lodged there, however the constitutional prohibition of bills of attainder, ex post obscurely. facto laws, and double jeopardy are examples. It is not always possible to point to an explicit provision, however, for the recisely the same two attitudes are found within the Constitution may contain nothing whatsoever bearing upon Pjudiciary with respect to the mode of interpreting its own the matter of law that must be adjudicated, or what is said sacred text, the Constitution. Judicial "strict constructionists," in the Constitution might produce an awkward result if taken or advocates of "original intent," correspond exactly to at face value. For example, the Constitution is lamentably religious fundamentalists in approach, aim, and conservative silent concerning any supposed right of privacy, so the court temperament. They see a danger in any kind of interpretation discovers such a right in our traditions, although a thin and or mode of construing the Constitution other than a literal immensely implausible hint of such a right is triumphantly one. They claim that a judge who goes beyond the actual extracted from the basic writ. How often, on the other hand, wording of this text, as it has been delivered to us by the does one find judicial decisions pointing to such things as "Founding Fathers," risks incorporating into it his or her letters of marque and reprisal, twice mentioned in the private notions of what the law should be. Constitution, and how many people, including judges, even The liberal school of jurists, on the other hand, who know what this means? Certain other parts of the Constitution correspond exactly with religious liberals, fervently declare are perfectly clear and meaningful, but are treated as though that the "true" meaning of the Constitution is to be found they do not exist. Thus this "supreme law of of the land" behind its literal meaning—in its spirit or, as the great jurist prohibits state legislatures from impairing the obligations of William O. Douglas sometimes expressed it, in its "emana-

Spring 1990 39 tions" and "penumbras." and white or gold, and under an outlandish headgear never The difficulties and dangers of each approach are of course seen elsewhere. He cannot wave excitedly to the crowds that precisely the same in both the church and the judiciary. A surround him, even though the occasion would call for literal reading even of the sacred Bill of Rights, for example, precisely that response from any other public figure, nor can can lead to absurdities and to an intolerable grinding of the he be imagined clasping his hands above his head in victorious gears of tradition against the exigencies of modern life. On acknowledgment of the tumult that greets his appearance the other hand, the tempting appeal to the "spirit" of this before the masses. His hand is instead limited to a slow kind text or to its "emanations" has the effect that as few as five of wobble and gentle fanning motion, only barely extended, mortal judges of finite wisdom can, on this insubstantial basis, and his head and eyes generally remain steadfastly foward, foist upon the entire nation, as part of the supreme law of with but occasional nods, his face graced with a saintly smile. the land, novel ideas of which they happen to be fond, a It may be tempting to suppose that all of this is but the more procedure that Robert Bork aptly describes as "judicial or less random and meaningless product of ancient inherited imperialism." This has in fact happened many times, as we custom, but this would be a great mistake. Something of the sort is absolutely essential to any preisthood, but the reasons It is our blessing, as a free people, not that for this are reserved for later comment. Note that the secular priesthood, the judiciary, is similarly we live in a democracy, but that we do not, distinguished by a special garb and demeanor that, though for it is a powerful and utterly undemocratic less garish than that of the Roman Catholic hierarchy, for judiciary—a secular priesthood—that is the example, is nonetheless distinctive. And like all priests, the men and women of the judiciary are addressed by titles ultimate guardian of our freedoms. suggestive of special virtue or honor, "honorable" being, in fact, the commonest such form of address. Judges, like shall illustrate shortly, and it represents a power as awesome clergymen, appear in robes, and they are the only public as any that has ever been claimed by even the most exalted officials who do. In certain foreign jurisdictions such robes priests. are complemented by distinctive wigs. In the early days of It is worth noting in passing that of these two tendencies— our republic one of our Supreme Court justices, William the "fundamentalist" or "strict constructionist" on the one hand Cushing, regularly appeared on the bench wearing a wig— versus the "liberal" on the other—it is the former that has a practice that was not, somehow, destined to be carried on, been on the ascendency of late, the more so since the although it is easy to imagine that it could have been. Nor conservative wings of both the religious and the secular should judges, especially those high in the hierarchy, be thought priesthoods tend to ally themselves with each other to achieve of merely as politicians who happen to wear robes. The dignity their generally oppressive political goals. The appeal that this of their role is carried over into their demeanor, as in the simple and narrow approach has for the masses is very strong, case of any priest. Thus an august senator, for example, can and the political and social effects upon our culture have been emerge from a committee vote or a vote on the floor with both baneful and profound. Thus, for example, with the hands clasped high and wearing an immense grin, connoting replacement of a single moderate justice of the Supreme Court, joyous victory over the other side. But no judge can do this, Justice Lewis Powell, by a conservative one, Justice Anthony even after a close decision from the bench when the Kennedy, what was for years officially declared to be a circumstances would seem to be exactly similar. Supreme woman's constitutional right to an abortion came to be Court judges cannot even talk to newspaper reporters without suddenly drastically qualified and curtailed. stirring comment, and may never appeal to the masses for support for their ideas, any more than a bishop could. Supreme Wherehere remain two other points of comparison between the Court judges are even reluctant to be caught in the eye of priesthoods, perhaps less sweeping than those already a television camera, the chief justice, for the most part, considered but in some ways more suggestive of the true nature absolutely forbidding such encounters. No such restraints are of the judiciary. felt even by the most exalted of other public officials, including 5. The distinctive appearance of priests. The first of these the president. Nor is all this, as one might think, the mere is that a sacerdotal hierarchy is always characterized by arbitrary product of tradition. There is a reason for it all, distinctive garb and demeanor, and by titles suggestive of as we shall see, and it is the same reason that operates upon unique virtue, beginning with "reverend" or "father" and the priests of the church. culminating, of course, in "holiness." These features become 6. Courtrooms and temples. Finally, as our sixth point more elaborate and outrageous as one ascends the scale of of comparison, note how similar are the settings in which the hierarchy. Thus the lowest members of the hierarchy have both priestly and judicial functions are carried out, the highly little to distinguish them in appearance except somber attire ritualistic character of those that are public, and the solemn and the clerical collar. A pope, an ayatollah, or a dalai lama, secrecy that surrounds those that are not public. Halls of on the other hand, must look instantly and radically different; justice are set off from all other public buildings by their he must be addressed in a manner suggestive of supremacy; resemblance to temples, and one steps into a courtroom, as and even his motions, gestures, and countenance are stylized. one would into a church, with a certain hush. Symbolism The pope, for example, appears in striking robes of scarlet is essential to both; for instance, it is as hard to imagine a

40 FREE INQUIRY law, for it had emerged from the most venerated institution democratic process? It would have been a virtual logical of government, the supreme level of the judiciary. impossibility. It would have amounted to petitioning legislators The second case in point is the Roe v. Wade decision of to abandon and destroy the very foundations upon which nearly twenty years later, conferring upon women the right they themselves held office, to surrender the power they to terminate unwanted pregnancies without any other securely and quite legally held. What was needed then was, consideration than their own conscience. The decision emerged once more, a powerful secular priesthood responsible to no from a deeply divided Court and has since been under severe one and not bound even by the letter of its own charter, attack by a reconstituted Court. Here again, a new law to create a new and revolutionary law at a single stroke, guided suddenly came into being, leaving the nation briefly dazed. only by its own wisdom and what it took to be the spirit The law rendered what had hitherto been criminal in almost of its sacred text. every corner of the land suddenly permissible and, indeed, Finally, as the fourth exhibit, consider the reform of the the expression of a hitherto unknown basic constitutional right. criminal justice system wrought by a long series of decisions In this case we see with special clarity that the spirit rather beginning in the 1930s and culminating in the Miranda and than the letter of the Constitution sometimes inspires the the Gideon v. Wainwright decisions of the 1960s. It was the secular priesthood, for one searches in vain through that Supreme Court, and that minute council alone, that imposed document for anything that can, without extreme contrivance, on all state and lesser jurisdictions the requirements that no be seen as a right to abort pregnancy. And again we can person may be exposed to double jeopardy; that judges may ask how long it would have taken a democratically elected not make prejudical remarks to juries based on the refusal legislature to create such a right. New York, Colorado, and of a defendant to be a witness at his or her own trial; that the District of Columbia had already done so, to be sure, defendants in felony cases are entitled to attorneys paid for, but of the remaining forty-eight states it is hard to imagine if necessary, from public funds; that police officers must remind even half of them following suit within a reasonable period persons of certain rights before asking them any questions; of time. So emotionally laden is the issue, and so bitterly and so on. What is particularly remarkable about this gradual opposed by the religious counterpart to the secular priesthood, but extensive revolution wherein certain rights were created that even legislators who favor the right are often unwilling that are found nowhere else on the globe is that rather few to express themselves regarding it except in the most banal of them are mandated by the Constitution. There is, for terms and with an air of apology. For this revolutionary new example, no hint of an exclusionary rule in that document, freedom to come into being it took a powerful secular even for federal courts, and many judges of lower jurisdictions priesthood, totally undemocratic in its procedures, responsible had in fact never heard of it when suddenly they found it to no one, and guided only by its own wisdom and by what imposed upon them. And once again we should ask what it took to be the spirit of its sacred text. And the overwhelming chance any of these rights would ever have had were it not result of that decision is that today nearly one-third of all for this secular priesthood. The entire criminal class is by pregnancies are in fact aborted with no legal consequences. its nature excluded from the political process. There never Our third exhibit is the Baker v. Carr decision of 1962, has been, and never will be, an organization or lobbying force supplemented by the Reynolds v. Sims ruling two years later. dedicated to representing the rights of thieves, rapists, and In its long-term political consequences, this is one of the most muggers, nor would any legislator heed such an organization far-reaching laws ever to emerge from the Supreme Court, if it did come into being. For such rights to exist, then, they even though most of the people do not even know what that have to be secured and, in the present case, for the most ruling is and thus have no idea of how it is going to affect part created by a priesthood responsible to no one, tenured their lives and the lives of the generations to come: it requires for life, and guided by nothing more than its own wisdom, both branches of all bicameral state legislatures to be chosen enlightened by the sacred texts and traditions of the republic. by equally weighted votes of the people rather than by It is, then, our blessing, as free people, not that we live geographically drawn districts. What is remarkable about this in a democracy, but that we do not, for it is a powerful and Court-created law is that, while the U.S. House of utterly undemocratic judiciary—a secular priesthood—that is Representatives is thus chosen, the U.S. Senate of course is the ultimate guardian of our freedoms. Representative democ- not. Hence an arrangement deemed suitable for the federal racy, in which a sometimes tyrannical majority always prevails, legislature, and even mandated by the specific provisions of is by its very nature despotic with respect to those freedoms the Constitution, was deemed by the Court unconstitutional cherished by the minority. One can well imagine, for example, as applied to the states. The basis for that decision was thus, how little separation there would be between church and state obviously, not the Constitution, and certainly not any enacted if this were left to the majorities elected to state legislatures, law at all, but considerations of fairness, pure and simple. particularly within those jurisdictions where religious Under the system prevailing until then, which had never been fundamentalism prevails. Freedom requires powerful judges, seriously questioned by anyone, urban voters in many beholden to no one and at the highest echelons responsible jurisdictions were in effect disenfranchised, and values to no one, who can speak with finality and impose heavy associated with rural life were given priority, a result considered and sometimes unbearable sanctions on anyone who opposes desirable by many in preserving the values loosely associated their rulings. The judiciary is, paradoxically, a despotic with "middle America." What possibility would there have bulwark of liberty, and, even more paradoxically, it owes this been of bringing about this revolutionary change through role to its being a kind of priesthood, albeit a secular one. •

Spring 1990 43 Judeo-Christian God been shown to exist, and to intervene in the hospital course of patients? God in the CCU? The most striking flaw in this study's methodology is one forthrightly acknowl- edged by Byrd. "It was assumed that some Gary P. Posner of the patients in both groups would be prayed for by the people not associated with he day of publication of the July 1988 to pray daily for a rapid recovery and for the study; this was not controlled for. Tissue of the Southern Medical Journal prevention of complications and death." . . . Therefore, `pure' groups were not must have been one Hell of a busy news The IP group consisted of 192 patients, attained in this study." In other words, the day, literally. Apparently none of the major and the control group of 201. Analyses focus of the study—prayer—was "not media in the world could manage to find revealed no significant statistical differences controlled for," except that three to seven room to include this little item: a scientific between the health of the two groups upon intercessors were assigned to pray daily for study, published that day in that journal, admission. "Thus it was concluded that the each patient in the IP group, and none were indicates that God exists, and that he inter- two groups were statistically inseparable and assigned to the controls. Thus, although un- ceded in the recovery of a group of coronary that results from the analysis of the effects likely, it is nevertheless theoretically possible care unit patients! Both Paul Harvey and of [IP] would be valid." The mean age of that the control group received as many Charles Osgood publicized this study in their the IP patients was two years younger than prayers as did the IP group, if not more. radio commentaries in early 1989, so, despite that of the control patients, a difference If "intercessory prayer" was not con- the delay, word of this startling development deemed statistically insignificant. trolled, except that each IP patient was has by now reached the heartland of Each patient's hospital course was given assumed to have received somewhere be- America. a severity score of "good," intermediate," or tween X+3 and X+7 prayers daily, as opposed In his article entitled "Positive Therapeu- "bad," based upon the degree of morbidity to X+0 for the control patients, what are tic Effects of Intercessory Prayer in a experienced by the patient. In addition, we to conclude? That God is conditioned Coronary Care Unit Population," Randolph twenty-six categories of "New Problems, in a Pavlovian manner to automatically C. Byrd, M.D., a San Francisco cardiologist, Diagnoses, and Therapeutic Events After respond to the side with the greater number endeavored to answer these questions: Entry" were measured, and tested for of troops, even though the assigned inter- (I) Does intercessory prayer (IP) to the statistical significance between the groups. cessors had no emotional ties to their Judeo-Christian God have any effect on a These included such things as congestive patients, and even though the IP patients CCU patient's medical condition and heart failure, diuretics, hypotension, intuba- were otherwise no more worthy of healing recovery? (2) How are these effects mani- tion/ventilation, pneumonia, and so on. as a group than were the controls? Does God fested, if present? The results of the study, as reported by not know that the side with fewer troops The study took place between August Byrd, employing "multivariant [sic] analysis is in just as much need of assistance? Where 1982 and May 1983, when 393 patients of the data using [these twenty-six] variables is the evidence of his omniscience and signed informed-consent papers upon . revealed a significant difference (P less compassion? admission to the San Francisco General than .0001) between the two groups based And what can be said about the evidence Hospital CCU, and were entered into a on events that occurred after entry into the for God's omnipotence? It is true, assuming prospective double-blind, randomized study. study. Fewer patients in the prayer group that Byrd's data are valid, that in the IP (The remaining fifty-seven patients admitted required ventilatory support, antibiotics, or group, 5 percent fewer patients needed during this period cited various reasons for duretics." " In addition, using the "good/ diuretics, 7 percent fewer needed antibiotics, refusing to participate.) A computer- intermediate/bad" severity score, "A bad 6 percent fewer needed respiratory intuba- generated list randomly assigned patients to hospital course was observed in 14% of the tion and/or ventilation, 6 percent fewer either the IP group or the control group, prayer group vs. 22% of the controls .. . developed pneumonia, and 5 percent fewer and neither they, nor the CCU doctors and chi-square analysis of these data gave a P suffered cardiopulmonary arrest. But no staff, nor Randolf Byrd were aware of which value of less than .01" (that is, a less than significant differences were found among the patients were assigned to which group. 1 percent probability that chance alone could other twenty categories, including mortality, Intercessors chosen to pray for the IP- account for the difference). despite explicit prayers "for prevention of group patients were " 'born again' Christians In his introductory abstract, which was . death." And, reports Byrd, "Even though (according to the Gospel of John 3:3) with also reproduced in the "Domestic Abstracts" for [the six seemingly significant] variables an active Christian life as manifested by daily section of the Journal of the American the P values were less than .05, they could devotional prayer and active Christian Medical Association on January 20, 1989, not be considered statistically significant fellowship with a local church." Each IP Byrd concludes that the "data suggest that because of the large number of variables patient "was assigned to three to seven [IP] ... has a beneficial therapeutic effect examined. I used two methods to overcome intercessors.... The [IP] was done outside in patients admitted to a CCU." In the final this statistical limitation ... [the] severity of the hospital daily until the patient was paragraph of his article, Byrd says, "based score, and multivariant [sic] analysis" discharged ... each intercessor was asked on test data there seemed to be an effect (emphasis added). [from IP], and that effect was presumed to But was this lack of significance truly Gary P. Posner is an internist in Tampa, be beneficial" (emphasis added). "overcome"? One must note the interrela- Florida, and a member of CSER's Faith- But what are those of lesser faith—or of tionships among these six categories: for healing Investigation Project. other faiths—to make of this miraculous instance, the development of congestive claim for the efficacy of prayer? Has the heart failure automatically leads to the need

