RADICAL ONLINE EDUCATION KA2 STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP IN THE FIELD OF YOUTH

MODULE 1: Definition of radicalization, terrorism and extremism. Recent and current trends. Project Title “Radical Online Education”

Project Acronym ROE Project Reference №: №: 2017-2-DK01-KA205-034323

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Table of contents: Module 1

Introduction ...... 1 Course Description ...... 2 I. Definitions of radicalization, terrorism and extremism………………………………………………3 Radicalization ...... 3 Terrorism ...... 6 Extremism ...... 10 II. Recent and Current trends ...... 12 bombings ...... 14 November attacks ...... 15 attacks ...... 17 attack ...... 18 Atatürk Airport attack ...... 19 shootings ...... 19

INTRODUCTION

Radicalization and violent extremism is not associated with any particular religion, nationality or ethnic group. Due to its global dimension, the phenomenon of radicalization leading to violence poses threats to the security and fundamental rights of the citizens of all our societies. Unfortunately, with the growing concern about online radicalization and the noticeable increase in openly extremist groups in Europe, more and more Member States are facing threats from radicalization of youth. The challenge for governments and youth organizations is to understand the range of factors in which social media may play a role in this, so they can identify appropriate steps to counter radicalization activity online and to ensure appropriate response to the threat. This points to the need to prepare youth workers, to utilize on-line engagement and leverage ICT and digital networks as a pillar for building peace and preventing youth radicalization. The following e-learning modules are elaborated in the framework of KA2 Radical Online Education, Strategic Partnership in the field of youth, supported by Erasmus Plus Programme. The materials presented in the modules are based on the “Needs and Challenges Analysis Report”, which finding results were collected through online questionnaires carried out in four countries, , , Bulgaria and . The purpose of the survey was to identify appropriate steps to counter radicalization activity online and to ensure appropriate response to the threat. The survey was developed for all youth workers, volunteers, professionals who work in sectors where they come into contact with young people who may be vulnerable to radicalisation. As a result of engaging with the materials in these modules, youth workers and volunteers are intended to achieve the following learning outcomes:

 Understand key definitions and current trends related to youth radicalization and violent extremism  Understand what makes youth vulnerable to radicalization  Get to know how to recognize the indicators that radicalization might be taking place and have a clear understanding of their responsibilities  Learn how to build online counter-narrative and youth awareness programmes

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Module 1: Overview Definitions of radicalization, terrorism and extremism. Recent and current trends. Course Description

In the past years, with all the tragedies happen around the world, we understand that violent extremism and terrorism knows no boundaries and affects every society. Unfortunately, young people are the main targets of recruitment strategies and fall victim to radicalization and extremism violence. In this first module, you will get to know more about the terms radicalization, terrorism, extremism and suggestions/recommendations by different authorities regarding their definitions. Once you understand the difference/equality between the terms, we will present you the recent trends and threats issues that Europe faced in the last years. Unfortunately, Europe has recently experienced several mass-casualty attacks and have seen historically high levels of jihadi activity. Online and terrorist recruitment activities on internet are one of the biggest challenges that Europe face nowadays. In order to equip youth workers and volunteers with the necessary knowledge and skills to prevent and counter youth radicalization, firstly we will give them the possibility to understand the process and through critical thinking will stimulate them to utilize on-line engagement and digital networks as a pillar for building peace and preventing youth radicalization.

Learning Objectives: As a result of engaging with the material in this module, youth workers/volunteers are intended to achieve the following learning outcomes:

Knowledge: understand what is radicalization, extremism and terrorism; trends and threats that Europe faced recently; the role of social media in the terrorist acts; the importance of proper use of internet and social media platforms;

Skills: radical awareness; critical thinking; youth activism and empowerment

Competences: understand the use of internet for terrorist purposes; the role that youth workers and volunteers can have in preventing youth radicalization; Structure:

The module is divided into two main topics: . Definitions of radicalization, terrorism and extremism . Recent and current trends

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The Internet has played a significant role in the radicalization and recruitment of youth foreign fighters and continues to do so. Social networking is the main activity young people aged 16-24 use the internet for, something which extremist groups are well aware of. On the other hand, Internet can support youth workers in preventing and countering radicalization and violent extremism, giving them possibilities to develop critical thinking skills and understand how the process of radicalization and online propaganda work. Moreover, youth workers may work on the development of young people’s life skills, critical thinking, inter-cultural competences, active citizenship, promotion of diversity, and common values of freedom and tolerance through non- formal and informal learning. Understand key definitions and current trends related to youth radicalization and violent extremism is the first step in recognizing the indicators that radicalization might be taking place. I. Definitions of radicalization, terrorism and extremism.

