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EJOLT Opposition to gold mining at , Fact sheet 003

Introduction Ore & building materials extraction For much of the 1990s, the tourist town of Bergama was the epicentre of Turkey’s most effective and visible Keywords environmental social movement against a multinational mining corporation > Gold mining aiming to establish the first modern gold > Cyanide leaching mine in the country. Bringing relatively > Risk politics prosperous peasants together with a small group of ambitious policy > Peasant social movement Symbol protest: shirtless villagers entrepreneurs, the movement marked a Source: NTV > Turkey turning point in environmental politics in http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/93991.asp Turkey. Motivated primarily by the environmental and public health risks far-reaching political economic changes posed by cyanide leaching, the peasant that have been implemented in Turkey activists waged an unprecedented since the early 1980s. These changes campaign that acted as a forceful began at the end of Turkey’s last military reminder of the potential of social government (1980-83) and brought with mobilization to impart lasting change them a spate of political, economic and both at the local and national level. social transformations that can be While the peasant activists failed at the summarized as ‘neoliberalization’. The end to stop the operation of the mine, mining law of 1985 was a clear example: their campaign sparked a national whereas previously extraction of national discussion over the environmental costs underground resources could only be of rapid economic growth in Turkey. carried out by state-owned entreprises, the new law enabled and encouraged Background the involvement of foreign corporations. The goal was to massively increase Strictly speaking, the gold mine in foreign direct investment which would question is not in the city of Bergama but help in the structural transformation of located 12km west in the village of the economy from its agrarian base into Ovacık. Despite the strong presence of an export-oriented industrial character. peasant activists in the movement from surrounding villages, the movement has The Project come to be identified with Bergama, a city with a population of approximately At the start of the project, the corporation 50000 in the province of İzmir. Home to behind the mine was Normandy Mining the ancient Greek settlement of from Australia, though the complicated , Bergama is dotted with ownership structure also tied together numerous sites of historical significance several other partners including La such as the Acropolis which attract tends Source from France and Inmet from of thousands of tourists every year. Canada. As per the requirements of the Some of the most important remnants, Mining Law of 1985, Normandy notably the Great Altar of Pergamon established a company in Turkey in (also referred to, especially in Turkey, as order to be able to operate. Established the Altar of Zeus), were moved to Berlin in 1989, it was named ‘Eurogold’ – an at the end of the 19th century and are evocative choice given Turkey’s long now on display in the Pergamon standing and frustrated ambition to join museum. Beyond tourism, Bergama is the European Union – and during the surrounded by some of the most fertile course of the resistance movement, lands in the country renowned for high Eurogold became synonymous with the quality agricultural produce. mining operation even though at a later stage the company was renamed. Its In many ways, the Bergama Resistance plan was to operate for 8 years, responded to not just to a particular case extracting 24 tons of gold and 24 tons of of mining development but to broad and silver using a combination of open-pit February 25, 2013 - Page 2