44 FREE INQUIRY courtroom without an American flag near the bench as to even in ways that seem on the surface not to matter. This imagine a church without a cross near the pulpit. Bits of is also why even harmless eccentric departures are viewed scripture adorn the walls and windows of churches, just as with a certain distrust and hostility. bits of text from the Constitution or from illustrious jurists The same holds true, of course, with respect to the law. of the past decorate a courtroom. A priest ascends to the It is not enough that we have law. There must also be a pulpit to the accompaniment of a fixed ritual in the same profound respect for it as being, at its foundation, quasi-sacred. manner that a judge ascends to the bench, the latter's arrival And here, too, the human tendency to imitate must be being heralded by the ritualistic "hear ye, year ye" of ancient nourished, using precisely the means for this that have been origin. Everyone forthwith rises, to resume sitting only when perfected by the church. The law bears upon those aspects the judge has become ensconsed at the bench, his or her head, of human behavior that are absolutely essential to peace, like that of any priest, higher than all the others so that all security, and cooperation, and it is not enough that compliance look up to him or her, this being probably the oldest expression be achieved through fear. The deep need people have to be of deference known to humanity. What then transpires, called just like those around them must be cultivated and its strength "liturgy" in one case and "procedure" in the other, is formal enlisted through pledges, ritualized observances, and so on. and ritualized, and arcane to the layman. Thus, in our culture, has The Flag become an object of religious The deliberations of appellate courts are conducted in the veneration, whose desecration most persons would like to innermost chambers of these temples with the same secrecy make a criminal act, despite the Supreme Court's ruling (by that surrounds ecclesiastical councils, and their conclusions a single vote) that such acts are constitutionally protected. or "orders," sometimes of profound and far-reaching I also referred, however, to another human trait that goes significance, are then announced to the world as a formality— far in explaining the correspondences I have described, and always, it should be noted, as if what is then proclaimed as that is the almost universal tendency to servility. People have law or doctrine has in fact been there from the very start a need not only to imitate, but to bow down to persons and and is thus by no means the creation of the judiciary or of things. Churches, I believe, draw most of their strength from the clergy. The judiciary even has a wonderful term to foster this, and the judicial system takes advantage of the same deep- precisely that fiction. It always speaks of "finding" this or seated trait. In Iran the religious and judicial priesthoods are that principle of justice or law, and even of "finding" for one and the same, and the servility of the people is sometimes one of the litigants. Thus the notion is perpetuated that law, exploited to the point of their willful self-destruction or like dogma, has been right there all along, complete, needing martyrdom. Even their supreme judicial court—or as they only to be ferreted out and brought to view. call it, their "Council of Guardians"—is composed of twelve priests. In the West the two priesthoods are kept separate, The basis of religion and law but their foundations in human nature are similar. Thus, when people are presented with some person or thing t would not be hard to find other striking resemblances that is recognized as venerable, usually by virtue of a striking I between ecclesiastical and judicial structures, but let us appearance, they have a spontaneous impulse to abase now go to the important question that these resemblances themselves—to bow, salute, kneel, to do something symbolic raise; namely, why are they so much alike? of servility. When the pope appeared on the plains of Iowa 1 believe the answer can be found in two traits of human large numbers of the awestruck throng surrounding him fell nature that seem somehow necessary for any well-ordered to their knees—including, apparently, some who were not even society: the need for imitation, and the predilection of the a part of the faith. His striking presence was enough to elicit masses to a kind of servility. People have a deep need to that effect. Nothing of this sort would have happened had be like those around them, to embrace the same mores, to he appeared in ordinary garb or, as is almost impossible to be, in this sense, a part of the same culture—in a word, to imagine, in baggy trousers and a sweatshirt. Similarly, when imitate. Religion encourages this by calling upon people to a robed judge suddenly enters a crowded courtroom, heralded copy one another in ways that have no practical significance; by the ceremonious and archaic "hear ye, hear ye," there is but uttering the same meaningless formulas, for instance, going already an impulse to rise, so that the order to do so is almost through the same pointless motions, bowing, kneeling, singing, superfluous. The other correspondences between the church and chanting with no other apparent object than to be doing and the judicial system that we have noted—the hierarchical these things together, and to be doing what has always been structure of both, the veneration of ancient texts and symbols done. Hence the veneration that is cultivated for ancient music, such as crosses and flags, the honorific titles, and so on— texts, and so on. The imitation is thereby extended, not merely all have much the same effect of bringing the masses into to those present, but to the vaster circle of those past, line, inducing them to copy one another and to heed, by a inculcating a sense of tradition. There are, no doubt, many natural servility, the precepts and commands of the hierarchy. explanations for this strange orientation of the human mind, The further underlying reason for this we need not dwell many needs that are thus fulfilled, but one practical result upon, for it is well known. The courts, like the church, rest is perfectly obvious. People are thus knit together as one their authority not so much on fear as on deference. The culture, thereby providing, to some extent, the conditions for church cannot compel its adherents to obey. It can only elicit peace, personal safety, and cooperation. This is surely the obedience in the manner described, which is often quite basic reason that all are encouraged to be like this, to imitate, sufficient. Similarly, although the judiciary, which I have

Spring 1990 41 described as a secular priesthood, can often compel obedience texts. Viewed this way, it turns out that the idea of a free to its rulings, it nevertheless must, like the church, rest in and democratic society is quite incoherent. We enjoy the the last analysis on the awe and esteem in which it is held. blessings of personal freedom, not because we live in a The courts can convict even the highest public officials of democracy, but precisely because in a most significant sense felonies, remove them from office, and ignominiously imprison we do not. Our Supreme Court is in some ways like a governing them. The president of the United States can be forced from junta, responsible to no one, tenured for life, and exercising office by the very justices he has appointed to the bench, vast powers over the lives of all. It differs from a junta in notwithstanding his command of the entire armed forces of that its power, like that of the church, rests upon deference the nation; and this is due almost entirely to the people's and esteem rather than fear, and the sacred text that guides strong belief in the integrity, venerability, and, indeed, the its rulings and enlightens its deliberations, embodying the semi-sacred status of that court. And, more astounding still, noblest ideals of freedom, really is an inspiring document. the same Supreme Court can, and often does, promulgate The Court does not have to heed the ideals embodied in that an entirely new and far-reaching principle that overturns the sacred text, and sometimes it does not, but nevertheless there settled and established laws, customs, and practices of an entire it is, thrust upon this secular priesthood as its official nation without preliminary public hearings or warning, foundation and guide. The Supreme Court thus, in addition without any need to answer to anyone but itself, and, most to resembling a junta, also resembles Plato's "council of astoundingly, without any actual basis for doing so in the philosopher kings," except that they were guided only by their charter to which the Court owes its existence! How is that own metaphysical vision of goodness, while our archons are, possible? It is just because the judiciary is, in the sense I have again, guided by an actual text—obscure in places and in described, a secular priesthood that can rely on the people's need of interpretation but, on any interpretation, inspiring. deference to its august character. Thus the judiciary, though not a religious priesthood, Some recent judicial history nevertheless has the essential marks of a secular one and, what is more significant, it is a priesthood that governs. rr he proof of this theory of the nature of our judiciary Moreover, it governs from secret chambers. The highest is easily found in many of its more far-reaching decisions. archons of this hierarchy, the justices of the Supreme Court, Here we will cite only three of the more recent ones, together alone decide what questions to address from among the four with an area of litigation wherein personal freedoms have thousand or so that are presented every year. Indeed, only been won bit by bit. four of the Court's members are needed for a positive decision The first such landmark decision is that of Brown v. Board at this point. No public hearings are then held, only arguments of Education, 1954, which conferred hitherto nonexistent for the various sides, and these are strictly timed and can, educational opportunities on blacks throughout the public at the Court's pleasure, be dispensed with altogether. Then school system of the nation, and which certainly laid the follows secret deliberation, sometimes over the course of weeks foundation for the immense strides in civil rights that were or months, and finally, the promulgation of an entirely new to follow. law, valid across the nation and virtually immune to repeal. On a fine summer morning that year the nation awakened A law may upset the established customs and practices of to learn with astonishment that a brand new law had suddenly an entire culture; it may abruptly make criminal conduct legal, come into being, one that would create vast dislocations and or, conversely, render criminal what had previously been readjustments in the lives of millions, one that not only had permitted; or it may force upon lower jurisdictions policies not existed until that moment, but that in fact contradicted radically at odds with those that have the support of the people and overturned what had been settled law for generations. and with what had been long established there—and all this It was a law that, in its final implementation, was going to without warning, just as, in the most rigid despotisms, the confer a precious new personal freedom upon millions of people sometimes learn with surprise from their newspapers people. And this new law, made valid by nothing more than what has without warning come to be law overnight. the concurrence of nine unelected archons, resulted from no One is tempted to ask: How is this possible? And the answer popular clamor but was, on the contrary, resented and resisted is that our judiciary is a secular priesthood. by vast segments of the population. What is even more to My mode of description thus far might be taken to suggest the point, however, is that the new freedom created by this that I find all of this deplorable, that any kind of priesthood law would not in a thousand years have emerged from the enjoying the protection of government should have no place popularly elected legislatures in those jurisdictions most in a free society. In fact, however, the very opposite is true. immediately affected, consisting of the former confederacy Personal freedom, in a heterogeneous society such as ours, of states. The entire judiciary, which had until then enforced is possible only under a certain kind of authoritarian rule laws and principles contradictory to this one, fell fairly quickly of precisely the kind I have described. What makes us a free into line, and democratic institutions throughout the land, people is emphatically not the manner in which the offices most notably the popularly elected legislatures and school of government are filled—through popular vote—as is so boards of the south, had a new ideal thrust upon them, one widely supposed, but rather, the sacred texts from which our that had been plucked not from the letter of the Constitution, judiciary draws its inspiration, and the final, ultimate, and but from its spirit. And no outcry of public opinion would exclusive power of that secular priesthood to interpret those be strong enough to reverse or seriously weaken this new