 RADICALIZATION

Radicalization is a process by which an individual, or group comes to adopt increasingly extreme political, social, or religious ideals and aspirations that reject or undermine the status quo or undermine contemporary ideas and expressions of the nation. The outcomes of radicalization are shaped by the ideas of the society at large; for example, radicalism can originate from a broad social consensus against progressive changes in society or from a broad desire for change in society. Radicalization can be both violent and nonviolent, although most academic literature focuses on radicalization into violent extremism1. Why nonviolent? Because "a radical is a person who wishes to effect fundamental political, economic or social change, or change from the ground up" that can refer to a diverse range of people who are working hard for legitimate causes in their communities. However, it´s important to not equate radicalism with terrorism.

There is no universally accepted definition of radicalization. One of the difficulties with defining radicalization appears to be the importance of the context to determine what is perceived as radicalization. Therefore, radicalization can mean different things to different people.

1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization 3

A global and accepted definition of radicalization2: “A process of change, attitudinal transformation from one condition to another.”

For strategic and practical needs radicalization is defined by security sector organization like Dutch Security Service as: “Growing readiness to pursue and/or support –if necessary by undemocratic means – far-reaching changes in society that conflict with, or pose a threat to the democratic order”.

The Danish Intelligence Service focused on “violent radicalization” and define it as: “A process by which a person to an increasing extent accepts the use of undemocratic or violent means, including terrorism, in an attempt to reach a specific political/ideological objective.” Most of the definitions of radicalization emphasised that radicalization is a personal process, where an individual, group, or mass of people adopt extreme political, social, cultural and/or religious beliefs to attain particular goals by using of threatening to use violence. Radicalization emanates from a very heterogeneous population that varies in terms of education, family background, socio-economic status and income.

 YOUTH RADICALIZATION Unfortunately, youth are the most vulnerable segment in the society to be recruited by radicals and terrorists. Youth encountering high unemployment rates, fewer opportunities for development especially for minority youth, exclusion, discrimination, inequality, psychological crises and social strains are especially vulnerable. All these factors can push youth towards radicalism and terrorism. According to interview conducted by Bouzar, Caupenne and Sulayman (2014) within 100 French families with radicalized (though not violent) children aged mainly between 15- 21 years old, the vast majority of the young people claimed to have been radicalized through the Internet, and this was the case regardless of their family characteristics and

2 Ekici, S., Akdoğan, H., “Countering Terrorist Recruitment in the Context of Armed Counter-Terrorism Operations”, ed. (125 of NATO Science for Peace and Security Series - E: Human and Societal Dynamics, 2016) 4

dynamics. The vast majority of the families (80%) did not follow any specific religious beliefs or practices and only 16% belonged to the working class. Since 2012, partly due to the 2011 Arab Spring and the convening power of social media, some research has pointed to the similarity of social media and terror groups in their function as networks in that they are both decentralized, ubiquitous, and mobile. With Internet and the social media, the public shifts from passive to active agents who “gather information on their own, rather than wait for news organizations to filter and then deliver it”3. The socialization extends to the production and sharing of information within such online networks. The features of the Internet have led to a transformation of extremist groups’ tactics. These groups have adapted to the dematerialized potential of the web.

Authorities around the world have identified 4 phases of radicalization: agitation – playing on personal vulnerabilities like poverty, trauma, injustice leading to hopelessness and fear; self-identification – peer pressure, group-think or the urge to belong, gratification; indoctrination – capacity-building, personal assurance; and, violent extremism – action, sacrifice and personal fulfilment. Through each step of the funnel, the potential recruit becomes increasingly isolated from their families, loosening the bonds that maintain them in society. When those bonds are torn, it's easy to join a terrorist group4. However, in the next module you will learn in detail the radicalization process of youth and will better understand what makes them vulnerable to radicalization.