and underground mining techniques. times and the modern Republic of Processing was also going to take place Turkey. The Alevis are also renowned on site through cyanide leaching and a for their collective social democratic tailings pond would be constructed. For posture that lends itself well to political its operations, the company acquired mobilization. land from local peasants, primarily from those based in Ovacık, as well as The peasants’ initial response to receiving permits to operate on state- Eurogold was very much positive, owned land from relevant authorities. In shaped by lucrative land sales and 2002, Normandy was acquired by hopes for well-paying jobs resulting from Newmont from the United States. In mine development. A number of key 2004, having failed to secure a events gradually soured this relationship. permanent permit for extraction, Explosions at the mine site used for Newmont decided to give up on the exploration damaged several nearby. A One of the symbols for the resistance: Granpa Obélix Ovacık mine and sold it to Frontier local woman blamed her miscarriage on Source: NTV Pacific, a ‘junior’ from Canada. At the the explosions. Some peasants http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/939 end of another year of failed attempts to complained that their water supply was 91.asp overcome legal and bureaucratic contaminated by chemicals used in hurdles, Frontier Pacific too pulled out of exploratory drilling. Most importantly, Turkey by selling the mine to Koza Gold, however, word spread in the villages that a subsidiary of the Koza-Ipek holding the cyanide leaching process would corporation from Turkey which used the pose grave and lasting danger if it were Ovacık mine to add the mining sector to to contaminate the local water supply. its large and varied portfolio of operations. While it was not legally required, Eurogold had commissioned an The movement to resist the plans of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Eurogold began as a number of urban report that suggested that the proposed Villagers versus Gendarmes intellectuals and activists entered into a operation would conform the highest Source: NTV http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/13435 dialogue with peasants from the villages standards and pose no environmental 3.asp surrounding the mine. During the heyday risks to the surrounding communities. of the movement, 17 villages in total However, the peasants feared that the came together to speak as one, though tailings pond that was built to contain the later the population of Ovacık largely discharge coming from the processing of moved to the side of the mine. By and the ore would pose a permanent risk large, these villages depend on irrigated since the region is characterized as a agriculture for their livelihoods and due major earthquake zone. Indeed, the to the nature of their crops (particularly region was devastated by a strong but not limited to cotton) also attracted earthquake in 1939. There were several large numbers of seasonal workers both key actors in Bergama and İzmir who from the immediate area and farther out were instrumental in channelling from . Some of the villages were scientific knowledge on cyanide leaching distinguished by a number of social, and assisting the creation of a coherent geographic and historical characteristics. and sustained resistance movement. For instance, Ovacık had a large Chief amongst these was Sefa Taşkın, concentration of residents who had who was during much of the 1990s the Reconstructed Temple of Trajan at migrated from the Turkic communities of mayor of the city of Bergama. Taşkın Pergamon – Ancient Greek City the Balkans and were resettled in the had cut his teeth in activism when he (Pergamon Museum) region on land that was considered by launched an international campaign to Source: Wikipedia many to be relatively poor in quality. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon repatriate the Great Altar back to Several of the most important villages in Bergama. While this campaign failed, it the movement – for instance, Narlıca did endow Taşkın with extensive and Pınarköy – were predominantly contacts within German civil society and populated by peasants from the Alevi gave him valuable experience in faith – a sect within the Shi’ite tradition transnational activism which would prove that has historically suffered to be useful for the Bergama resistance. discrimination both during the Ottoman Taşkın was also able to build a national February 25, 2013 - Page 3

profile as a young, ambitious and As the movement became more vocal New mining law 1985 liberalizes extractives patriotic political figure with a bright and its impact reached beyond sector future. Following the gradual collapse of Bergama, it drew a variety of actors into the Altar campaign, Taşkın’s attention the conflict. It was able to forge links with Normandy from 1989 Australia establishes then turned to the simmering discontent a number of NGOs and other emerging Eurogold in the villages surrounding the Eurogold campaigns in Turkey, particularly the mine and it was not long before he took movement against the proposed Akkuyu Peasants sell their 1989- lands, permits are a leadership role in the movement. nuclear power plant. It also established 1991 secured mutually supportive relationships with There were a number of others who other left-leaning and nationalist Minor but strongly felt 1992- environmental impacts provided other important skills and movements such as the one against the 1995 from exploration assets to assist the peasants. Birsel privatization of the Turkish Airlines. The Lemke, who went on to win the movement’s initial legal challenges were Peasants and local 1992- activist begin to prestigious Right Livelihood Award in mainly against Eurogold or its 1995 mobilize 2000 was instrumental in the formation operational permits. At this stage, the of a coalition of actors especially during movement was challenging the Local and national 1995- demonstrations calling the early phases of mobilization. Her bureaucratic mechanisms of the Turkish 1997 for Eurogold to quit extensive connections in Germany state and to the extent that the state was Council of State victory helped bring significant support from involved, this was limited to more 1997 for peasants international networks, for instance from technical branches of government. Food First Information and Action TUBITAK report 1998 commissioned by Network (FIAN). Senih Özay, a lawyer As the legal process matured, however, Prime Minister based in İzmir, and his colleagues from through various stages of appeals, the the İzmir Bar Association, provided Eurogold issue became deeply Legal deadlock, mine 1998- in experimental massively important and sustained legal politicized. During the late 1990s the 2004 production only support to the peasants in both enacting case travelled up to the The Council of Newmont from the US effective acts of civil disobedience that the State, the highest administrative 2002 takes over Normandy stayed on the right side of the law and court in the country. At that point, even Newmont sells the launching legal challenges against the Prime Minister Bulent Ecevit became Ovacık mine to 2004 operation of the mine. Oktay Konyar, a involved, supporting the cause of Frontier Pacific from vocal political activist and real estate Eurogold at the behest of the Australian Canada broker, was key in the organization of Prime Minister John Howard who visited Frontier Pacific sells 2005 the mine to Koza from numerous colourful, high-impact Turkey in 2000. Essentially, by the time Turkey demonstrations. Konyar also performed it reached its apex, the Bergama the role of spokesperson for the peasant Resistance had moved on from being a 2005- Mine is operational today activists. It is also important to mention small peasant movement against locally the role of Friedhelm Korte, a German unwanted land use to a national case Chronology of Major Events professor of ecological chemistry, who which, by highlighting the tension played a highly influential role in shaping between environment and development the movement’s focus on cyanide in a rapidly developing and globalizing leaching as the key reason for opposing Turkey, involved a vast array of Eurogold. stakeholders.