42 FREE INQUIRY for diuretics; the development of pneumonia extraordinary proof. This is not to say that automatically requires the use of antibiotics; studies purporting to demonstrate evidence and the development of either would likely of supernatural events ought not be pub- INTERNATIONAL increase the risk of developing the other, of lished, as long as a journal's minimum HUMANIST AND requiring intubation or ventilation, and of standards of acceptability are met. Nature suffering cardiopulmonary arrest. Thus, the has published several such studies, but has ETHICAL UNION development of any single complication may historically accompanied them with state- 1990 WORLD automatically lead to a cascade of other ments expressing editorial reservations.2 In complications and therapeutic interventions contrast, Byrd's SMJ article was accompan- CONGRESS that cannot be considered independent ied by a "commentary" entitled "Religion events, rendering the significance of Byrd's in Healing," whose author says, "The paper "The Secularization of data highly doubtful. by Dr.Byrd answers a question that has long Society on the Basis of In addition to the twenty-six categories been asked: Does prayer make a difference? previously described, three further variables His data say that it does."3 Liberty, Equality, and were tracked during the study and tested for Three previous scientific/ medical studies Fraternity" significance: "Days in CCU after entry," on the efficacy of prayer were briefly The International Humanist and Ethical "Days in hospital after entry," and "Number reviewed in Byrd's paper. We are informed Union holds its World Congress biannually. of discharge medications." No significant that Galton's 1872 article, one of the first differences between the prayer and control on record, on "found no salutory effects."4 The next one will be held August 5-11, groups were found, despite explicit prayers In Joyce and Welldon's 1965 study of 1990, at the Free University of Brussels in for "a rapid recovery." Are we thus to rheumatics, the prayer group fared better in Belgium. The theme of this year's congress conclude from all of the data derived in this the first half, "but in the second half the is "The Secularization of Society on the Basis study that although God may reflexively control group did better" (emphasis added).5 of Liberity, Equality, and Fraternity. Many respond to the will of the majority, his And in 1969, Collip's findings regarding well-known humanists will participate. prayer and leukemia "did not reach manifestations are so marginal as to ap- An examination of the radical social and proach insignificance? significance. "6 political changes brought about by the Consider a hypothetical study (contain- Byrd obviously believes that his study has French and American revolutions—partic- ing similarly flawed methodology) allegedly succeeded where others have failed. But are demonstrating the beneficial effects of the data obtained in his study—in which ularly the movement away from religious reading periodicals on the course of CCU prayer was admittedly "not controlled for"— influences and toward a secular frame- patients: Patients in the test group are given sufficient to suggest the existence of the work—will be the main focus of the anywhere from three to seven periodicals omnicient, omnipotent Judeo-Christian conference seminars. daily by people associated with the study; God, and the efficacy of intercessory prayer Conference registration rates at this time on CCU patients? Or is it much more likely patients in the control group are given none. (listed in Belgian Francs, BF): full (Okay so far.) Patients in both groups are that what we have here is akin to the findings participant (admission to all sessions, of the Shroud of Turin Research Project allowed to have family and friends bring congress guide, and coffee), 3000 BF before them periodicals, in a manner "not con- (STURP), in which scientists blinded by June 1, 3500 BF after that date; trolled for." Differences of several percent faith concluded, erroneously, that the shroud accom- in six interrelated categories are noted was authentic? In his report, Byrd notes that panying participants (admission to all (comparable to the "significance" of Byrd's "How God acted in this situation is sessions plus coffee), 2500 BF before June data), with no significance found in twenty- unknown." But I suspect it was with smoke 1, 3000 BF afterward; students and three other variables measured. I cannot and mirrors. unemployed (with validation), 500 BF. imagine such an article surviving the Optional events include: cultural event, rigorous screening process of any author- Notes August 5, 300 BF; excursion, August 8, itative medical journal. 500 BF; dinner and get-together, The religious nature of Byrd's hypothesis I. The correct term is "multivariate." August 8, 1200 BF. Simultaneous translation 2. See, for instance, Targ and Puthoff's paper may have been the attraction for the on "remote viewing," 251:602-7, 1974, and will be provided in English, French, German, Southern Medical Journal, which is pub- Benveniste et al. on "high dilution," 333:816-818, and Dutch. lished in Birmingham, Alabama, in the heart 1988. of the Bible Belt. I assumed that the five- 3. The author of the commentary also cited Accommodations available at the Hilton: year gap between his study's conclusion several books and articles that have reported single room (with breakfast), 2750 BF; positive effects of faith and personal prayer (as double room, 3000 BF. Other rates: single (1983) and its publication indicates that a distinguished from intercessory prayer) upon number of other journals had been conditions that clearly have large psychosomatic room, 1500 BF; double room, 2000 BF. approached prior to SMJ, but had failed components. Also appearing in the same issue Student accommodation: 600 BF (on or to appreciate the historic nature of Byrd's was a study of the beneficial effects of faith in near the campus). dealing with stress of traumatic injury. alleged findings. Byrd graciously responded 4. Galton, F. "Statistical inquiries into the For further details and a complete schedule to my inquiry on this point, informing me efficacy of prayer," Fortnightly Review, 12:125- of events, write or call: that he had received two prior rejections, 135, 1872. which he called "the academic average." 5. Joyce, C. R. B., and R. M. C. Welldon, IHEU 1990 WORLD CONGRESS Perhaps the other two journals subscribe "The efficacy of prayer: A double-blind clinical trial," Journal of Chronic Disease, 18:367-377, Oudkerkhof 11, 3512 GH Utrecht to the generally accepted axiom of science 1965. The Netherlands that extraordinary claims (particularly 6. Collipp, P. J. "The efficacy of prayer: Triple 0031/30/31.21.55 miraculous ones) require proportionately blind study." Medical Times, 97:201-204, 1969. • Spring 1990 45 The manifesto was still being revised. At one time, I even considered abandoning the entire project—especially in view of oppo- Sakharov: A Humanist Galileo sition it had received from some pro-Soviets in the American Humanist Association, who Some Personal Reminiscences objected to Sakharov's involvement. They viewed the manifesto's demand for open AN frontiers and an end to travel restrictions as an "attack on the Soviet Union," and overlooked its call for an end to ideological Paul Kurtz and nationalistic rivalries and for the peaceful adjudication of differences. e note with sorrow the passing of freedom. His defiance continued. On Meanwhile, Sakharov's letter arrived. It WAndrei D. Sakharov. The world press November 4, 1970, he helped to establish read in part: has extolled Sakharov's many virtues as a the Soviet Union's first Human Rights defender of human rights in the Soviet Committee to study and protect human 1 am signing the manifesto, with two Union—but it has all too rarely focused on rights and international law. reservations: his commitment to humanism. My first contact with Andrei Sakharov I. I do not consider it correct from the philosophical-ethical point of view to The youngest person ever elected to the occurred in the late spring of 1973, through contrapose religion and humanism, reli- Soviet Academy of Sciences, Sakharov was our mutual colleague Aleksandr Yesenin- gion and scientific knowledge. Further- highly decorated as one of the Soviet Union's Volpin. Volpin was one the Soviet Union's more, I do not consider contraposition to leading theoretical physicists, and is the most distinguished mathematicians, as well be relevant to our time. 2. I believe that the manifesto does not father of the Soviet hydrogen bomb. By the as an early defender of human rights. He sufficiently reflect the most urgent contra- 1950s, however, he began to have serious had joined Sakharov at the 1966 demon- position of our time—between humanism misgivings about the dangers of nuclear stration, carrying a sign that read "Respect and false theories and pernicious practices, fallout. In 1957 he urged the Soviets to ban the Constitution," and in 1970 he was based on the concepts of class struggle, nuclear tests, viewing them as "useless" from dictatorship, ideological monism, and selected as one of two human-rights experts intolerance and contempt for the rights of a technical standpoint and "criminal" by the Moscow Human Rights Committee. the individual. because of the hazards of fallout. Khrush- Volpin was arrested several times by Soviet chev warned him to confine himself to his authorities and confined to mental institu- Thus, though Sakharov appreciated the research and to avoid questions of public tions, and his many applications for an exit humanistic statements of the manifesto— policy, but he refused to do this, and many visa were invariably denied. A petition by particularly its defense of civil liberties, of his ideas were published in the West. He ninety-five mathematicians and scientists human rights, and democracy—he did not called for an end to the Cold War, believing worldwide finally helped to secure his release think it should attack religion, which had that through true democratization, socialism in May 1972, and he became visiting been so brutally crushed in the Soviet Union and capitalism might converge. In the 1960s professor of mathematics at the State and was used to express opposition to the he campaigned for disarmament, peace, and University of New York, where I got to know regime. He was most concerned that the human rights. On December 5, 1966, he him. manifesto emphasize the terrible suppression joined a small band of dissidents who In early 1973 I began drafting Humanist of human rights by Marxist-Stalinist demonstrated in Moscow's Pushkin Square, Manifesto II, which went through many regimes. calling for constitutional guarantees of revisions. I tried to incorporate the sugges- The August 26, 1973, issuance of the tions of dozens of humanists, and I discussed 4000-word manifesto—which was initially many times with Volpin his involvement in endorsed by 120 scientists, philosophers, and the Soviet protest movement and his work educators, including Sakharov—made the with Sakharov. He gladly consented to help front page of the New York Times and other get Sakharov to endorse the manifesto. We newspapers worldwide. It immediately phoned Sakharov in Moscow, and I read became a topic for international discussion, the document to him, with Volpin translat- for it defended human rights to an extent ing; we spoke for more than an hour and that no document had done previously. a half. Sakharov said that he was inclined to sign it, but would like to see the entire ndrei Sakharov truly represented secu- text. Since his mail was heavily censored, Alar humanist ideals in that he defended I arranged, through the help of Ludmilla the use of science and reason for understand- Thorne of Freedom House, to have the ing nature and maintaining human rights, manifesto hand-delivered. which he believed were of human origin and Several weeks later Volpin and I again not divinely inspired. His compatriot, called Sakharov. This time we spoke to him Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, was a heroic for about an hour. He said that he would defender of human dignity against the gulag, sign the manifesto, and agreed with its but had a religious outlook. Indeed, he general thrust, but he had some qualifica- attacked secular humanism during an tions. I asked him to put these in writing address at Harvard, asserting that reason and send them to me. and a secular view of the universe and of 46 FREE INQUIRY ethics were inadequate and led inevitably to through. His step-daughter and her husband, had the great honor of presenting the award the gulag itself. Furthermore, he sought to the Yankelvitches, were permitted to leave to Sakharov at a reception sponsored by the defend a kind of nationalistic and spiritu- the Soviet Union and settled in Boston. International League for the Rights of Man alistic outlook of Old Mother Russia. Sakharov frequently communicated through in New York City. I was gratified to meet 1 attempted to keep in touch with them, and they also kept me aware of his this man, whose grandfatherly demeanor Sakharov throughout the years, and often situation in exile. In failing health, neither masked his great courage. In his acceptance proposed resolutions to humanist organiza- Sakharov nor Elena Bonner was able to speech, Sakharov spoke of his "deep affec- tions to defend his rights. The International receive proper medical treatment. His heart tion for the humanist movement," and said Humanist and Ethical Union sent many was no doubt weakened by years of per- he was "glad to accept the honor." He also telegrams and letters to Brezhnev and later secution and by his hunger strikes; at one made it clear that he did not wish to attack to Gorbachev on his behalf. Harassed and point he was force-fed by Soviet medical religion; he remained a tireless champion of reviled by the Kremlin, and called the authorities. The world humanist movement all oppressed groups, including prisoners of "laboratory rat of the West," Sakharov was was behind Sakharov all the way, and in conscience. awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. country after country mounted protests Upon his return to Moscow, Sakharov Though he was not permitted to receive it calling for his release. continued his battle for human rights, and in person, his acceptance speech was Among the first acts of Mikhail Gorba- was elected to the Congress of People's delivered in Oslo by his wife, Elena Bonner. chev was to call Sakharov on the newly Deputies, where he often provoked Gorba- In it he declared, "We need reform, not installed phone in his Gorky apartment and chev to take bolder measures toward rad- revolution. We need a flexible, pluralistic, announce that he would be allowed to re- ical reform. Tragically, he died on December tolerant society.... We must make good turn to Moscow. Characteristically, Sakhar- 14, 1989. "Tomorrow there will be battle," the demands of reason and create a life ov's first statement after his release was to he told his wife and friends, for he was worthy of ourselves and of the goals we only call for the liberation of all other political preparing his speech to the congress de- dimly perceive." prisoners. But in 1986 Sakharov's invitation manding that Article 6 of the Soviet In 1978 he wrote: to the International Humanist and Ethical constitution be amended and that the Union's World Congress in Oslo was denied monopolistic role of the Communist Party As long as a country has no civil liberties, by the Soviet government. And in 1988, be changed, allowing for a pluralistic multi- no freedom of information, and no when the congress conferred on him its party system and genuine democracy. Only independent press, then there exists no highest award, the International Humanist after Sakharov's death did Gorbachev and effective body of public opinion to control Award, we bombarded Gorbachev with others follow his lead on this vital issue. the conduct of the government and its Would that Sakharov had lived to see it. functionaries. Such a situation is not just letters and telegrams requesting that Sak- for citizens unprotected against tyranny harov be allowed to receive it in person. Clearly, he was among the first to point the and lawlessness; it is a menace to inter- Unfortunately this was not permitted, but way. He stands forth as a towering figure national security. shortly thereafter I received word from of our time, a man of great moral authority. Efrem Yankelvitch that the Soviets would He was an outstanding humanist not only On December 7, 1979, Sakharov publicly allow Sakharov to come to the United States in word and conviction, but in heroic deed protested the invasion of Afghanistan and later that year. On November 10, 1988, I and action. • called for a world boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. Brezhnev retaliated by having him arrested. He was dragged from SPRING HOLIDAY SEMINAR a car in Moscow, stripped of his state honors, and expelled to the city of Gorky. "The Scientific Examination In late 1980 I tried to contact Sakharov to ask him to endorse the Secular Humanist of Religion" Declaration, which was published in the first issue of FREE INQUIRY. We wrote him by May 3-6,1990 registered mail, but our letter was returned undelivered. In 1985, when the Academy of State University of New York at Buffalo Humanism was founded, Sakharov was Amherst Campus unanimously elected as a Humanist Lau- reate. The academy's foundation commem- This special seminar will look at how one can rationally and thoughtfully orated the 500th anniversary of the infamous examine religious claims using the best scientific techniques. Topics to Spanish Inquisition, as well as the 350th be addressed include claims of the Old and New Testaments, the case anniversary of the house arrest of Galileo for "near-death" experiences, the truth behind the claims of the spread Galilei, who was suppressed by intolerant of "satanism," and other topics. Leading the seminar will be Gerald A. religious dogmatists of his day. What more Larue, Professor Emeritus of Archaeology and Biblical Studies, University appropriate honor for Sakharov, truly the of Southern California, and chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Galileo of his day, martyred for his humanist Examination of Religion; and Joe E. Barnhart, Professor of Philosophy, ideals. The academy sent a certificate of University of North Texas, and a member of the committee. distinction to him in Gorky, but it too was returned undelivered by the Soviet post For more information contact: office. FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005 In subsequent years, I wrote to Sakharov Or call (716) 834-2921 frequently, and some of the messages got

Spring 1990 47 conservative, poring over the latest issue of FREE INQUIRY—in a word, goal-attaining. As a pessimist, I thought, "I've accomplished Viewpoints enough this week; time to get out. Maybe something memorable will happen that's beyond my control." Bingo! I succeeded simply by figuring that it wasn't worth trying to get anything done that evening. That's What's So Good About Optimism? a pessimistic gift. An optimist would have had to work for such a moment, perhaps Don Stevens trying to find it in a coffee shop, sitting next to a Rhodes scholar who was reading y favorite quote comes from Bertrand revolves around trying to reach. When you Psycho-Cybernetics. MRussell. In his History of Western reach them, then you set more goals, building On the psychological level, goal-setting Philosophy, he writes "A man can be a a bigger box out of that same, now outdated is the equivalent of eating by plowing recipe- cheery pessimist, or a melancholy optimist." scrap material that never pleases you, only by-recipe through a huge cookbook. You Here in a philosophical work I had found prods you. It's all quite superfluous because make progress, but it obscures the fact that an unexpectedly useful statement. (I was if you're the least bit alive you can reach you must eat anyway, just as you can't help reading the book not for philosophical any number of these silly little goals any day accomplishing things if you still breathe. The knowledge, but because I dream of being without even trying very hard, thus saving fact that you attain a particular dinner hardly able to write like Russell, and hope to do precious energy for fun, interesting, worth- makes it impressive in my book. It's like so someday through fortuitous osmosis, while things, such as reading this article. jumping off the Sears Tower and aiming for hard study, or blatant plagiarism.) Russell, the ground—and then on the way down pacifist though he was, hit the nail on the T et me give just one of the many examples realizing your goals may not grant you the head. j II could to prove that optimistic goal- comfort and ease your philosophy misled One day my boss asked me, "Why are setting is a complete waste of time. I was you into perceiving. Oops. Mistake. you always in a good mood and cracking sitting belly up to the bar in a San Francisco Anyone can accomplish things they aim jokes, and Fred is always in a bad mood, Scottish pub one Sunday night having a pint for, if they are obsessive, nasty, or stupid complaining?" (Fred, the partner in the firm of ale. I went to use the phone, and when enough. The real trick, instead of being who hired me, made hundreds of thousands I returned, a very beautiful and provoca- optimistically starry-eyed, is to keep your of dollars a year. Likewise, I make hundreds tively dressed young woman (she looked eyes open, along the lines of Shakespeare's of dollars a week.) I answered, "It's because about sixteen) was sitting in my seat. (I later "There are more things in heaven and earth, Fred is an optimist. He expects things to found out she was a stripper.) I moved my Horatio, than are dreamt of in your go right, and when they don't, he's disap- glass and newspaper from the counter in philosophy." You need to be ready to pointed and upset. I'm a pessimist. I expect front of her (excusing myself, of course, accomplish things that your feeble imagina- things to go horribly, and when they don't, about ten or twenty times), and resumed tion didn't even know were possible until I'm relieved and ecstatic." Two months later, reading. She pulled out Venus in Furs, which the opportunity winked at you, and you my company merged with a much larger one I gathered from the illustration on its cover caught that wink only out of the corner of and Fred was fired. was not about a Roman deity's flagrant your eye. Pessimism is the peripheral vision It's only fair, I guess, even though the disregard for animal rights. (I have since of philosophy. world isn't fair, that I give my definition of found that it is in fact a classic in sadom- (Can you see the young Voltaire plotting pessimism in an actual, working world: Life asochistic literature.) As she read, she began goals? "I'm going to write a classic satiric is meaningless; it doesn't matter. Therefore, moaning in a way that would lead no one novelette someday, and call it Candide we can take whatever risks we want to make to believe she was in pain, sorrow, or . . . if only God sends an artistically the most of it. Pessimists are willing to accept bereavement. (Although we all were, as none motivational earthquake that kills 60,000 or the obvious and work with it. While some of us knew her.) At one of her deepest so in, oh, let's see, Lisbon, to give me the may find that ... well, bleak, I think it's exhalations, the jukebox started blasting necessary inspiration.') a great liberator. If it doesn't matter, then Amazing Grace—done entirely on bagpipes. what you do matters, since that's all you've Witnessing this juxtaposition of a moaning probablyrobably the biggest nest of optimists is got; and if you fail, hey, it doesn't matter. stripper and Amazing Grace on bagpipes just National Speakers Association. It The sky's the limit. was not a goal I could ever have aimed for is a virtual Niagara of motivational speakers; Optimism, on the other hand, is a box in my life. I was moved, quite ecstatically every meeting I go to has at least one. you put yourself in that convinces you that so. I became the cheery pessimist. "This Motivational speakers always talk about you can both recognize and control your happenstance," I waxed poetic, "is simply some optimist who set a goal or believed world because it is your box. This is so a miracle." (In a secular sense, of course.) in some deep moral truth and succeeded limiting, so unimaginative. Optimism Please accept that if I were an optimist, fantastically. One told of a woman during encourages you to set goals that your life compelled to better myself, I would not have the Depression who gave her last $5 to a been sitting in a Scottish pub on a night needy man, all the while thinking, "Now Don Stevens is a computer programmer and before I had to go to work. I would have what's going to happen to me?" (I could have humor writer living in San Francisco. been somewhere else—watching PBS, told her. "Of all the millions of people who having a patronizing discussion with a have linked compassion in horrendous times