3 Séraphin Alava, Divina Frau-Meigs, YOUTH AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM ON SOCIAL MEDIA: MAPPING THE RESEARCH, (UNESCO, 2017) 4 https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/in-depth/86205-social-movements-fight-isis-social-media 5

 TERRORISM

Neither for the definition of terrorism there is universal agreement. Government agencies have been reluctant to formulate an agreed upon and legally binding definition. The difficulties arise from the fact that the terms are politically and emotionally charged. The term "terrorism" comes from French terrorisme, from Latin: terror, "great fear", "dread", related to the Latin verb terrere, "to frighten". The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BCE. The French National Convention declared in September 1793 that "terror is the order of the day". The period 1793–94 is referred to as La Terreur (Reign of Terror). Maximillian Robespierre, a leader in the French revolution proclaimed in 1794 that "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible5.”

Although the Reign of Terror was imposed by the French government, in modern times "terrorism" usually refers to the killing of people by non-governmental political activists for political reasons, often as a public statement. This meaning originated with Russian radicals in the 1870s. Sergey Nechayev, who founded the People's Reprisal (Народная расправа) in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist".

Terrorism can be viewed as a tactic in a war or in some sort of war-like struggle. Looking at terrorism in this way, we leave open the possibility that anyone can employ terrorism against anyone. State forces can employ terrorism against6:

 State forces from another state  Groups, people and/or officials of another state  Some of the people and officials of their own state  Non-state forces from their own state

5 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definitions_of_terrorism 6 Nicholas Fotion, Boris Kashnikov, EPZ Terrorism: The New World Disorder, (A&C Black, 2007) 6

Non-state forces can employ terrorism against:

 Other non-state forces in their own land  Some or all of the people in their own land  Some or all of the people in another land  State forces in their own or another land But going to a war is more a strategic move that groups make rather than a tactical one. In the international criminal law is required precise definition of terrorist activities that seek to prevent, condemn and punish them. Listed below we will present you some of the historically important understanding of terror and terrorism, and enacted but non- universal definitions of the term: 1795 - "Government intimidation during the Reign of Terror in ." The general sense of "systematic use of terror as a policy" was first recorded in English in 1798.” 1987 - A definition proposed by at an international Islamic conference on terrorism: "Terrorism is an act carried out to achieve an inhuman and corrupt objective, and involving threat to security of any kind, and violation of rights acknowledged by religion and mankind." 1988 - A proposed academic consensus definition: “Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators”. 1992 - short legal definition proposed by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: "Act of Terrorism = Peacetime Equivalent of War Crime" 2002 - European Union: “… given their nature or context, [acts which] may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population.” 2005 - United Nations General Assembly's statement with relation to terrorism: “Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.”

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Radicalization can be a path to terrorism when sentiments about perceived deprivation are deepest and most pervasive in vulnerable individuals, groups and communities that have a social and digital network such as a university. Different studies point out the university environment as not only rich for radicals but also for investigators who play a critical role in the origin of collective violence. Interesting research done in the Islamic University in Gaza conducted a poll of 1000 local youth ranging in age from 9-16 years old, show that 45 per cent of the respondents had taken an active role in the violence. In addition, 73 per cent of the young people stated that they wanted to become martyrs.

A martyr is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a belief or cause as demanded by an external party. This refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of the martyr by the oppressor. Originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term has come to be used in connection with people imprisoned or killed for espousing a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership and heroism in the face of difficult circumstances. Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had notable effects in secular life, including such figures as Socrates, among other political and cultural examples7.  Terrorism on the internet The internet is playing an increasingly prominent role in radicalisation, extremism and terrorism. Terrorist organizations' use of the internet has become one of the most complex and effective facets of their recruitment efforts. It´s still a new phenomenon but nowadays they can reach much more people especially young one, and spread their ideology. Moreover, ISIS has completely new approach, revolutionized modern terrorism with their use of social media. They are well known for using social media platforms, predominantly , in order to spread its propaganda. Their activity on Twitter is so large that early in 2016, the social media company shut down 125,000 accounts linked to ISIS and yet they still have a massive influence online. In addition,

7 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyr 8

terrorist recruiters select their targets very carefully, as they are well versed in determining what types of personalities can be easily manipulated into adopting an extremist ideology. Terrorist are trying to reach out possible recruits in a variety of ways, such as friend request on Facebook, follows on Twitter and even direct messaging. Examples of terrorism on the internet are8:

 texts that incite violence;  instructions on how best to commit terrorist attacks;  extremist films or sound clips;  threats to people or institutions, for example on a forum.