This document should be cited as: Arsel, M., 2012. Opposition to Gold Mining at Bergama, Turkey, EJOLT Factsheet No. 003, 6 p. February 25, 2013 - Page 4

A view of the mine (Source: http://kozaaltin.com.tr/operasyon-ve-projeler/isletme-sahalari)

Mobilization Yet another performative event saw tens of men strip down to their underwear The peasants’ mobilization was a long and march through the streets of process that ebbed and flowed in Bergama. They claimed that their desire response to the actions of Eurogold and to rid Bergama of Eurogold was so decisions of the courts. By early 2000s, strong that the act of parading around following the devastating earthquake of naked – an act that would in normal 1999 which helped push Turkey into a circumstances be associated with a loss deep economic recession that made of dignity – was acceptable. campaigning against foreign direct investment especially difficult, active Not all acts demonstrations were as protests had dwindled down with only peaceful or male-dominated. In fact, the core members of the movement women played a strong role in the taking part. But, especially between movement, helping in consciousness 1995-1998, peasant activists staged raising, mobilization and planning of A view of the mine Source: numerous high profile demonstrations activities. A number of other episodes http://kozaaltin.com.tr/operasyon-ve- that attracted much national and saw the peasants come in direct tension projeler/isletme-sahalari international attention. with the security forces – usually the jandarma forces who are responsible for The activist utilized an impressively maintaining public order in rural areas – varied and creative repertoire of action in who, especially in 1990s Turkey would their demonstrations. In a particularly not be shy of using blunt force against memorable episode, they travelled to groups protesting against the state. Two to the picturesque bridge key incidents stand out from this period. connecting the city’s European and In one, more than two thousand Asian sides, chaining themselves on the peasants – many travelling on their railings while shouting slogans such as tractors – entered the mine, occupying ‘No to cyanide leaching’. At a different the site for ten hours. In another occasion, the peasants demonstrated episode, another large group blockaded outside the building in which the modern the busy road between Bergama and Turkish parliament was established. . That such demonstrations did not When asked about their decision to hold turn violent was largely due to peasant their protest at that spot rather than the women who formed the front ranks of current parliament building, they the demonstrators that came into direct responded that they were because the contact with the security forces who A view of the mine Source: ‘new’ parliament was now serving the would be much more reluctant to beat up http://kozaaltin.com.tr/operasyon-ve- interest of the IMF and the World Bank. (elderly) women activists. Nevertheless, projeler/isletme-sahalari February 25, 2013 - Page 5

numerous activists were arrested in such Turkey to shut down the mine. The legal demonstrations, some being charged in battle has continued and there have the State Security Courts (Devlet been occasional but much less visible Guvenlik Mahkemesi), notorious for its attempts at holding protest meetings and heavy handed treatment of dissent. demonstrations. However, Koza has been far more effective than its The Bergama Resistance also made multinational counterparts in navigating extensive use of the courts – both the vagaries of the Turkish political and national and international – to prevent economic processes and has started to Villagers protesting with torches the operation of the mine. Two decisions produce gold at the mine. Source: NTV characterize both the unprecedented http://arsiv.ntvmsnbc.com/news/1343 success the peasant activist had in the Outcome 53.asp courts and the difficulty in translating these decisions into concrete outcomes Putting aside the relatively minor outside the courtroom. The first case impacts observed at the exploratory had started in local courts and travelled phase and the transformation of the local upwards all the way to Council of State landscape through the establishment of (Danıştay) which had the final say in the the mine, the worst environmental fears matter. In 1997, invoking for the first time of the activists did not come to pass. Article 56 of the Turkish constitution Tourism in the region has also not been which states that “Everyone has the right affected, though whether the mine has to live in a healthy, balanced helped the region economically – environment”, the court ruled in favour of especially the villages surrounding the the peasants. The decision stated that mine – remains to be seen. The main the environmental and public health risks negative impact has been in the Villagers in the Farm of cyanide leaching amounted to a sociocultural domain – after more than a Photo: M. Arsel breach of peasants’ constitutional rights. decade of activism, many villages have The jubilation of the activists, however, become highly polarized. Stories of did not last long. Prime Minister Ecevit, family feuds over the mine are not in a move clearly designed to find a legal uncommon and there have been a opening to overcome the verdict of the number of violent incidents. The worst highest administrative court of the example came in 2002 following the nation, instructed The Scientific and decision of the family of a local religious Technological Research Council of leader from the Alevi community to Turkey (TÜBİTAK) to prepare an support the mining company. The assessment of the risks of cyanide ensuing friction in the village gave way leaching. TÜBİTAK came back with a to a gun battle that lasted through the report that ruled that cyanide leaching night and claimed the life of one the posed “zero risks”. The government peasants. argued that the TÜBİTAK report essentially neutralized the decision of At the national level, the Bergama the court and gave Eurogold the green Resistance sparked up several important light to operate. and still on-going debates. Unsurprisingly, the role of mining in This set off another round of legal contemporary Turkey has been at the challenges, which saw the mine heart of these debates with numerous operating on a trial basis in fits and new sites being made available for starts. Failing to score a decisive legal mining interests. Some of these have victory in Turkey, the movement also been met with relatively strong took its case to the European Court of resistance as it has been in the case of Human Rights. In its 2004 decision, the Mount Ida. But many have gone court found that the state of Turkey had unchallenged and no other attempt at indeed violated the activists’ procedural resistance has matched the high profile rights and awarded EUR 3000 each to or popularity of Bergama. A related the 315 individuals taking part in the discussion has focused on the two lawsuit. However, the ECHR refused to modifications – in 2004 and 2010 - of the back the activists in their calls to order 1985 law on mining which had started February 25, 2013 - Page 6