48 FREE INQUIRY with available funds, you're going to be one you even once, you will never have any need the morning after a night spent in a Scottish of those few who becomes fodder for a to get depressed again. pub, but then again, you might find yourself misleading motivational anecdote, thanks to I think the key difference between an in the Tunnel of Love with your fantasy date the success not of God, but of statistics. optimist and a pessimist is that when an (mine reads books like Venus in Furs, and Otherwise, you'd be just another number and optimist says, "Anything can happen," it's expresses herself in unusual, thought- beneath our notice; that is, the worst of all said with a shudder. It's like when Einstein provoking ways). failures, an economic one. An optimist said, "God does not play dice with the Since I began with a quote from Russell, without a mission." But 1 digress.) universe"—he implied that a crap shoot is I'd like to close with a quote from a more As a cosmic reward, she found $20 on not something you look forward to. But contemporary British philosopher: Andy her way home, no doubt deservedly lost by when a pessimist says, "Anything can Capp is standing at a bar and his friend says, a cynic. Furthermore, she soon received a happen," it's said in almost fun anticipation. "You know, Andy, I believe this is the best phone call from out of the blue from an It's like getting free admission to an of all possible worlds. That's why I'm an ex-coworker who wanted her to become his amusement park and there are no lines for optimist." Andy gives him his sidelong partner. His name was Ray Kroc, and he the rides. True, you might get on one of glance and replies, "Yeah, well I believe this was trying to set up McDonald's restaurants. those rides that spins you around a hundred is the best of all possible worlds, too. That's The woman now owns a huge Florida estate times a minute and makes you queasier than why I'm a pessimist." s on the ocean, with a big atrium and nice furniture and so on, all because, the speaker would lead you to believe, she made that optimistic $5 investment. (This reminds me Are Humanists Optimists? of Mark Twain's comment on Ben Franklin: "He was always proud of telling how he entered Philadelphia for the first time with Tim Madigan nothing in the world but two shillings in his novelist George Eliot, from the Latin melior, pocket and four rolls of bread under his arm. everal of our readers have raised "to make better." But really, when you come to examine it Sobjections to the statement in the At first glance, this position seems critically, it was nothing. Anybody could "Affirmations of Humanism" (found on the ridiculous. How can human effort affect such have done it.") back cover of FREE INQUIRY) that humanists Motivational speakers assume a simplis- are altruistic. But as far as I know, Don elements of the universe as Halley's Comet, tic universe where good is rewarded, and Stevens is the first to complain about the the Van Allen belts, or the speed of light? then "prove" it by citing rare instances in statement "We believe in optimism rather It would seem that in the grand scheme of which nice people prosper, without asking than pessimism." As a friend of Don's, I'm things human beings are but puny creatures. why that same Cosmic Benefactor who not surprised by this—he is a pretty grouchy How can we mere mortals dare hope to rewards trivial good actions didn't have guy. Still, he raises an important point. Must improve the universe? Martin Luther King or Gandhi duck. all humanists take a cheerful attitude toward People at these NSA meetings hear these life? he answer lies in our attitudes. As the stories and are truly moved; dare I say, Ronald Reagan loves to tell the story of Tphilosopher William James, another motivated. Even optimistic! I've always the little boy who finds a pile of manure exponent of meliorism, frequently stated, we wanted to say, "Hey, c'mon folks, the reason under his Christmas tree, and breaks into live in an open universe. What happens in these stories move you so much is because a big smile. "There must be a pony around it is not important in and of itself. But how they so rarely happen!" If optimism were here!" the boy exclaims. This is a fine we react to those events is important. For effective, and such things were common- example of the philosophy of eternal example, in previous centuries the arrival of place, we'd have to revert to being impressed optimism. But theists like Reagan also hold Halley's Comet was considered an evil omen. by virgin birth—which we definitely do not that there is an all-loving, all-powerful deity Some people thought it was a sign from God want to do. The last time we had one of that will make sure every cloud will have that the world would soon be destroyed, those, the child came to a bad end. In this its silver lining. Humanists, on the other while others feared that it would crash into speaker's case, she had to go back to the hand, are highly skeptical of such a claim. the earth or spread poisonous gases in the Depression to find something good that They know that there are clouds whose only atmosphere. In short, it was taken to be a happened to someone good! Pessimist that function seems to be to rain on their parade. bad thing. Today, because of our desire to 1 am, I really believe that most people are Are optimism and pessimism the only increase our understanding of the universe, good-hearted. To go back to the Depression outlooks available? In fact, they are not. our knowledge of the comet has become to find someone who was moved by human There is a third position, which holds that more complete, and our attitudes toward it misery and willing to do something about the universe is neither all good nor all bad, have changed—for the better. it is as lazy as going to Southern California but rather has elements that may be We are constantly learning new facts to look for Republicans. considered one or the other. What is more, about the universe. Theories that were long Each NSA meeting has a talk on the great it is possible to make the universe better thought to be unassailable, such as Newton's power of optimism. People always leave through human efforts. This position is laws of physics, have been shaken from their moved and optimistic. I want to ask, "If known as "meliorism," a term that was solid foundations. A meliorist holds that optimism is so empowering, why do we need coined by the nineteenth-century English when an answer to a fundamental question so many repetitions?" It's like booster shots; about the universe is found to be wanting, you may be optimistic once, but you'll need Tim Madigan is executive editor of FREE it should be reexamined. If it no longer meets to get optimistic again. That's why my INQUIRY. the challenge, it should be discarded and pessimistic system is so superior. If I depress better answers sought. Spring 1990 49 This view is opposed to both optimism nothing, but goes looking for the nearest Once politicians are sure their remarks and pessimism, for unlike them it does not tap." are "off the record," they are usually more accept a preconceived view of the universe. The ideals of meliorism are grounded in willing to reveal their true state of mind— The optimist says that this is the best of all the universe as it is, and are not concerned especially if they are nearing the end of a possible worlds, and exults. The pessimist with trying to explain away natural disasters successful career. Many politicians have told says that this is the worst of all possible or with bemoaning its cruelty. Why should me, strictly in confidence, that they never worlds, and despairs. The meliorist says that it bother us that the universe is indifferent held the slightest religious belief. Business- this is the world we are part of, and it is to human needs, as long as we are not people, similarly, must be reticent about up to us to improve it. indifferent to the potential we possess for expressing nonreligious views, since they too An optimist would say that the recent improving our lot? can be easily boycotted. devastating earthquakes in Armenia and San Francisco must have had some ultimate m I proposing that we humanists call urthermore, when the life-styles of purpose. A pessimist would say that they ourselves "meliorists"? Perish the various public figures become fully were vivid examples of the cruelty of the thought. We have enough big words to known, it is often learned that these people universe. A meliorist would say that master as it is. ("Eupraxophy," anyone?). were utterly nonreligious, notwithstanding earthquakes are events that we consider to What I am saying is that humanism is broad their publicly expressed claims to the be bad because of the suffering they cause. enough to embrace both the starry-eyed contrary. John F. Kennedy, for example, We must, therefore, exert our energies in optimists and the sour-pulsed pessimists was hailed as the first Catholic to become helping the victims of such disasters, and among us. Both viewpoints are compatible president of the United States—but his use our reasoning abilities to invent warning with humanism, as long as they are coupled Catholicism was never more than nominal. systems that will be better able to detect with the desire to do whatever one can to Basically Kennedy was a secularist and, upcoming quakes. maximize one's life on earth. As that what is more, a devout hedonist, committed There is an old saying that "an optimist profound pundit Mel Brooks put it, "Hope at every turn to self-gratification. He broke sees a glass of water and says it's half filled; for the best/ Expect the worst/ You could be just about every rule peculiar to the Roman a pessimist says it's half empty." I'd like to Tolstoy/ Or Fannie Hurst." But whatever Catholic church, as well as many, if not all, amend this by adding: "A meliorist says you are, make the most of it. • of the Ten Commandments. His claims to devout Catholicism appear to have been nothing more than a bid to enhance his public image and thus to manipulate the Secularism and the Public Eye electorate. Indeed, he seems to have held deep contempt for everything associated with the Catholic church except the voting Ferdinand Lundberg power of its membership. And Kennedy was not at all unusual Los Angeles Times survey last year Christianity and Judaism, have been histor- among politicians except in the free and easy found 8 percent of the electorate to be A ically the most intolerant, and many of their way in which he violated all of the supposed "seculars," defined as nonreligious, nonmil- members show intolerance daily, especially rules. Most politicians are a great deal more itant, tolerant, and educated. toward nonbelievers. circumspect than Kennedy was, and usually No doubt this survey was accurate in it is only when a politician faces a court reporting the number of people who here is nothing the full-fledged Christian indictment that the public learns that he or acknowledged that they are seculars. But Tseems to enjoy more than to participate she may have played fast and loose with a there are many more seculars in the elec- in the boycott of those who show themselves large number of the laws of God and torate than this survey found. In acknowl- to be so much as lukewarm toward the faith, humanity alike. The god both of Christians edgment lies the crux of the situation. and often downright hostility greets those and Jews says there shall be no other gods I discovered long ago that many people who are nonreligious. Time and again we before Him—yet it is obvious that many are seculars but cannot acknowledge this have seen Christians do all in their power politicians worship mammon more than any because to do so would make impossible to frustrate or defeat those who profess to deity approved by the theologians. Many are their life-work. Who are such people? be nonreligious. given to sexual escapades, which often are Almost anyone who is a professional in Indeed, religious rancor often extends scarcely hidden from public view. Few politics or business. across merely sectarian lines. Catholics will politicians are above breaking the law for People in politics and business in the often do all they can to avoid patronizing the sake of pleasure or power. United States feel it necessary to conceal Protestants or Jews, Jews will reciprocally The number of avowed seculars, it is true, their nonreligious attitudes to avert the boycott Catholics or other sectarians, while is very small. And it consists almost entirely hostility of the religious element either at all will join in boycotting anyone known to of people who feel immune to economic or the polls or in the marketplace. The be nonreligious. political assault from religionists: writers, dominant religions in the United States, This being the case, people in politics and editors, tenured university professors, business are usually careful to appear physicians, surgeons, actors, artists, and Ferdinand Lundberg is retired adjunct devoutly religious in public, though in other self-employed professionals. professor of philosophy at New York private they may be devoutly nontheist. Thus, to determine who is a "secular," University, and author of many books, Many express great affection for every one may simply ask. But this does not mean including The Rich and the Super-Rich, and, religion—but in view of the state of religious that one will receive a truthful answer. Mark most recently, The Myth of Democracy. minds, this type of over-insurance is not to Twain's remark clearly applies: "There are be despised. lies, damn lies, and statistics." • 50 FREE INQUIRY

• PROVOCATIVE READING FROM PROMETHEUS •

BUILDING A WORLD COMMUNITY Humanism in the Twenty-First Century PHILOSOPHICAL ESSAYS IN edited by Paul Kurtz PRAGMATIC NATURALISM in cooperation with Levi Fragell adn Rob Tielmann Paul Kurtz Is it possible to build a world community for the next century that A collection of essays presenting the philosophies of scientific naturalism supersedes economic upheaval, war, ecological devastation, and racial and pragmatism—the two dominant schools in twentieth-century and religious enmity? How can we develop a new worldwide ethics, American philosophy. Special focus is placed on a theory of nature based a humanism that is truly global in focus? More than fifty notable speakers addressed these questions during the Tenth Humanist World Congress; on science, the behavioral sciences, and ethics; Kurtz maintains that the philosophy of pragmatic naturalism provides the foundations for a this is a provocative compiliation of their response. Included are papers by Jean Claude Pecker, Jose Delgado, Henry Morgentaler, Lin Zixin, cosmic outlook and an authentic ethical humanism. 262 pages • Cloth $19.95 Betty Friedan, and Mathilde Krim. 420 pages e Cloth $29.95 ON THE BARRICADES BELLYBUTTONS ARE NAVELS The Best of Free Inquiry Mark Schoen edited by Robert Basil, Mary Beth Gehrman, Illustrated by M. I. Quay and Tim Madigan Introduction by Mary Steichen Calderone From its founding in 1980, Free Inquiry magazine has been "on the Cheerful artwork and gentle words frame this engagingly told and beauti- barricades" in the great civil struggle between the forces of reason and fully illustrated story. Designed primarily to illustrate honest adult-child humanism and those of conservative religious dogmatism. This volume discussion, this book will help children learn to identify the anatomy collects the best of the magazine: startling exposés of faith-healing and and develop a healthy acceptance of the total body; provide a basic televangelism; articles on atheism and unbelief, religion, politics and the vocabulary for introducing the topics of human sexuality, reproduction, courts, biblical criticism, sex, ethics, secular vs. religious humanism, and sexual anatomy, and sexual abuse awareness; and model sex-positive more. Contributors include Steve Allen, the late Sidney Hook, Martin roles for children and adults. Gardner, Isaac Asimov, the late Andrei Sakharov, James Randi, Mathilde 41 pages (Color Illustrations) • Cloth $15.95 • Ages 3-8 Krim, Leslie Fiedler, Albert Ellis, and many others. 350 pages • Paper $14.95 ROBERT G. INGERSOLL A Life CLEAR THINKING Frank Smith A Practical Introduction A definitive biography of Robert G. Ingersoll, the famed 19th-century Hy Ruchlis orator and freethinker. Includes rare photographs and extensive quotations This lively introduction to the basic principles of critical analysis illustrates from Ingersoll's own correspondence, providing a vivid portrait of America how to use sound reasoning skills in everyday situations. In straight- from the stormy antebellum period through the beginnings of modern forward terms, the author discusses how to distinguish fact from fiction, industrialism. Ingersoll's life reflects the great currents of his age and the importance of accurate facts when forming opinions, common errors speaks forcefully to the problems of our own. in reasoning, and techniques used in propaganda. Illustrative use is made 400 pages • Cloth $29.95 of newspaper clippings, comic strips, cartoons, photographs, and drawings. 220 pages (Illustrated) • Paper $15.95 DEADLY BLESSINGS Faith Healing on Trial DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE AND CREATIONISM Richard Brenneman Ronald L. Ecker Foreword by Martin Gardner A penetrating examination of three controversial court cases based on faith healing. With exceptional insight, the author delves into the minds Presents, in layman's terms, all the major fields of scientific inquiry that of those who believe that faith or magic can cure illness, addressing relate to the creation/evolution debate. Intended for general readers as the fundamental issues raised by such cases—the right of the state to well as educators, the book offers scientific evidence that conclusively intrude on an individual's personal choice of treatment for physical or refutes the arguments for "scientific creationism." The alphabetized emotional ills; and the paradox of seemingly well-intentioned people dictionary format and a comprehensive index make the material easily who are responsible for the loss of life. accessible; all entries are cross-referenced and thoroughly documented. 360 pages • Cloth $20.95 230 pages • Cloth $32.95