 The difference between Radicalization and Terrorism We already commented in the previous part that radicalization does not always lead to violence and being radical in itself isn’t a bad thing. Many theories have been put forth to explain why certain individuals become radicalized to the point where they are willing to commit violence. Cognitive theories focus on individual motivations. For instance, a person may perceive terrorism as the most rational choice to achieve a particular goal. A member of a minority who has low self- esteem and feels excluded may use terrorism to affirm his or her ethnic or religious identity. Other individuals may resort to violence simply because they are attracted to thrill and excitement. An important distinction is that violent attacks often come from individuals who are inspired by, but not directly a part of, like-minded ideological groups. Therefore, aligning extremist hate groups with the definition of terrorism is more tenuous and difficult compared to the more obvious cases of ISIS, al Qaeda, and others whose acts of violence are often directly coordinated, commanded, and encouraged by their central leadership. In addition, we can say that along the way, the difference between radicalization and extremism, as well as their connection to terror, have disappeared. In the last years, we have much more cases of radicalize people behaviour that leads towards extremism and terrorism. However, let´s remember that terrorism is commonly understood as violence from groups with political, religious or ideological aims while being radical can mean positive changes, like women’s liberation movement or some movement that lead to social and desired changes in the community9.

8 https://www.government.nl/topics/crime-and-crime-prevention/radicalism-and-terrorism 9 https://peacemakervoices.wordpress.com/2010/04/21/so-what-exactly-is-a-radical-extremist-or- terrorist/ 9

 EXTREMISM

Extremism means, literally, "the quality or state of being extreme" or the "advocacy of extreme measures or views". Nowadays, the term is mostly used in a political or religious sense, to refer to an ideology that is considered (by the speaker or by some implied shared social consensus) to be far outside the (acceptable) mainstream attitudes of society. However, keep in mind that all terrorists are extremists but all extremists are not terrorists. This is because Extremism is only a belief or view that is seen as far- fetched by the public. Terrorism as you already know is the use of violence/intimidation in the pursuit of mainly political aims10. Keep in mind that extremism is not a stand-alone characteristic. The attitude or behaviour of an "extremist" may be represented as part of a spectrum which ranges from mild interest through "obsession" to "fanaticism" and "extremism". The alleged similarity between the "extreme left" and "extreme right", or perhaps between different religious "zealots", may mean only that all these are "unacceptable" from the standpoint of a supposed mainstream or majority. From psychological point of view, "The lack of identity associated with extremists is the result of self-destructive self-hatred that leads to feelings of revenge toward life itself, and a compulsion to kill one's own humanness."

 What is Violent Extremism? Violent extremism refers to the beliefs and actions of people who support or use ideologically motivated violence to achieve radical ideological, religious or political views. Though “radicalization” is a contested term to some, it has come to be used to define the process through which an individual or a group considers violence as a legitimate and a desirable means of action. Radical thought that does not condone the exercise of violence to further political goals may be seen as normal and acceptable, and be promoted by groups working within the boundaries of the law. Report show that individuals with a criminal history were 1.5 times more likely to engage in violence after radicalizing than those without a history of criminal activity.

10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremism 10

Furthermore, individuals that adhered to far right or Islamist ideologies were 2–3 times more likely to be violent or attempt violence than those on the far left, or those that are motivated by idiosyncratic single issues. Individuals who were embedded in radical social networks were 2.5 times more likely to engage in politically violent acts based on database analysis11.  Causes of Extremism In the past years, with all the tragedies happen around the world, we understood that violent extremism knows no boundaries and affects every society. Also in this case, young people are the main targets of recruitment strategies and fall victim to extremism violence. The root causes of violent extremism are multiple. There is a wide array of factors on the macro and micro level of analysis. Below we present you some of the factors that can cause violent extremism12:

 Individual socio-psychological factors (alienation and exclusion; anger and frustration; grievance and a strong sense of injustice;)  Social factors – social exclusion; marginalisation and discrimination, lack of social cohesion and self-exclusion, etc.  Political factors - include grievances framed around victimhood against Western foreign policy and military intervention.  Ideological/religious factors – a sacred historical mission and belief in apocalyptic prophesy; a salafi-jihadi interpretation of ; a violent jihadi mission;  Culture and identity crisis - cultural marginalisation, which produces alienation and a lack of belonging to either home or the parents’ society;  Trauma and other trigger mechanisms.  Group dynamics involve charismatic leadership; pre-existing friendship and kinship ties; socialisation; groupthink; self-isolation; polarising behaviour and counter-cultural elements;  Radicalisers/groomers involve hate preachers and those that prey on vulnerabilities and grievances and channel recruits into violent extremism through persuasion, pressure and manipulation;  Social media - provides connectivity, virtual participation and an echo-chamber for likeminded extremist views; More details about the causes and factors you will learn in the next modules.