the process of liberalization. While a popularized environmental politics at the degree of clarity has been brought to the national scale. Conversely, it has fallen way in which permits would be granted, short of its ultimate aim of preventing the one of the main aims of the government operation of the gold mine against which seems to have been to prevent the type the movement developed. Nevertheless, of obstruction achieved by the Bergama given its impact at the national scale, it Resistance. Another, more complex, line can be considered as a success story. of discussion has concerned not the role of multinational corporations but transnational activists. Conspiracy theories alleging that the activists in Bergama were being ‘used’ (knowingly or otherwise) by foreign interests aiming to undermine a rapidly developing Turkey had been simmering even during the early days of the resistance movement. These rumours reached national news when Necati Hablemitoğlu, an academic based in Ankara, published a book arguing that Germany had been using covert operations to prevent the expansion of Turkey’s gold production. Such allegations have since been shown to be baseless. However, they have proven to References be persistent and the assassination of • Arsel, M. (2005) ‘The Bergama Hablemitoğlu in 2002 has ensured that Imbroglio’ in Adaman, F. & Arsel, M. conspiracy theorists continue to have (eds.) Environmentalism in Turkey: ample material to work with. Between Democracy and

Outlook Development? Ashgate: Aldershot, pp. 263-275

The Bergama Resistance demonstrated • Arsel, M. (2005) 'Risking the power of effective and highly Development or Development Risks: motivated social action to alter the Probing the Environmental Dilemmas course of national debates over of Turkish Modernization' PhD environment and development. That the Dissertation, University of Cambridge peasants mobilized over the risk of • Coban, A. (2003) "Community-based environmental damage rather than its Ecological Resistance: The Bergama actual experience has further shown the Movement in Turkey." Environmental political purchase of environmental risk, Politics 13(2), pp. 438-460. which is further amplified in the absence of a deliberative planning processes and • Hablemitoğlu, N. (2001) Alman a democratic scientific culture that Vakıfları: Bergama Dosyası {German This publication was developed responds to genuine environmental fears as a part of the project Foundations and the Bergama Environmental Justice moulded by broad, historical and Dossier} İstanbul: Toplumsal Organisations, Liabilities and sociocultural processes. Dönüşüm Yayınları. Trade (EJOLT) (FP7-Science in Society-2010-1). EJOLT aims to • Taşkın, Sefa (1998) Siyanürcü Overall, the Bergama Resistance was a improve policy responses to and Ahtapot {Cyanide-peddling Octopus}. support collaborative research turning point for environmental politics in İstanbul: Sel Yayınları. and action on environmental Turkey. It is remembered as the largest conflicts through capacity building of environmental justice and most effective civil society • Özen, H. (2009) 'Located Locally, groups around the world. Visit mobilization for environmental protection Disseminated Nationally: the our free resource library and in Turkey. Moreover, it has influenced Bergama Movement‘, Environmental database at www.ejolt.org or follow tweets (@EnvJustice) to national environmental policies, informed Politics, 18: 3, pp. 408-423 stay current on latest news and and inspired numerous other events. mobilizations that followed and