At better bookstores, or order directly from Add $2.50 p&h for first book, $1.25 for each additional book ($7.50 maximum). • Prometheus Books • N.Y. State residents add sales tax. Payment enclosed (or) charge to ❑VISA ❑ MasterCard Toll free (800) 421-0351 • In New York State (716) 837-2475 ACCT N ExP —J Credit card orders accepted or write to 700 East Amherst Street • Buffalo, NY 14215-1674 SIGNATURE Please send the following titles: NAME ADDRESS TEL CITY STATE ZIP FI1*70040 is being wooed by the philandering Lester. Halley, who share's Cliff's love for classic movies, ethusiastically supports his efforts Film to finish his documentary about the life of the relatively unknown philosophy professor Louis Levy. Cliff is devastated when Professor Levy, who has consistently espoused an affirmative Woody Allen on Reality, Morality outlook on life, commits suicide. As if that weren't enough, Halley, who has consistently fended off Cliff's advances, breaks the news Mary Beth Gehrman that she will soon leave for England to spend four months working on another film. riter-actor-producer Woody Allen is affair, and reveal to authorities his financial It is not until the last scene that the two Wsurely one of the leading secular indiscretions as well. themes intersect. At the wedding reception humanists on the current art scene. His films Judah, an atheist, consults his old friend of Ben's daughter, a tipsy Judah finally reflect a world without rhyme or reason, but Ben (Sam Waterston), a rabbi whom Judah "confesses" in the third person by telling Cliff invariably seek to find a place for morality is treating for impending blindness. Ben of a potential movie plot—a murder story within it as they plumb the depths of human advises him to rekindle the spark of religion with a strange twist. After recounting the experience for existential meaning. he still retains, confess to his wife, and seek story, Judah says the murderer is plagued Allen has long been asking questions her forgiveness. But Judah knows it is more with guilt. He continues: about good and evil, reality and illusion, complicated than that; his whole life could pleasure and pain. But it is in his latest film, be ruined by what he sees not so much as Little sparks of his religious background, Crimes and Misdemeanors, perhaps more his own selfish hedonism, but rather as his which he'd rejected, are suddently stirred than any other, that he explores the ways mistress's neurotic need for attention. up. He hears his father's voice; he imagines in which we do not, cannot, or will not see Desperation drives him to contact his that God is watching his every move. Suddenly it's not an empty universe at all, what is going on around us and within shady brother, Jack (Jerry Orbach), whom but a just and moral one he's violated. ourselves. Judah practically begs to suggest hiring Now he's panic-stricken, an inch away "The eyes of God are on us always" is someone to "take care of her." After a night from confessing the whole thing to the a phrase with which most children are of soul-searching, Judah concludes that police. And then, one morning, he awak- ens. The sun is shining and his family is familiar. But to Judah Rosenthal, the film's "God is a luxury I cannot afford," and tells around him, and mysteriously, the crisis protagonist, it would come to mean some- Jack to go ahead with the plan. is lifted. He takes his family on a vacation thing more. And, ultimately, less. to Europe and as the months pass he finds Judah (Martin Landau) is an enormously arallel to this runs the less disturbing he's not punished. In fact, he prospers. successful ophthalmologist who has a story of Ben's family; specifically, his . His life is completely back to normal. Back to his protected world of wealth and beautiful wife and daughter, the love and famous, pompous brother Lester (Alan privilege. respect of his friends and colleagues, and Alda) and his sister's ineffectual husband, a big problem: an implacable mistress who Clifford Stern (Woody Allen). At his wife's Surely an ending Dostoevsky's Raskolnikov is threatening to tell his wife about their request and to help fund his own project, would have preferred. Cliff has grudgingly taken a job on the PBS Mary Beth Gehrman is managing editor of production crew that is making a documen- ut in Allen's world crime does not FREE INQUIRY. tary of Lester's life. There he meets and falls Bnecessarily lead to punishment. Indeed, in love with Halley Reed (Mia Farrow), who it seems that the crime is not so much the murder, but that Judah is able to live with The Universe According to Woody Allen his guilty secret, choosing not to be bothered by the ethics: "This is reality," he says, "and Editor's note: The following are excerpted from Woody Allen's Getting Even (1966), in reality we rationalize, we deny, or we Without Feathers (1972), and Side Effects (1975). couldn't go on living." e universe is merely a fleeting idea nuts. If there was someone out there, He The misdemeanors of the film's title are l in God's mind—a pretty uncomfor- sure as hell didn't want anybody to know the smaller lies we tell ourselves and others. table thought, particularly if you've just it. Virtually everyone in this film—everyone, it made a down payment on a house. One is struck by an almost existential seems, but Jack, who engineered the Eternal nothingness is O.K. if you're feeling of purposelessness particularly murder—has a "blind spot": Judah's mistress dressed for it. since the massage parlors closed. refuses to admit that she has lost him, while his wife is unable to see the kind of man Not only is there no God, but try getting How did the cosmos originate? How he really is. Lester seems blissfully unaware a plumber on weekends. long has it been around? Did matter that he is considered by many to be shallow, begin with an explosion or by the word I don't believe in an afterlife, although arrogant, and insincere; those who know of God? And if the latter, could He not I am bringing a change of underwear. only his public persona are convinced of his have begun it just two weeks earlier to genius. Halley chooses to ignore Lester's Socrates was a suicide—or so they said. take advantage of some of the warmer "imperfections," and announces their Christ was murdered. Nietzsche went weather? engagement just when Cliff is finally freed 52 FREE INQUIRY

from his miserable marriage. Cliff is perhaps difficulty we all have in seeing the truths of a Professor Levy is overshadowed— the most benighted, clinging to his never- of this world. We have moments of clarity, indeed, killed—by the vulgar superficial- to-be-recognized work, his unrequited love but because they frighten us, we retreat into ity of a Lester: "The universe is a pretty for Halley, his hero-worship of Professor the comfort of our illusions. cold place," says Levy. "It's we who invest Levy, and his dissolving marriage. And Allen implies futhermore that our blind it with our feelings. And under certain Rabbi Ben, "a saint" and the only openly spots create the downfall not only of our conditions we feel that it isn't worth it religious character, is literally sightless by personal lives, but of our societies as well. anymore." the time of his daughter's traditional Jewish For instance, in a flashback Judah recalls But Allen is not doctrinaire; his main wedding; yet he remains steadfast in his belief his atheist Aunt May—who bears a suspi- intent seems to be to challenge his audience. that "without the [religious] law, all is cious resemblance to Ayn Rand—saying that In the last scene, Cliff, who has fooled darkness." What poetic injustice in the the Holocaust occurred because might himself all along and shows few signs of universe! makes right, and because there is morality changing, is left alone at a bar feeling sad. Woody Allen, like Dostoevsky, presents only for those who want morality. Hitler "got Judah tells him, "You've seen too many both sides of the spiritual coin with passion. away" with murdering millions, she says; movies. I'm talking about reality. If you want Unlikely Dostoevsky, however, he ultimately what makes us think that, though it is a happy ending you should go see a sides with the "real world," the pragmatic, morally reprehensible, the Judahs of the Hollywood movie." Yet it is Judah who the here and now. Though he doesn't entirely world cannot also get away with murder? experiences a happy ending, perhaps because discount the possibility that Judah will get Some believe the Nazis, like Judah, saw no he has struggled—however morally unjust his comeuppance in an afterlife, he openly alternative to their actions; and as Lester the end result—with illusion and cast it off challenges religious belief and ritual. points out in another scene, the blinded in favor of the "real world." Crimes and He seems to prefer the truths of this Oedipus said, "Who did this terrible thing Misdemeanors casts in relief Woody Allen's world—unfair though they may be to the to our city? My God! It was me!" Mean- poignant sense of tragicomic elements of the illusions of another; but he also portrays the while, the quiet, life-affirming realism human condition. •

You are cordially invited to attend FREE INQUIRY's Ninth Annual Conference HUMANISM AND LIBERTY A celebration of the bicentennial of the Bill of Rights Thursday, November 1, to Sunday, November 4, 1990 at the Boston Marriott Copley Place, Boston, Massachusetts Thursday, November 1 7:30 P.M. — 10:00 P.M.: Welcoming Reception Friday, November 2 9:00 A.M. — 10:00 P.M.: Religion and Liberty / The Establishment Clause vs. Free Exercise Saturday, November 3 9:00 P.M. - 5:00 P.M.: Humanism and Libertarianism: Pros and Cons The Bible and Liberty / Humanism and Altruism Sunday, November 4 9:00 A.M. — 4:00 P.M.: Love and Liberty / Sexual Freedom Raising Children Ethically / Dying Without Religion Secular Organizations For Sobriety (SOS) Speakers and special events to be announced.

YES, I (we) plan to attend FREE INQUIRY's 1990 Conference. Enclosed is: ❑ Early registration for person(s) $89 each ($99 after Sept. 1) $ ❑ Friday luncheon for person(s) $19.95 each ❑ Friday banquet for person(s) $30 each ❑ Saturday luncheon for person(s) $19.95 each Total $ For accommodations at the Boston Marriott Copley Place, call 1-800-228-9290. Mention FREE INQUIRY and receive a conference discount. ❑ Check enclosed ❑ MasterCard ❑ Visa Acct. # Exp Name Address City State Zip Return to: Jean Millholland, FREE INQUIRY, Box 5, Buffalo, N.Y. 14215-0005 • (716) 834-2921

Spring 1990 53 philosophical anthropology, which focuses on individual subjectivity and transcenden- tivity, abstracted from society. He also Books differs with Freud, de Chardin, Fromm, Marcuse, Lorenz, Ardrey, and E. O. Wilson. But despite a general theoretical commit- ment to Marxism, Frolov attempts to deal independently with concrete global problems The New Humanism in the such as thermo-nuclear war, ecology and environment, and population growth. All Soviet Union involve questions of moral value, and Frolov defends a naturalistic ethics in which value is related to science. He holds that "only Paul Kurtz scientific humanism can be the genuine basis for solution," and that "the fundamental Ivan Frolov, Man-Science-Humanism: A Gorbachev put forth so eloquently in his unity of science and humanism and scientific New Synthesis (Moscow, Soviet Union, United Nations speech, that universal human development as a force serving mankind's Progress Publishers, 1986, English transla- values transcend the ideological conflict progress represents one of the most urgent tion 1986). between East and West. Hence, it is problems of modern development." He adds extremely significant in the present context that we must oppose religion's claims to a ast year I received a copy of a remark- that Man-Science-Humanism makes an all- monopolistic right to ethics. Science, he says, Lable book in which a new philosophy out attempt to define Marxism as a hu- can serve as a model for reforming ethics, of humanism is defined and defended. I read manism, and to argue that humanism is the for it presupposes ethical values and has con- it cursorily at that time, but since its author most appropriate philosophy for the future. sequences for human conduct and society. has emerged—for the present, at least—as This book marks a significant modifica- Frolov also notes the widespread discus- such a powerful figure in the Soviet Union, tion of orthodox Marxist-Leninist theory. sion in the West of problems in medical I decided to reread it and review it for FREE From the standpoint of the sociological ethics and genetics, and urges Soviet INQUIRY. interpretation of history, ethics is a reflection scientists and philosophers to engage in the Frolov, former president of the Council of the underlying forces of production. debate. He argues that it is important that of Philosophical Societies and former editor- During the Stalinist period all ethical norms ethical humanistic values be appealed to in in-chief of the most important philosophical were compromised and sacrificed to the appraising experimentation, that is, individ- journal in the Soviet Union, Viprosy revolution; but Frolov wishes to make such uality, freedom, and human rights. He criti- Filosophia (Problems of Philosophy), was values central to his humanistic outlook, and cizes aspects of neo-eugenics, parapsy- recently named editor of Pravda, the official not a mere derivative reflection of its chology, genetic engineering, and biotech- voice of the Communist Party and the Soviet substructure. He has come a long way in nology, and expresses doubts about the Union's most powerful newspaper. Since revising Marxism and in agreeing with ethics of genetic control because of the possi- Frolov assumed this position, there have Western democratic humanists, who believe bility of dehumanization. He doesn't want been significant changes in the paper. For in an ethics of principles as well as of ends. "unlimited freedom of scientific research" in example, the tag-line "Communist Party of The main theme of the book is that the these areas, but seeks to evaluate and the Soviet Union" has been dropped, and human race is facing urgent problems, and regulate them on humanist ethical grounds. Pravda is now open to a wide range of points that if we are to resolve them we need to Frolov also ponders questions that have of view. draw upon the sciences and develop human- troubled existentialist and religious authors. Frolov is noted for his vigorous espousal istic ethical principles and values. In He asks how we can solve the "eternal" of liberal ideas. Twenty years ago in his particular, Frolov argues that we must problems of life, death, and immortality, and book, Genetics and Dialectics, he sharply develop a unified science of humanity, for he responds that we can do so with a criticized the "Lysenko myth," which had we still lack an integrated view of the "human scientific philosophy of humanity. This is been supported by Stalin and had become essence." This, he maintains, can only be essentially Marxist humanism—it is new, he entrenched as ideological orthodoxy in the provided from a position of what he calls says, because it is replacing the old "bour- Soviet sciences of that period. Frolov's a new or real humanism. geois humanism," and it is real because of attack was both unusual and daring, and Frolov believes that Marxism-Leninism its practical and effective nature, that is, it it created a storm of controversy in the Soviet offers a basis for this new synthesis in its is based on the experiences of "real social- scientific community. "materialistic understanding of history," its ism." We must, Frolov says, go beyond our In 1986, Frolov was appointed as one "decisive role played by labor," and its existence as natural, biological beings, and of three secretaries to Mikhail Gorbachev. "social essence of the individual." Nonethe- deal with humans as social beings. Apparently he was on the cutting edge of less, he draws upon both the biological Marxism, for Frolov, is above all a Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika pol- sciences (including Darwinism and modern science of humankind's emancipation and icies, and he is credited with the notion that genetics) and the sociological sciences to development; it is an embodiment of understand human nature. Frolov is humanism. Economic development is merely Paul Kurtz is professor of philosophy at the extremely well-read in Western scientific and a means to achieve this objective "as an end State University of New York at Buffalo, philosophical literature, and his discussions in itself." The universal character of this new and editor Of FREE INQUIRY. are wide-ranging. He criticizes many West- humanism is its relevance to the entire ern intellectual traditions, such as Sartre's human race from the global point of view.