11 Countering Violent Extremism Through Public Health Practice: Proceedings of a Workshop, (The National Academies press, 2017), Chapter 2, Understanding Violent Extremism, p.10 12 RAN Centre of Excellence, The Root Causes of Violent Extremism, January 2016 11

II. Recent and Current trends

Europe has recently experienced several mass-casualty attacks and have seen historically high levels of jihadi activity. Unfortunately, reports show that in Europe may increase further over the long term due to different macro trends such as growing number of economically underperforming Muslim youth, persistent conflict in and continued operational freedom of terrorist groups on the internet. In 2016, a total of 142 failed, foiled and completed attacks were reported by eight EU Member States. More than half (76) of them were reported by the . France reported 23 attacks, 17, Spain 10, 6, 5, 4 and the 1 attack. 142 victims died in terrorist attacks, and 379 were injured in the EU. Although there was a large number of terrorist attacks not connected with jihadism, the latter accounts for the most serious forms of terrorist activity as nearly all reported fatalities and most of the casualties were the result of jihadist terrorist attacks13. According 2017 EU Terrorism Report, which produced, the trends in the last year are that The EU is facing a range of terrorist threats and attacks of a violent jihadist nature, from both networked groups and lone actors. The attacks in Brussels, Nice and Berlin in particular, with explosives (Brussels) and vehicles (Nice and Berlin) used to randomly kill and wound as many people as possible, again demonstrated the harm jihadist militants are able and willing to inflict upon EU citizens, legitimised by the interpretation they adopted of selectively sampled religious texts. Experts claimed that Jihadist actors can be both directed by Islamic State (IS) or merely inspired by IS ideology and rhetoric. Jihadist terrorists have been found to use a range of weapons to include bladed weapons, automatic rifles, explosives and vehicles, and are expected to continue to do so. The report show that the largest number of attacks in which the terrorist affiliation could be identified were carried out by ethno-nationalist and separatist extremists (99). Attacks carried out by left-wing violent extremists have been on the rise since 2014; they reached a total of 27 in 2016, of which most (16) were reported by Italy. The number of jihadist terrorist attacks decreased from 17 in 2015 to 13 in 2016, of which 6 were linked

13 https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/news/2017-eu-terrorism-report-142-failed-foiled-and- completed-attacks-1002-arrests-and-142-victims-died 12

to the so-called Islamic State (IS). However, a precise ranking amongst and within terrorist affiliations across the EU cannot be established because the UK does not provide disaggregated data on attacks. Explosives were used in 40% of the attacks, with similar numbers to 2015. The use of firearms dropped considerably from 57 in 2015 to 6 in 2016. Moreover, the number of arrests for terrorist offences in 2016 (1002) is lower than that of 2015 (1077). Most arrests were related to jihadist terrorism, for which the numbers rose for the third consecutive year: 395 in 2014, 687 in 2015 and 718 in 2016.

Among the other trends that Europol identified is that attacks can be both carefully prepared and carried out spontaneously. Terrorists acting in the name of IS have proven to be able to plan relatively complex attacks – including those on multiple targets - quickly and effectively. Another finding reported is that Jihadist terrorists are expected to continue using mostly low-tech smaller improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and improvised incendiary devices (IIDs) consisting of readily available products. In addition, was also reported that attacks were carried out in locations with international character. For example, the metro station in Brussels which is closed to EU institutions and Zaventem airport. These kind of attacks can easy attract worldwide media attention and have a multiplier effect. These two attacks happened on the morning of 22 March 2016. Three coordinated bombings occurred in Belgium. Thirty-two civilians and three perpetrators were killed, and more than 300 people were injured. Another bomb was found during a search of the airport. Islamic State of and the Levant (ISIL) claimed responsibility for the attacks. The perpetrators belonged to a terrorist cell which had been involved in the November 2015 Paris attacks. The Brussels bombings happened shortly after a series of police raids targeting the group. The bombings were the deadliest act of terrorism in Belgium's history14. Interesting to know is that Belgium has more nationals fighting for jihadist forces as a proportion of its population than any other Western European country, with an estimated 440 Belgians having left for and Iraq as of January 2015.