54 FREE INQUIRY Frolov thinks that today the answers to the the "free and comprehensive development" other factors. But in the kind of indictment existential questions concerning the meaning of human beings. the authors are making, there are no in- of life can be provided by "the assertion of According to Frolov, "Man has kept the betweens, only extremes. Anyone who has reason on earth and in the universe." Human Promethean fire of creativity and preserved had a close friend of the same sex can life, he says, is not accidental or senseless, Hope, the leading virtue given to him by apparently be labeled as homosexual. And since we are all parts of the whole. He differs Prometheus.... We affirm the principle straight society is described as treating gays with libertarian humanists who would of new (real) humanism as the moral founda- in one of three ways: trying to prevent their emphasize the centrality of individual tion of the scientific philosophy of man." homosexual behavior, denying them their freedom, for he considers the individual a Man-Science-Humanism contains much, fundamental civil rights, or showing dis- "social being." He says, "The development no doubt, with which Western humanists will approval. of each person is also the condition for the disagree, especially the faith that Frolov The authors' solution to all of this sounds development of all," and maintains that these has—or had in 1986; perhaps he has since like it was devised by a group of Madison social objectives "coincide with those of the changed his mind—in Marxism and com- Avenue advertisers who wanted to make individuals." munism as a way to achieve emancipation. gays look good. They want the gay "king- Although Frolov wishes to draw upon Many would insist that individual human dom" to be better organized, in part to raise science to understand humanity, the prob- freedom is central, and that it can't be money in order to carry out the media lems of life are far more complex than any entirely subsumed by the social. Moreover, campaign that they envision as necessary if limited scientific conceptions allow, for they would say a market economy is essential gays are to survive. Their aim, they state, human beings are full of contradictions and if we are to achieve the realization of is a new tomorrow in which humanist ends. Nonetheless, it is extremely passions; hence we need art to complete us ... it simply doesn't occur to anyone that and must cultivate creativity. Frolov remains significant that a key figure in the Soviet there's anything more unusual about being throughout the book a socialist, and insists Union is strongly defending the humanist gay than about preferring praline ice cream that the "representatives of socialist culture outlook, especially in light of the great to double-dutch chocolate; in which it consciously proclaim themselves to be changes occurring in the Soviet Union, and would be as bizarre to point your finger and yell "Queer!" as to point your finger recipients of the lofty humanist legacy of the Gorbachev's efforts to humanize and and yell "Certified Public Accountant!" past, and advocate real Communist hum- democratize Soviet society. Frolov's book We want, as others want, to be seen and anism." Marxist humanism associates the seems to provide a philosophical basis for judged, first and foremost, as individuals future of human civilization with the Gorbachev's viewpoint, and for that reason ... and only second, third, or not at all, "humanization of culture" at the service of alone it is worthy of serious study. • as nameless members of the group called homosexuals. We want, at the very worst, to be let alone; at best, to be liked, valued, and welcomed into the family of man. This book is best read by members of the gay community. The first section will A Gay Accusé turn off most heterosexuals, and the second is clearly aimed at gays, although I am not Vern L. Bullough certain they will appreciate it. Obviously there are differences in sexual orientation, After the Ball: How America Will Conquer that there are things gays can do to change just as there are differences in skin color, Its Fear and Hatred of Gays in the '90s, them more rapidly. The very indictments though sexual orientation is not always as by Marshall Kirk and Hunter Madsen (New about gays so effectively denied in the first easily recognizable. It is the differences York: Doubleday, 1989). 398 pages. $19.95 part of the book are now brought against among people that make life interesting and cloth. those in the gay community who do not, worth living, and the fact that homosexuals at least from the point of view of the authors, are not heterosexual is one of those hough this book is billed as a manifesto, act responsibly. In short, gays are urged to differences. What Kirk and Madsen tend to Tit may more accurately be labeled an clean up their act and to "resurrect" the forget in their indictment of the heterosexual accusé, an indictment of prejudicial hetero- "traditional gay family." community is the variation in individuals sexual attitudes toward gays. "Gays" is the "Understatement" is not a word that can and in society. After all, most child- operative word, since it is the male homo- describe this book. In fact it's full of molesters, murderers, robbers, bigots, sexual with whom the authors are mainly exaggerations. Anyone who can possibly be warmongers, or almost any other category concerned. The book is more than an identified as homosexual, from Eleanor one can think of are heterosexual simply arraignment of the crimes of heterosexuals, Roosevelt on down, is so claimed, and Kirk because heterosexuals are comparatively however, since after making their case and Madsen offer no real definition of what more numerous. Some gays fit into each of against straight-and-narrow America for not constitutes homosexuality. Indeed, their these categories as well, but why should that accepting gays, Kirk and Madsen devote the "definition" seems somewhat akin to that of be cause for special concern? Do we really last section to charging gays for not being what constituted a black in the American want all gays to fit into the little boxes that responsible citizens and, in effect, for not south of a generation ago, where one African Kirk and Madsen have built for them? acting like heterosexuals. ancestor somewhere in the family history Humanism is all about respect for other In the first part of the book all hetero- forever labeled a person as African- humans, for what they have accomplished sexuals are grouped together, though in the American, regardless of whether or not that or have the potential to accomplish. A second there is a recognition that hetero- person wanted to be so identified. Does one homosexual drag queen may be embarrass- sexuals hold a variety of positions concern- homosexual experience make someone a ing to Kirk and Madsen, but not all ing gays, that attitudes are changing, and homosexual? Maybe: it depends upon many homosexuals can be alike. • Spring 1990 55

Contraception: A Guide to Birth Control Methods, by Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Books in Brief Bullough (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1990). 175 pages. $13.95 paper. This fascinating book covers every birth control method from celibacy to abortion, from the When Skeptics Ask, by Norman Geisler and Bellybuttons Are Navels, by Mark Schoen most ancient methods to those that can be Ron Brooks (Wheaton, Ill.: Victor Books, (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1990). 40 pages expected in the future. For instance, the 1989). 346 pages. $17.95 cloth. When with 21 full-color illustrations. $14.95 cloth. oldest forms of contraception can be traced Skeptics Ask is a handbook for Christians, Educating children about sex is a difficult to ancient Egypt, to between 2,000 and 1,000 primarily of the fundamentalist stripe, who and embarrassing experience for many B.C.E when such substances as honey and might be otherwise stumped by those pesky adults; but Belly Buttons Are Navels can help crocodile dung were used; the future holds questions nonbelievers keep posing. For to take the mystery and discomfort out of methods such as RU486, Depro-Provera, instance, how should one respond to that this subject. In it, Mary and her brother vaginal rings, injectables, antipregnancy favorite atheist query, "If everything has a Robert, both young children, splash and play vaccines, and even male contraceptives cause, who created God?" Geisler and while taking a bath together, and ask including a temporary vasectomy. The Brooks reply: "We didn't say that everything questions about each other's body parts. authors also tell of the many ways in which needs a cause. Only finite, contingent things They start by discussing noses, mouths, ears, religion and superstition have thwarted need a cause; we said everything that has arms, and fingers; eventually they discuss the advances in contraception, and note that a beginning needs a cause. God didn't have sex organs, and the proper names of each effective contraceptives were not developed a beginning; He is infinite, and He is body part are used. There is no shame or until the twentieth century, when great necessary." That should stop those skeptics embarrassment associated with the learning scientific advances were made that did not in their tracks. This book is fairly sophis- process. All parts are considered equally greatly inhibit sexual pleasure. Contracep- ticated, with references to such thinkers as important and equally interesting. If every tion is meticulously researched and well- Rudolf Bultman, Martin Buber, and Antony parent would use this book as a guide for documented, and belongs on the bookshelf Flew, along with the usual cast of Christian teaching young children, sex education could of anyone who is interested in a thorough, apologists. It makes for a good addition to always begin at home in a moral, relaxed, objective, and analytical approach to the skeptic's bookshelf. (Tim Madigan) and caring way. (Norm Allen) contraception. (Norm Allen)

A special invitation to you to become a Charter Associate Member of the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism For only $15 a year ($25 for families), Charter Associate Members will receive the Secular Humanist Community Report and the Robert Ingersoll Report. In addition, you'll receive a 10 percent discount on the registration fees for FREE INQUIRY conferences and seminars, on FREE INQUIRY audiotapes and videotapes, and on a select list of books that have grown out of the activities of FREE INQUIRY and CODESH. Each Charter Associate Member will also receive a personalized wallet-size membership card.

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56 FREE INQUIRY bling ruins.... We heard a human voice, screaming in pain. Even though one voice was discernible, we could hear thousands, In the Name of God perhaps millions, in the background, of suffering souls screaming. After this ghastly discovery, about half of the scientists quit because of fear. Hopefully, that which is down there will stay there.' " Coming through the rye in Preaching love and understanding Praise the Lord notes that the story is California "translated from Ammenusastia, a news- Islam leader Louis Farrakhan and the paper published in Finland." A group of angry parents, led by a woman Reverend Al Sharpton recently got together who declared that she'd never read such a to address more than forty of New York's And their heads spin around book, persuaded the Boron, California most prominent black pastors. school board to ban Catcher in the Rye from Sharpton noted that the African- Vatican officials are cautious about publi- a high-school supplemental reading list. American community is in trouble because cizing this, but after years of de-emphasizing Citing her objections to "offensive" language it has shifted its leadership to politicians, exorcism and demonology, the Catholic in the book, Vickie Swindler asked, "How who must make compromises. He said, "You church is embracing them anew under the the hell did this teacher get this book?" The must have leaders who do not fear unpop- conservative papacy of John Paul II. The teacher has substituted Farenheit 451, Ray ularity, legal harassment, and medical pope personally named six new exorcists to Bradbury's novel about book-burning. scandals to achieve higher principles. That the diocese of Turin, Italy, alone—based on is why we progressed more in the past." claims that 40,000 devil worshipers practice Sin law Farrakhan, though, seems to be troubled there. And Rome's lone official exorcist has by more than the problems of the black been joined by four new colleagues. Sinning in Denver, Colorado, isn't what it community. He challenged the ministers to "When there was just one exorcist, there used to be. work with him, and warned that if they used to be queues stretching for hundreds Time was, an unmarried couple living ignored their duty, God would "kill them of meters outside his house, "Msgr. Corrado together faced hefty fines. Even a boarder in their pulpits." Balducci told a major newspaper. Balducci couldn't legally live in a house in certain is a top Vatican authority on demonic zones. Change your vacation plans! possession and exorcism. His latest book, Although many couples flouted the law The Devil Exists—And You Can Recognize to live in sin, police were quick to respond According to the February 1990 issue of Him, became a best seller. to neighbors' complaints. Officers would ask Praise the Lord, a publication of Trinity Balducci, who claims to have participated to see a marriage certificate or would glance Broadcasting Network, "Scientists are afraid in numerous exorcisms, admits that most of in the bathroom to see how many tooth- that they have opened the gates of hell. A the people who seek the service are simply brushes were there. If there was no certificate geological group who drilled a hole about mentally ill. But about five in a thousand or if more than one toothbrush hung from 14.4 kilometers deep (about 9 miles) in the are really possessed. Among the warning the rack, slap went the fine—a whopping crust of the earth, are saying that they heard signs, according to Balducci: "Very often $999 a day. human screams... . they will suddenly be able to speak obscure Finally, as a result of pressure from real- 'The information we are gathering is so foreign languages, fly through the air, open estate agents, the sin law was repealed by surprising that we are sincerely afraid of and close doors without touching them, see the City Council in a close 7-6 vote. One what we might find down there,' stated Mr. into the past and the future, and play musical councilman who opposed the change called Azzacov, the manager of the project. instruments with no training whatsoever." it "a sad day for Denver." The geologists were dumbfounded. After they had drilled several God and the governor kilometers through the earth's crust, the drill bit suddenly Bishop Thomas V. Dailey, newly named to began to rotate wildly. `There head the Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn, is only one explanation—the entered a church-state confrontation by deep center of the earth is urging New York's Catholic governor, Mario hollow,' the surprised Cuomo, "to live up to the faith" by changing Azzacov explained.... 'The his public stance on abortion. last discovery was the most The governor is already at odds with New shocking to our ears, so much York's Cardinal John O'Connor, and has so that the scientists are afraid been barred from speaking at church to continue the project. We functions in the diocese since 1986. tried to listen to the earth's Cuomo says he privately opposes abor- movements at certain levels tion, but he publicly defends the right to with super-sensitive micro- choose. To the Catholic church, this phones, which were let down represents a contradiction. But Cuomo, through the hole. What we speaking at Notre Dame University in 1984, "This place just isn't the same since those Moral Majority heard turned those logically noted that "God should not be made into folks started taking over!" thinking scientists into trem- a celestial party chairman." •

Spring 1990 57

and complementary. In fact, a good society needs some of both. The goal of all members Readers' Forum of a society should be egoistic altruism, which I define as "satisfying the interests of others while, at the same time and with the same means, satisfying one's own interests." On Altruism In a well-organized pluralistic society, it doesn't matter which path you take as long What is altruism? Should humanists be altruists? as they all arrive at the same goal: a peaceful yet prosperous and vigorous society. Black-and-white views make no sense in this "Altruism" is a word that has been pro- world of many colors. nounced poison by those who have taken Vernice Thompson Libertarians (and "Objectivists") are Ayn Rand as inspiration. Why alienate those Water View, Va. obsessed with the "means." Insensitive to the who are sympathetic to her views, as I am? consequences (especially apparent in un- "Egoistic altruism" I can live with. But bridled capitalism leading to exploitation "altruism" alone is completely unacceptable. When I overcame the fear of hell my world and monopolies), they overemphasize It is too vague a concept, and left as is it became a friendly place. I was a citizen of individual liberties and underemphasize can be taken to mean "self-sacrifice." That the world and had five billion brothers and individual responsibility, and fail to grasp is in direct contradition to the "Affirmations sisters. I didn't need a God, or a guardian that in a world of limited space and of Humanism," which states "We believe in angel, or intuition, or my mommy and daddy resources, one person's gain is often anoth- the fullest realization of the best and the to protect me. Logic, reason, and self- er's loss. If you refuse to admit that your noblest that we are capable of as human discipline were the only tools I needed. Life own circle of freedom is limited, you will beings." Does that affirmation imply was simple, and by learning a few rules I soon find yourself intruding upon another's selfishness? Of course it does! Our self- could control my destiny. circle. Egoistic principles would work in a interest is what motivates us toward these I consider it an honor to help my brothers world of exceedingly rational, kind people, ends. and sisters, but I am not their keeper and but do we live in such a world? I would like to see the word "altruism" I will not allow them to be mine. Any help Socialists (and Communists) are obsessed modified to "egoistic altruism" in the I give them must increase their independence with the "ends." We've seen the atrocities affirmations, and the word "selfishness" and self-respect. Taking over any of their committed in the name of creating a better, changed to "narcissism," which is truly the responsibilities is a betrayal of their trust more egalitarian society. As the present is more accurate term for the point that is being and their right of self-determination. sacrificed to the future, the dreamy future made. I think that deep down I have always slips further away as individual initiative been a humanist. I feel a lot more comfor- Gene F. Rhodes evaporates under the searing heat of table with that label than "libertarian" or Tulsa, Okla. repression. Altruistic principles would work "Randist," as both of those imply things with in a world of blindly devoted citizens, but which I can't completely agree. do we live in such a world? I'm with those who believe that "humankind This brings us to the nature of the middle James E. Britton is 100 percent selfish." As a result, for a long road. It is the path of tolerance, of limitations Newport, N.H. time I felt that the term "altruism" should (checks and balances), of economic and be jettisoned in favor of the phrase "enlight- environmental sustainability. It is a mixture ened selfishness." A few years ago, however, of freedom and security—not one instead Egoism is based on our survival instinct, I became convinced that there is a kind of of the other. The tunnel vision of extremism while altruism is based on our nurturing selfishness that is close enough to what fails the test of reality, of human nature, instinct. We all have both instincts, but often people generally seem to mean by "altruism" of more than five billion differing opinions. one of them is suppressed. Suppression of to make it worthwhile to keep the term. I suspect the desire to retreat into one any instinct, or the denial of a basic need, This "altruistic selfishness" has to do with extremist position is itself an overreaction causes considerable psychological damage in the drive to experience pleasure or reduce to the other extreme. Unable (or unimagin- individuals that is, ultimately, harmful to the pain vicariously, which I believe to be an ative enough) to combine the best of both, society in which they live. A good society innate characteristic of normal human fervent socialists throw away individual will try to provide for all the basic needs beings. Thus, when I give a child an apple, liberties the same way ardent libertarians of its members, but it must also take into it might be a bribe for good behavior, or throw away long-term community benefits account the individual differences of its to convince my neighbor I'm a kindly sort and security. The middle road is difficult— members and find ways to compensate for so I can sell her a vacuum cleaner, or it means we will not always get our way. them without creating divisiveness and something that, by conventional standards, It is attacked from both extremes as a violence. Altruism is absolutely necessary to is similarly self-serving; but it might also be "slippery slope" toward the other hated such a society. But even people who hold simply to allow me to vicariously enjoy the extreme. But if one desires the most good to the doctrine of altruism are not always pleasure the child gets from the treat. In the for the most people, it is the only road. altruistic; a starving person, for example, is latter case I would be selfishly trying to make not likely to show compassion toward others myself feel better, but would also be selflessly James Dahlgren regardless of his or her beliefs. (in a manner of speaking) identifying with San Francisco, Calif. Egoism and altruism are fully compatible another person. It is this odd combination