14 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Brussels_bombings 13

Do you remember what more happened in Brussels before this attack? Before the bombings, several Islamist terrorist attacks had originated from Belgium, and a number of counter-terrorist operations had been carried out there. In May 2014, a gunman with ties to the attacked the Jewish Museum of Belgium in Brussels, killing four people. In January 2015, anti-terrorist operations against a group thought to be planning a second shooting had included raids in Brussels and Zaventem. The operation resulted in the deaths of two suspects. In August 2015, a suspected terrorist shot and stabbed passengers aboard a high-speed train on its way from to Paris via Brussels, before he was subdued by passengers. The perpetrators involved in the November 2015 attacks in Paris were based in Molenbeek, and Brussels was locked down for five days to allow the police to search for suspects. Coming back to the findings, another fact, reported by Europol, is that perpetrators of terrorist attacks in the EU include both foreigners, of whom a number may have resided in the EU for a long time, and nationals who have grown up in the countries they attacked. Documents show that women and young adults, and also children, are playing increasingly operational roles in committing terrorist activities in the EU independently, not only facilitating other operatives in various ways, but in the (attempted) execution of terrorist attacks themselves. Female militant jihadists in the West perceive fewer obstacles to playing an operative role in a terrorist attack than men, and successful or prevented attacks carried out by women in western countries may act as an inspiration to others. One in four (26%) of the arrestees in 2016 were women, a significant increase compared to 2015 (18%). In addition, the United Kingdom reported an increase in the number of women, families and minors engaging in the conflict in Syria/Iraq, and the Netherlands reported that more 40 children (age 0-12 years) have travelled to Syria and Iraq. The photo above is made in Spain when Spanish police arrested a 19 years old Moroccan women after an investigation found that she was recruiting combatants to fight for the ISIS terrorist group and helping them plan their travel to Syria or Iraq15. Moreover, in 2016 Spain reported the highest number of concluded court proceedings and the highest number of individuals convicted or acquitted of terrorist offences. Among those, three individuals appeared before the court twice in 2016 in different criminal proceedings. In Belgium, the cases against two individuals were annulled on the

15 https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2015/09/07/spain-arrests-19-year-old-woman-accused-of- recruiting-isis-terrorists 14

basis of the ne bis in idem principle, as the court ruled the two had been convicted of the same facts earlier in 2015 and 2016. In France, two individuals appeared before the juvenile court and the criminal court. As a result, the total number of verdicts pronounced for terrorism-related offences in 2016 was 587, 53 of which were female.

The migration phenomenon affecting the European continent and the perceived threat from Islamisation remain key topics on the RWE agenda and have been used by the right-wing scene to induce public opinion to adopt its xenophobic and Islamophobic position. Right-wing extremist activities are primarily carried out by individuals, or loosely coordinated networks or groups. These topics are exploited to spread fear and concern. Events such as the Paris attacks in 2015, Brussels and Berlin in 2016, as well as the sexual assaults during New Year’s Eve 2015/2016 in Cologne, serve as justification for xenophobic offences. In addition, the Netherlands and Germany reported cases of vigilantes (showing affinity with the right-wing scene) who claimed that the authorities were unable to protect society from these threats. These vigilantes appear at times in ‘civil patrols’ in their local districts. This phenomenon was previously observed in Finland in 2015. Do you remember November 2015 Paris attacks? The November 2015 Paris attacks were a series of coordinated terrorist attacks that occurred on Friday, 13 November 2015 in Paris, France and the city's northern suburb, Saint-Denis. During a football match, around 21:16h, three suicide bombers struck outside the Stade de France in Saint-Denis. This was followed by several mass shootings and a suicide bombing, at cafés and restaurants. Gunmen carried out another and took hostages at an Eagles of Death Metal concert in the Bataclan theatre, leading to a stand-off with police. The attackers were shot or blew themselves up when

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police raided the theatre16. The attackers killed 130 people, including 89 at the Bataclan theatre. Another 413 people were injured, almost 100 seriously. Seven of the attackers also died, while the authorities continued to search for accomplices. The attacks were the deadliest on France since the Second World War and the deadliest in the European Union since the Madrid train bombings in 2004. France had been on high alert since the January 2015 attacks on Charlie Hebdo offices and a Jewish supermarket in Paris that killed 17 people and wounded 22, including civilians and police officers. The occurred attacks were described by the as “act of war by ISIL”. The attacks were planned in Syria and organised by a terrorist cell based in Belgium. Most of the Paris attackers had French or Belgian citizenship, two were Iraqis, and some had fought in Syria. Some of them had entered Europe among the flow of migrants and refugees. Fortunately, a number of countries, including the Netherlands, France, Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Germany and Switzerland reported that, since the beginning of 2016, the flow of jihadists travelling to conflict zones abroad - especially Syria and Iraq - has apparently continued to decline. However, Germany and Italy for example, maintain that the level of departures remains high or constant. Despite the decrease, attack planning against the EU and the West in general continues in Syria and Iraq. Groups including IS and al-Qaeda have both the intent and capability to mount complex, mass-casualty attacks. It is believed that there is not a lack of volunteers for such operations. The 2016 attacks in Brussels in March, then in in June, appeared to demonstrate the ongoing effectiveness of IS’s external operations capability. The Paris and Brussels attacks again showed that terrorist networks directed from Syria can rely on the help of sympathisers in Europe who have never been to Syria themselves. Terrorism situation and trend report show that the quantity of Islamic State propaganda decreased in 2016 due to lower production rates and the containment of dissemination. After a peak in mid-2015, the number of new videos produced by the Islamic State slowly decreased. In the second half of 2016, the frequency of new releases dropped even further. As the volume of Islamic State propaganda diminished, al-Qaeda and its affiliates attempted to take advantage of the situation and increased their efforts to reach new audiences. Terrorists have an interest in ensuring that their messages reach the audiences that they want to address. As they perceive themselves to be fighting for a legitimate cause, they need to justify their violent actions to supporters and opponents. In 2016 terrorist groups continued to use online services for communication in targeted and diverse ways. Terrorist propaganda was spread primarily through social media platforms and file sharing sites. IS used the for networking and dissemination of information among its community of supporters. The

16 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_2015_Paris_attacks 16

most used platform is Telegram, closed communication space which contents are not indexed in search engines. Believe or not, IS supporters use Telegram as a space for preparation, discussion and collaboration as well as a virtual training camp and Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) platform.

Jihadist online propaganda has developed over some two decades and it is an essential part of jihadist terrorist groups for reaching out audiences in EU Member States and making connection with potentially vulnerable people living in the EU with the armed struggle that they conduct in their areas of operation. Jihadist groups have demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of how social networks operate and have launched well-organised, concerted social media campaigns to recruit followers and to promote or glorify acts of terrorism and violent extremism. In one video published in late 2016, two Turkish soldiers captured by IS in Syria were burnt alive. With regard to the West, IS told its supporters that they were obliged to seek “retributive justice” for attacks perpetrated by the international anti-IS alliance. Another case of online propaganda has happened in early June 2016 when IS conducted a media campaign, including a series of videos, urging people to destroy their satellite dishes and receivers. However, according the report, the success in restricting terrorist activity online shows the impact of collaborative efforts between law enforcement, such as Europol’s Internet Referral Unit (IRU) and the private sector. Do you remember ? Part of the in Europe (2014-present) unfortunately are also the attacks in Spain. On the afternoon of 17 August 2017, 22-year-old Younes Abouyaaqoub drove a van into pedestrians on La Rambla in Barcelona, Spain, killing 13 people and injuring at least 130 others, one of whom died 10 days later on 27 August. Abouyaaqoub fled the attack on foot, then killed another person in order to steal the victim's car to make his escape. Nine hours after the Barcelona attack, five men thought to be members of

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the same terrorist cell drove into pedestrians in nearby Cambrils, killing one woman and injuring six others. All five attackers were shot and killed by police. The night before the Barcelona attack, an explosion occurred in a house in the Spanish town of , destroying the building and killing two members of the terrorist cell; including the 40- year-old imam thought to be the mastermind. The home had over 120 gas canisters inside, which police believe the cell was attempting to make into one large bomb or three smaller bombs to be placed in three vans which they had rented; but which they accidentally detonated. Summarizing, aside from eight attackers, 16 people of ten nationalities were killed: 14 who were struck by the van in La Rambla, including one who died from their injuries 10 days after the attack, one stabbed in Barcelona by the La Rambla attacker when the attacker stole his car, and one in Cambrils. Over 130 people from over 34 nations were injured, many critically. Spain didn´t expect such attacks since the country is being a minor player in the campaign against ISIS and other groups. Despite all, Spain contributed 150 soldiers to fighting Islamic militants in Mali, and in online propaganda linked to ISIS the Sagrada Família basilica was suggested as possible target and ISIS is suggested to have boasted about recovering the Islamic lands of Al-Andalus17. Since 2014, Islamic terrorist attacks in Europe have variously been carried out by ISIL operatives, operatives of Al- Qaeda, and lone wolves. The deadliest attacks were the November 2015 Paris attacks (130 killed), the 2016 Nice attack (87 killed) and the 2016 Atatürk Airport attack (41 killed).