58 FREE INQUIRY that I think "altruism" can be used to should be altruists, without apology for ple is that "If you have more money and describe. I vote that we retain it, defined exercising their self-interest; a judicious goods than suffice for your basic needs while as an act whose main purpose is to increase balance of our mixed natures. others have less than sufficient, then you vicarious pleasure or decrease vicarious pain. didn't really earn your money. It isn't really This definition is ethically neutral: it does William Sierichs, Jr. yours and should be confiscated and given not specify that an altruistic act need be Shreveport, La. to those who are in need." virtuous, only that its agent's aim is to vicari- Even though I have made this principle ously benefit from it. Indeed, as I've defined too long to fit on a bumper sticker, I offer it, altruism is neither more nor less morally Altruism was an essential ingredient for the it with some hesitation and fear that the commendable than any other form of selfish- evolution of human society. Without indi- altruists of the world will discover it and ness; it's just different. Hence society should vidual acts of altruism, no social advances add it to their already overflowing stock of not try to force people to be altruistic—as would have been possible. To me, altruism silly slogans. We all know them: "If you're too many humanists seem to want. is a tie that binds, the social glue that makes not part of the solution, you're part of the families and friends loving and "friendly," problem." "Health care is a right, not a Bob Grumman a social ethics sometimes called conscience. privilege." "Houses: Nobody gets two until Port Charlotte, Fla. It is recognition of the intrinsic value of other everybody gets one." beings, and it appears in human societies It seems to make no difference to the as a reciprocal function of the numbers collectivists among us that these principles It is my view that altruism has been presented making up that society. were enacted into law in the Soviet Union as an ethical system to generate guilt and Altruism is not alms for the poor, a and failed disastrously, houses and hospitals thereby promote religious subservience and/ minimum wage, or Sunday church. Such be- being notoriously more difficult to make or political slavery. An egoist can love and havior is only salve for what was once a than bumper stickers. The people who be benevolent, and remain consistent; an robust human ethics. Altruism supports actually build houses in the Soviet Union altruist can only be guilty. programs of assistance 365 days a year, not often want a second car or a second overcoat, Therefore, if humanists used the words just a few. which they can't get because not everybody "love" and "benevolence" to communicate I do think that altruistic behavior should has a first car or overcoat. Not being able their concern for humanity, they would be cease where ingratitude begins. Humanists to get it, they don't strain themselves building giving much-needed moral guidance to the are pragmatists too. Failure of appreciation houses. It may be laid down as a general greedy egoist, and may also help to relieve of altruism is an urbanization of the soul. rule that those who advocate socialist the guilt of the altruist. principles seldom create any wealth that the 1 would expect altruistic humanists to Elwin Bennington poor can really use; they spend their time object to being described as loving and Poison, Mont. writing declarations of human "rights" (that benevolent. Benevolence works in the is, responsibilities to be imposed on people "Affirmations of Humanism." Altruism who erroneously think they have the right repels me. An appropriate humanistic attitude may to work for their own individual interest), Larry Fulmer embrace a beneficent kind of selfishness and looking for new ways to confiscate Pocatello, Ida. while also encompassing a limited altruism. the property of the people who do create It is an attitude of equanimity combined with wealth. personal responsibility, or a nonmalignant I see no reason to expand altruism into a selfishness coexisting with an appropriate Roger Cooke philosophy. The term is basically descriptive regard for others. Burlington, Vt. of a certain type of activity. It's possible to find a self-interest in such Glade M. Ross Editor's note: We want to know your opin- actions: "I'll help this person today and San Juan Capistrano, Calif. ions regarding issues of interest to humanists. thereby engender a particular public attitude so that someone will help me if I need it What is your solution to the problems tomorrow." But that's a quite tortuous chain Altruism seems to be an innate human need. caused by drugs in the United States? What of logic. There is, however, a point at which altruism do you think of the Bush administration's The philosophies of libertarians and becomes a nuisance. That point is reached "War on Drugs"? when the altruist decides to spend public socialists remind me of the fable of the blind What do you think of the word "euprax- men and the elephant. Both philosophies money on altruistic projects. ophy" to describe "good conduct and grab hold of an element of human nature Why is it that the dedicated improvers wisdom in living"? Is humanism a and expand the part into a whole ideology: of the world continue to believe, in the teeth eupraxophy? Libertarianism turns self-interest into of massive evidence to the contrary, that selfishness, socialism turns altruism into pure altruism will work on the scale of a modern We welcome your letters on these topics, and selflessness. Both philosophies are extreme. nation-state? encourage you to suggest topics for future Experience suggests we flourish best as a It is informative to listen to the rantings Readers' Forums. Please type and double- species in circumstances that acknowledge of a dedicated socialist and try to distill the space all copy. Send to Readers' Forum, our self-interest while recognizing our need principles upon which socialism is based. As Mary Beth Gehrman, editor, P.O. Box 5, to help others in misfortune. Humanists nearly as I can tell, the fundamental princi- Buffalo, New York 14215. •

Spring 1990 59 (Letters, continued from p. 3) Through the years, I have been actively This is where we come to my remarkable accidents and industrial mishaps at nuclear involved in public education (as parent, solution to the puzzle. Cain and Seth, who power plants, as there are in any heavy teacher, and school-board member). I found both took wives prior to the birth of the industry, but even these are at a level that Hoffmann's scenario about Miss Emily other children of Adam and Eve, obviously compares favorably with industry in general. Goodpastor's probable approach to teaching mated with previously created primates, Even at Three Mile Island, the worst U.S. "about" religion in Bibletown, Georgia, specifically chimpanzees. Their offspring nuclear accident to date, not one member frighteningly close to reality. were the Neanderthals and other humanlike of the public was harmed; the presidential Until such time as our schools employ creatures whose fossil remains have been an commission that investigated the matter only the "best and brightest," let us indeed embarrassment to the theories of the reported that the radioactive releases from . . let God rest on his mountain and not creationists. In the course of time the the accident might over the next two decades, drag him into the classroom." Neanderthals evolved into modern Homo on a statistical basis, result in between 0.1 sapiens. This furthermore explains why the and 1 additional cancer death in the David Campbell genetic makeup of human beings is so similar population around the reactor site. During Phoenix, Ariz. to that of chimpanzees. On the other hand, that period, of course, many thousands of the offspring of the later-born sons and unrelated cancer deaths will occur due to Errors and omissions daughters of Adam and Eve were all Homo other environmental and idiopathic causes. sapiens to begin with. No evolution occurred Especially as compared with coal, the In "The Battle of the Book" (Fall 1989), because none was necessary. Obviously, other major source for the generation of Nicolas Walter refers to British Muslims as therefore, the evolutionists are descendants electrical power in the United States, the a racial minority. This is not so: the of Cain and Seth and their chimpanzee nuclear safety record is outstanding. Every overwhelming majority of Muslims are spouses, while the creationists are descend- year there are literally hundreds of cases of Caucasians. The confounding of pigmenta- ants of the incestuous other children of morbidity and fatality associated with the tion with race is an error propagated by the Adam and Eve. mining and transport of coal, plus many race-relations industry that we should be- It is my hope that this Final Answer thousands more due to the emissions of CO2 ware of. will eliminate the rancor between the two and other toxins. In the same issue, Paul Kurtz strangely groups and all can live in peace and Certainly the nuclear industry has serious omits an important point in his perceptive harmony. problems—whether or not it is moribund, article on the current turmoil in the Soviet as Steve Allen seems to think—but these are Union ("Militant Atheism Versus Freedom Arthur M. Robbins due to competitive economics, the inability of Conscience"): Marxism is unique among San Diego, Calif. of the U.S. political process to address the major superstitions in that it is demonstrably spent-fuel disposal issue rationally, regula- false. The others are presumptive false, and New calendar proposed tory constraints, and, most of all, adverse false on any reasonable assessment of the public opinion, not to safety problems. evidence; but Marxism alone is in the same I have a project that needs the help of class as a flat earth. This, of course, must thinking people throughout the world. Ernest G. Silver, Ph.D. not be expected to prevent people from Nineteen eighty-nine was a significant Editor, Nuclear Safety believing in it. year in our lives. The Berlin Wall was Oak Ridge, Tenn. breached, Czechoslovakia had free elections, M. Hammerton, Ph.D. Poland elected a non-Communist govern- Religion in the public schools Newcastle Upon Tyne, U.K. ment, Romania became the latest country in Eastern Europe to loosen the shackles of My thanks to R. Joseph Hoffmann for his The "Final Answer" socialism, and the people of China and South well-reasoned observations in "Religion in Africa are struggling for democracy and the Public Schools?" (Winter 1989/90). I I have given much thought to the dispute human rights. Western Europe is working can't remember when a single article so between creationists and evolutionists con- together in the European Common Market. completely changed my thinking. cerning the origin of humanity. The Final People all over the world are gaining I am quite satisfied to be a secular Answer, which follows, has recently freedom, and peace seems to be ringing out humanist with no psychological need for a occurred to me and will obviously satisfy in almost every land. This could be called "personal savior" or loving deity who attends both parties, a previously impossible "The Year of the Great Awakening." to my prayers. But I am aware of the accomplishment. My project is to create a new calendar, influence of religious beliefs and of "the Certainly we can all accept the biblical based on 1989 as the "Great Awakening." church" in humanity's social and political concept of creation—creationists as a literal Each year prior to 1989 would be known history. Therefore I was willing to accept truth, and evolutionists as a symbolic as "Before Awakening," and each year after the logic in the proposal that children in the interpretation. The dispute lies in the dis- would be known as "After Awakening." public schools should learn "about" the role agreement concerning humanity's beginning. Perhaps this will garner the world's attention of religion in our cultural history. I had some If we examine the biblical description of and cause people to work for peace and the nagging doubts about whether most of our the creation of Adam and Eve and their environment. teachers could pull if off, but thought that progression of children, we quickly see that I further propose that these years have surely with some help they could handle it. there is no explanation for the origin of the thirteen 28-day months, each composed of Hoffmann exploited my doubts, added wives of Cain and Seth. The other pairs of four 7-day weeks, which will total 364 days. several more, and forced me to take another husbands and wives, as fully described in The remaining day should be a world holi- look at this proposal. I found nothing in Genesis, came from the many subsequent day, dedicated to peace and freedom. his arguments that I would challenge. sons and daughters of Adam and Eve. Each of these thirteen months and seven 60 FREE INQUIRY days should be named after those who have to tell him what is good or evil. Thus, if (Winter 1989). He states that humanists worked for the environment or for freedom, he exists, God is a secular humanist. believe it is the duty of society to help those such as Sadat, Gandhi, Nobel, Cousteau, who need it, and furthermore that "govern- and so on. Each of these people should be Phil Jacklin ment can be a positive force in working world recognized, and of nearly unquestion- Saratoga, Calif. toward human goals." The terms "duty" and able repute (some would question anyone). "force" seem inseparable from humanism. I would like to call the seventh day of The Nietzsche we could do without Bullough speaks of freedom as though it the week, which we call Sunday, Earth Day. includes only good outcomes, and disparages This name would assist in the awareness of In the Winter 1988 issue of FREE INQUIRY the idea that voluntary institutions can ade- ecology, and of what we owe to "Mother was a letter from Edna Ruth Johnson, the quately deal with so-called social problems. Earth." distinguished editor of the Churchman's Bullough sees libertarianism as a utopian Human Quest. She quoted Steve Allen as fantasy, I think, because of his own utopian Gene Gierman saying that "humanist philosophy is consist- hopes. He suggests that humanists place an Lewisville, Tex. ent with the basic tenets of Christianity, ill-defined good of society ahead of the much especially as they relate to justice and the clearer good of the individual components Be fair to Bakker means of bringing it about." Perhaps Allen of that society, and he longs for a world would include Christian ethics, or the ethical in which an equal share of goodness is To my knowledge, there has been no protest teachings of Jesus, among the "tenets of provided (by whom?) for everyone. Is this by any humanists about the outrageous Christianity." not utopian? sentence handed down against Jim Bakker. Though I agree with most of the "Affir- Compassionate humanists could assign Forty-five years for what he did is surely mations of Humanism," I looked in vain for themselves the duty of creating and strength- fantastically cruel and completely out of line even a mention of Christian ethics. I believe ening those voluntary institutions Bullough with sentences given to people for fraud. that this omission makes humanism vulner- disdains, if they could resign themselves to What is more, the judge used quite irrelevant able to criticism from the mainline Christian letting other people make their own choices. religious reasons for the severity of the denominations. But while speaking glibly of freedom and sentence. He said something like "genuine In his remarkable book, The Modern Use maintaining "that individuals should have believers in religion" are sick and tired of of the Bible, Harry Emerson Fosdick writes control over their personal lives as long as those who make money by the fraudulent that Jesus "has given the world its loftiest they do no harm to others," Bullough and use of religion. Surely this is not an ideals," and notes that many people say, other humanists are ready to use force to aggravating circumstance. The New York "Have done with your theological Christ and compel those individuals to behave in ways Times had a short editorial a few days after give us back our ethical teacher." contrary to their own values, to create the trial was over, but nothing has been heard The inclusion of Robert Sheaffer's article involuntary institutions that support hum- from anyone else since. Furthermore, I can "Nietzsche's Der Antichrist" in the same anist aims. This is exactly what libertarian- see no justification for not allowing Bakker issue has probably tarnished humanism's ism stands against. to remain free while he is appealing the reputation. Why would FREE INQUIRY sentence. publish an article about the ravings of a Richard W. Houston madman like Nietzsche? He is quoted saying Hatboro, Penn. Paul Edwards, Ph.D. "I call Christianity the one great curse, the Brooklyn College great intrinsic depravity ... the one great Vern Bullough responds: Brooklyn, N.Y. mortal blemish of mankind," and "Christian- ity is not only decadent in its origins but I quit believing in Santa Claus sometime God as secular humanist rotten to its very core." It is well known around my fifth birthday. Since that time that Nietzsche became insane as a result of I have been a skeptic, especially of utopian Congratulations to FREE INQUIRY for an venereal disease. His opinions came from a schemes. Saying something just does not exciting and productive first decade. man with a sick mind. make it so. Libertarians know this at heart, It is written that Adam and Eve were since one of the things government should forbidden to eat of the fruit of the tree in W. Stanley Rycroft do is somehow police and defend them from the middle of the garden because "God Rossmoor, N.J. the people they are putting down in their knows that when you eat of it your eyes effort to assert their independence. It is this will be opened and you will be like God, More on libertarianism kind of thing that leads to revolutions. I knowing good and evil" (Genesis 3:5). stated that individuals do have obligations, It follows from this, to my surprise and It has been a pleasant surprise to see the and I am perfectly willing to delegate the delight, that secular humanists are people libertarian versus secular humanism debate carrying out of these social obligations to who, in one way, seek to be like the biblical presented in the last two issues of FREE the state. I am opposed to force, however, God—they seek to know good and evil INQUIRY, and to discover that I am not alone and Houston misunderstands my use of the without depending upon a higher being to among readers in finding the coercive term—deliberately, I suspect. The only thing define it or make it known to them. egalitarian thinking often expressed in this that he and I agree on is that I am no As it happens, the knowledge of good journal distasteful. The effect of this dis- libertarian as he defines it. I define myself and evil is as near at hand as the sweetness cussion has been to reveal the essential as a civil libertarian and democratic socialist, of that apple. We know, for example, that incompatibility of the two philosophies. and this is what I remain. I also remain a apples and sex, health and love, peace and This incompatibility is clearly demon- skeptical humanist who is suspicious of all freedom are very good. strated in Vern Bullough's "Libertarianism, utopian schemes, from communism to liber- God, if he exists, has no one above him Anarchism, and Humanistic Skepticism" tarianism. • Spring 1990 61 Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODESH, Inc.) Paul Kurtz, Chairman; Jean Millholland, Executive Director The Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (CODES H) is a not-for-profit, tax-exempt educational organization dedicated to fostering the growth of the traditions of democracy and secular humanism, and the principles of free inquiry in contemporary society. In addition to publishing FREE INQUIRY magazine and the Secular Humanist Bulletin, CODESH sponsors many organizations and activities, and is also open to Associate Membership.

African-Americans for Humanism James Madison Memorial Committee Norm Allen Jr., Executive Director Robert Alley, Chairman Brings the ideals of humanism to the African-American com- Keeps alive James Madison's commitment to the First munity. Amendment and to liberty of thought and conscience. Center for Inquiry (Media Productions) Secular Organization for Sobriety (SOS) Tom Flynn, Executive Director James Christopher, Executive Director Produces radio and television programs presenting skeptical A secular alternative to Alcoholics Anonymous with more and secular humanist viewpoints on a variety of topics. than 200 local groups throughout North America. Publishes a newsletter available by subscription. Robert G. Ingersoll Memorial Committee Philip Mass, Chairman Secular Humanist Aid and Relief Dedicated to restoring the Robert G. Ingersoll birthplace Program (SHARP) in Dresden, New York, and to keeping his memory alive; Jean Millholland, Director publishes the Ingersoll Report newsletter. Assists victims of natural disasters through secular efforts. International Development Committee Paul Kurtz, Co-Chairman, International Humanist and Ethical Union Works closely with individuals and groups in various parts of the world, including Costa Rica, Ghana, Mexico, Spain, Nigeria, Colombia, Venezuela, Egypt, Oman, Bangladesh, the Soviet Union, and China. Assists them in spreading the humanist point of view, and brings them into the International Humanist and Ethical Union, headquartered in Utrecht, the Netherlands.

Alliance of Secular Humanist Societies (ASHS) The Alliance of Secular Humanist Societies is a network created for mutual support among local and/ or regional societies of secular humanists, which offer educational and social services to their members and seek to increase the understanding and influence of secular humanism in their communities. ASHS, on behalf of CODESH, will recognize such societies, which are autonomous and self-governing, provided they agree with the principles of secular humanism. Such societies are explicitly educational and nonreligious. ASHS publishes a newsletter, the "Secular Humanist Community," edited by Fred Condo and Tim Madigan in association with Paul Kurtz. If you are interested in starting a group in your area, please contact Tim Madigan, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005, (716) 834-2921, FAX (716) 834-0841.

Albany. Dennis Bender, P.O. Box 2148, Scotia, NY 12302. Morristown. Donald Worsfold, 74 King George Road, Warren, Berkeley. Molleen Matsumura, Box 5313, Berkeley, CA NJ 07060. 94705. Nashville/Chattanooga. Leon Felkins, Box 1414, Tullahoma, Boston. Roland Van Liew, P.O. Box 226, Brookline, MA TN 37388. 02146. New York. Al Tino, 130 West 42nd St. #551, New York, NY Buffalo. Tim Madigan, Box 5, Buffalo, NY 14215-0005. 10036. Chicago. Jim Zaluba, P.O. Box 3696, Oak Park, IL 60303. Orlando. Andrée Spuhler, Box 724, Winter Park, FL 32790. Ft. Lauderdale. Irvin Leibowitz, 5009 Arthur St., Hollywood, Reading. Bruce Nappi, P.O. Box 63, Reading, MA 01867. FL 33021. San Francisco. Jim Dahlgren, P.O. Box 27492, San Francisco, Greenville. Jacques Benbassat, Suite 168, Box 3000, Taylors, CA 94127-0492. SC 29687. San Jose. Jim Stauffer, P.O. Box 4396, Mountain View, CA Kansas City. Woody Williams, P.O. Box 429, Peculiar, MO 94040. 64078. San Rafael. Lloyd Licher, P.O. Box 6022, San Rafael, CA Londonderry. Margaret Bennett, P.O. Box 368, Londonderry, 94903. NH 03053. Shreveport. Richard Pevey, P.O. Box 17775, Shreveport, LA Los Angeles. Edythe McGovern, P.O. Box 661496, Los Angeles, 71138. CA 91203. Siskiyou. Michael Roesch, P.O. Box 223, Weed, CA 96094. Miami. Robert Healy, 6812 SW 66th Ave., S. Miami, FL Washington, D.C. Lois Porter, P.O. Box 15319, Washington, 33143. D.C. 20003.

In addition, there are four secular humanist computer netwo rks we encourage you to use: Citadel of Humanism BBS (Tel. 818/ 339-4704); Freethinkers Network (Compuserve ID No. 75216,2000); Rational Life BBS (Tel. 615/455-8623); Secular Humanist Exchange BBS (Tel. 919/945-3847). The Academy of Humanism The Academy of Humanism was established to recognize distinguished humanists and to disseminate humanistic ideals and beliefs. The members of the academy, listed below, are nontheists who (I) are devoted to free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor, (2) are committed to a scientific outlook and the use of the scientific method in acquiring knowledge, and (3) uphold humanist ethical values and principles. The academy's goals include furthering respect for human rights, freedom, and the dignity of the individual; tolerance of various viewpoints and willingness to compromise; commitment to social justice; a universalistic perspective that transcends national, ethnic, religious, sexual, and racial barriers; and belief in a free and open pluralistic and democratic society. Humanist Laureates: Steve Allen, author, humorist; Ruben Ardila, professor of psychology, Universidad de Colombia; Isaac Asimov, author; Kurt Baier, professor of philosophy, University of Pittsburgh; R. Nita Barrow, ambassador to the United Nations from Barbados; Sir Isaiah Berlin, professor of philosophy, Oxford University; Sir Hermann Bondi, Nobel Laureate in mathematics, Churchill College, London; Bonnie Bullough, dean of nursing, SUNY at Buffalo; Mario Bunge, professor of philosophy of science, McGill Univ.; Jean-Pierre Changeux, Collége de France and Institute Pasteur; Bernard Crick, professor of politics, Univ. of London; Francis Crick, Nobel Laureate in Physiology, Salk Inst.; José Delgado, chairperson of the Dept. of Neuropsychiatry, Univ. of Madrid; Milovan Djilas, author, former vice-president of Yugoslavia; Paul Edwards, professor of philosophy, Brooklyn College; Sir Raymond Firth, professor emeritus of anthropology, Univ. of London; Joseph Fletcher, theologian, professor emeritus of medical ethics, Univ. of Virginia Medical School; Betty Friedan, author and founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW); Yves Galifret, professor of physiology at the Sorbonne and director of l'Union Rationaliste; John Galtung, professor of sociology, Univ. of Oslo; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard; Adolf Grünbaum, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Pittsburgh; Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, California Institute of Technology; Herbert Hauptman, Nobel Laureate and professor of biophysical science, SUNY at Buffalo; Donald Johanson, Inst. of Human Origins; Franco Lombardi, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Rome; Jolé Lombardi, organizer of the New Univ. for the Third Age; Jose Leito Lopes, director, Centrol Brasileiro de Pesquisas Fisicas; André Lwoff, Nobel Laureate in Medicine and professor of science, Institut Pasteur; Paul MacCready, president, AeroVironment, Inc.; Mihailo Markovié, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Belgrade; Indumati Parikh, president, Radical Humanist Association of India; John Passmore, professor of philosophy, Australian National Univ.; Wardell Baxter Pomeroy, psychotherapist and author; Sir Karl Popper, professor emeritus of logic and scientific method, Univ. of London; W. V. Quine, professor of philosophy, Harvard; Marcel Roche, permanent delegate to UNESCO from Venezuela; Max Rood, professor of law and former Minister of Justice in Holland; Richard Rorty, professor of philosophy, University of Virginia; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell; Svetozar Stojanovic, professor of philosophy, Univ. of Belgrade; Thomas Szasz, professor of psychiatry, SUNY Medical School; V. M. Tarkunde, chairman, Indian Radical Humanist Association; Richard Taylor, professor of philosophy, Union College; Rob Tielman, copresident, International Humanist and Ethical Union; Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, president of the Sociedad Asturiana de Filosofía, Oviedo, Spain; Mourad Wahba, professor of education, University of Ain Shams, Cairo; G. A. Wells, professor of German, Univ. of London; Edward O. Wilson, professor of sociobiology, Harvard. Deceased: George O. Abell, Sir Alfred J. Ayer, Brand Blanshard, Sidney Hook, Lawrence Kohlberg, Ernest Nagel, George Olincy, Chaim Perelman, Andrei Sakharov, Lady Barbara Wooton. Secretariat: Vern Bullough, dean of natural and social sciences, SUNY College at Buffalo; Antony Flew, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Reading Univ.; Paul Kurtz, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Buffalo, editor of FREE INQUIRY; Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of archaeology and biblical studies, Univ. of Southern California at Los Angeles; Jean-Claude Pecker, professor of astrophysics, Collège de France, Académie des Sciences. Executive Director: Tim Madigan. Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (CSER) The Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion was developed to examine the claims of Eastern and Western religions and of well-established and newer sects and denominations in the light of scientific inquiry. The Committee is interdisciplinary, including specialists in biblical scholarship, archaeology, linguistics, anthropology, the social sciences, and philosophy who represent differing secular and religious traditions. Committee members are dedicated to impartial scholarship and the use of objective methods of inquiry. Gerald Larue (President), USC at Los Angeles; Robert S. Alley, professor of humanities, Univ. of Richmond; Michael Arnheim, professor of ancient history, Univ. of Witwatersrand (South Africa); Joseph Barnhart, professor of philosophy, Univ. of North Texas; Vern Bullough, SUNY College at Buffalo; Joseph Fletcher, Univ. of Virginia Medical School; Antony Flew, Reading Univ. (England); Theodor Gaster, Professor Emeritus of Religion, Columbia University and professor of religion, University of Florida; Van Harvey, professor of religion, Stanford; Robert Joly, professor philosophy, Université de Mons (Belgium); Paul Kurtz, SUNY at Buffalo; Ron Lindsay, attorney, Washington, D.C.; William V. Mayer, director, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Univ. of Colorado; Delos McKown, professor of philosophy, Auburn Univ.; John F. Priest, professor of religion, Florida State University; James Robinson, director of the Institute for Christianity and Antiquity, Claremont College; George Smith, president, Signature Books; Morton Smith, Professor Emeritus of History, Colombia University; A. T. Steegman, professor of anthropology, SUNY at Buffalo; G. A. Wells, Univ. of London. Biblical Criticism Research Project: R. Joseph Hoffmann (Chairman), professor of humanities, California State University, Sacramento; David Noel Freedman, professor of Old Testament, Univ. of Michigan; Randel Helms, professor of English, Arizona State Univ.; Robert Joly, professor of philosophy, Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Philosophiques de l'Université de Mons (Belgium); Carol Meyers, professor of religion, Duke Univ.; James Robinson, director, Inst. for Antiquity and Christianity, Claremont College; Morton Smith, professor of history, Columbia. Faith-Healing Investigation Project: James Randi, conjurer and principal investigator; David Alexander; Stephen Barrett, M.D., consumer health advocate; Bonnie Bullough, SUNY at Buffalo; Shawn Carlson, Lawrence Berkeley Labs; William Jarvis, chairman, Dept. of Public Health Science, Loma Linda Univ., California; Richard H. Lange, M.D., chief of nuclear medicine, Ellis Hospital, Schenectady, N.Y.; Gary Posner, M.D., St. Petersburg, Florida; Wallace I. Sampson, M.D., Stanford; Robert Steiner, chairman, Occult Committee, Society of American Magicians; Rita Swan, President, Children's Health Care Is a Legal Duty, Sioux City, Iowa. The Affirmations of Humanism: A Statement of Principles and Values • We are committed to the application of reason and science to the understanding of the uniVerse and to the solving of human problems. • We deplore efforts to denigrate human intelligence, to seek to explain the world in super- natural terms, and to look outside nature for salvation. • We believe that scientific discovery and technology can contribute to the betterment of human life. • We believe in an open and pluralistic society and that democracy is the best guarantee of protecting human rights from authoritarian elites and repressive majorities. • We are committed to the principle of the separation of church and state. • We cultivate the arts of negotiation and compromise as a means of resolving differences and achieving mutual understanding. • We are concerned with securing justice and fairness in society and with eliminating dis- crimination and intolerance. • We believe in supporting the disadvantaged and the handicapped so that they will be able to help themselves. • We attempt to transcend divisive parochial loyalties based on race, religion, gender, nationality, creed, class, or ethnicity, and strive to work together for the common good of humanity. • We want to protect and enhance the earth, to preserVe it for future generations, and to avoid inflicting needless suffering on other species. • We belieVe in enjoying life here and now and in developing our creative talents to their fullest. • We believe in the cultivation of moral excellence. • We respect the right to privacy. Mature adults should be allowed to fulfill their aspirations, to express their sexual preferences, to exercise reproductive freedom, to have access to com- prehensive and informed health-care, and to die with dignity. • We believe in the common moral decencies: altruism, integrity, honesty, truthfulness, responsibility. Humanist ethics is amenable to critical, rational guidance. There are normative standards that we discover together. Moral principles are tested by their consequences. • We are deeply concerned with the moral education of our children. We want to nourish reason and compassion. • We are engaged by the arts no less than by the sciences. • We are citizens of the universe and are excited by discoveries still to be made in the cosmos. • We are skeptical of untested claims to knowledge, and we are open to novel ideas and seek new departures in our thinking. • We affirm humanism as a realistic alternative to theologies of despair and ideologies of violence and as a source of rich personal significance and genuine satisfaction in the service to others. • We believe in optimism rather than pessimism, hope rather than despair, learning in the place of dogma, truth instead of ignorance, joy rather than guilt or sin, tolerance in the place of fear, love instead of hatred, compassion oVer selfishness, beauty instead of ugliness, and reason rather than blind faith or irrationality. • We believe in the fullest realization of the best and noblest that we are capable of as human beings.

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