The 2016 Nice attack On the evening of 14 July 2016, a 19 tonne cargo truck was deliberately driven into crowds of people celebrating Bastille Day on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice, France, resulting in the deaths of 87 people and the injury of 458 others. The driver was a Tunisian resident of France that after of exchange of gunfire was shot and killed by police. ISIS claimed responsibility for the attack, saying that he answered its "calls to target citizens of coalition nations that fight the Islamic State". His motives are explained by investigators as caused by radicalization shortly before the attack. Paris prosecutor Francois Molins said that Lahouaiej-Bouhlel had a "clear, recent interest in the radical jihadist movement"18. Investigations showed the Tunisian had searched on the internet for information on a terror attack on a gay nightclub in Orlando and the

17 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Barcelona_attacks 18 https://www.thelocal.fr/20160717/nice-attacker-body-building-drug-taking-womanising 18

Paris suburb of Magnanville, where a police couple were killed last month. Since July 1st, he had also made several internet searches for "horrible fatal accident" and had on his computer violent images "linked to radical Islam". The 2016 Atatürk Airport attack The Atatürk Airport terrorist attack, consisting of shootings and suicide bombings, occurred on 28 June 2016 at Atatürk Airport in Istanbul, . Gunmen armed with automatic weapons and explosive belts staged a simultaneous attack at the international terminal of Terminal 2. Three attackers and forty-five other people were killed, with more than 230 people were injured. Two of the attackers detonated explosive devices, killing themselves; one was killed, presumably by security forces. Monitoring group Turkey Blocks identified widespread internet restrictions on incoming and outgoing media affecting the entire country in the aftermath of the attack. Turkish officials said that the attackers were acting on behalf of the and Levant and had come to Turkey from ISIL-controlled Syria. Commentators suggested that the attacks may have been related to stepped-up pressure against the group by Turkish authorities. However, no one claimed responsibility for the attack19. Since 2014, more than 20 fatal attacks have been carried out. According to a review by Swedish news agency Tidningarnas Telegrambyrå, about two thirds of attackers in Western Europe (44 out of the 68 individuals involved in the total of 37 attacks between 2014 and August 2017) had been influenced by Islamic hate preachers and became radicalised as a result of personal contact, rather than online. 2015 Copenhagen shootings

On 14–15 February 2015, three separate shootings occurred in Copenhagen, Denmark. In total, two victims and the perpetrator were killed, while five police officers were wounded. The first shooting took place on 14 February at a small public afternoon event called "Art, Blasphemy and Freedom of Expression" at the Krudttønden cultural centre, where an armed gunman killed one civilian and wounded three police officers. The second shooting took place later that night (after midnight), outside the city's Great Synagogue in Krystalgade. A gunman killed a young Jewish man on security duty during a bat mitzvah celebration, and wounded two police officers. Later that morning near Nørrebro station, police tracking the suspect shot and killed a man, after he opened fire on them while he attempted to enter a residential building under police surveillance20.

19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Atat%C3%BCrk_Airport_attack 20 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Copenhagen_shootings 19

In 2016, 142 terrorist attacks occurred in eight Member States. The United Kingdom reported more than half of the total number of attacks (76). The total number of terrorist attacks dropped by 33% in 2016 (142) compared to 2015 (211). 379 casualties and 142 fatalities were reported as a result of terrorist attacks.

The process of radicalization leading to violence follows a nonlinear, non-predetermined path, shaped by multiple factors. Unfortunately, youth are more vulnerable to radicalism. Last year, almost one-third of the total number of arrestees (291 of 1002) were 25 years old or younger. However, young people provide extremely valuable information on the key drivers and root causes of violent extremism in their local communities. For this reason, youngsters should be consulted on public policy through focus groups and should be asked how their gender, age, religion, race, socioeconomic status, and geographic background affect their experiences of security and insecurity. Through political participation in the communities, young people can become familiar with advocacy and build skills to think independently, to reflect critically on extreme narratives, and to challenge them.

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